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College Entrance Exam Review Chemistry Handout

The study of: the composition (make-up) of matter the changes that matter undergoes What is matter? Anything that: has mass and occupies space (volume). Mass vs Weight Mass: a measure of the amount of matter that an object contains. Weight: The force with which the earth pulls on an object. (SI unit Newton, N) The 5 Branches of Chemistry Inorganic Organic Analytical Physical Biochemistry Inorganic Chemistry- The study of chemicals that do not contain carbon. Organic Chemistry- The study of chemicals that contain carbon. Analytical Chemistry- Composition of matter. Physical Chemistry- The study of : The mechanism The rate The energy transfer that happens when matter undergoes change. Biochemistry- Study of processes that take place in organisms. Science and Technology Science Pure Does not necessarily have an application. Technology Applied Has practical applications in society. Engineering. Microscopic- Macroscopic Micro (small) Microscopic- objects can be seen with a microscope. Macro-(from afar) Macroscopic- objects are seen without a microscope. Part II A Brief History and the Scientific Method Aristotle (Greece, 4th Century BC) Philosopher who believed that: There are 4 elements: earth, water, air, fire. Democritus (Greece, 4th Century BC) First atomic theory Atom (indivisible). Alchemists (~300BC-1650 AD) China, India, Arabia, Europe, Egypt Galileo Galilei (Italy 1564 AD)- Father of the scientific method Antoine Lavoisier (France 1743-1794) Regarded as the Father of Chemistry. Designed equipment. Used observations and measurements. Discovered nitrogen. Discovered the Law of Conservation of Mass: In a chemical reaction mass is conserved. Explained burning as reaction with oxygen. Old theory: release of phlogiston. John Dalton (England 1766-1844) Atomic theory Amedeo Avogadro (Italy, 1776-1856) Avogadros Number 6.02x1023 One mole of any substance contains 6.02x1023 particles. Dmitri Mendelev (Russia, 1834-1907) First Periodic Table of elements. The Scientific Method Steps followed during scientific investigations. Scientific Method Observation- recognition of a problem. Hypothesis- a proposed explanation of an observation an educated guess must be testable. Experiment- a procedure used to test a hypothesis (measurement, data collection, manipulated and responding variables) Theory A well tested explanation for a broad set of observations. May use models. May allow predictions. Theories may change to explain new observations. Law A statement that summarizes results of observations, but does not explain them. Changes or is abandoned when contradicted by new experiments. Note: The order of the steps can vary and additional steps may be added. No number of experiments can prove me right; a single experiment can prove me wrong. -Albert Einstein Classifying Matter: Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures Pure Substances A sample of matter that has definite chemical and physical properties. Elements pure substance that cannot be separated into simpler substance by physical or chemical means. Compounds Pure substance composed of two or more different elements joined by chemical bonds. Made of elements in a specific ratio that is always the same Has a chemical formula Can only be separated by chemical means, not physically Mixtures A combination of two or more pure substances that are not chemically combined. substances held together by physical forces, not chemical No chemical change takes place Each item retains its properties in the mixture They can be separated physically

Stoichiometry: Calculations with Chemical Formulas and Equations Law of Conservation of Mass We may lay it down as an incontestable axiom that, in all the operations of art and nature, nothing is created; an equal amount of matter exists both before and after the experiment. Upon this principle, the whole art of performing chemical experiments depends. --Antoine Lavoisier, 1789 Chemical Equations- Concise representations of chemical reactions Anatomy of a Chemical Equation Reactants appear on the left side of the equation. Products appear on the right side of the equation. The states of the reactants and products are written in parentheses to the right of each compound. Coefficients are inserted to balance the equation. Subscripts and Coefficients Give Different Information Subscripts tell the number of atoms of each element in a molecule Subscripts and Coefficients Give Different Information Subscripts tell the number of atoms of each element in a molecule Coefficients tell the number of molecules Reaction Types 1. Combination Reactions Two or more substances react to form one product 2. Decomposition Reactions One substance breaks down into two or more substances 3. Combustion Reactions Rapid reactions that produce a flame. Most often involve hydrocarbons reacting with oxygen in the air Formula Weight (FW) Sum of the atomic weights for the atoms in a chemical formula. So, the formula weight of calcium chloride, CaCl2, would be Ca: 1(40.1 amu) + Cl: 2(35.5 amu) 111.1 amu These are generally reported for ionic compounds Molecular Weight (MW) Sum of the atomic weights of the atoms in a molecule. For the molecule ethane, C2H6, the molecular weight would be Percent Composition One can find the percentage of the mass of a compound that comes from each of the elements in the compound by using this equation: Moles Avogadros Number: 6.02 x 1023 1 mole of 12C has a mass of 12 g Molar Mass By definition, these are the mass of 1 mol of a substance (i.e., g/mol) The molar mass of an element is the mass number for the element that we find on the periodic table. The formula weight (in amus) will be the same number as the molar mass (in g/mol) **Moles provide a bridge from the molecular scale to the real-world scale

Mole Relationships One mole of atoms, ions, or molecules contains Avogadros number of those particles One mole of molecules or formula units contains Avogadros number times the number of atoms or ions of each element in the compound Elemental Analyses Compounds containing other elements are analyzed using methods analogous to those used for C, H and O Stoichiometric Calculations The coefficients in the balanced equation give the ratio of moles of reactants and products Limiting Reactants The limiting reactant is the reactant present in the smallest stoichiometric In other words, its the reactant youll run out of first (in this case, the H2) Theoretical Yield The theoretical yield is the amount of product that can be made. In other words its the amount of product possible as calculated through the stoichiometry problem. This is different from the actual yield, the amount one actually produces and measures Percent Yield A comparison of the amount actually obtained to the amount it was possible to make Chemical reactions-The way atoms are joined is changed .Atoms arent created or destroyed. All chemical reactions: have two parts: Reactants - the substances you start with Products- the substances you end up with The reactants turn into the products. Symbols used in equations: (s) after the formula solid Cu(s) (g) after the formula gas H2 (g) (l) after the formula -liquid H2O(l) (aq) after the formula - dissolved in water, an aqueous solution. CaCl2 (aq) - used after a product indicates a gas (same as (g)) O2 used after a product indicates a solid (same as (s)) CaCo3 What is a catalyst? A substance that speeds up a reaction without being changed by the reaction. Enzymes are biological or protein catalysts. Formula Equation Uses formulas and symbols to describe a reaction but doesnt indicate how many.All chemical equations are sentences that describe reactions. Diatomic elements There are 8 elements that never want to be alone.They form diatomic molecules. (H2 , N2 , O2 , F2 , Cl2 , Br2 , I2 , and At2 ) Types of Reactions 1. Synthesis Reactions- Also called combination reactions. 2 elements, or compounds combine to make one compound.eg A + BAB 2. Decomposition Reactions- decompose = fall apart one compound (reactant) falls apart into two or more elements or compounds. Usually requires energy. Eg AB A + B

3. Single Replacement- Also referred to as single displacement. One element replaces another. Reactants must be an element and a compound. Products will be a different element and a different compound. eg. A + BC AC + B 4. Double Replacement - Two things replace each other. Reactants must be two ionic compounds or acids.Usually in aqueous solution. Eg AB + CDAD + CB 5. Combustion- A reaction in which a compound (often carbon) reacts with oxygen 6. Acid/Base Reaction- An acid and a base react to form a salt and water. Always in aqueous solution. Eg. Acid (H+) + Base (OH-) Salt + H2O Solutions and Chemical Reactions I. Water A. Importance 1. Life (as we know it) depends on water 2. Human civilization requires water for many purposes 3. Many important chemical reactions occur in Aqueous Solutions, where other compounds are dissolved in water B. The nature of water 1. Bent shape and unequal sharing of electrons makes water polar 2. This aids water in dissolving ionic compounds (cations and anions) 3. Water hydrates the ions by interacting with its oppositely charged ends 4. The ionic substance breaks up into independent cations and anions 5. Nonionic compounds can also dissolve in water if they are polar 6. Nonpolar substances generally dont dissolve in water: grease, oils, skin II. Electrolytes A. Solutions 1. A solution is a homogeneous mixture the same throughout 2. We can vary the composition by adding more or less of the components 3. Solvent = usually a liquid; the most abundant component of a solution 4. Solute = the lesser abundant component(s) of a solution B. Solutions and Electrical Conductance 1. A substance allowing current to flow through it is electrically conductive 2. Pure water does not conduct electricity 3. Different solutes dissolved in water help it to be conductive a. Strong electrolyte = completely ionized; strongly conductive solution b. Weak electrolyte = partially ionized; somewhat conductive solution c. Nonelectrolyte = not ionized; nonconductive solution C. Strong Electrolytes 1. Completely ionized when dissolved in water 2. Many salts (ionic compounds) are strong electrolytes 3. Strong Acids are strong electrolytes a. Acid = substance that produces H+ when dissolved in water b. Strong Acids completely ionize in solution i. Hydrochloric Acid HCl(g) -------> H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) ii. Nitric Acid HNO3(g) -------> H+(aq) + NO3-(aq) iii. Sulfuric Acid H2SO4(l) -------> H+(aq) + HSO4-(aq) 4. Strong Bases are strong electrolytes a. Base = substance that produces OH- when dissolved in water

Strong bases completely ionize in solution NaOH(s) -------> Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) KOH(s) -------> K+(aq) + OH-(aq) D. Weak Electrolytes 1. Only partially ionized when dissolved in water 2. Weak Acids are weak electrolytes a. Weak acid only produces a few H+ ions b. Acetic acid is a weak acid HC2H3O2(aq) -------> H+(aq) + -C2H3O2(aq) c. Only 1 molecule in a 100 dissociates 3. Weak Bases are weak electrolytes a. Weak base produces only a few OH- ions b. Ammonia is a weak base c. NH3(aq) + H2O(l) -----> NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq) d. Only 1 molecule in 100 reacts E. Nonelectrolytes 1. Does not ionize when dissolve in water 2. Sugar is a nonelectrolyte 3. C12H22O11(s) -------> C12H22O11(aq) III. Solution Concentration A. The Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions 1. We must know what the reactants and products are 2. We must know the amounts of the reactants and products 3. How do we describe the amounts in a solution? B. Molarity 1. Unit for the concentration of a solute in a solution 2. M = moles solute/liters of solution 3. 1.0 M NaCl = 1 mole of NaCl dissolved in 1 L of solution a. Any volume having the same concentration is also 1.0 M NaCl b. 500 ml (0.500 L) of 1.0 M NaCl would contain 0.5 mol NaCl 6. Molarity descriptions of a solution reflect composition before dissolution a. 1.0 M NaCl actually contains no NaCl b. 1.0 M NaCl is 1.0 M in Na+ and 1.0 M in Clc. 1.0 M CaCl2 is 1.0 M in Ca2+ and 2.0 M in Cld. CaCl2(s) -------> Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) 7. Example: Give the concentration of each ion a. 0.5 M Co(NO3)2 = 0.5M in Co2+ and 1.0 M in NO3b. Co(NO3)2 (s) -------> Co2+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq) c. 1M Fe(ClO4)3 = 1M Fe3+ and 3M ClO410. Standard Solution = concentration is accurately known a. Accurate masses come from an analytical balance b. Accurate volumes are obtained using a Volumetric Flask D. Dilution 1. Chemicals are often purchased or prepared as concentrated stock solutions 2. Dilution = adding water to stock solution to make a less concentrated one 3. M1V1 = M2V2 is a useful equation to calculate dilutions IV. Precipitation Reactions A. Definitions 1. When two solutions are mixed and a solid forms 2. Precipitate = solid that forms from a precipitation reaction 3. K2CrO4(aq) + Ba(NO3)2(aq) = 2K+(aq) + CrO42-(aq) + Ba2+(aq) +2NO3-(aq) a. K2CrO4 and Ba(NO3)2 are both soluble (all dissolve in water) b. A yellow precipitate forms when these solutions are mixed

b.

K2CrO4(aq) + Ba(NO3)2(aq) -----> BaCrO4(s) + 2KNO3(aq) 4. AgNO3(aq) + KCl(aq) ------> AgCl(s) + KNO3(aq) B. Solubility Rules C. Describing Reactions in Solution 1. Molecular Equation shows what compounds the ions came from a. Does not give clear picture of what happens in solution b. K2CrO4(aq) + Ba(NO3)2(aq) -----> BaCrO4(s) + 2KNO3(aq) 2. Complete Ionic Equation represents the form of the ions in solution a. All strong electrolytes are represented as their ions 2K+(aq) + CrO42-(aq) + Ba2+(aq) +2NO3-(aq) ----> BaCrO4(s) + 2K+(aq) + 2NO3(aq) 1. Net Ionic Equation shows only the ions participating in the reaction a. The K+ and NO3- ions occur on both sides of the complete ionic eqn. b. These spectator ions can be cancelled out of each side (algebra) c. Ba2+(aq) + CrO42-(aq) -------> BaCrO4(s) Gases A. Kinetic Molecular Theory Particles in an ideal gas have no volume. have elastic collisions. are in constant, random, straight-line motion. dont attract or repel each other. have an avg. KE directly related to Kelvin temperature. B. Real Gases Particles in a REAL gas have their own volume attract each other Gas behavior is most ideal at low pressures at high temperaturesin nonpolar atoms/molecules C. Characteristics of Gases 1. Gases expand to fill any container. 2. random motion, no attraction. 3. Gases are fluids (like liquids). 4. Gases have very low densities. 5. no volume = lots of empty space 6. Gases can be compressed. 7. no volume = lots of empty space 8. Gases undergo diffusion & effusion. 9. random motion D. Temperature Always use absolute temperature (Kelvin) when working with gases. E. Pressure Barometer- measures atmospheric pressure Manometer-measures contained gas pressure KEY UNITS AT SEA LEVEL 101.325 kPa (kilopascal)=1 atm =760 mm Hg=760 torr =14.7 psi II. The Gas Laws A. Boyles Law

c.

The pressure and volume of a gas are inversely related at constant mass & temp B. Charles Law The volume and absolute temperature (K) of a gas are directly related at constant mass & pressure C. Gay-Lussacs Law The pressure and absolute temperature (K) of a gas are directly related at constant mass & volume D. Combined Gas Law Avogadros Principle- Equal volumes of gases contain equal numbers of moles at constant temp & pressure true for any gas Daltons Law- The total pressure of a mixture of gases equals the sum of the partial pressures of the individual gases. Diffusion-Spreading of gas molecules throughout a container until evenly distributed. Effusion-Passing of gas molecules through a tiny opening in a container Grahams Law-Speed of diffusion/effusion. Rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely related to the square root of its molar mass. STATES OF MATTER The Four States of Matter Solid, Liquid, Gas, Plasma STATES OF MATTER Based upon particle arrangement Based upon energy of particles Based upon distance between particles LIQUID Particles of liquids are tightly packed, but are far enough apart to slide over one another. Liquids have an indefinite shape and a definite volume. GAS Particles of gases are very far apart and move freely. Gases have an indefinite shape and an indefinite volume. PLASMA A plasma is an ionized gas. A plasma is a very good conductor of electricity and is affected by magnetic fields. Plasmas, like gases have an indefinite shape and an indefinite volume. Organic Chemistry An organic compound is one that has carbon as the principal element An inorganic element is any compound that is not an organic compound. Carbon is unique It has 6 electrons in its outer shell arranges 1s22s2sp2 It has room for 4 bonds to 4 other atoms. Organic compounds have specific geometry around the carbon to carbon bond. If there are four atoms or groups around a carbon atom, it has a tetrahedral geometry. (A)The carbon atom forms bonds in a tetrahedral structure with a bond angle of 109.5O. (B) Carbon-to-carbon bond angles are 109.5O, so a chain of carbon atoms makes a zigzag pattern. (C) The unbranched chain of carbon atoms is usually simplified in a way that looks like a straight chain, but it is actually a zigzag, as shown in (B). Hydrocarbons Introduction

A hydrocarbon is a compound consisting of only hydrogen and carbon.The carbon to carbon can be single, double, or triple bonds. The bonds are always nonpolar. Alkanes are hydrocarbons with only single bonds.Alkanes occur in what is called a homologous series. Each successive compound differs from the one before it only by a CH2 Carbon-to-carbon bonds can be single (A), double (B), or triple (C). Note that in each example, each carbon atom has four dashes, which represent four bonding pairs of electrons, satisfying the octet rule. Carbon-to-carbon chains can be (A) straight, (B) branched, or (C) in a closed ring. (Some carbon bonds are drawn longer, but are actually the same length.) Compounds that have the same molecular formula, but different structures (arrangements of the atoms) are called isomers. Naming alkanes Identify the longest continuous chain. The locations or other groups of atoms attached to the longest chain are identified and numbered by counting from the end of the molecule which keeps the numbering system as low as possible. Hydrocarbon groups that are attached to the longest continuous chain and named using the parent name and changing the ane suffix to yl. Recall that a molecular formula (A) describes the numbers of different kinds of atoms in a molecule, and a structural formula (B) represents a two-dimensional model of how the atoms are bonded to each other. Each dash represents a bonding pair of electrons. (A)A straight-chain alkane is identified by the prefix n- for "normal" in the common naming system. (B) A branched-chain alkane isomer is identified by the prefix iso- for "isomer" in the common naming system. In the IUPAC name, isobutane is 2-methylpropane. (Carbon bonds are actually the same length.) Alkenes and Alkynes Alkenes are hydrocarbons with at least one double carbon to carbon bond. To show the presence of the double bond, the ane suffix from the alkane name is changed to ene. The alkenes are unsaturated with respect to hydrogen. This means it does not have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms as it would if it were an alkane (a saturated hydrocarbon). Ethylene is the gas that ripens fruit, and a ripe fruit emits the gas, which will act on unripe fruit. Thus, a ripe tomato placed in a sealed bag with green tomatoes will help ripen them. Naming is similar to naming alkanes except: The longest continuous chain must contain the double bond. The base name now ends in ene. The carbons are numbered so as to keep the number for the double bond as low as possible. The base name is given a number which identifies the location of the double bond. An alkyne is a hydrocarbon with at least one carbon to carbon triple bond. Naming an alkyne is similar to the alkenes, except the base name ends in yne. Cycloalkanes and Aromatic Hydrocarbons Cycloalkanes are alkanes (only carbon to carbon single bonds) which form a ring structure. An aromatic compound is one that is based on the benzene ring. A benzene ring that is attached to another compound is given the name phenyl. (A)The "straight" chain has carbon atoms that are able to rotate freely around their single bonds, sometimes linking up in a closed ring. (B) Ring compounds of the first four cycloalkanes. (A)The bonds in C6H6 are something between single and double, which gives it different chemical properties than double-bonded hydrocarbons. (B) The sixsided symbol with a circle represents the benzene ring. Organic compounds

based on the benzene ring are called aromatic hydrocarbons because of their aromatic character. Petroleum Petroleum is a mixture of alkanes, cycloalkanes, and aromatic hydrocarbons. Petroleum is formed from the slow decomposition of buried marine life, primarily plankton and algae. As petroleum is formed it is forced through porous rock until it reaches an impervious layer of rock. Here it forms an accumulation of petroleum and saturated the porous rock creating an oil field. Petroleum was once used for medicinal purposes. It was first distilled by running through a whiskey still, in an attempt to make it taste better. The liquid that he obtained burned quite well in lamps. This clear liquid that was obtained from petroleum distillation was called kerosene. Crude oil is the petroleum that is pumped directly from the ground. It is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons with one or two carbon atoms up to a limit of about 50 carbon atoms. This is usually not useful, so it must separated by distillation. Crude oil from the ground is separated into usable groups of hydrocarbons at this Louisiana refinery. Each petroleum product has a boiling point range, or "cut," of distilled vapors that collect in condensing towers. Petroleum products and the ranges of hydrocarbons in each product. The octane rating scale is a description of how rapidly gasoline burns. It is based on (A) n-heptane, with an assigned octane number of 0, and (B) 2,2,4trimethylpentane, with an assigned number of 100. Hydrocarbon Derivatives Introduction Hydrocarbon derivatives are formed when one or more hydrogen atoms is replaced by an element or a group of elements other than hydrogen. Halogens (F2, Cl2, Br2, I2,) can all add to a hydrocarbon to form am alkyl halide. When naming the halogen the ine ending is replaced by o Fluorine becomes fluoro, Chlorine becomes chloro, Bromine becomes bromo, Iodine becomes iodo, Common examples of organic halides. Alkenes can also add to each other in an addition reaction to form long chains of carbon compounds. This is called polymerization The atom or group of atoms that are added to the hydrocarbon are called functional groups. Functional groups usually have multiple bonds or lone pairs of electrons that make them very reactive. Alcohols An alcohol has a hydrogen replaced by a hydroxyl (-OH) group. The name of the hydrocarbon that was substituted determines the name of the alcohol. The alcohol is named using the hydrocarbon name and adding the suffix ol. If methane is substituted with an OH group it becomes methanol. If a pentane group is substituted with an OH group it is pentanol. For alcohols with more than two carbon atoms we need the number the chain so as to keep the alcohol group as low as possible. Gasoline is a mixture of hydrocarbons (C8H18 for example) that contain no atoms of oxygen. Gasohol contains ethyl alcohol, C2H5OH, which does contain oxygen. The addition of alcohol to gasoline, therefore, adds oxygen to the fuel. Since carbon monoxide forms when there is an insufficient supply of oxygen, the addition of alcohol to gasoline helps cut down on carbon monoxide emissions. An atmospheric inversion, with increased air pollution, is likely during the dates shown on the pump, so that is when the ethanol is added. The OH group is polar and short chain alcohols are soluble in both nonpolar alkanes and water. If an alcohol contains two OH groups it is a diol (sometimes called a glycol). An alcohol with three OH groups is called a triol (sometimes called a glycerol). Common examples of alcohols with one, two,

and three hydroxyl groups per molecule. The IUPAC name is given above each structural formula, and the common name is given below. Ethers, Aldehydes, and Ketones An ether has a general formula ROR. Diethyl ether for example would have the formula CH3CH2OCH2CH3. An aldehyde has a carbonyl group (carbon double bonded to an oxygen) attached to a terminal carbon atom. A ketone has a carbonyl group attached to an internal carbon atom. The carbonyl group (A) is present in both aldehydes and ketones, as shown in (B). (C) The simplest example of each, with the IUPAC name above and the common name below each formula. Organic Acids and Esters Organic acids are those acids that are derived from living organisms, usually from metabolism, but sometimes as a defense mechanism. Long chain organic acids are known as fatty acids. These are also called carboxylic acids as they contain the carboxyl functional group (COOH) One oxygen is double bonded to the carbon and the other is bonded to the carbon and to the hydrogen both with single bonds. Esters are condensation products of carboxylic acids with the removal of water (also called a dehydration synthesis). These red ants, like other ants, make the simplest of the organic acids, formic acid. The sting of bees, ants, and some plants contains formic acid, along with some other irritating materials. Formic acid is HCOOH. Organic Compounds of Life Introduction Living organisms have to be able to: Exchange matter and energy with their surroundings. Transform matter and energy into different forms. Respond to changes in their environment. Grow. Reproduce. All of these changes are due to large organic compounds called macromolecules. A macromolecule is a combination of many smaller similar molecules polymerized into a chain structure. In living organisms there are three main types of macromolecules which control all activities and determine what an organism will do and become.(1) Proteins (2) Carbohydrates(3) Nucleic acids. The basic unit of life is the cell. Thae cell makes up all living organisms that we know of. Cells are in turn made of macromolecules that form inside the cell. Other macromolecules control the formation of these macromolecules. Metabolism is the breaking down or building up of macromolecules. Generally, breaking down macromolecules releases energy that the organism can use as an energy source. The building up of macromolecules requires energy, that is obtained from breaking down macromolecules. Proteins Proteins are macromolecules that are polymers of amino acids. Structurally, proteins go into making muscle tissue, connective tissue, and skin, hair, and nails, just to name a few. Functionally proteins are enzymes which catalyze biochemical reactions. Building up macromolecules requires energy and an enzyme lowers the amount of energy that is necessary. There are 20 amino acids that go into producing proteins. These amino acids are polymerized by a dehydration synthesis to form long chains of repeating amino acids called a protein. The arrangement of the amino acids in the polymer determine the structure of the protein which confers to it is function or structural attributes. The twenty amino acids that make up proteins, with three-letter abbreviations. The carboxyl group of one amino acid bonds with the amino group of a second acid to yield a dipeptide and water. Proteins are polypeptides. Part of a protein polypeptide made up of the amino acids cysteine (cys), valine (val), and lysine (lys). A protein can have from fifty to one thousand of these amino acid units; each protein has its own unique sequence.

Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are a large group of compounds that are generally called sugars, starches, and cellulose (all of which are sugars or polymers of sugars) Generally sugars are a storage source of energy. By breaking sugars down into carbon dioxide and water, living organisms can release the energy that is locked up in them to use for energy requirements. Glucose is the carbohydrate that animals utilize mostly for their energy. Glucose (blood sugar) is an aldehyde, and fructose (fruit sugar) is a ketone. Both have a molecular formula of C6H12O6 Classification A monosaccharide is one that is made up of just one sugar unit. A disaccharide is one that is made up of two sugar units. A polysaccharide is one that is made up of many sugar units. These plants and their flowers are made up of a mixture of carbohydrates that were manufactured from carbon dioxide and water, with the energy of sunlight. The simplest of the carbohydrates are the monosaccharides, simple sugars (fruit sugar) that the plant synthesizes. Food is stored as starches, which are polysaccharides made from the simpler monosaccharides. The plant structure is held upright by fibers of cellulose, another form of a polysaccharide. Starch is a storage carbohydrate used by plants. When plants photosynthesize the use the energy from sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into sugars and oxygen. Glycogen is a storage carbohydrate used by animals. Cellulose is a polysaccharide that is used in plant cell walls to maintain their structure. Starch and cellulose are both polymers of glucose, but humans cannot digest cellulose. The difference in the bonding arrangement might seem minor, but enzymes must fit a molecule very precisely. Thus, enzymes that break down starch do nothing to cellulose. Fats and Oils Humans take in amino acids and utilize them to synthesize the polymers that are called proteins. There are 10 amino acids which humans cannot synthesize themselves and must be in the diet, these are called essential amino acids. Humans also take in carbohydrates and use the break down of the carbohydrate as an energy source. When either of these is taken in in quantities above that that is necessary for the body, they are converted into fats in animals and oils in plants. Fats and oils are a long term storage for energy sources. Animal fats are wither saturated or unsaturated, but most are saturated. Unsaturated fats are believed to lower cholesterol levels in humans. Saturated fats and cholesterol are thought to contribute to hardening of the arteries. Fats are stored in adipose tissue which has an insulating function, a padding (protective) function, as well as a storage function. The triglyceride structure of fats and oils. Note the glycerol structure on the left and the ester structure on the right. Also notice that R1, R2, and R3 are long-chained molecules of 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, or 24 carbons that might be saturated or unsaturated. Synthetic Polymers Polymers Polymers are long molecules with repeating structures of simpler molecules. Synthetic polymers, the polymer unit, and some uses of each polymer. Petroleum and coal as sources of raw materials for manufacturing synthetic polymers.