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Published in IET Electric Power Applications Received on 11th July 2011 Revised on 29th September 2011 doi: 10.1049/iet-epa.2011.0204

ISSN 1751-8660

Operation and closed-loop control of wind-driven stand-alone doubly fed induction generators using a single inverter-battery system
K. Vijayakumar N. Kumaresan N. Ammasai Gounden
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu 620 015, India E-mail: nkumar@nitt.edu

Abstract: A simple system has been formulated for the operation of wind-driven stand-alone doubly fed induction generators (DFIGs) supplying isolated loads at stator terminals. The stator voltage magnitude and frequency are maintained constant by closed-loop control. The excitation of the rotor is established using a single inverter which is an sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM) inverter supplied through set of batteries. This allows the proposed system to feed continuous power supply to the isolated load via charging/discharging of the batteries depending on excess/decit power from the wind. The system operates in various modes depending upon the availability of wind and size of the load. All possible modes of operation have been identied and described in the present study. The magnitude and frequency control strategies proposed in this study have been implemented using TMS320LF2407A digital signal processor (DSP) controller and detailed procedure for such implementation is given. The proposed control strategy is free from machine parameter variation and so the coordinate transformations, rotor position detection, measurements of rotor currents are not required. Experimental results obtained on a three-phase DFIG together with the closed-loop controller conrm the usefulness of the proposed system and the validity of its analysis.

Nomenclature
a E fr fs Ip I1p , I2p I1 2p m N, Ns P P1 , P2 PF Q1 , Q2 R, X R1 , X1 R2 , X2 stator-to-rotor turns ratio air-gap voltage per phase, V rotor frequency, Hz stator frequency, Hz per phase load current at stator terminals, A per phase stator and rotor currents, A per phase rotor current (referred to stator), A modulation index actual rotor speed and synchronous speed, respectively, r/min number of poles real power at stator and rotor terminals, respectively, W power factor reactive power at stator and rotor terminals, respectively, VAR per phase load resistance and reactance at the stator terminals, respectively, V per phase stator resistance and leakage reactance, respectively, V per phase rotor resistance and leakage reactance (both referred to stator), respectively, V

Rm s V1p , V1L V2p V1 2p Vdc Xm

core loss resistance per phase, V operating slip phase and line voltages at the stator terminals, respectively, V phase voltage at the rotor terminals, V phase voltage at the rotor terminals (referred to stator), V battery voltage, V magnetising reactance per phase, V

Introduction

Owing to fast depletion and environmental pollution caused by conventional sources, there is an increased emphasis on the exploitation of renewable energy resources. Among these renewable sources, wind energy electric conversion systems have been found to be viable in contributing signicant amount of electric power, when installed in locations where adequate wind potential is available over most part of the year. In view of reduced power electronic converter ratings and operation in both sub-synchronous and super-synchronous rotor speeds, doubly fed induction generators (DFIGs) are increasingly employed for electric power generation from such wind energy sources, both for grid and for stand-alone applications [1, 2].
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In stand-alone systems employing DFIGs, suitable control system has to be developed for maintaining the stator voltage and frequency constant. In this context, Pena et al. [3] have presented the control of DFIGs supplying an isolated load at constant voltage and constant frequency. This scheme utilises two back-to-back SPWM converters in the rotor circuit. In addition, for variable-speed operation from a wind turbine, an auxiliary load in parallel with the main load has been used for power matching. Later, the same authors have discussed the analysis of a model reference adaptive system observer for the sensorless control of standalone DFIGs and validated through experimentation [4]. Jain and Ranganathan [5] have described a simple position sensorless algorithm for rotor side eld-oriented control of stand-alone DFIGs for feeding non-linear loads. They have also incorporated the active lter concept in the control scheme to cancel signicant harmonics, so that the stator voltage and current will have good sinusoidal shape. A soft start-up procedure for rotor side converter control has also been brought out by the authors. Bhattacharya and Umanand [6] have proposed an improved stator ux position estimation scheme for rotor side control of DFIGs suitable for both grid-connected and stand-alone operation. An adaptive Luenberger observer has been used for sensorless eld-oriented control of stand-alone DFIG [7]. This control strategy can also be used for synchronising the generator system to grid. Iwanski and Koczara [8] have demonstrated the UPS function of the DFIG-based power generation systems such as methods of output voltage control, detection of mains outage and synchronisation with the grid to obtain the uninterruptible supply for the selected load. Fan et al. [9] have presented a systematic method to analyse the harmonics caused by non-sinusoidal rotor injection and unbalanced stator conditions in a DFIG. For the stand-alone operation of DFIGs some external source is required for charging the dc-link capacitor of back-to-back converter during starting [5, 10]. To overcome this, researchers have proposed a permanent magnet synchronous machine (PMSM) based rotor excitation system [11, 12]. This system provides reduced line harmonic distortion since power converters are not connected to the stator terminals. However, this scheme will fail to work for stand-alone operation, if the power available from the wind is more/less as compared to the load demand, since there are no additional sink/source integrated with this system. So to improve the reliability and performance of generating systems operating from the wind, various authors have suggested integration of more than one source [13 15]. In such hybrid systems, energy storing devices play an important role for power matching. All the systems proposed by earlier authors for the standalone operation of DFIGs have employed (i) back-to-back converters in rotor circuit and (ii) vector control scheme with or without position sensorless algorithm. In view of growing importance for stand-alone operation of wind energy electric conversion system, a simple control strategy is proposed in this paper for supplying isolated loads employing DFIGs. In this scheme only one bi-directional converter which is an SPWM inverter along with the battery is employed at the rotor side. The stator voltage and frequency are maintained constant by appropriately controlling the rotor voltage and slip frequency. Only one voltage sensor is used for measuring the stator voltage magnitude and frequency, which is an added advantage of the proposed system powered from such renewable sources. The magnitude and frequency control strategy proposed in
IET Electr. Power Appl., 2012, Vol. 6, Iss. 3, pp. 162 171 doi: 10.1049/iet-epa.2011.0204

this paper is free from parameter variation and so the coordinate transformations, rotor position detection, measurements of rotor currents are not required. It is known that at super-synchronous speed, the slip power is extracted from the rotor terminals of DFIG. To operate the machine as a generator at sub-synchronous speed, the slip power is injected into the rotor terminals. This concept is used for charging/discharging the batteries through the same SPWM inverter depending on excess/decit power from the wind, that is, the difference between the wind power and the load power is either stored in or extracted from the battery, so that continuous and reliable power supply is ensured for isolated loads. This further improves the reliability of the proposed system and also smoothes out the uctuating power from the wind. The charging of the batteries is established through the integral diodes of the insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) switches in the inverter. Starting from the description of the proposed system, steady-state and dynamic analysis and experimental investigations are explained in the succeeding sections.

2 Proposed system for stand-alone operation of DFIGs

A controllable ac voltage of the desired magnitude and frequency at the stator terminals of DFIG for supplying isolated load is obtained using the battery-inverter system at the rotor side as shown in Fig. 1. The rotor is fed through SPWM inverter supplied by batteries. The stator voltage magnitude and frequency are maintained constant for any rotor speed and load by appropriately adjusting the rotor voltage magnitude and frequency. The variation in rotor voltage magnitude and frequency is obtained by generating appropriate modulation index and modulation frequency of an SPWM inverter. In the proposed system, there are three modes of operation as explained below. Mode 1: When the available wind power is more than the ac load requirement, the excess power is used to charge the batteries. This mode necessitates the operation of DFIG in super-synchronous rotor speed. The power balance equation of this mode is: wind power ac loads + battery power + losses. Mode 2: When the available wind power is not sufcient to feed the connected ac loads, the additional power required is obtained from the batteries. In this mode, the DFIG has to operate in sub-synchronous rotor speed and the power balance equation is: wind power + battery power ac loads + losses. Mode 3: When the wind speed is less than the cut-in speed of the wind turbine, the battery will feed the loads; for a duration depending upon the capacity of the battery and the size of the load. During this mode, the rotor of DFIG is stalled by applying mechanical or electromechanical braking. Hence, the power balance equation for this mode is: battery power ac loads + losses. The above operating modes are depicted in Fig. 2. When the battery is fully charged, a dump load or auxiliary load across the stator terminals/battery terminals may be used to dissipate the extra power available from the wind. Auxiliary load like water pumping is a better option than dump load because harvested energy is not wasted. The controller of the proposed system shown in Fig. 1 consists of two parallel loops one for regulating the stator voltage and the other for frequency. In the voltage control
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Fig. 1 Block diagram of the proposed stand-alone DFIG system

DFIG: doubly fed induction generator; VSC: voltage sensor circuit; WT: wind turbine; SCC: signal conditioning circuit; SPC: square pulse converter; ADC: analog-to digital converter; Vref: reference voltage; Vact : actual voltage; fref : reference frequency; fact : actual frequency

Fig. 2 Operating modes of the proposed system

asynchronous generators for stand-alone operation is not simple. Further, in the steady-state equivalent circuit of such generators used for the performance predetermination, the reactance term should be expressed in terms of the perunit frequency ( generated frequency/rated frequency) to include the variable nature of the operating frequency. However, in the proposed system, the stator voltage and frequency are maintained constant for all operating points. So, per-unit frequency term is not needed in the steady-state equivalent circuit. The steady-state performance of the stand-alone DFIG can be determined by using the equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 3. In the circuit, the operating slip of the machine is s (Ns 2 N )/Ns , and the load impedance (R + j X), which is connected across stator terminals. This circuit is suitable for carrying out the predetermination of performance of stand-alone DFIG in both sub-synchronous and super-synchronous speeds. From this gure, it can be observed that the stator current is equal to the load current and is given by Ip = I1p = V1p (R + jX ) (1)

loop, the difference between reference voltage, Vref and the measured voltage magnitude, Vact is processed and a control signal corresponding to the required modulation index is generated. In the frequency control loop, the difference between reference frequency, fref and the actual frequency, fact is processed and a sine wave of slip frequency is generated. The outputs of the two loops are multiplied to obtain the required modulating signal corresponding to the variation in rotor speed and load and then compared with the carrier signal. The carrier signal is generated at a frequency of 5 kHz using the internal timer of DSP. The output of the comparator is the SPWM gating pulses for the inverter. The entire control scheme has been developed by using TMS320LF2407A DSP.

Then the air-gap voltage and rotor current referred to stator are E = V1p + I1p (R1 + jX1 )
l = I1p + I2p

(2) (3)

E E + Rm jXm

Then the required rotor voltage (referred to stator) can be

Analysis of stand-alone DFIGs

In the stand-alone operation of asynchronous generators excited with capacitor banks, the terminal voltage and frequency vary with the prime mover speed, excitation capacitance and load impedance [16, 17]. Furthermore, owing to saturation, the equivalent magnetising reactance and the core loss resistance vary with the operating point. So the calculation of performance of the capacitor-excited
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Fig. 3 Steady-state equivalent circuit of stand-alone DFIG with load

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evaluated by using
l l = E + I2p (R2 /s + jX2 ) V2p

(4)

By using the machine turns ratio and operating slip, the rotor voltage required for maintaining the constant stator voltage is given by
1 V2p = V2p (s/a)

(5)

The rotor current supplied from the inverter is

1 I2p = a I2p

(6)

To maintain the stator frequency constant for a given rotor speed and load, the frequency of the rotor voltage to be injected is given by fr sfs and this rotor frequency can be shown as fr = fs (PN/120) (7)

After evaluating the rotor voltage magnitude, the modulation index of the inverter is determined using the following expression V2p m=2 2 Vdc (8)

Then, the stator real and reactive power supplied to the isolated load are
) P1 = 3 Re(V1p I1p

and

Q1 = 3 Im(V1p I1p )

(9)

The real and reactive powers at the rotor side are, respectively
P2 = +3 Re(V2p I2p )

and

Q2 = 3 Im(V2p I2p )

(10)

+ sign for real power injected into the rotor terminals and 2 sign for real power extracted from the rotor terminals. It is to be noted that the reactive power requirement of the system is supplied by the inverter. The mechanical power input to the rotor of the generator is
2 Pm = 3 I2p R2

1s 1s P2 s s

(11)

Fig. 4 Performance of stand-alone DFIG supplying constant load at stator terminals V1L 415 V, fs 50 Hz, PF 1, Vdc 200 V
a Rotor voltage/rotor current against slip b Modulation index/rotor frequency against slip c Mechanical power/rotor power against slip calculated: W: stator power 1kW; : stator power 5kW experimental: *: stator power 1kW; O: stator power 5kW

To illustrate the effectiveness of the proposed method of analysis of stand-alone DFIG, a three-phase, four-pole, 415 V, 50 Hz, 5 kVA, delta-connected slip-ring induction machine with 3-phase star-connected rotor of 200 V, 11 A and turns ratio of 2.1 is considered. The measured parameters of the generator are R1 5.3 V, R2 2.4 V, X1 X2 14.9 V, Rm 4871.1 V and Xm 208.5 V. In the case of self-excited induction generators, the core loss may be even 10% of rated power at no-load condition in the region of high saturation and it will reduce to 3 4% near full-load conditions, because of reduced ux density and emf on loading [16]. However, in the present system, since the stator voltage and frequency are maintained constant, the core loss is within 3% of the rated value. Fig. 4 shows the predetermined performance characteristics of the generator for supplying constant load at the stator
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terminals. The variation of rotor voltage and rotor current for different operating slips in sub-synchronous and supersynchronous rotor speeds is given in Fig. 4a. It can be noticed from this gure that (i) voltage applied to the rotor increases linearly with the operating slip and, (ii) for the same slip, at super-synchronous speed, the voltage applied to the rotor decreases with increase in ac load on the stator. On the other hand, for sub-synchronous speed, rotor voltage increases with ac load on the stator. However, for the given slip (or rotor speed), frequency of the voltage fed to the
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rotor is same irrespective of ac load on the stator side. This is illustrated in Fig. 4b for the two different ac loads considered in the present case. Fig. 4b also shows the variation of the modulation index to be adopted for SPWM inverter in the rotor circuit. It is to be noted from (7) that the frequency of the rotor is positive for sub-synchronous rotor speeds and negative for super-synchronous rotor speeds. The negative frequency indicates that the rotor phase sequence has to be reversed from that of sub-synchronous rotor speeds. Fig. 4c gives the variation of mechanical power, rotor real and reactive power with slip for a given stator power. From this gure, it can be observed that, at super-synchronous speed, the power balance equation is Pm P1 + P2 + total loss and at sub-synchronous speed, it is Pm + P2 P1 + total loss. This is similar to mode-1 and mode-2 operation of DFIG explained in Section-2 of this paper. However, in both modes of operation, the rotor side inverter supplies the reactive power needed for DFIG and ac load at the stator terminals. To further show the effect of variation of power factor on ac load at stator terminals, predetermination has also been carried out for 0.8 and 0.6 lagging power factor load of 1 kW and the results are given in Fig. 5. In this gure, the reactive power injected into the rotor terminal increases as the power factor on the ac load decreases. If the power factor is leading, it has been observed that the reactive power supplied by the rotor side inverter decreases for reduced power factor. However, real power supplied by the rotor side inverter depends mainly on the real power at the stator terminals, slip and mechanical power. To further demonstrate the modes of operation of the proposed system described in Section-2, predetermination was also carried out for constant mechanical power supplied to the generator and the results are furnished in Fig. 6. From this gure, it is observed that when the mechanical power is in excess compared to ac load on the stator terminals, the generator operates at super-synchronous speed and supplies the surplus power to the batteries through rotor. On the other hand, when the mechanical power is not sufcient to supply the ac load on the stator terminals, rotor side inverter supports the decit power and generator operates in sub-synchronous rotor speed. Thus, depending upon the availability of the wind power and ac load, the proposed system will operate either in mode 1 or mode 2. At times of wind speed falling below the cut in speed, the system will operate in mode 3.

Experimental investigations

Fig. 5 Rotor reactive power/rotor current against slip with different PFs V1L 415 V, fs 50 Hz, Vdc 200 V

To demonstrate the working and usefulness of the proposed system shown in Fig. 1, a three-phase SPWM inverter using IGBTs along with the gate drivers has been employed. The control circuit for the inverter has been fabricated using TMS320LF2407 DSP. TMS320LF2407 DSP has 12 PWM output channels, programmable dead band units to prevent shoot-through faults in the inverter and serial communication capabilities. Six PWM channels (PWM1 PWM6) are used for gating the IGBTs. The output voltage at the stator terminals was sensed using LEM make voltage transducer (LV 25-P) and appropriately scaled down by a signal conditioning circuit to the range of 0 5 V. This voltage signal is fed to one of the channels of a 12-bit, simultaneous sampling, high-speed analog-to-digital converter (ADC). The rms value of the ADC output has been computed using DSP programming and this value is given as one of the inputs to a summer in the voltage control loop of the proposed system. The other input to the

Fig. 6 Speed/rotor voltage/rotor real power against output power for constant mechanical input power Pm 3 kW, V1L 415 V, fs 50 Hz, Vdc 200 V
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summer is the reference voltage (Vref ) corresponding to the stator voltage to be maintained constant (415 V in the present case). The error signal obtained from summer is given to the digital proportional integral (PI) controller developed for this purpose. The output of voltage control loop is the modulation index, which is required to adjust the rotor voltage magnitude. In order to limit the value of modulation index to a maximum of 0.9, a limiter circuit has been connected at the output of the PI controller. Similarly in the frequency control loop, the voltage signal obtained from the same voltage sensor along with the signal conditioning unit has been fed to square pulse converter. Thus, only one voltage sensor is sufcient for the closedloop control of both magnitude and frequency of the stator voltage. The train of square pulse is fed to the capture unit of DSP and using appropriate algorithm the actual frequency of the stator voltage is evaluated. This frequency value is given as one of the inputs to the summer in the frequency control loop. The other input to this summer is the reference frequency ( fref ) corresponding to the frequency of the stator voltage to be maintained constant (50 Hz). The frequency error signal obtained from summer is given to the digital PI controller in the frequency control loop. The output of frequency control loop is the value of the rotor frequency, that is, slip times the stator frequency (s 50 Hz). This is the frequency at which the rotor voltage needs to be applied from the rotor side inverter to maintain the stator side frequency constant. In order to limit the value of rotor frequency to a maximum of 50 Hz, a

Fig. 8 d q equivalent circuit of stand-alone DFIG using synchronous rotating frame

a d-axis equivalent circuit b q-axis equivalent circuit

Fig. 7 Harmonic spectrum of stator voltage of stand-alone DFIG

a No-load condition b 1 kW load at stator terminals

limiter circuit has been connected at the output of this PI controller. Using the sine lookup table stored in the DSP and the value obtained from the frequency control loop, three-phase sinusoidal waveform corresponding to slip frequency (sfs) has been generated. This sinusoidal signal is multiplied with the modulation index obtained from the voltage control loop for producing the desired modulation signal for the SPWM technique. The virtual carrier signal of 5 kHz has been generated using Timer1 of TMS320LF2407 DSP. The compare unit of DSP (compare1 to compare3 registers) is used for the generation of SPWM pulses for the inverter by comparing the modulation signal with virtual triangular carrier signal. To evaluate the successful working of the closed-loop control system developed using DSP for stand-alone operation of DFIG, experiments have been conducted on the same 3-phase, 4-pole, 415 V, 50 Hz, 5 kVA, deltaconnected slip-ring induction machine described in Section 3. A separately excited dc motor was used as a prime

Table 1
Sl. No.

Performance of stand-alone DFIG for various operating conditions V1L 415 V and fs 50 Hz I1p , A Cal Exp P1 , kW Cal Exp Cal V2p , V Exp Cal I2p , A Exp Cal P2 , kW Exp Q2 , kVAR Cal Exp Pm , kW Cal Exp

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3

Mode 1 (N 1650 rpm) 0.8 0.9 1.01 2.4 2.3 3.02 3.9 4.0 4.99 Mode 2 (N 1400 rpm) 0.8 0.9 1.01 2.4 2.3 3.02 3.9 4.0 4.99 Mode 3 (Standstill) 0.7 0.8 0.90 1.5 1.5 1.72 2.2 2.3 2.60

1.11 3.07 5.04 1.04 3.13 5.07 0.94 1.80 2.65

20.6 19.6 19.1 15.4 17.6 19.9 113.3 115.4 117.9

21.2 19.9 19.5 15.0 17.2 20.5 116.8 119.6 121.1

4.7 7.1 10.0 4.7 7.1 10.1 7.6 9.3 11.5

4.8 6.9 10.2 4.9 7.4 10.4 7.7 9.3 11.3

2 0.77 2 0.24 2 0.37 0.11 0.30 0.53 1.00 1.90 2.84

2 0.90 2 0.25 2 0.38 0.11 0.31 0.55 1.08 1.98 2.85

0.28 0.34 0.46 0.19 0.23 0.30 2.40 2.61 2.89

0.29 0.35 0.47 0.18 0.23 0.32 2.58 2.72 2.95

1.39 3.70 6.05 1.20 3.16 5.16 0 0 0

1.51 3.72 6.12 1.24 3.28 5.22 0 0 0

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Fig. 9 Dynamic response of stator voltage N 1450 rpm and ti: instant of rotor voltage application
For experimental waveforms: Stator voltage axis: 590 V/div, Rotor current axis: 10 A/div, Actual and reference voltage axes: 4.88 V/div, Time axis: 200 ms/div

Fig. 10 Dynamic response to step change in load N 1450 rpm and tlc: instant at which load change initiated
a From no-load to 1 kW load b From 1 to 2 kW load c From 2 to 1 kW load For experimental waveforms: stator voltage axis: 590 V/div, stator current axis: 6.4 A/div, rotor current axis: 17 A/div, speed axis: 2130 rpm/div, time axis: 200 ms/div 168 IET Electr. Power Appl., 2012, Vol. 6, Iss. 3, pp. 162 171 doi: 10.1049/iet-epa.2011.0204

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Fig. 11 Dynamic response to step change in speed P1 1 kW and tsc: instant at which speed change initiated
For experimental waveforms: stator voltage axis: 590 V/div, stator current axis: 6.4 A/div, rotor current axis: 17 A/div, speed axis: 213 rpm/div, time axis: 200 ms/div a From 1350 to 1450 rpm b From 1450 to 1350 rpm

mover and suitable number of batteries was connected at the dc side of the inverter. The experiment was conducted for maintaining a constant voltage magnitude of 415 V (within +0.5%) and frequency of 50 Hz (within +0.5%) at the stator terminals. The variation of rotor voltage magnitude, rotor current, rotor frequency, modulation index, mechanical input power, rotor real and reactive power with slip for two different power settings at stator terminals (1, 5 kW) were observed and these experimental results have also been shown in Fig. 4 along with corresponding predicted values. A close agreement between the experimental and predicted ones validates the practical implementation of the proposed system and also proposed method of analysis of DFIG. Fig. 7 shows the experimentally obtained harmonic spectrum of stator voltage for no-load and at 1 kW load at stator. From this gure, it can be noted that the total harmonic distortion (THD) is more at no-load condition as compared to the loaded condition. However, in both the cases, the THD of the stator voltage is within the acceptable limit. Further, to assess the performance of the proposed system at constant speed, experiments have also been conducted for two different speeds. One at supersynchronous and other at sub-synchronous rotor speed. These results are presented in Table 1 along with predetermined values. Performance of the system at standstill condition is also given in Table 1. It is to be noted that the rating of the converter will be about 30% of
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machine rating when the operating slip is within 30% and will increase if the slip is more than 30%. This may be observed from Table 1 for standstill condition. Thus this proposed conguration will feed the isolated loads even at no wind speed condition at an increased inverter rating. To substantiate the satisfactory dynamic performance of the proposed system, the controller has been tested with (i) step change in load, (ii) step change in speed and, (iii) simultaneous step change in load and speed. For carrying out the simulation, dq axis model of the stand-alone DFIG shown in Fig. 8 has been used. To show the dynamics of the voltage building-up during starting at the stator terminals of proposed DFIG, the generator was run at a speed of 1450 rpm and the reference voltage and frequency were set at 415 V and 50 Hz, respectively. Simulation was carried out for this operating point and the results are given in Fig. 9. The oscillographic waveforms of the stator voltage and rotor current, the reference and actual stator voltages were recorded using digital storage oscilloscope (DSO) and they are given in Fig. 9, along with the simulated results. It can be observed from this gure that the controller tracks the reference voltage and frequency and settles down in about 35 cycles, that is, less than 0.1 s. To accommodate at least two cycles of rotor current, the waveforms have been captured over 2 s duration, because of which the stator voltage appears to be crowded. The magnetising current required for the machine at no load, that is, reactive power
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Fig. 12 Dynamic response to simultaneous step change in load and speed tsl: instant at which speed and load change initiated simultaneously
a Speed change from 1200 to 1450 rpm, Load change from no-load to 5 kW b Speed change from 1450 to 1200 rpm, Load change from 5 kW to no-load Stator voltage axis: 1180 V/div, Stator current axis: 12.8 A/div, Rotor current axis: 17 A/div, Speed axis: 213 rpm/div, Time axis: 200 ms/div

requirement of the generator, is supplied by the rotor side inverter. For this operating point, the rotor is fed with 13 V (0.11 modulation index) and the inverter supplies the rotor current of 4.2 A. Experiments have been conducted for step change in the resistive load at stator terminals of the generator (a) from no-load to 1 kW load, (b) 1 kW load to 2 kW load and (c) 2 kW load to 1 kW load and the response of the controller was observed. The oscillographic waveforms of stator voltage, stator current, rotor current and speed for these operating points were recorded using DSO and they are presented in Fig. 10 along with the simulated results. It is to be noted that the inverter supplies 4.2 A at no load and this current increases to 4.7 A for 1 kW load and 5.5 A for 2 kW load for maintaining the stator voltage at 415 V, 50 Hz. However, stator current has been changed to meet out this step change in load, which is also depicted in Fig. 10. Here again the satisfactory performance of the controller was observed by tracking the voltage and frequency at the set values within 35 cycles. Fig. 11 illustrates the dynamic response of the system for step change in speed, whereas the load at the stator is kept constant at 1 kW. In the experimental set-up, the eld current of the separately excited dc motor was suddenly decreased/increased for increasing/decreasing the rotor speed of DFIG. Owing to the time constant of the primemover and generator, exact step change in speed could not be obtained experimentally. From this gure, it can be observed that (i) the stator voltage magnitude and frequency are maintained constant at set values by the closed-loop controller, (ii) the frequency of rotor current is varied depending upon the rotor speed as per (7). Further, the rotor current magnitude is same for change in speed, but the rotor voltage magnitude is varied depending on the rotor speed, which is also given in Fig. 4a. Fig. 12 illustrates the experimental results on the system for simultaneous step change in the load and speed. Fig. 12a gives step change in the resistive load from no-load to maximum rating of the generator (5 kW) and speed of 1200 to 1450 rpm. It has been observed that for this large step change in operating conditions namely load and speed, the controller takes about 0.3 s for tracking the voltage and frequency at set values. Similar response has been observed when the load on the generator was suddenly removed from its rated value and the speed also changed from 1450 to 1200 rpm.
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Conclusions

This paper has attempted a stand-alone DFIG which utilises only one SPWM converter in the rotor circuit along with the battery. The parameter insensitive closed-loop control scheme proposed in the paper for maintaining the stator voltage magnitude and frequency at set value has been implemented using TMS320LF2407A DSP. Methods have also been developed for the predetermination of steady-state and dynamic performance of the system. Extensive experimentation has been carried out and the results obtained on a generator inverter-battery system together with the developed controller and the various simulated waveforms demonstrate the working of the controller and validity of the proposed analysis. It has been shown that for smoothing out the intermittent power from the wind, the DFIG operates in supersynchronous and sub-synchronous rotor speeds leading to charging/discharging the batteries depending upon the excess/decit wind power. The excess energy available in the wind is used to charge the batteries instead of dissipating it into the dump loads. The stored energy available in the battery is used for supplying the isolated loads even at no wind speed. These aspects are clearly brought out in the paper. Thus, the constant voltage and constant frequency operation of DFIG along with battery storage arrangement makes the proposed system attractive for supplying the isolated loads from wind energy.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank the authorities of the National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, India for all the facilities provided for carrying out the experimental and simulation work for the preparation of this paper. The authors also wish to thank NaMPET, an initiative of DIT, Govt. of India for providing fund for infrastructure development of Power Converters Research Laboratory, in which the experiments have been carried out.

References

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