PS 335: DEMOCRACY AND ELECTIONS LECTURES

R.S. DAMIAN +255713428318

TOPIC: ELECTORAL SYSTEMS AND THEIR INFLUENCY ON DEMOCRACY LECTURES BY RESPICIUS SHUMBUSHO DAMIAN A. INTRODUCTION The phrase electoral systems is used to refer to different things in psephological studies. Some use it in a broader sense to refer to a combination of institutions, structures, and procedures used in electoral processes in a given country. In a narrow sense, electoral system is used to refer to the set of rules and procedures that are used to translate the choices of the electorates into government. In this course, we adopt the second, the narrow sense of the electoral systems. In this sense, we will categorize electoral systems; examine their advantages and disadvantages giving special attention to three roles of electoral systems; the effect of particular electoral system on participation (psychological), ensuring representation of interests in the electorate (mechanical), and ensuring smooth power succession and managing electoral conflict (as a result of both participation and representation). B. MEANING AND TYPOLOGY OF ELECTORAL SYSTEMS Meaning In a narrow sense, the definition and classification of an electoral systems is clear if we understand the key components of an electoral system. These are 1. The Electoral Formulae: this is related to the size of the electorate preference that qualifies to make the candidate win legitimacy of the electorate. Thus, an electoral formulae can be a majoritarian or proportional. It is further divided into: (a) The Mathematical Formula: this is the formulae used to calculate the number of seats in government should be given to particular parties in the government. For example, how many special seats (women) should a political party get in the parliament. Each country has its formulae that may change with time. For example, in Tanzania in the 1995 general elections the formula was:Number of seats a party won Total seats in parliament (constituencies) Required special seats

Where the number of seats in constituencies was changing, the resulting seats could also change. For example, 1995=238 seats, 2000=231 seats, in 2005 =231. In 1995, CCM got 186 MPs, in 200 got 206 MPs, and in
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PS 335: DEMOCRACY AND ELECTIONS LECTURES

R.S. DAMIAN +255713428318

2005 got 206 MPs. In the 1995 election, there were 36 special seats, in 2000 =48 seats, and in 2005=66 seats.
Question: Use the formulae above to calculate calculate special seats for CCM.

In 2005, the formulae were changed to reduce disproportionality. Instead of using the number of seats won by the party from constituencies, the total votes that the party wins in parliamentary elections is used. Thus, the formula is:. X Total Special Seats (58, or 85) Total party votes in parliamentary elections 85) Total number of valid votes casted in parliamentary elections

In the 2010 general elections, the number of seats for special seats (excluding 10 presidential reserved appointees) was 85 (317-232). Based on the parliamentary election results, calculate the special seats for each of the political parties.
Political Party Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM) Civic United Front (CUF) Chama cha Demokrasia na Maendeleo (CHADEMA) Tanzania Labour Party (TLP) National Convention for Construction and ReformMageuzi (NCCR-Mageuzi) United Democratic Party (UDP) Chama cha Haki na Usitawi (CHAUSTA) Jahazi Asilia Progressive Party of Tanzania-Maendeleo (PPTMaendeleo) Democratic Party (DP) Tanzania Democratic Alliance (TADEA) Sauti ya Umma (SAU) National League for Democracy (NLD) United People's Democratic Party (UPDP) National Reconstruction Alliance (NRA) Demokrasia Makini (MAKINI) Forum for Restoration of Democracy (FORD) Union for Multiparty Democracy (UMD) Total (Valid Votes) Number of Votes 7,579,897 1,542,254 888,133 306,219 239,452 155,887 38,085 21,042 13,532 11,876 6,845 6,085 6,054 5,456 3,459 2,102 1,625 1,510 10,829,513 % of Votes 69.99% 14.24% 8.20% 2.83% 2.21% 1.44% 0.35% 0.19% 0.12% 0.11% 0.06% 0.06% 0.06% 0.05% 0.03% 0.02% 0.02% 0.01% 100% Number of special Seats

% of the seats

85

(b)

The electoral Threshold: refers to the stipulated minimum percent of votes that a political party should obtain at district or national level to get a seat in parliament. Therefore, apart from the mathematical
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PS 335: DEMOCRACY AND ELECTIONS LECTURES

R.S. DAMIAN +255713428318

formulae, the calculation of seats for an individual political party must consider the stipulated threshold. In Tanzania, a political party must get 5% of the total valid votes casted in parliament to get a seat. However, it is not clear whether the threshold is considered for Tanzania since in 2005, only CCM, CUF, and CHADEMA would qualify to get special seats. 2. District magnitude: it refers to the number of MP seats assigned to each of the district (constituency). It may be a single-member District (constituency) or a multi-member District (constituency). 3. Ballot Structure this refers to the number of voting preferences given a voter on a ballot for them to mark. The range of choices for voters may range from single choice for a party or candidate; a multiple preference between parties and candidates; and weighting preferences between candidates by rank-ordering them. It may be noted that most of the components of electoral systems relate to the formulae used at different stages of the electoral processes. These include, deciding the number of representatives for a district, number (or percent of votes) that a political party must obtain to get representation, and the determination of number of representatives that a political party is entitled to get in parliament. Thus, Electoral System may be defined as a set of mechanisms, processes, and formulae used to convert the votes cast in a general election into seats won by political parties (and their candidates). Typology of Electoral Systems A typology is a classification that is guided by certain clear principles. So, classification of electoral systems becomes clear if students understand the classification criteria (of which most have been introduced in relation to the meaning of electoral systems). Electoral Systems are categorized considering different factors: These include, Degree of proportionality: especially, the extent to which there is proportion between the votes won and the number of seats. Consider the difference between votes and seats. For example, in 1995, CCM got 59.2% of votes, but got 80% of special seats. Methods used to express and qualify choice of the electorate: some electoral systems take care that a choice of voter should not be lost (thus are given more than one choice) while some do not take care of this. Procedure used to obtain the winning representative of the electorate: some systems encourage rerun while some use transfer of
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PS 335: DEMOCRACY AND ELECTIONS LECTURES

R.S. DAMIAN +255713428318

votes to candidates using specific criteria depending on the number of candidates in an electoral district. The way voters have to express preference (ballot structure) between the available candidates and political parties. Types of Electoral Systems The classification of electoral systems use overlapping criteria, but electoral systems are classified according to the formula used. Thus, there are three types; a. Majority-Plurality Plurality Systems Majority Systems c. Proportional Representation (PR) Systems d. Mixed Systems (7)

Majority-Plurality Systems Majority Plurality

Mixed Systems
Independen t (21) Dependent (8)

Proportional Representation (PR) Pure PR Semi-PR

AV (2)

2RS (24)

FPTP (54)

BV (9)

SNTV (2)

Party List System

Closed (35) Open (27)

STV (2)

a. PLURALITY-MAJORITY SYSTEMS Plurality systems usually offer a seat to a candidate who wins most votes in the election. Candidates are elected with a plurality (not a majority) of the votes. Sometimes, the terms winner takes all, or First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) are used as substitutes of plurality systems. Under majority systems, the candidates who win are needed to obtain an absolute majority (50% +1). 1. PLURALITY ELECTORAL SYSTEMS These emphasize that any candidate who receives the most votes in an election becomes a winner regardless of whether the candidate wins a majority vote or not. SUBTYPES (i) First-Past-The-Post (FPTP) The country is divided into several single-member districts. The voters have to vote for one candidate. The candidate who gets the highest number of votes is elected (not necessarily an absolute majority i.e. 50% +1, but a simple
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Parallel system

PS 335: DEMOCRACY AND ELECTIONS LECTURES

R.S. DAMIAN +255713428318

majority). A candidate who gets 49% of the votes may be declared a winner, while the one who gets 48% a looser (the same as the third who gets the remaining 3%). Advantage: Simple voting, vote counting. It is less costly. It provides a clear cut choice for voters between major political parties. It gives rise to single party, but stable governments. It enhances competition between the major parties (likelihood of all parties to win elections). Enhances linkage between voters and their representative (since MPs represent known geographical areas)-can hold representative accountable. Disadvantage: creates many wasted votes, it leads into misrepresentation of many voters. It eliminates minority parties from being represented in government. It can lead to minority government (especially if there are many small parties) Examples: Canada, United Kingdoms, India, United States, (ii) Block Vote (BV) System It is like using FPTP or winner-takes-all in a multi-member district (constituency). Each voter is given as many votes as a number of seats, which are to be filled in a district. Once a candidate is elected, all ballot papers are returned to the count to elect the next member. A voter is free to vote for an individual regardless the party affiliation or vote for all the candidates of his/her own party. Let say there are 5 seats and there are 20 candidates from different parties, the top five candidates win and become MPs. Advantages: It is easier, quick, and cheap. It allows the voters to vote for other parties. Disadvantage: In countries where there is partisan voting, one party may win all the seats. Examples: Philippines, Kuwait, Thailand, (iii) Single Non-Transferable Vote System: Under the SNTV systems, each voter has one vote, but there are several seats in the district to be filled. The candidates who get the highest number of votes are elected to fill these positions. It differs from majority systems as it makes it easier for minority parties to be represented. The larger the number of seats in the constituency, the more proportional the system becomes. For instance, if there are 10 seats, there will be more proportionality compared to a constituency where there are two seats. SNTV differs from block voting since there might be a condition of the threshold for winning candidates. For example, in a 4 seats district, a candidate must get 20% to be elected. b. MAJORITY ELECTORAL SYSTEMS

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PS 335: DEMOCRACY AND ELECTIONS LECTURES

R.S. DAMIAN +255713428318

These electoral systems emphasize that a candidate becomes a winner if s/he wins a majority of the vote (50%+1). These types have procedure to ensure that candidates who are elected win the majority vote. SUBTYPES (i)Alternative Vote (AV) System: Sometimes called Preferential voting (PV), is usually used in a single-member district as a way of avoiding a second ballot. The system requires an absolute majority. Each voter is asked to indicate preferences by ranking candidates from his first, 2,3,4,5, to the last choice. Any candidate who receives the absolute majority of the first choice is elected. If no candidate who wins absolute majority through the first choice, the last candidate is dropped and his votes are transferred to the candidate whom the voters who voted first choice to the dropping candidate had indicated as their second choices. The process is continued until the candidate with absolute majority is obtained. ADVANTAGES: it is economic, to avoid second ballot. Vote transfer makes it possible to accumulate votes from different, but related interests. Gives power and confidence to supporters of weak parties. It also empowers the candidates of weak parties (can campaign for the second choice). It may be useful in deeply divided societies (i.e the voter has to choose not only candidates he supports-even the others). It makes candidates be active to present policies that may attract not only party supporters, but also others. (ii) Two Round System (TRS): It is also known at the Majority RunOff System or Two Ballot System The two round system has the same procedure as FPTP, but a candidate must get an absolute majority to be elected. If a candidate gets an absolute majority, it does not differ from FPTP. It no candidate who gets the majority vote, the second round of voting is conducted (after some days) involving the top two candidates. c. PR SYSTEMS PR electoral systems emphasize on the proportion between the votes that the parties win and the seats that they secure in the government (representation). PR systems are mostly used in divided societies (eg South Africa, Angola, Mozambique, and Burkinafaso) to provide representation of both the majorities and minorities. In most of the countries, there are a stipulated threshold, which a political party is required to obtain to be represented. SUBTYPES Quota system: This system involves calculation of a quota by using (i) established criteria. A quota is established by dividing the number of
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PS 335: DEMOCRACY AND ELECTIONS LECTURES

R.S. DAMIAN +255713428318

votes cast by a number of seats +1. For example, if the number of votes is 10000, and the number of seats is 10, then the quota is 10,000/10+1=1001. However, it must be noted that the greater the number of seats in constituency, the higher the level of proportionality to the extent that even smaller parties can get representation. In some incidents, a political party with the highest remainder votes gets a seat. Advantage: The quota system assures voters than no vote would get wasted (ii) Party List PR: It is a commonly used system. Each party presents a list of its candidates in relation to the number of required seats and voters vote for the parties (usually represented by symbol). Seats are offered in proportion with the votes that apolitical party wins. The winning candidates are taken in relation to their position in the list. There are different types of lists. Closed list PR: the ordering of candidates is fixed by the party, and thus voters may not influence the ordering Open list PR: Voters have a chance to indicate their favored candidates in the party list. Free List PR: Voters may be free to choose either the party or the candidate-This is rarely used. (iii) Single Transferable Vote System (STV): It is similar to alternative vote, but it happens in multimember districts. The voters rank candidates in order of preferences (not political parties), but to win a seat a candidate must obtain a quota of vote, which is established. The commonly used formula for establishing a quota is the known as the Droop Quota (By H. Droop). Under the Droop quota, the quota is calculated as [V/(S+1)] +1 Where V= Total valid votes in the constituency S=Number of seats available in the constituency Let say the number of votes cast in Karatu constituency is 3000, and Karatu constituency has to be represented by 3 representatives. The Droop quota shall be calculated as [3,000 / (3 + 1)] + 1 =751. This means that for any candidate to be elected must get at least 751 votes. STV is not commonly used in Africa; it is used in Australia, Ireland, Malta, and Estonia. The seats are then allocated on bases of the Droop quota. (iv) Parallel System: it uses both PR List System and the winner takes all system. Unlike most of the PR systems, it is not designed to
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PS 335: DEMOCRACY AND ELECTIONS LECTURES

R.S. DAMIAN +255713428318

compensate for any disproportionality produced by plurality system (thus sometimes identified as part of mixed systems). Voters are given chance to vote for both the constituency representatives and party representative. It is commonly used in Japan and Russia d. MIXED SYSTEMS C. FACTORS THAT DETERMINE CHOICE OF ELECTORAL SYSTEM D. THE EFFECT OF ELECTORAL SYSTEMS ON PARTICIPATION AND REPRESENTATION E. ELECTORAL SYSTEMS AND ELECTORAL CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

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