Appendix A Complex Variable Theory

TO ACCOMPANY AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS EIGHTH EDITION

BY BENJAMIN C. KUO FARID GOLNARAGHI

JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.

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APPENDIX

A
Complex-Variable Theory

A-1 COMPLEX-VARIABLE CONCEPT

A-1-1 Complex Variable
A complex variable s has two components: a real component and an imaginary component . Graphically, the real component of s is represented by a axis in the horizontal direction, and the imaginary component is measured along the vertical j axis, in the complex s-plane. Figure A-1 illustrates the complex s-plane, in which any arbitrary point s s1 is defined by the coordinates 1, and 1, or simply s1 1 j1.

A-1-2

Functions of a Complex Variable

The function G(s) is said to be a function of the complex variable s if for every value of s, there is one or more corresponding values of G(s). Since s is defined to have real and imaginary parts, the function G(s) is also represented by its real and imaginary parts; that is, G 1 s 2 Re G 1 s 2 j Im G 1 s 2 (A-1)

where Re G(s) denotes the real part of G(s), and Im G(s) represents the imaginary part of G(s). The function G(s) is also represented by the complex G(s)-plane, with Re G(s) as the real axis and Im G(s) as the imaginary axis. If for every value of s there is only one corresponding value of G(s) in the G(s)-plane, G(s) is said to be a single-valued function, and the mapping from points in the s-plane onto points in the G(s)-plane is described

jv s-plane v1 s1 s1 + jv1

s1

Figure A-1 The complex s-plane.

A-1

A-2 Appendix A Complex-Variable Theory

jv s1 = s1 + j v 1 s-plane v1 G (s)-plane j Im G

s1

Re G G (s1)

Figure A-2 Singlevalued mapping from the s-plane to the G(s)-plane.

as single-valued (Fig. A-2). If the mapping from the G(s)-plane to the s-plane is also single-valued, the mapping is called one-to-one. However, there are many functions for which the mapping from the function plane to the complex-variable plane is not singlevalued. For instance, given the function G1s2 1 s1s 12 (A-2)

it is apparent that for each value of s, there is only one unique corresponding value for G(s). However, the inverse mapping is not true; for instance, the point G(s) is mapped onto two points, s 0 and s 1, in the s-plane.

A-1-3

Analytic Function
A function G(s) of the complex variable s is called an analytic function in a region of the s-plane if the function and all its derivatives exist in the region. For instance, the function given in Eq. (A-2) is analytic at every point in the s-plane except at the point s 0 and s 1. At these two points, the value of the function is infinite. As another example, the function G(s) s 2 is analytic at every point in the finite s-plane.

A-1-4

Singularities and Poles of a Function

The singularities of a function are the points in the s-plane at which the function or its derivatives does not exist. A pole is the most common type of singularity and plays a very important role in the studies of classical control theory. The definition of a pole can be stated as: If a function G(s) analytic and single-valued in the neighborhood of si, it is said to have a pole of order r at s si if the limit
s S si

lim S 1 s si 2 r G 1 s 2 T

has a finite, nonzero value. In other words, the denominator of G(s) must include the factor (s si)r, so when s si, the function becomes infinite. If r 1, the pole at s si is called a simple pole. As an example, the function G1s2 s 1 s 1 21 s 3 2 2 10 1 s 2 2 (A-3)

has a pole of order 2 at s 3 and simple poles at s 0 and s 1. It can also be said that the function G(s) is analytic in the s-plane except at these poles.

A-1 Complex-Variable Concept A-3

A-1-5

Zeros of a Function
The definition of a zero of a function can be stated as: If the function G(s) is analytic at s si, it is said to have a zero of order r at s si if the limit
s S si

lim S 1 s si 2 r G 1 s 2 T

The total numbers of poles and zeros of a rational function is the same, counting the ones at infinity

has a finite, nonzero value. Or, simply, G(s) has a zero of order r at s si if 1G(s) has an rth-order pole at s si. For example, the function in Eq. (2-3) has a simple zero at s 2. If the function under consideration is a rational function of s, that is, a quotient of two polynomials of s, the total number of poles equals the total number of zeros, counting the multiple-order poles and zeros, and taking into account of the poles and zeros at infinity. The function in Eq. (A-3) has four finite poles at s 0, 1, 3, and 3; there is one finite zero at s 2, but there are three zeros at infinity, since
s Sq

lim G 1 s 2 lim

10

s Sq s3

(A-4)

Therefore, the function has a total of four poles and four zeros in the entire s-plane, including infinity.

REFERENCES
F. B. Hildebrand, Methods of Applied Mathematics, 2nd ed., Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 1965.