Contents PART ONE: An Introduction to Criminal Justice Inquiry 1 Chapter 1: Criminal Justices and Scientific Inquity 2 Introduction 3 HOME

DETENTION 4 What is This Book About? 4 Two realities 4 The role of Sciences 6 Personal human inequity 6 Tradition 7 Authority 7 ARREST AND DOMESTIC VIOLENCE 8 Errors in Personal Human Inquiry 8 Inaccurate observation 8 Overgeneralization 8 Selective observation 9 Illogical Reasoning 10 Ideology and Polities 10 To Earl is Human 10 Foundation of social sciences 11 Theory, Not Philosophy or Belief 11 Regularities 11 What about Exceptions? 13 Aggregates, not individuals 13 A variable language 13 Variables and Attributes 14 Variables and Relationship 17 Purpose of Research 17 Exploration 18 Description 18 Explanation 19 Application 19 Differing avenues for Inquiry 19

Idiographic and Nomothric Explanation 20 Terms Using in Theory Construction 33 Two Logical Systems 31 The traditional Model of Science 28 27 The creation of social Scienfic Theory Introduction 27 Justices Research 26 Chapter 2 Theory and Ethics in Criminal Main Points 24 Up and Looking Ahead 23 Knowing through Experiences Summary Ethics and Criminal Justice Research 23 Quantitative and Qualitative Data 22 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning 21 Quantitative and Qualitative Data 22 Ethics and Criminal Justices Research 23 Knowing through Experiences summary up and Looking Ahead 23 Main Point 24 Chapter 2 Theory and Ethics in Criminal Justices Research 26 Introduction27 The creation of social Scienfic Theory 27 The traditional Model of science 28 Two logical systems 31 Terms using in theory construction 33 GROUND THEORY AND COMMUNITY PROSECUTION 34 Theory in criminal justices 36 Law Breaking 36 Policy Responses 38 Theory, Research and Public Policy 39 Ecological Theories of crime and crime prevention Policy 39 Ethical Issue in criminal justice Research 41 No harm to Participants 41

ETHICS AND EXTREME FIELD RESEACH 41 Voluntary Participations 44 Protecting identify 45 Deceiving subjects 45 Analysis and Reporting 46 Legal liability 46 Special problems 47 Promoting compliance which Ethical Principles 49 Codes of professional ethics 49 Intentional Review Boards 50 ETHICES AND JUVENILE GANG MENBERS 52 The Stanford Prison Experiment 52 Discussion Examples 55 Main points 55 PART 2 structuring criminal justices Inquiry 59 Chapter 3: General Issue in Research Design 60 Introduction 61 Causation in Social Sciences Criteria for Causality 62 Necessary and Sufficient Causes 63 Validity and Caused Inference 63 Statistical Conclusion Validity 64 Internal validity 65 Contract validity 65 External validity 65 Validity and Caused Inference summarized 67 Does Drug Use Cause Crime? 67 Introducing Scientific Realism 68 Units of analysis 69 CAUSATION AND DECLINING CRIME IN NEW YORK CITY 70

Individuals 70 Groups 71 Organization 72 Social Artifacts 72 The biological fallacy 73 UNITS OF ANALYSIS IN THE NATIO0NAL YOUTH GANG SURVEY 74 Units of Analysis in Review 74 The Time Dimension 76 Cross Sectional studies 76 Longitudinal studies 76 Approximating Longitudinal studies 77 The Time Dimension Summarized 79 How to Design a Research Project 81 The Research Process 81 Getting Started 83 Conceptualization 83 Choose of Reseach Method 84 Operationalization 84 Population and Sampling 84 Observation 85 Analysis 85 Application 85 Research Design in Review 86 The research proposal 87 Elements of a Research Proposal 87 Answer to the units of analysis Exercise 88 Main Points 88 Chapter 4 Concept, Operationalization and Measurement 91 Introduction 92 Conceptualization and Concepts 92 Conceptualization 94 Creating Conceptual Order 95 What is Recidivism? 96 Operationalization Choices 96 JAIL STAY 98

Measurements as Scoring 98 Exhaustive and Excusive Measurements 100 Levels of Measurement 100 Implications of Level of Measurements 102 Criteria for measurement Quality 103 Reliability 104 Validity 106 Measurement Crime 108 General Issues in Measuring Crime 1082 UNITS OF ANALYSIS AND MESURING CRIME 110 Measures Based on Crimes Known to Police 110 Victim Surveys 113 Surveys of Offending 114 Measuring Crime Summary 116 Composite Measures 117 Typologies 117 An Index of Disorder 118 Measurement Summary 120 Main Points 120 Chapter 5 Experimental and Quisi-Experiement Designs 123 Introduction 124 The classical Experiment 124 Independent and Department Variables 125 Pretesting and Post testing 125 Experiment and Control Groups 126 Double- Blind Experiments 127 Selecting Subject 127 Randomization 128 Experiments and Causal Inference 128 Experiments and Threats to Validity 129 Threats to Internal Validity 129 Ruling Our Threats to Internal Validity 131 Generalizability and Threats to Validity 132 Threats to construct Validity 132 Threats to External Validity 134 Threats to Statistical Conclusion Validity 134 Various in classical Experiment Designs 135

Quasi- Experiments Designs 136 Nonequivalent Groups Designs 137 Cohort Designs 140 Time- Series Design 140 Variations in Time Series Designs 143 Variable-Oriented Research and Scientific Realism 145 Experiment and Quasi-Experiment Designs Summarized 147 PART 3 Modes of Observation151 Chapter 6 Overview of Data Collection and Sampling 152 Introduction 153 Three Source of Data154 Asking Questions 154 Making Direct Observations 154 Examining Writing Records 155 Using Multiple Data Sources 155 MULTIPLE MESURES IN HOMEDETTENTION The Logic of Probability Sampling 157 Conscious and Unconscious Sampling Bias 158 Representatives and Probability of Sections 160 Probability Theory and Sampling Distribution 160 The sampling Distribution of 10 cases 161 From Sampling Distribution to Parameter Estimate 165 Estimating Sampling Errors 166 Confident Levels and Confidence Intervals 167 Random Sampling and Probability Theory Summed Up 168 Population and Sampling Frames 169 Types of Sampling Designs170 Simple Sampling Designs 170 Systematic Sampling 170

Stratified Sampling 171 Disproportionate Stratified Sampling 172 Multistage Cluster Sampling With Stratification 174 Illustration: Two National Crime Survey 174 The National Crime Victimization Survey 176 The British Crime Survey 177 Probability Sampling in Review 177 No probability Sampling 178 Purposive, or Judgmental, Sampling 178 Quota Sampling 178 Reliance on Available Subjects 179 Snowball, Sampling 180 Nonprobability Sampling in Review 181 Main Points 181 Chapter 7: Survey Research and Other Ways of Asking Questions 184 Introduction 185 Topics Appropriate to Survey Research 186 Counting Crime 186 Self-Reports 186 Perception and Attitudes 187 Policy Proposals 187 Targeted Victim Surveys 187 Other Evaluation Uses 188 Guidelines for Asking Questions 188 Open-Ended and Close-Ended Questions 188 Questions and Statements 189 Make Items Clear 189 Short Items Are Best 190 Avoid Negative Items 190 Biased Items and Terms 190 Designing Self-Report Items 191 Questionnaire Construction 192 General Questionnaire Format 192 Contingency Questions 193 Matrix Questions 195 Ordering Items in a Questionnaire 195 Self-Administered Questionnaires 196

DONT START FROM SCRATCH! 197 Mail Distribution and Return 197 Warning Mailings and Cover Letters 198 Follow-Up Mailings 199 Acceptable Responses Rates 199 Computer-Based Self-Administration 199 In-Person Interview Surveys 201 The Role of the Interviewer 201 General Rules for Interviewing 201 Coordination and Control 202 Computer-Assisted In-Person Interviews 203 Telephone Surveys 205 Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing 206 Comparison of the Three Methods 207 Strengths and Weaknesses of Survey Research 208 Other Ways of Asking Questions 210 Specialized Interviewing 210 Focus Groups 211 Should you do it yourself? 212 Main Points 214 Chapter 8: Field Research 216 Introduction 217 Topics Appropriate to Field Study 218 The Various Roles of the Observer 218 Asking Questions 221 Gaining Access to Subjects 223 Gaining Access to Formal Organizations 223 Gaining Access to Subcultures 225 Selecting Cases for Observation 226 Purposive Sampling in Field Research 228 Recording Observations 229 Cameras and Voice Recorders 230 Field Notes 231 Structured Observations 231 Linking Field Observations and Other Data 232 Illustrations of Field Research 235

Shoplifting 235 CONDUCTING A SAFETY AUDIT 236 Driving While Black 238 Bars and Violence 239 Strengths and Weaknesses of Field Research 241 Validity 241 Reliability 242 Generalizabilty 243 Main Points 244 Chapter 9: Agency Records, Content Analysis, and Secondary Data 246 Introduction 247 Topics Appropriate for Agency Records and Content Analysis 247 Types of Agency Records 249 Published Statistics 249 Nonpublic Agency Records 251 New Data Collected by Agency Staff 254 IMPROVING POLICE RECORDS OF DOMESTICS VIOLENCE 256 Units of Analysis and Sampling 256 Units of Analysis 256 Sampling 258 Reliability and Validity 258 Sources of Reliability and Validity Problems 259 HOW MANY PAROLE VIOLATORS WERE THERE LAST MONTH? 262 Content Analysis 262 Units of Analysis and Sampling in Content Analysis 264 Coding in Content Analysis 266 Illustrations of Content Analysis 267 Secondary Analysis 269 Sources of Secondary Data 270

Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary Data 270 Main Points 271 PART FOUR: Application and Analysis 273 Chapter 10: Evaluation Research and Policy Analysis 247 Introduction 275 Topic Appropriate for Evaluation Research and Policy Analysis 275 The Policy Process 276 Linking the Process to Evaluation 277 Getting Started 279 Evaluability Assessment 280 Problem Formulation 281 Measurement 283 Designs for Program Evaluation 286 Randomized Evaluation Designs 286 Home Detention: Two Randomized Studies 288 Quasi-Experimental Designs 291 Other Types of Evaluation Studies 294 Policy Analysis and Scientific Realism 294 Modeling Prison Populations 295 Other Applications of Policy Analysis 298 Scientific Realism and Applied Research 299 The Political Context of Applied Research 301 Evaluation and Stakeholders 301 Politics and Objectivity 302 WHEN POLITICS ACCOMODATES FACTS 303 Main Points 304 Chapter 11: Interpreting Data 307 Introduction 308 Univariate Description 308 Distributions 308 Measures of Central Tendency 309 Measures of Dispersion 311

Comparing Measures of Dispersion and Central Tendency 313 Computing Rates 314 Describing Two or More Variables 316 Bivariate Analysis 316 Multivariate Analysis 319 MURDER ON THE JOB 320 Inferential Statistics 324 Univariate Inferences 324 Tests of Statistical Significance 325 Visualizing Statistical Significance 327 Chi Square 328 Cautions in Interpreting Statistical Significance 330 Main Points 332 Glossary 334 References 342 Name Index 352 Subject Index 354