STEEL

Widely Used Construction Materials:

Only certain material properties are of interest to us here specifically, those that have some bearing on the structural behavior of the elements under consideration.

K Knowing i h how a material t i l sample l contracts or elongates as it is stressed up to failure provides a crucial model for its performance in an actual structure. Not N t only l i is it its ultimate lti t stress t ( (or strength) indicated, but also a measure of its resistance to strain (modulus of elasticity), its linear (and presumably elastic) and/or nonlinear (plastic) behavior, and its ability to absorb energy without fracturing (ductility).

 A linear li relationship l ti hi between b t stress t and strain is an indicator of elastic behavior the return of a material to its original shape after being stressed and then unstressed. Structures are expected to behave elastically under normal service loads; but plastic behavior, characterized by permanent d f deformations, needs d to be b considered d d when ultimate, or failure, loads are being computed. computed

 The slope of the curve is the modulus y, E , , of elasticity, that is, the change in stress, f , divided by the change in strain, . For linear materials:

E= .

 Incredibly high strength and modulus of elasticity (indicated by the slope of the curve) of steel relative to concrete and wood. The information about the strength and ductility of the three materials in tension versus compression. compression Concrete has very little strength in tension and fails in a brittle (nonductile) manner in both tension and compression. Wood has high tensile strength compared to concrete, concrete but it also fails in a brittle manner when stressed in tension; in compression, p , however, , wood shows ductile behavior.

 The relationship between stress and strain is linear up to the proportional limit A peak value, the upper yield point, is quickly reached after that, that followed by a leveling off at the lower yield point The stress then remains constant, even though the strain continues to increase. increase At this stage of loading, loading the test specimen continues to elongate as long as the load is not removed, even though the load cannot be increased. This constant stress region g is called the y yield plateau, or plastic range. At a strain of approximately 12 times the strain at yield, strain hardening g begins, g , and additional load ( (and stress) is required to cause additional elongation (and strain). A maximum value of stress is reached, after which the specimen begins to neck down as the stress decreases with increasing strain, strain and fracture occurs. occurs

 The figure shows the ductile behavior of steel because of its ability bilit t to undergo d large deformations before fracturing. Ductility can be measured by the elongation, defined as:

Ductility is important in a structural member because it allows concentrations of high stress to be absorbed and redistributed without causing sudden, catastrophic failure.

 The elastic limit of the material is a stress that lies between the proportional limit and the upper yield point. Up to this stress, the specimen can be unloaded without permanent deformation; the unloading will be along the linear portion of the diagram, diagram the same path followed during loading. This part of the stressstrain diagram is called the elastic range. Beyond the elastic limit, unloading will be along a straight line parallel to the initial linear part of the loading path path, and there will be a permanent strain. For example, if the load is removed at point A in g , the unloading g will be the figure, along line AB, resulting in the permanent strain OB.

 The various a io s properties p ope ties of structural st ct al steel, steel including strength and ductility, are y its chemical composition. p determined by Steel is an alloy, its principal component being iron. Another A th component t of f all ll structural t t l steels, t l although in much smaller amounts, is , which contributes to strength g but carbon, reduces ductility. Other components of some grades of steel include copper copper, manganese manganese, nickel nickel, chromium, molybdenum, and silicon.

 Plain carbon ca bon steels: steels Low Low-alloy alloy steels:

mostly iron and carbon, with less than 1% carbon iron and carbon plus other components (usually

High-alloy Hi h ll or specialty i lt steels: t l

less than 5%) The additional components are primarily for increasing strength, which is accomplished at the expense of a reduction in ductility
similar in composition to the low-alloy steels but

g percentage p g of the components p with a higher added to iron and carbon These steels are higher in strength than the plain carbon steels and also have some special p quality, q y, such as resistance to corrosion

 Different grades of structural steel are identified by the designation assigned them by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). This organization develops standards for defining materials in terms of their composition, properties, and performance, and it prescribes specific tests for measuring these attributes One of the most commonly used structural steels is a mild steel designated as ASTM A36, or A36 for short. Other commonly used structural steels are ASTM A572 Grade 50 and ASTM A992.

These two steels are very similar in both tensile properties and chemical composition, with a maximum carbon content of 0.23%.

Hot H t -rolled ll d steel t l shapes h contain t i residual id l stresses even before they are loaded. These are caused by the uneven cooling of the shapes after they are rolled at temperatures of about 2000F (1093C). The exposed flanges and webs cool and contract sooner than the web flange intersections; the contraction of these junction points is then inhibited by the adjacent areas which have already cooled, so they are forced into tension as they simultaneously compress the areas that cooled first. The typical pattern of residual stresses within a wide-flange cross section is shown in the figure. Residual stresses have an impact on the inelastic buckling of steel columns, since partial yielding of the cross section occurs at a lower compressive stress than would be the case if the residual compressive stresses locked into the column were not present.

Residual stresses in steel rolled section, with + indicating tension and indicating compression

o Hot-rolled o Cold-formed (report/presentation) Individual structural framing members Panels and decks

 manufacturing process takes place in a mill molten steel is taken from the furnace and poured into a continuous casting p g system y where the steel solidifies but is never allowed to cool completely hot steel passes through a series of rollers that squeeze the material into the desired crosssectional shape rolling the steel while it is still hot allows it to be deformed with no resulting loss in ductility during g the rolling gp process, , the member increases in length and is cut to standard lengths (usually a maximum of 65 to 75 feet)

W-shape S-shape p Angle C-shape Structural Tee

AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION (AISC) MANUAL

also called a wide-flange shape consists of two parallel flanges separated by a single web has two axes of symmetry commonly used for both beams and columns within steelframed structures typical designation would be W18 50

nominal depth is the approximate depth expressed in whole inches All W-shapes of a given nominal size can be grouped into families that have the same depth from inside-of-flange to inside-of-flange but with different flange thicknesses have parallel flange surfaces, making it somewhat easier to make connections to other structural elements

W indicates the type of shape 18 is the nominal depth p p parallel to the web 50 is the weight in pounds per foot of length.

 similar to the W-shape p in having g two p parallel flanges, g , a single web, and two axes of symmetry difference is in the proportions:

flanges of the W are wider in relation to the web than are the flanges of the S. the outside and inside faces of the flanges of the W-shape are parallel, parallel whereas the inside faces of the flanges of the S-shape slope with respect to the outside faces S indicating i di ti th type the t of f shape h the two numbers giving the depth in inches and the weight in pounds per foot

example of the designation is S18 70

formerly called an I-beam

 available in either equal equal-leg leg or unequal unequal-leg leg versions Typical designation would be L6 6 34 or L6 4 58 the three numbers: the lengths of each of the two legs as measured from the corner, corner or heel, heel to the toe at the other end of the leg and the thickness, which is the same for both legs g for the unequal-leg angle, the longer leg dimension is always given first Although Alth h this thi d i designation ti provides id all ll of f the th dimensions, it does not provide the weight per foot

 American Standard Channel has two flanges and a web, with only one axis of symmetry carries a designation such as C9 20

notation is similar to that for W- and S-shapes, with the first number giving the total depth in inches parallel to the web and the second number the weight in pounds per linear foot

th the depth d th is i exact t rather th than th nominal i l inside faces of the flanges are sloping, just as with the American Standard shape Miscellaneous Channelsfor example, the MC10 25 are similar to American Standard Channels

 produced by splitting an I-shaped member at middepth sometimes referred to as a split-tee prefix of the designation is either WT, ST, or MT, depending on which hich shape is the parent. pa ent WT18 105 has a nominal depth of 18 inches and a weight g of 105 p pounds p per foot, , and is cut from a W36 210 ST10 33 is cut from an S20 66 MT5 4 is cut from an M10 8. The M is for miscellaneous. The M-shape has two parallel flanges and a web, but it does not fit exactly into either the W or S categories

 used for bearing piles has parallel flange surfaces, surfaces approximately the same width and depth, and equal flange and web thicknesses are designated g in the same manner as the W-shape; for example HP14 117 example,

 Bars can have circular, circular square, square or rectangular cross sections classified as a bar if width of rectangular shape is 8 inches or less classified as a plate if the width is more than 8 inches usual designation for both is the abbreviation PL (for plate even though it could actually be a bar) followed plate, by the thickness in inches, the width in inches, and the length in feet and inches; for example, PL 38 5 3212 bars and plates are formed by hot-rolling

designation is HSS can be produced either by bending plate material into the desired shape and d welding ldi the h seam or by b hot-working h ki to produce d a seamless l shape h shapes are categorized as steel pipe, round HSS, and square and rectangular HSS pipe p is available as: Steel p

Round HSS are designated by outer diameter and wall thickness, expressed to three decimal places; for example, HSS 8.625 0.250 S Square and d rectangular t l HSS are designated d i t d by b two t outside t id dimensions di i and wall thickness, expressed in rational numbers; for example, HSS 7 5 38

standard, extra-strong, or double-extra-strong, with designations such as Pipe 5 Std., Pipe 5 x-strong, or Pipe 5 xx-strong, where 5 is the nominal outer diameter in inches different strengths correspond to different wall thicknesses for the same outer , the designation g is the outer diameter. For nominal outer diameters > 12 inches, diameter and wall thickness in inches, expressed to three decimal places; for example, Pipe 14.000 0.375.

 needed to satisfy design requirements that are especially severe standard shape is augmented by additional cross crosssectional elements

an effective way of strengthening an existing structure that is being rehabilitated or modified for some use other than the one for which it was designed used when none of the standard rolled shapes are large enough (cross section does not have enough area or moment of inertia) then plate girders can be used

cover plate is welded to one or both flanges of a W-shape

I-shaped sections, with two flanges g and a web box sections, with two flanges and two webs (components can be welded together and can be designed to have exactly the properties needed) attaching two or more standard rolled shapes to each other

double-angle shape, a pair of angles placed back-to-back double-channel shape (either American Standard or Miscellaneous Channel)

 created by bending thin material such as sheet steel or plate into the desired shape without heating only relatively thin material can be used resulting shapes are suitable only for light applications advantage of this product is its versatility, since almost any conceivable crosssectional shape can easily be formed

Reporters: R t ABAYON, MARK DESON ORTEGO ABELA, MIA MENESES ABULAG, SHERLOU GLEN ACEBES AGGABAO, GERALD GACUTAN ALFILER, MARJORIE ANNE PADILLA

Advantages Ad t in i building construction Pictures showing cold-formed steel applications in construction g Methods of forming:
Cold roll forming Press brake operation Bending d b brake k

operation

Steel is subject to corrosion if not protected and loss of strength and stiffness at high temperatures if not fireproofed. While these are extremely important material properties, the structural design of steel elements presupposes that these issues have been addressed within the architectural design process.