Running head: DEVELOPMENT

Prenatal Development COUN 502-Human Growth and Development Liberty University Shamyra S. Kennedy-Jones Dr. David Appleby June 23, 2013

Running head: DEVELOPMENT Abstract The Prenatal Development process is one of natures greatest miracles. The way in which humans go from being a sperm and egg to growing in the womb is a process that has amazed doctors and scientists. Over time the decision process to start a family and the way society looks at families with babies has changed but, the prenatal development of a baby has stayed the same. There are three stages of Prenatal Development: First Trimester, Second Trimester, and the Third Trimester. Scientists believe that effects on the environment of the fetus can affect the development of the fetus the beginning at conception and not birth. The time frame of prenatal development is a period of 9 months or 38 weeks. During this timeframe the prenatal development is divided into 3 stages; (a) the zygote (b) the embryo and (c) the fetus. During the course of prenatal development, many external agents may cause developmental deviations in the fetus (Ross Parke & Mary Gauvain 2009).

Running head: DEVELOPMENT

INTRODUCTION It is important to every expectant parent to understanding the different stages of prenatal development, because the developing fetus is at risk during its different stages of development. Prenatal development is defined as the growth and development, in which a single-cell zygote, the cell which is formed by the combination of a sperm and an egg, becomes an embryo, a fetus, and then a baby. Once conception occurs the egg travels down the uterus, at this point, pregnancy occurs. Pregnancy is the physical condition in which a womans body is nurturing a developing embryo or fetus. Stages of Prenatal Development There are several stages of development the first being the germinal stage. The germinal stage covers two weeks after fertilization. During this stage the zygote undergoes rapid cell division then journeys into mothers fallopian tube and then is implanted in the uterine wall. Next the placenta starts to form which allows the developing zygote to attach itself to the mothers uterine wall. Also in this stage, the oxygen and nutrients from the mothers bloodstream are passed to the zygote and the wastes from the developing zygote are then passed into the mothers bloodstream for removal. In few cases, the fertilized ovum attaches itself outside the uterus, and then the mother suffers from what is called an ectopic pregnancy. This is a very serious condition and should be treated as a medical emergency since it can lead to death. The second stage is the embryonic stage which is from two weeks to two months. During this stage the vital organs such as the heart, the brain, arms and limbs are formed in this stage. The structure in this stage is known as an embryo. During this stage is the embryo is at great

Running head: DEVELOPMENT vulnerability, because of the formation of key organs. Because of the formation of these key organs many miscarriages and deformities can easily occur during this period. This third stage is known as the fetus stage. This stage starts from the second month or 8th week of conception. At this stage the developing organism is no longer called an embryo it is now called a fetus. In this stage there is an increase in muscles, bones increase in size and the sex organs begin to form. In the 9th week of the pregnancy, the formation of the brain and the formation of either ovaries or testes begin. In the 12th week, the fetus will have the ability to smile, frown and the function circulatory system begins to work. In the 20th week, the fetus begins to grow hair and it has the ability to hiccup. In the 24th week, the eyes are able to open and the visual and auditory senses begin to function. In the 28th week the brain cells begin to specialize. In the 36th week, the fetus weight increases and it receives immunity from its mother. In the 38th and final week, the fetus lungs begin to work and the baby is ready for birth. When a fetus is born prior to the 7th month, it is called premature and is put into an artificial incubator to aid its growth. Infants born that are born prior to the sixth month lungs are under developed and they will have difficulties breathing, and their chance of survival is greatly reduced. Factors Affecting Prenatal Development One of the factors that could affect prenatal development is called teratogen. Teratogen can be any substance that can cause harm to an embryo or fetus. During the developmental stage is teratogen is harmful to the fetus or embryo because each organ is most vulnerable to harm during this stage. Maternal Age

Running head: DEVELOPMENT Based on the mothers age she could be at risk. For mother who age is below twenty five years of age or above thirty five years there is a chance for higher mortality rate. The reason why the rate is greater for the younger mother is because, their body is inadequately developed and her body may not be able to accommodate and carry the pregnancy full term. The reason why the rate is greater for older mothers is because, of the result of the aging process their bodies are progressively declining in their reproductive functioning. Children of both older and younger mothers exhibit learning and behavior defects, low birth weight, heart malformation and chromosomal disorders. Because of their age older women usually experience longer labor which increases the fetus chance of having a Downs syndrome (Neupane and Doku, 2012). Diet The diet of the expecting mother because a poor diet has been associated with anemia, toxemia, threatened and actual miscarriages, premature births and stillbirths. Having a diet with low protein can cause defects in the central nervous system. The lack of folic acid could result in neural tube defects such as; spinal bifida. Drugs Many expecting mothers believe that over the counter (OTC) medication, prescription or illegal drugs cannot hurt the fetus. Unless absolutely necessary to a womans health, doctors usually tell the mother that they should avoid drugs of any kind during pregnancy. Boyd and Bee (2008) states that marijuana use while pregnant can cause tremors and sleep problems after birth. The child will have little to no interest of their surrounding for up to two weeks after birth. At six years of age, the child usually shorter than others of their age.

Running head: DEVELOPMENT According to Boyd and Bee, heroine and methadone use can lead to the fetus being miscarried, the mother having premature labor or even early death of the fetus. A child who is born to an addict mother is usually addicted and this addiction on the child is a illustrated with the child having a high pitched cries, irritability, uncontrolled tremors, vomiting, convulsions and sleep problem (Boyd and Bee, 2008, p 72). Tobacco by the mother while pregnant could cause the fetus to be born underweight or have learning problems. Boyd and Bee states that an antisocial behavior is rampant amongst children whose mothers smoked during pregnancy and that tobacco use is also associated with attention deficiency hyperactive disorder (ADHD) (Boyd and Bee, 2008, p 74). Sloane and Black-Pond, (2007) states, that the use of alcohol can affect the ovum prior to ovulation or as the zygote travels down the fallopian tube. The use of alcohol can affect the zygote even before it has been implanted in the uterine lining. Pregnant women who are alco Children of alcoholic suffer from fetal alcoholic syndrome (FAS) characterized by smaller brains, heart defects and hearing loss, distinctive faces with somewhat flattened nose and often usually long space between the nose and the mouth. At adolescence such children are shorter than normal and have smaller heads. HIV AIDS It passes across the placenta and enters the fetus bloodstream or the infant may contract the virus in the birth canal during birth. Children become ill during the first two years. Mothers infected are encouraged to take anti-retroviral drugs (ARV) to prevent mother-child infection. Other sexually transmitted diseases that affect the fetus include genital herpes, gonorrhea, and cytomegalovirus

Running head: DEVELOPMENT Mothers Emotional State and attitudes Emotions like rage fear and anxiety brings mothers autonomic nervous system into action liberating certain chemicals into the blood stream. The endocrine glands adrenals secrete different kinds and amounts of hormones adrenalin being the notable one. This causes changes in blood composition and new chemical substances transmitted through the placenta to the child that may irritate to the child. The mothers attitude towards the pregnancy reflected in her emotional state also has some effects on the fetus .Children of severely distressed mothers tend to grow more slowly than others, have increased irritability, hyperactivity, frequent stools and feeding problems after birth. Maternal Diseases Some children are born with small pox, measles, chicken pox or mumps transmitted by the mother. Syphilitic mothers cause abortion or miscarriage to the fetus and if the child survives may be born weak, deformed or mentally challenged. The syphilis bacteria (Treponema pallidum) are most harmful during the last twenty six weeks of prenatal development and causes eye and brain defects. Rubella/German measles. It causes deafness, heart defects, cataracts or various forms of mental deficiency especially around the third and the fourth month of pregnancy. Diabetic mothers give birth to infants with physical abnormalities that involves circulatory and respiratory systems. Environmental hazards X-rays, like those used for treatment of some kinds of cancer are injurious or can precipitate abortions. Duration and intensity of the x-ray exposure contribute to its effects which include

Running head: DEVELOPMENT physical and mental abnormalities. Most of these problems are very rare. Many are preventable and many need not have permanent consequences for the child. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN THE PRENATAL DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE The cognitive process involves changes in an individuals thoughts, intelligence and language. Using new methods, researchers have discovered that new-borns are born with sensory equipment and reflexes that facilitate their interacting with adults and securing nourishment. At two months, according to Olds and Papalia (1981), the skin is now sensitive enough to react to tactile stimulation. If an aborted eight-week old embryo is stroked, it reacts by flexing its trunk, extending its head and moving back its arms. At three months, Olds and Papalia found out that if its eyelids are touched, it squints; if its palm is touched, it makes a partial fist; if its lip is touched, it will suck; and if the sole of the foot is stroked, the toes will fan out (1981). The sucking reflex begins to appear; the fetus can swallow and breathe. Eyelids are fused but the eyes are sensitive to light. In the fourth month, these reflex activities are now brisker because of the increase in muscular development. According to Schuster and Ashburn (1992) studies have shown that when a light is placed directly on the mothers abdomen, it startles the fetus or causes it to move away. An increase in the fetus heart rate proves this. The ability to hear is also developed at this stage. At five months, the fetus begins to show signs of an individual personality. It has definite sleep and wake patterns, has a favorite position in the uterus called its lie and becomes more activekicking, stretching, squirming and even hiccupping. A study by Gibson (1983) has shown that at six months, the fetus cries and can make a strong grip of the fist, strong enough to support its own weight. The mother may feel jarring but rhythmic movements from the infant, an indication

Running head: DEVELOPMENT of hiccups. The fetus alternates periods of sleep and activity and may respond to external sounds and light. At seven months, the fetus cries, has begun to breath, swallows and may suck its thumb. By the eighth month, the fetus searches for a source of light by turning its head and opening its eyes. The fetus can also be conditioned to environmental sounds and exhibits good reflex development. At the beginning of the ninth month, the fetus may become less or more active due to space tightness in the uterus. Schuster and Ashburn (1992) stated that the biophysical development, movement and responses in uterus lay a foundation for reflexive and voluntary movements or responses after birth. These behaviors lay the foundation for social interaction and skill competence and thus emotional development.

Henry, J., Sloane, M., & Black-Pond, C. (2007). Neurobiology and neurodevelopmental impact of childhood traumatic stress and prenatal alcohol exposure. Language, Speech & Hearing Services in Schools, 38(2), 99-108. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/232589874?accountid=130527 Green, J. H. (2007). Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: Understanding the effects of prenatal alcohol exposure and supporting students. The Journal of School Health, 77(3), 103-8. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/215672250?accountid=130527 Miller, J. L., Macedonia, C., & Sonies, B. C. (2006). Sex differences in prenatal oral-motor function and development. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 48(6), 465-70. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/195600944?accountid=130527 Monk, C., Georgieff, M. K., & Osterholm, E. A. (2013). Research review: Maternal prenatal distress and poor nutrition - mutually influencing risk factors affecting infant neurocognitive development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54(2), 115-130. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1269602910?accountid=130527

Running head: DEVELOPMENT Neupane, S., & Doku, D. T. (2012). Determinants of time of start of prenatal care and number of prenatal care visits during pregnancy among nepalese women. Journal of Community Health, 37(4), 865-73. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10900-011-9521-0