Edited by J.B. Kitto and S.C.

Stultz

The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Copyright 2005 by The Babcock & Wilcox Company a McDermott company Forty-first edition First printing All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of any part of this work in any form or by any means beyond that permitted by the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright holder is unlawful. Requests for permission or further information should be addressed to: STEAM, The Babcock & Wilcox Company, 20 S. Van Buren Avenue, P.O. Box 351, Barberton, Ohio, U.S.A. 44203-0351.

Disclaimer The information contained within this book has been obtained by The Babcock & Wilcox Company from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither The Babcock & Wilcox Company nor its authors make any guarantee or warranty, expressed or implied, about the accuracy, completeness or usefulness of the information, product, process or apparatus discussed within this book, nor shall The Babcock & Wilcox Company or any of its authors be liable for error, omission, losses or damages of any kind or nature. This book is published with the understanding that The Babcock & Wilcox Company and its authors are supplying general information and neither attempting to render engineering or professional services nor offering a product for sale. If services are desired, an appropriate professional should be consulted.

Steam/its generation and use. 41st edition. Editors: John B. Kitto and Steven C. Stultz. The Babcock & Wilcox Company, Barberton, Ohio, U.S.A. 2005 Includes bibliographic references and index. Subject areas: 1. Steam boilers. 2. Combustion Fossil fuels. 3. Nuclear power. The editors welcome any technical comments, notes on inaccuracies, or thoughts on important omissions. Please direct these to the editors at SteamBook@babcock.com.

1955, 1960, 1963, 1972, 1975, 1978, 1992, The Babcock & Wilcox Company. All rights reserved. ISBN 0-9634570-1-2 Library of Congress Catalog Number: 92-74123 ISSN 1556-5173

Printed in the United States of America.

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Steam, Edition: 41
Steam/its generation and use is the longest continuously published engineering text of its kind in the world. It has always been, and continues to be, written and published by The Babcock & Wilcox Company, the Original, headquartered in Barberton, Ohio, and incorporated in Delaware, The United States of America.

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Preface
Dear Reader: The founders of our company, George Babcock and Stephen Wilcox, invented the safety water tube boiler. This invention resulted in the commercialization of large-scale utility generating stations. Rapid increases in generation of safe, dependable and economic electricity literally fueled the Industrial Revolution and dramatically increased the standard of living in the United States and industrialized economies worldwide throughout the twentieth century. Advancements in technology to improve efficiency and reduce environmental emissions have continued for nearly 140 years, creating a unique and valuable body of applied engineering that represents the individual and collective contributions of several generations of employees. As in other areas of science and engineering, our field has continued to evolve, resulting in an extensive amount of new material that has been incorporated into our 41st edition of Steam/its generation and use. This edition required an extensive amount of personal time and energy from hundreds of employees and reflects our commitment to both our industry and our future. Today it is clear that the challenge to generate power more efficiently from fossil fuels, while minimizing impacts to our environment and global climate, will require significant technological advancements. These advances will require creativity, perseverance and ingenuity on the part of our employees and our customers. For inspiration, we can recall the relentless drive and imagination of one of our first customers, Mr. Thomas Alva Edison. For strength, we will continue to embrace our Core Values of Quality, Integrity, Service and People which have served us well over our long history as a company. I thank our shareholders, our employees, our customers, our partners and our suppliers for their continued dedication, cooperation and support as we move forward into what will prove to be a challenging and rewarding century. To help guide us all along the way, I am very pleased to present Edition: 41.

David L. Keller President and Chief Operating Officer The Babcock & Wilcox Company

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Table of Contents
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii to ix System of Units: English and Systme International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x Editors Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi Introduction to Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Intro-1 to 17 Selected Color Plates, Edition: 41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Plates 1 to 8

Section I Steam Fundamentals Chapter 1 Steam Generation An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Thermodynamics of Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Fluid Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Boiling Heat Transfer, Two-Phase Flow and Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Numerical Modeling for Fluid Flow, Heat Transfer, and Combustion . . . . 7 Metallurgy, Materials and Mechanical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Structural Analysis and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Section II Steam Generation from Chemical Energy Chapter 9 Sources of Chemical Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Principles of Combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Oil and Gas Utilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Solid Fuel Processing and Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Coal Pulverization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Burners and Combustion Systems for Pulverized Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Cyclone Furnaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Stokers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Fluidized-Bed Combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Coal Gasification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Boilers, Superheaters and Reheaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Economizers and Air Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Fuel Ash Effects on Boiler Design and Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Performance Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Boiler Enclosures, Casing and Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Boiler Cleaning and Ash Handling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Boiler Auxiliaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Section Ill Applications of Steam Chapter 26 Fossil Fuel Boilers for Electric Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Boilers for Industry and Small Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Chemical and Heat Recovery in the Paper Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Waste-to-Energy Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Wood and Biomass Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Marine Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1-1 2-1 3-1 4-1 5-1 6-1 7-1 8-1 9-1 10-1 11-1 12-1 13-1 14-1 15-1 16-1 17-1 18-1 19-1 20-1 21-1 22-1 23-1 24-1 25-1 26-1 27-1 28-1 29-1 30-1 31-1

to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to

1-17 2-27 3-17 4-33 5-21 6-25 7-25 8-17 9-19 10-31 11-17 12-19 13-15 14-21 15-13 16-11 17-15 18-17 19-21 20-17 21-27 22-21 23-9 24-21 25-23 26-17 27-21 28-29 29-23 30-11 31-13

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Section IV Environmental Protection Chapter 32 Environmental Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Particulate Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Nitrogen Oxides Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Sulfur Dioxide Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Environmental Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

32-1 33-1 34-1 35-1 36-1

to to to to to

32-17 33-13 34-15 35-19 36-15

Section V Specification, Manufacturing and Construction Chapter 37 Equipment Specification, Economics and Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-1 to 37-17 38 Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-1 to 38-13 39 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39-1 to 39-19 Section VI Operations Chapter 40 Pressure, Temperature, Quality and Flow Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Controls for Fossil Fuel-Fired Steam Generating Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Water and Steam Chemistry, Deposits and Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Boiler Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40-1 41-1 42-1 43-1 to to to to 40-25 41-21 42-29 43-17

Section VII Service and Maintenance Chapter 44 Maintaining Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44-1 to 44-21 45 Condition Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45-1 to 45-21 Section VIII Steam Generation from Nuclear Energy Chapter 46 Steam Generation from Nuclear Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Fundamentals of Nuclear Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Nuclear Steam Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Nuclear Services and Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Nuclear Equipment Manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendices Appendix 1 2
Conversion Factors, SI Steam Properties and Useful Tables . . . . . . . . . . . Codes and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Symbols, Acronyms and Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B&W Trademarks in Edition: 41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46-1 47-1 48-1 49-1 50-1 to to to to to 46-25 47-15 48-15 49-21 50-13

T-1 to T-16 C-1 to C-6 S-1 to S-10 TM-1 I-1 to I-22

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Acknowledgments
Steam/its generation and use is the culmination of the work of hundreds of B&W employees who have contributed directly and indirectly to this edition and to the technology upon which it is based. Particular recognition goes to individuals who formally committed to preparing and completing this expanded 41st edition.

Editor-in-Chief/Project Manager
S.C. Stultz

Technical Editor/Technical Advisor

J.B. Kitto

Art Director/Assistant Editor

G.L. Tomei

Assistant Technical Editors

J.J. Gaidos M.A. Miklic

Lead Authors
M.J. Albrecht G.T. Bielawski K.P. Brolly P.A. Campanizzi P.L. Cioffi R.A. Clocker P.L. Daniel R.A. Detzel J.A. Dickinson W. Downs D.D. Dueck S.J. Elmiger J.S. Gittinger J.E. Granger* G.R. Grant G.H. Harth T.C. Heil D.A. Huston B.J. Jankura C.S. Jones K.L. Jorgensen J.B. Kitto D.L. Kraft A.D. LaRue M.P. Lefebvre P. Li G.J. Maringo W.N. Martin E.H. Mayer* D.K. McDonald R.M. McNertney Jr. J.E. Monacelli T.E. Moskal N.C. Polosky E.F. Radke K.E. Redinger J.D. Riggs D.E. Ryan D.P. Scavuzzo S.A. Scavuzzo W.G. Schneider T.D. Shovlin T.A. Silva B.C. Sisler J.W. Smith R.E. Snyder W.R. Stirgwolt J.R. Strempek S.C. Stultz J.M. Tanzosh G.L. Tomei D.P. Tonn S.J. Vecci P.S. Weitzel R.A. Wessel L.C. Westfall P.J. Williams

* The editors offer special acknowledgment to authors J.E. Granger and E.H. Mayer who passed away during the preparation of Edition: 41.
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Primary Support Authors

S.A. Bryk D.E. Burnham D.S. Fedock J.T. Griffin B.L. Johnson N. Kettenbauer T.P. Kors G.J. Lance R.C. Lenzer E.P.B. Mogensen G.M. Pifer K.J. Rogers B.J. Youmans

Executive Steering Committee

B.C. Bethards E.M. Competti J.S. Kulig D.C. Langley J.W. Malone M.G. Morash
Outside Support

R.E. Reimels

Production Group
J.L. Basar L.A. Brower P.L. Fox L.M. Shepherd

P.C. Lutjen (Art) J.R. Grizer (Tables)

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System of Units English and Systme International

To recognize the globalization of the power industry, the 41st edition of Steam incorporates the Systme International dUnits (SI) along with the continued use of English or U.S. Customary System (USCS) units. English units continue to be the primary system of units with SI provided as secondary units in parentheses. In some instances, SI units alone have been provided where these units are common usage. In selected figures and tables where dual units could detract from clarity (logarithmic scales, for example) SI conversions are provided within the figure titles or as a table footnote. Extensive English-SI conversion tables are provided in Appendix 1. This appendix also contains a complete SI set of the Steam Tables, Mollier diagram, pressure-enthalpy diagram and psychrometric chart. The decision was made to provide exact conversions rounded to an appropriate number of figures. This was done to avoid confusion about the original source values. Absolute pressure is denoted by psi or kPa/MPa and gauge pressure by psig or kPa/MPa gauge. The difference between absolute pressure and pressure difference is identified by the context. Finally, in Chapters 10 and 22, as well as selected other areas of Steam which provide extensive numerical examples, only English units have been provided for clarity. For reference and clarity, power in British thermal units per hour (Btu/h) has typically been converted to megawatts-thermal and is denoted by MWt while megawatts-electric in both systems of units has been denoted by MW. The editors hope that these conversion practices will make Steam easily usable by the broadest possible audience.

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Editors Foreword
When we completed the 40th edition of Steam in 1992, we had a sense that perhaps our industry was stabilizing. But activity has again accelerated. Today, efficiencies are being driven even higher. Emissions are being driven even lower. Many current technologies are being stretched, and new technologies are being developed, tested and installed. We have once again changed much of Steam to reflect our industrys activity and anticipated developments. Recognizing the rich history of this publication, we previously drew words from an 1883 editions preface to say that we have revised the whole, and added much new and valuable matter. For this new 41st edition we can draw from the 1885 edition to say Having again revised Steam, and enlarged it by the addition of new and useful information, not published heretofore, we shall feel repaid for the labor if it shall prove of value to our customers. We hope this new edition is of equal value to our partners and suppliers, government personnel, students and educators, and all present and future employees of The Babcock & Wilcox Company.

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