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Introduction
− A solution is a homogeneous mixture of 2 or more things
− Homogeneous mixture – components cannot be “seen”, equally mixed
− Saturated solution – contains the maximum amount of solute it can have at a given
temperature
− Unsaturated solution – contains less than the maximum amount of solute
− Supersaturated solution – contains more solute than it can dissolve
− Solute – the substance that dissolves
− Solvent – the dissolving medium
−
Types of Solutions
Types of Solutions Solid Solute Liquid Solute Gaseous Solute
Solid Solution Alloys (brass) Amalgams (mercury in Charcoal filters
(solid is the solvent) silver)
Gaseous Solution (gas Microscopic particles Water vapour in air Air (O2 in N2)
is the solvent) in air
Liquid Solution Salt water, Kool-aid Vinegar, rum + coke Carbonated drink
(liquid is the solvent)
Properties of solutions
1. As temperature changes, so does the concentration of solute you can dissolve in a
liquid solution.
− As temperature rises, amount of solid solute rises
− As temperature rises amount of gas solute lowers
As pressure rises, amount of gas solute rises
− Pressure has little effect on the amount of solid solute that can dissolve
− If a solid dissolves in liquid, it’s said to be soluble; if it doesn’t dissolve, it’s said to
be insoluble
− If 2 liquids mix, they are miscible; if they don’t mix, they are immiscible
2. Freezing Point Depression (FPD)
− A solution will freeze/melt at a temperature lower than the solvent would on its own
3. Boiling Point Elevation (BPE)
− A solution will boil at a temperature higher than that of the solvent alone
4. Dissociation
− Most ionic solutions will dissociate into ions when they dissolve (ex: NaCl(aq) →
Na+ + Cl-)
− Some covalent compounds ionize when they dissolve (CH3COOH(aq) → H+(aq) +
CH3COO-(aq))
− These solutions will form electrolytes and conduct electricity
− Not everything will dissociate nor form an electrolyte (ex: C12H22O11(aq)
→C12H22O11(aq))
5. The amount of solute in a solution can be quantitatively represented by calculating
the solution’s concentration
− There are many acceptable units for concentration
a. Molarity (M) = mol solute units: mol = M “molar”
L solution L
b. Molality (m) = mol solute units: mol = m “molal”
kg solvent kg
Examples:
1. Calculate the concentration (Molarity), of a solution that contains 74.6g of
sodium carbonate in a 500.0mL solution.
500.0mL = 0.5000L
74.6g Na2CO3 x 1 mol Na2CO3 = 0.70377mol Na2CO3
106.0g Na2CO3
M = 0.70377mol Na2CO3 = 1.41mol/L = 1.41M
0.5000 L
2. How many grams of silver nitrate will remain if 750mL of 2.6M AgNO3
solution is evaporated to dryness?
750mL = 0.750L
2.6M = mol AgNO3
0.750L
mol AgNO3 = 1.95
1.95 mol AgNO3 x 169.8g AgNO3 = 330g AgNO3
1 mol AgNO3
3. What volume of a 7.2M barium acetate solution would contain 19.3g of
solute?
19.3g Ba(C2H3O2)2 x 1 mol Ba(C2H3O2)2 = 0.0755884542 mol Ba…
255.33g Ba(C2H3O2)2
7.2M = 0.07559 mol
L
L = 0.07559 mol
7.2M
L = 0.010
Characteristics of Solutions
− A solution may exist as gas, liquid, or solid depending on the state of its solvent
− Most solutions are liquids
− Reaction can take place in aqueous solutions – solutions in which reactants and products are
mixed in water
− Water – most common solvent among liquid solutions
− A substance that dissolves in a solvent is said to be soluble in that solvent (ex: sugar is
soluble in water)
− A substance that does not dissolve in water is said to be insoluble in that solvent (ex: sand in
water)
− Oil is insoluble in vinegar; and thus, oil and vinegar are said to be immiscible
− Two liquids that are soluble in each other are said to be miscible (ex: antifreeze)
Electronegativity
− EN increases on the periodic table as we travel from left to right, therefore the most negative
group is the halogens
− EN decreases as you travel down the periodic table
− Group 18 (noble gases) has no electronegativity
− Different atoms have differing abilities to attract electrons in a bond (electronegativity)
− Electronegativity is the attraction an atom has for the shared pair of electrons in a covalent
bond
− When atoms with different ENs form a bond, the atom with the higher EN will draw
electrons to itself in that bond
− Electrons will not be equally shared
− 1 atom will be more negatively charged than the other
Polar bonds
− Bonds formed between atoms of differing EN
− Electrons are shared unevenly
− One end will have a partial positive charge and the other will have a partial negative
charge
− Ex:
− The bent shape of the water molecule combined with 2 polar bonds makes water a polar
molecule and a strong solvent
Non-Polar Molecules
− Some molecules can contain polar bonds, but because of the shape are considered to be non-
polar molecules
− Ex: Carbon tetrafluoride
− F atoms are equally distanced
− Each C→F bond is polar, but the polar bonds “balance out” or cancel
out each other because they are symmetrical
Dissolving Process
1.Solvent particles move apart from other solvent particles
- Requires energy to overcome forces of attraction → endothermic
2.Solute particles separate from the other solute particles
- Requires energy to overcome forces of attraction → endothermic
- The energy in this step is known as lattice energy (amount of energy required
to separate the molecules or ions from each other in a solid crystal)
3. Solute particles move between the solvent particles
- Attraction between solute and solvent releases energy → exothermic
- This is known as the heat or energy of hydration
- When water is the solvent = molecules/ions are said to be hydrated
- When water is not the solvent the processes of the solvent particles
surrounding the solute particles is called solvation
Henry’s Law
− States that at a given temperature, the solubility (S) of a gas in a liquid is directly
proportional to the pressure (P) of the gas above the liquid
− Formula: S1 = S2
P1 P2
− S1 → solubility of a gas at a pressure P1
− S2 → solubility of the gas at the new pressure P2
− To solve for S2:
S1 = S2 Cross-multiplying yields→ S1P2=P1S2
P1 P2 S2 = (P2S1)/P1
Gas Laws
Kinetic Theory
− Gas particles do not attract or repel each other
– Gases are free to move within their containers without interference from other particles
− Gas particles are much smaller than the distances between them
– Gases have no volume (mostly empty space)
– Gases can be compressed by moving gas particles closer together because of this low
density of particles
− Gas particles are in constant random motion
– They spread out and mix with each other because of this motion
– They move in straight lines until they collide with each other or with the walls of their
container
− No kinetic energy is lost when gas particles collide with each other or with the walls of
their container
– As long as the temperature stays the same
− All gases have the same average kinetic energy at a given temperature
– As temperature rises, the total energy of the gas system rises
– As temperature lowers, the total energy of the gas system lowers
The Scientists
− 1564–1642: Galileo Galilei developed the suction pump.
− 1643: Evangelista Torricelli developed the first barometer.
− 1643–1645: Otto von Guericke made a pump that could create a vacuum so strong that a
team of 16 horses could not pull two metal hemispheres apart. He reasoned that the
hemispheres were held together by the mechanical force of the atmospheric pressure rather
than the vacuum.
− 1648: Blaise Pascal used Torricelli’s “barometer” and traveled up and down a mountain in
southern France. He discovered that the pressure of the atmosphere increased as he moved
down the mountain.
− 1661: Christiaan Huygens developed the manometer to study the elastic forces in gases.
− 1801: John Dalton stated that in a mixture of gases the total pressure (Patm) is equal to the
sum of the pressure of each gas (P1 + P2 + P3…), as if it were in a container alone. The
pressure exerted by each gas is called its partial pressure.
− 1808: Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac observed the law of combining volumes. He noticed that,
for example, two volumes of hydrogen combined with one volume of oxygen to form two
volumes of water. (2H2 + O2 → 2H2O)
− 1811: Amadeo Avogadro suggested, from Gay-Lussac’s experiments conducted three years
earlier, that the pressure in a container is directly proportional to the number of particles in
that container.
Applications of Gases
− Airbags – has NaN3, KNO3, SiO2 – electrical impulse breaks NaN3 into Na and N2, causing
the nitrogen gas to fill up the bag
− Airships – H or He
− Propane appliances – mostly C3H8
− SCUBA – O2, N2, and a small mix of others to make regular air
− - structural formula
− CH4 – condensed formula (CH3CH2CH3 – propane)
− Different prefixes for 1 – 4 (1 – meth; 2 – eth; 3 – prop; 4 – but)
− If the hydrogens are not visible in the structural formula, assume they are there
− Straight chained hydrocarbons – without branches (ex: butane)
− Branched hydrocarbons contain branches (ex: methylpropane)
− Structural isomer – same components but different structure (ex: methyl
propane is a structural isomer of butane)
Alkenes
− CnH2n
− Contain a carbon-carbon double bond
− Are “unsaturated hydrocarbons”
− Simplest: Ethene C2H4
− All carbons must have 4 bonds
− When naming, the double bond should be off of the lowest number (must pass through)
− Ex: 2-methyl-1-propene
2-methylpropene
Methylpropene
Naming:
1. If 2 or more bonds are possible, you must indicate where the double bond is
2. When numbering carbons in the longest chain:
a. Make sure to indicate the lowest double bond
b. The double bond gets the lowest numbered carbon possible
−
− Cis – has groups attached to the common side of the double bond
− Trans – has groups attached to carbons on the opposite side of the double bond
− For naming, add the prefix “cis-“ or “trans-“ before the number that indicates where the
double bond is
Alkynes
− General formula: CnH2n-2
− Contain at least one triple bond
− Considered to be an unsaturated hydrocarbon
− The triple bond makes these compounds more reactive