SIMULATION OF PARAFFIN DEPOSITION AND REMOVAL IN WELLBORES A Dissertation by JAMES FRANCIS KEATING Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of ‘Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY ‘August 1994 Major Subject: Petroleum EngineeringSIMULATION OF PARAFFIN DEPOSITION, AND REMOVAL IN WELLBORES A Dissertation by JAMES FRANCIS KEATING ‘Submitted to Texas A&M. in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Approved 4910 style and content by: RA. Watt (Chair of Commits) 7 1.E, Russell é TCH Wo (Member) (Member) i br at Moore - z C. Glover JE. Russell (Member) (Head of Department) ‘August 1994 ‘Major Subject: Petroleum EngineeringABSTRACT Simulation of Paraffin Deposition and Removal in Wellbores. (August 1994) James Francis Keating, B.S., Texas Tech University; MS,, Texas Tech University Chair of Advisory Committee; Dr. R.A. Wattenbarger ‘The purpose ofthis research is to develop a numerical simulator to model paraffin deposition and removal in the production tubing, and to gain a better understanding of the following three different thermal removal processes: (1) hot oil injection, (2) dowahole heater, and (3) electric heating of the tubing. This is believed to be the first such simulator. ‘To model paraffin deposition in the production tubing, a reservoir simulator is needed to accurately feed paraffinic oil into the annulus and the production tubing. A reservoir simulator that was developed by Ring” was used. This simulator was modified and linked to an overburden and a wellbore simulators by using the principle of domain decomposition. By linking these three simulators, paraffin deposition is in the tubing ‘was modelled. ‘The removal of deposited paraffin was studied with one of the following three thermal methods: (1) a downhole heater, (2) the electric heating of the tubing, or (3) hot oil injection. To mode! these thermal removal methods, energy is added to the wellbore simulator in different manners each of which mimics one of the removal methods, Four ceases, one depositional and three removal, are documented to illustrate the results obtained from this simulator ‘The conclusions were made by running the four cases and by developing the simulator. The following conclusions were made by running the four cases: (1) most of the precipitated paraffin is produced with the oil, (2) hot oil injected into the annulus mayflow into the formation and reduce its effective permeability, however some damage may be removed by producing undersaturated oil, (3) downhole heaters take several hours to remove deposited paraffin near the surface and (4) electric heating of the tubing, is a viable thermal removal process. The following conclusion were made by developing the simulator: (1) To thermally remove paraffin in a paraffinic black oil reservoir simulator, the variable cloud point problem must be modeled, and (2) the principle of domain decomposition can be effectively used to link a wellbore simulator to a reservoir and overburden simulator.DEDICATION | would like to dedicate this dissertation to the greatest wife in the universe, Audra Kay Keating, for her true love, and her continuous support that helps me do everything 1 do in this life for without her I would be empty and careless; to my daughters, Audra Krystal and Alanna Kaytlin for their love, laughter, and games they played with me that keep me dreaming and feeling young; to my parents, for their constant love, backing, friendship, devotion, influence, and most of all for my life; to my brother and sisters and their families for being my friends that I can always depend on and to all my friends for making me feel appreciated, especially Seng Toh, Jeff Wells, Doug Kem and Jeff Wilde for they ae all like brothers to me. Only through the love and companionship that I have received, have I been able to succeed. Finally, I would like to give an infinite amount of thanks to God for everything that has been given to me and for giving me a child-like attitude toward life that helped ‘me complete this dissertation. To me life is an appetite for a possibility of a dream to come true. This appetite for life may be greater in a man of sixty than in a boy of ten. Years may wrinkle my skin, but to give up my dreams will wrinkle my soul. In the center of my mind, my heart, my soul, my shear existence is a need to dream. As long as I fill this need with dreams of hope, cheer, courage and love, I will always be satisfied and be capable of ‘making my dreams, such as becoming a Doctor, come true.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes to express his sincere thanks and appreciation to: ‘Dr. R.A. Wattenbarger, Committee Chairman, for his guidance, friendship and for his insightful assumptions that expedited the completion of the work presented in this dissertation. My time spent working for Dr. Wattenbarger has been intellectually and personally rewarding in not only learning how to solve academic problems but also in leaming how to obtain practical solutions. Drs. J. E, Russell, C.H. Wu, and C. J. Glover for serving as members of the author's advisory committe, Dr. RL. Carlson for serving as the author's Graduate Council Representative. ‘The Department of Petroleum Engineering at Texas A&M University and SLERO, State Lands Energy Resource Optimization, for providing financial support for the author through research assistantships.vii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT DEDICATION .......- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. LIST OF TABLES ..... LIST OF FIGURES INTRODUCTION ... Paraffin Solubility/Precipitaton ....... Paraffin Deposition Paraffin Removal . Paraffin Simulator . ‘Cases Run on the Paraffin ‘Simulator | Overview .. TURE ‘Compositions and Concentrations of Paraffin Crudes ... Paraffin Solubility . Depositing Paraffin Removing Paraffin... ‘SIMULATOR DEVELOPMENT . . Domain Decomposition . .. . Reservoit/Underburden Boundary Conditions Reservoit/Overburden Boundary Conditions . ‘Overburden/Wellbore Boundary Conditions . Reservoit/Wellbore Boundary Conditions . Other Boundary Conditions : Reservoir/Underburden Simulator . Reservoir/Underburden Thermal Energy Balance Reservoir/Underburden Mass Balance .. Paraffin Precipitation, Deposition, and Permeability Reductionviii ‘Simulating the Variable Cloud Point Problem 36 Overburden Simulator... : 37 Overburden Thermal Energy Balance... .37 Wellbore Simulator ..... 5 38 Wellbore Thermal Energy Balance 39 Mechanical Energy Balance in Tubing a) ‘Mass Balance in Tubing os . Mass Balance in Annulus . . . 4 Paraffin Precipitation and Deposition in Tubing 46 Paraffin Removal in Ting : . 50 Hot Oil Injection ..... 50 Downhole Heater 31 Blectric Heating of the Tubing 52 RESULTS Beeoboosubsons 33 Parafin Depesion Cas 1)...» 33 Hot Oil Injection (Case 2) . 37 Downhole Heater (Case 3) . 60 Electric Heating ofthe Tubing. (Case 4) . o DISCUSSION ...... 64 ‘Simplifying Assumptions . .. 66 Recommendations for Future Work . 67 CONCLUSIONS . 2.2.0.0 eeeee renee cece B Conclusions Made by Running the Simulator... 0... -...eeeecee4 68 Conclusions Made by Developing the Simulator 68 NOMENCLATURE 00.00.50 000ccceeeeeeteeeeteeetereee esses REFERENCES 6 APPENDIX A. RESERVOIR SIMULATION SOLUTION METHOD ......... 87 Residual Formulation of the Matrix Equations vee 87 Newton's Method... . 89 Taylor Series Representation of Newton's Method 90 Convergence Criteria . 2 Effect of Using a Numerical Jacobian on Newton's Method - 3ix Page Newton's Method Maximum Timestep Size . . ” Modified Newton's Method Used to Increase Timestep Sizes . 99 Modified Newton's Method... 5 99 Modified Newton's Method Maximum Timestep Size . + 102 Iterative Method Used to Check Roundoff Error.................. 103 APPENDIX B RESERVOIR SIMULATION OF A VARIABLE CLOUD POINT PROBIUM ener ee 105 Components and Phases . : 107 Functions Used to Define Gas and Paraffin Saturation Curves 107 Defining Undersaturated and Saturated Conditions . 109 Saturated Conditions ............. no Undersaturated Conditions... .. Bbabe aw Calculating the Saturated Paraffin Mass Fraction... 112 Calculating the Undersaturated Paraffin Mass Fraction. . 14 Iterative Technique Used to Calculate Paraffin Mass Fraction ....... 115 Results from Iterative Technique cece us APPENDIX C DIFFUSION COEFFICIENT ........02-0000000eeee0e2 UIT 7)LIST OF TABLES Page Data used to simulate (Cases 1-5)... 2... 54 Data used to simulate hot oil injection (Case 2)... ee eee vee ST Data used to simulate downhole heater (Case 3)... 0.e eee ev cess 60 Data used to simulate electric heating of the tubing (Case 4) .......... 62LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1- Ifustration of solid paraffin precipitation and depo: production tubing without a packer : 2- Thermal methods (downhole heater, electric heating of the tubing and hot oil injection) used to remove deposited paren from inside of production tubing ...............05 7 3+ Illustration showing the three domains that the simulator is composed of . 20 4- Illustration showing the locations where energy is added to remove solid paraffin from the tubing (the vested ‘wellbore cell, the tubing, and the casing). : Beppe eeseaoseuodoueuaue 2 5 Illustration showing a domain iteration and the convergence criteria... . 23 6- Illustration showing reservoir/underburden Neumann boundary conditions from the current domain iteration that are used in the reservoar simulnioe fe ete ese 25 7+ Illustration showing reservoir/overburden Neumann boundary conditions from the previous domain iteration that are used in the reservoir simulator . . 8~ Illustration showing reservoir/nnderburden Dirichlet boundary conditions from the current domain iteration that are used in the overburden simulator .......... 5 9 Ilustration showing overburden/wellbore Neumann boundary conditions from the previous domain iteration that are used in the overburden simulator 2 10- Illustration showing overburden/wellbore Dirichlet boundary conditions from the current domain iteration that are used in the wellbore simulator . 27 11- Illustration showing reservoir/wellbore Dirichlet boundary conditions from the previous domain iteration that are used in the reservoir simulator 29xii Figure Page 12- Mlustration showing reservoir/wellbore Neumann and Dirichlet boundary conditions from the previous domain iteration that are used in the wellbore simulator ...... ae 13- Pseudocomponents and phases 14- Ilustration of paraffin solubility model and the solubility model that is based on the Ideal Solution Theory . : 15+ Illustration of paraffin deposition and depositional model that is based on filtration theory ........ cee oe 16- Illustration of permeability reduction model and the Pemeabilty reduction mode! that is based on lab data . oo 17- Simulated paraffin thickness profiles from the depositional period ...... 18- Simulated temperature profiles from hot oil injection 19- Simulated paraffin thickness profiles from hot oil injection ........... 20- Simulated results showing deposited solid saturation near the wellbore and its associated permeability reduction . . E : 21- Simulated temperature profiles from a downhole heater... .. 22 Simulated paraffin thickness profiles from a downhole heater ......... 23 Simulated temperature profiles from electric heating of the tubing . 24~ Simulated paraffin thickness profiles from electric heating of the tubing . 30 33 35) 35 35 55 8B 58 9 6INTRODUCTION ‘The accumulation of solid hydrocarbon deposits in reservoirs, wells and surface lines is ‘an old! and expensive problem?” These solids deposits are generally composed of paraffins and/or asphaltenes’ However, since the behavior of asphaltenes is very different from paraffins, see footnote,* it is beyond the scope of this research which focuses on the accumulation of paraffin deposits in the production tubing. ‘Waxy deposits, which are commonly called paraffins, consist of very small wax crystals that tend to agglomerate and form small granular particles. When these particles deposit, they can entrap other material such as gums, resins, asphaltic materials, crude oil, silt, and in many instance water’ The hardness and strength of this solid conglomerate depends on the composition of the paraffin crystals and the amount of crude oil and other materials that are entrapped with in the paraffin, Ifthe shear strength of a paraffinic deposit exceeds the shear stress imposed on it, it will create a flow barrier? The occurrence of a paraffinic obstruction in an oil flow system, such as a reservoir, well or surface line, isnot limited to any geographical area or any specific crude."® In a study of crudes from 69 different oil fields in 19 different states, paraffin was present in 59 fields and in 18 states."" When a solid paraffin obstruction is present, it reduces the efficiency of the flow system. To return the oil flow system back to its original efficiency, the solid paraffin must be removed. The removal of this paraffinic obstacle may seriously increases the operating cost of the flow system.” This study focuses on one particular flow system, the production tubing without @ packer (ee Fig. 1-1). *Aaphakenes we a woubeane conse! f many cae ot The phe bv of hi cote seed bythe sis, ec, nd componmt the pil wspaenemsics Aphlana we comps of very lente molecule hat ge {rom sever handed seve ound ams per le? Thee ge mois can form lage vay of eects ad fen a conn aonbyércrton wom ch sige, slur or nye. The ae behavior hese moles a ai aed by wt, CO, ed ards commonly preset i rude i, This phase behavior moch feat tan he phase behavior of prin This dissertation follows the style of the Joumal of Petroleum Technology.Paraffin Deposition ‘Production "Tubing Fig. 1- - Tlustration of paraffin precipitation and deposition in a production tubing without a packer. Paraffin Solubility/Precipitation For paraffin to deposit onto the inside of a production tubing, solid paraffin must first precipitate from the crude oil. For this to occur, the temperature of the crude must be below its cloud point temperature, The cloud point temperature is the temperature at which solid paraffin crystals start developing’ and the oil becomes "cloudy", At this ‘temperature, the crude is saturated with paraffin and solid paraffin begins to precipitate, AA solubility model that takes the form of the Ideal Solution Theory was used to define this saturation limit, ‘There are two mechanisms that can take the crude past its solubility limit which causes paraffin precipitation,"? ‘The obvious mechanism that can cause paraffin precipitation is a reduction in heat content which lowers the temperature of the crude below its cloud point temperature. Another common, but not widely understood mechanism that can cause paraffin precipitation is the evolution of gas. Before the gas has evolved, itis dissolved in the oil and acts as a paraffin solvent, When free gas evolves, the relative amount of solventdecreases which in tum can increase the paraffin concentration above the maximum solubility level. When this occurs, the cloud point temperature is raised above the temperature ofthe crude. Therefore, ether a temperature decrease or the evolution of gas can cause solid paraffin to precipitate Paraffin Deposition ‘After the parafin has precipitated, it can deposit on the inside ofthe production tubing. This deposition is driven by two major mechanisms” (1) diffusion deposition, and (2) ‘shear deposition. Diffusion deposition is driven by a concentration gradient normal to the direction of flow. Shear deposition is driven by a velocity gradient normal to the direction of flow. ‘Weingarten and Euchner” state that during diffusion deposition a concentration gradient is produced in the oil asa result of a temperature gradient, This concentration ‘gradient causes paraffin in solution to diffuse from a high-temperature high-concentration region to a lower-temperature lower-concentration region. Since both the temperature and concentration of the paraffin is larger at the center of the production tubing, the paraffin in solution will diffuse toward the inner wall of the produetion tubing. When this occurs, some of the paraffin precipitates and may adhere to the inner wall of the production tubing, forming the paraffin deposit. The other mechanism that causes solid paraffin to adhere to the inner wall of the production tubing is shear deposition. Shear deposition involves the shear transport of precipitated paraffin.” Shear transport occurs when solid particles are present in a fluid with a velocity gradient. Shear transport moves particles from a high velocity region to a low velocity region. Since the velocity of the oil is larger at the center of the production tubing, shear transport moves the particles toward the nner wall of the production tubing. When these solid particles reach the inner wall, some particles may adhere to it and aid in the formation of a paraffin deposit. The combination of shear deposition and diffusion deposition quantify the amount of paraffin deposited onto the inside of the tubing over ‘period of time. It is recognized that in some fields, operators have found inhibition of paraffindeposition with special chemicals to be economical. These chemicals modify the shape of the paraffin crystals. The following two major crystal modifications come from the use of paraffin inhibitors: (1) chemical inhibitors often promote the growth of many side branches in a paraffin crystal which prevents agglomeration, and (2) chemical inhibitors change the orientation deposited crystals so that they lay on their thin edge ‘which makes the solid paraffin unstable and easy to remove, Crystal modifications that inhibit paraffin deposition are not included in this research. This research focuses on uninhibited paraffin deposition and the removal of deposited paraffin by increasing the system temperature, Paraffin Removal ‘The removal of solid paraffin is often poorly understood by operators."* Usually alternate methods for removing paraffin in wellbores are tried until one is found to be successful. All the common methods are either one or a combination of the following general methods:'*"""" (1) mechanical scrapers, (2) injection of chemicals, (3) injection of microbes, and (4) thermal methods. This study will be limited to the following thermal methods"? (1) injection of hot oil, (2) electric downhole heaters and (3) electrical heating of the tubing. These thermal methods will be used to study the removal of solid paraffin from the inside of the production tubing. ‘The only removal mechanism used in this study is the dissolving of deposited paraffin. To dissolve the deposited paraffin, the temperature of the liquid must be raised above its cloud point temperature. This allows the solid paraffin to go back into the liquid phase and be transported away with the crude. This is probably somewhat simplistic in view of the complex depositional process, however lab experiments on paraffin removal models were not found in the literature. It is recognized that this is a conservative approach to remove the deposited paraffin since generally some is removed by sloughing, When the shear strength of the paraffin is reduced below the shear stress imposed on it, the deposited paraffin will separate from the tubing. This occurrence, the shearing off of solid paraffin, is ignored. Since sloughing is neglected, conservative amount of paraffin is removed with the paraffin simulator.Paraffin Simulator Paraffin deposition usually creates production problems and sometimes formation damage, To eliminate these problems, the deposited paraffin must be removed, Paraffin deposition and removal in reservoirs has been simulated by Ring and Wattenbarger**** and paraffin deposition due to natural cooling in reservoirs has been simulated by Peddibhotla”” The objective of this work is to develop a simulator that models paraffin deposition and removal in the production tubing. To model paraffin deposition in the production tubing, a reservoir simulator developed by Ring™ was used as a realistic source of paraffinic oil. This model was a ‘two dimensional (R-Z), three pseudocomponent (gas, oil, and paraffin), three phase (vapor, liquid and solid) thermal simulator that also considered vertical heat flow in the underburden, Before this reservoir simulator was used, the following modifications were made, The Passut-Danner equation and the Lee-Kesler equation of state were used to model enthalpy changes that come from not only temperature changes but also pressure changes, composition changes and phase changes. These enthalpy calculations are documented by Peddibhotla”” Then to conserve mass during thermal removal processes used in the reservoir simulator, the ability to model the variable bubbie point and the variable cloud point problems was added. Finally, an overburden simulator and a wellbore simulator were linked to the modified reservoir/underburden simulator using the principle of domain decomposition which is the solving of all the simulators sequentially and then iterating between them until all the solutions are updated. ‘The fully implicit reservoir/underburden simulator uses Newton iterations to calculates temperatures, pressures and saturations, These iterations are also used to calculate fully implicit temperatures in the overburden, and in the wellbore simulators. However in the wellbore simulator, the pressures, velocities and saturations are calculated explicitly with a two phase flow correlation that has several extra assumptions, By coupling the modified flow correlation to material balance calculations, the vapor, liquid and solid saturations are obtained. To split a solid saturation into a suspended and deposited solid saturation, the deposited paraffin only one removal mechanism is used which is the dissolving of ifusion and shear depositional models are used. To removethe deposit. ‘The simulator that was developed also considers formation damage that may occur during a common thermal removal technique (hot oil injection into the wellbore annulus), ‘When hot oil is injected into the wellbore annulus, high paraffin concentration crude flows into the reservoir and reduces its effective permeability. With a paraffin wellbore and reservoir simulator, it would be possible to gain better understanding of not only the ‘mechanisms of paraffin deposition and removal in wellbores but also the adverse affects hot oil injection may have on the reservoir. It is believed that no other such simulator exists. Therefore, itis hoped that the development of this paraffin wellbore and reservoir simulator will be beneficial for the industry. (Cases Rum on the Paraffin Simulator By running the simulator, paraffin deposition and removal in wellbores was studied with four cases. All the cases were run for a single hypothetical well. For the first case, a period of thirty days without heating was simulated. This case was used to study paraffin deposition. Then forthe ast three cases the paraffin simulator was run for thirty days without heating followed by the following three thermal removal techniques: (1) hot oil injection CASE 2, (2) downhole heater CASE 3, and (3) electric tubing heating CASE 4. These cases were run to study each of the thermal removal techniques. These hypothetical cases were also included in the documentation of this simulator. This documentation includes alist of keywords used inthe data files, the data files, a fortran listing, and a very brief description of the simulator and the four cases run, Overview ‘The following pages of this section is a "Literature Review." This is followed by a Aetailed description of the simulator in the "SIMULATOR DEVELOPMENT? section. ‘This description starts with the principle of domain decomposition and how itis used to solve the three simulators sequentially. The boundary conditions between the simulators and all the other boundary conditions ae also included. Then, the reservoir/underburdensimulator is documented. Next, a brief description of the overburden simulator is included, Finally, a complete description of the wellbore simulator and the methods used to model paraffin deposition and removal in the production tubing are described. ‘The next section, "RESULTS," outlines the cases run starting with the depositional case. This is followed by the following three thermal removal cases (1) hot cil injection, (2) downhole heater, and (3) electric heating of the tubing. “The results from these cases, such as temperature profiles in the tubing and their corresponding, deposited paraffin thicknesses, are included. A discussion of the results obtained from running the paraffin simulator is given in "DISCUSSION" section. This is followed by a list of simplifying assumptions used to obtain these results. Then the recommendations for future work are listed Finally, the outcome of this research obtained from running and developing the paraffin simulator is documented in the "CONCLUSIONS" section. The following two classes of conclusions are documented in this section (1) conclusions made by running the simulator, and (2) conclusions made by developing the simulator, This is the last 1major section in the main body of the text ‘The Appendices in this dissertation include the documentation of some previous ‘work done by Ring to develop reservoir simulator. All the recent modifications on the reservoir simulator done by the author that are not documented by Peddibhotla” are also included in the Appendices. The modifications made to the solution method used in the reservoir simulator are in "APPENDIX A." "APPENDIX B" discusses the changes needed to model the variable cloud point problem in the reservoir simulator.LITERATURE REVIEW ‘The numerical simulation of paraffin deposition and removal in wellbores is an ‘uncommon topic. However, there is ample literature covering paraffin and paraffin deposition. Since there are just a few papers that cover the simulation of paraffin removal from the production tubing, this literature review has been expanded to include other papers that are considered to be very helpful in understanding this complex problem. Compositions and Concentrations of Paraffinic Crudes The oil industry commonly assumes that crude oil can be modeled with two pseudocomponents (gas and oil). For this research, itis assumed that the crude can be modeled with the following three pseudocomponents: (1) gas, small hydrocarbon molecules, (2) oil, medium hydrocarbon molecules, and (3) paraffin, large hydrocarbon molecules. Another assumption made for this research is that only the large hydrocarbon. molecules (paraffins) formed crystals. This assumption about the paraffin crystals will be discussed in more detail in the following paragraphs. These paraffin crystals begin to grow when the crude is cooled past a particular temperature,"* This temperature is called the cloud point temperature. Since the cloud point temperature directly depends on the amount of gas and oil and paraffin present in the crude, it has been used as a means to characterize the paraffin concentration of a crude, For a low paraffin concentration crude, the crude must cooled to a very low temperature to initiate the crystal growth. In other words, a low paraffin concentration crude has a low cloud point temperature. For a high paraffin concentration crude, the crude has a relatively high cloud point temperature. Ifthe crude is composed of "pure" paraffin, the “highest” cloud point temperature is obtained. This cloud point ‘temperature that changes "pure" paraffin into a solid phase is commonly called the melting point temperature. The cloud point temperature and the melting point ‘temperature are common means to indirectly describe the composition and concentrationof a paraffinic crude, Another temperature that is commonly used to characterize paraffinic crudes is the pour point temperature. When the temperature of a crude is lowered far below the cloud point temperature, the solution gas, oil and paraffin liquid mixture will no longer flow. This temperature where the crude becomes too viscous to flow under the force of gravity is called the pour point temperature.” The pour point temperature is also used to indirectly characterize a paraffinic crude, Two other common means used to characterize ‘paraffinic crude are the number of carbon atoms in the molecules (carbon number) that make a paraffinic crystal and the weight percent of paraffin in the crude, The development of these vastly different characterization techniques started long ago since the deposition of paraffin is an old occurrence. To understand paraffin deposition, researchers in the 1920's attempted to obtain the composition of solid paraffin by purifying oil-field wax. This resulted in a mass of evidence indicating the presence of members of the C,H,,,, homologous series." In recent years, researchers have found thatthe first compounds to solidify in a waxy crude ‘are usually paraffins.” These solid paraffins or saturated hydrocarbons belong to 2 chemical classification of hydrocarbons called alkanes C,Haj;"” However, researchers have also found that other hydrocarbons molecules such as alkenes, alkynes, cylcoalkanes and cylcoalkenes can be present in a solid wax. Solid wax crystals that form from crude oil consist of straight chain molecules, branched chain molecules and even some cyclic molecules.”** It was initially assumed that these molecules were large. Later, a high temperature gas liquid chromatograph was used to investigate the size and variability in the carbon number distribution of these molecules.” In one study, two samples of wax which were analyzed with the chromatograph verify the assumption that only the large hydrocarbon molecules (molecules with more than 15 carbon atoms) form crystals. ‘The fist sample was taken from the sucker rods and the second sample was taken from the flow line. For the rod ‘wax, the carbon number varied from 18 to 66 with a peak of 38. For the flow line wax, the carbon number varied from 18 to 60. with a peak at 30°° Other analyses of waxes have concluded that oil-feld paraffin crystals are composed of molecules that have10 carbon numbers vary between 15 and 80.” ‘These analyses show clearly that even though the composition of wax varies, the assumption that only the large hydrocarbon molecules form crystals is valid for oil-field conditions. These hydrocarbon molecules that have large carbon numbers have been split into two broad categories that are defined by the structure of the paraffinic crystal The structure of paraffinic crystals has been shown to vary with the carbon umber. Paraffins are composed of the following two structures of wax crystals: (1) mactocrystalline structures which are composed of 15-40 carbon atoms, and (2) microcrystalline structures which are composed of 50-80 carbon atoms.” The macrocrystalline wax crystals are large well-formed needle-shaped crystals which agglomerate and form large masses." The microcrystalline wax crystals have many side branches and form small iregular crystals which have little tendency to agglomerate" A large majority of oil-field paraffins are composed of both erystals. In general, these paraffin crystals have molecules with 20 to 65 carbon atoms, ‘The number of carbon atoms in a paraffinic molecule has also been linked to another important property of paraffin, the melting point temperature.* Camahan has experimentally shown that the melting point temperature is directly related to the carbon. number. Therefore, the melting point temperature describes the composition of "pure" paraffin Melting points have been documented to be as low as 100 ‘F ® and as high as 275°R."" Typical melting point temperature range between 110 and 140 °F.” The ranges. of the cloud point temperature will be discussed in the following paragraph. Cloud point temperatures are directly related to the melting point temperatures. The thermodynamic parameters that relate cloud point temperatures to the melting point temperature are (1) the activity coefficient, (2) the fusion temperature, (3) the heat of fusion, (4) heat- capacity change of fusion, and (5) the volume change of fusion. With these thermodynamic properties, an equation of state can be used to accurately describe a paraffinic crude, However, since these thermodynamic parameters are generally not ‘known, it is common practice to just use the melting point temperature and a cloud point ‘temperature to describe a paraffinic crude,rT Cloud point temperatures have been documented to be as low as 0 °F and as high as 200 °F Typical cloud point temperature range between 70 and 100°F. At the cloud point temperature paraffin crystals begin to form. This makes the oil "cloudy." For ‘many crudes, the exact temperature at which the oil becomes cloudy is difficult o obtain if the visual method is used. Therefore, the cloud point temperature is commonly determined using a viscosity versus temperature semilog plot (log of viscosity versus temperature). Due to an increases in viscosity that comes from the forming of paraffinic crystals, this plot will result in two straight lines. The intersection of the two straight lines isthe cloud point temperature. This temperature is commonly used to define when paraffin deposition will occur. Yet, this temperature defines paraffin precipitation not paraffin deposition. Since paraffin must precipitate before it can deposit, the cloud point ‘temperature isa conservative estimate of when paraffin deposition will occur. Camahan's ‘melting point correlation can be used to demonstrate why the cloud point temperature is «conservative estimate of the deposition temperature. According to Camshan's correlation, large carbon number crystals form first. Therefore, microcrystalline crystals form at the cloud point temperature if there are ‘molecules with carbon numbers greater than 50 present. These small crystals generally do not deposit according to Bucaran."” As the temperature is lowered even more, the smaller molecules begin to form macrocrystalline crystals. These large crystals do tend to agglomerate and form large masses of solid paraffin, This will occurs at a temperature that is lower than the cloud point temperature if there are microcrystalline crystals present, Therefore, the cloud point temperature will give a conservative estimation of the femperature at which paraffin begins to deposit. Another characterization parameter, the weight percent of paraffin in a crude, has also been used to try to define when paraffin deposition will occur. ‘The weight percent of paraffin in the crude can vary from a low concentration oil with less than 1% to a high concentration oil with more than 30%2"%"* From the published data, an average weight percent of 8 to 12% was obtained for a oil that will have paraffin deposition problems. In fact, itis stated in the literature that oils with a paraffin concentration above 10% can cause severe deposition and flow problems.”n However, even low paraffin content crudes (less than 1%) can have severe deposition problems. Therefore, the weight percent of paraffin is not an accurate way to predict paraffin deposition. In fact, the cloud point temperature is a much more accurate means to define paraffin deposition, Even though this temperature defines paraffin precipitation, paraffin must precipitate before it can deposit. To calculate the cloud point temperature at different amounts of pareffin concentrations a solubility model must be used. Paraffin Solubility The solubility of paraffin has been described by several authors. A theoretical approach has been taken by these authors to obtain a solubility equation. Originally the ideal solution theory was used” Later a more complete theoretical approaches were taken These more complete approaches eliminated some of the assumption made in the ideal solution theory. For this work, « model that takes the form of the ideal solution theory is used. This model has been verified in the literature.” This model can also be easily calibrated with two common paraffinic oil classifiers, the cloud point temperature and the melting point temperature, A more complete description of this solubility model and how it is used in this work has been documented by Ring™ and Peddibhotla.” This solubility model is used to quantify the amount of paraffin precipitation. This model describes paraffin precipitation that comes from the cooling of the crude and from the evolution of gas. Once the paraffin has precipitated, then it ‘can deposit, Depositing Paraffin Early investigations postulated that the two major causes of paraffin deposition were the cooling of the crude and the evolution of gas from the crude.* However, these are the causes for paraffin precipitation not deposition. Later it was showm that other factors affected paraffin deposition rates These factors were documented in the early 1930's: (1) the alternate coating and draining of ol, (2) the contact of oil on a cold surface, (3) the spraying of oil as a mis, (4) the flow of ol ata low rat, (5) the inerease in paraffin particle growth due to agitation, (6) the presence of sand, silt or water and, (7) the effectB of the surface roughness and chemistry. ‘Since then, many lab experiments and field tests have been conducted to study paraffin deposition. Numerous lab apparatuses have been developed to study the effects of chemicals surface roughness, and temperature gradients on paraffin deposition tates, **""64372 These lab apparatuses can be placed into the following two major categories (1) one or more agitated oil baths, and (2) one or more oil flow lines. The following are some examples of paraffin deposition apparatuses that fall under the category of an oil bath. The most basic agitated oil bath is a plain beaker that is stirred and then is left to cool at room temperature."” This lab experiment is very similar to a solubility and/or compatibility test For this test chemicals are placed in bottle with some paraffinic oil init and then are shaken at room temperature. The bottle is allowed to stand for 24 hours or more then are visually examined to see if insoluble particles are detectable. For these tests there is nothing immersed in the oil during the experiment. For the following tests there is a cold item immersed in the oil bath. Parker immersed a metal cylinder that was maintained st 90 °F in paraffinic oil. The cloud point of this oil was 102 °F. The temperature of the ol in the bath was 120 °F. The oil in this bath was agitated to simulate the flow of oil past the equipment. After a specified period of time the cold cylinder was pulled out of the bath. Then the deposition tendency of the paraffinic oil was evaluated by the amount of solid paraffin on the cylinder. A cold spot test apparatus" this apparatus a flat circular plate is mounted on a concentric curved tube. The temperature of this circular plate is varied by the means of circulating fluid through the concentric tube, This creates a flat cold spot" at the end of the tube where most of the paraffin will deposit. A similar apparatus has been documented in the literature. For this apparatus, the item immersed in the oil bath is a steel tube. When cool fluid is circulated through this tube, paraffin deposits nearly equally on the entire tube, Other similar paraffin deposition apparatuses have been built. The only major difference in the other oil bath apparatuses are the number of tubes in a bath, or the number of baths an apparatus has, “74 The following are some examples of paraffin deposition experiments that fall under the category of oil flow lines. Nathan circulated oil through a 1/4 inch ID, 6 foot Jong stainless steel tube that was immersed in a bath of cool water." Hunt used high and low temperature flow tubes that had pipe wall temperature gradients that approached those existing in the field” Bott not only measured paraffin deposition but also ‘measured the change in the thermal resistance due to paraffin deposition.” Cole made ‘8 visual flow cell that was mounted in the flow line, With this flow cell, the paraffin deposition could also be monitored visually. Finally, Bilderback tested paraffin deposition in the field. In an east Texas field, Bilderback used a flow line bypass ‘rangement with two test nipples. With this field scale apparatus, Bilderback measured ‘temperatures, pressures and flow conditions that allowed untreated and treated oils to be tested at the same time? ‘These lab and fields experiments have resulted in a fundamental theoretical study that documented four depositional mechanisms (1) Brownian diffusion deposition, (2) ‘gravity settling deposition, (3) diffusion deposition and (4) shear dispersion deposition. Brownian diffusion produces a lateral transport of small paraffin particles. When these particles are flowing in oil, they are randomly hit by thermally excited oil molecules. These impacts create minuscule Brownian motion of the suspended solid paraffin particles. Mass transport due to Brownian diffusion is negligible according to previous researchers." Therefore in this study, it is assumed that Brownian diffusion will have no effect on paraffin deposition. Gravity settling deposition can contribute a substantial amount of paraffin to the deposit if the flow tube is not vertical Mass transport of solid particles due to the difference in densities between the solid paraffin particle and the crude oil in which it is suspended will not move particles laterally in a vertical tube. For this study it is assumed that the production tubing is vertical. Therefore in this study, gravity settling will not contribute to the paraffin deposition. Diffusion deposition will contributes to the paraffin deposition regardless of the flow tube's orientation. Diffusion deposition will be one of the two main mechanism that defines the15 amount of paraffin deposition that occurs in the production tubing for this research, Diffusion deposition is driven by a concentration gradient. ‘This concentration gradient is established due to the presence of a temperature gradient. A saturated oil at a high ‘temperature can contain moze paraffin in solution than a colder saturated oil. This is true because the solubility limit of paraffin increases with temperature. Therefore, a temperature gradient will create a concentration gradient only in a saturated oil. This concentration gradient drives paraffin in solution toward the inner wall of the production tubing. During normal production, the warmer saturated oil is at the center of the production tubing and has a greater concentration of dissolved paraffins. The colder saturated oil is near the inner wall ofthe production tubing and has a lower concentration of dissolved paraffins. Therefore, dissolved paraffins will diffuse toward the inner wall ff the production tubing, This mass transfer due to diffusion will increase the concentration of the paraffin even further past the solubility limit. When this occurs some of the precipitated paraffins stick to the inner wall of the production tubing, forming the paraffin deposit. The other mechanism that causes solid paraffin to adhere to the inner wall of the production tubing is shear deposition. Shear deposition along with diffusion deposition define the amount of paraffin deposition that occurs in the production tubing. Shear transport is driven by a velocity ‘gradient. This phenomena has been studied quantitatively in a PAD thesis at The Massachusetts Institute of Technology’ and has been summarized well in the following. quote by Burger et al. "When small particles are suspended in a fluid that is in laminar ‘motion, the particles tend to move at the mean speed and in the direction of the surrounding fluid. Movement of the particles transverse to the direction of the local flow can arise, however, due to mutually induced velocity fields which occur during shear flow. Mathematical studies have revealed the behavior to be expected for single, neutrally buoyant spherical particles when suspended in a fluid which is subjected 10 unbounded, shear linear flow. The panicles speed is that of the streamline at its center, and the particle rotates with an angular velocity which is half the fluid shear rae. If the article approaches a solid boundary, both linear and angular velocities will be reduced. Because of fluid viscosity, rating panicles will impart a circulatory motion 1016 a layer of fluid adjacent 10 the particle. This rotating fluid region exerts a drag force in neighboring particles. In a shear field, each particles passes and interacts with nearby articles in slower- or faster-moving streamlines. When only two particles are present, far from a-wall and at a very low Reynolds number, these passing encounters result in a lage temporary displacements. As the particles pass, their trajectories are such that the particles curve around on another and return to their original streamline, Thus, there is no net lateral displacement. If the particle concentration is high, however, then a significant number of mulipanicle interactions will occur. These multipantcle collisions result in a net lateral transport and a dispersing of the particles." The net quantitative results of these interactions is a lateral transport from a high velocity lamina to a lower velocity lamina. ‘This depositional mechanisms has been documented to contribute a substantial ‘amount of paraffin deposition depending on the shear rate,"? In fact, the rate of shear ‘deposition has been documented to be directly proportional to the shear rate, Weingarten and Euchner reported that "data indicated that the deposit caused by shear transport increase with increasing shear rate until the shear stress atthe edge of the deposit reaches the shear strength of the deposited war," and that "the onset of sloughing is not related 10 the transition from laminar to turbulent flow." Therefore, shear deposition can occur during turbulent flow. Since shear deposition contributes a substantial amount of Paraffin to the deposit, it is included in this study. The two mechanisms, shear Aeposition and diffusion deposition are used quantify the amount of paraffin that will deposit onto the inside of the production tubing. Removing Paraffin Various techniques are available to remove paraffin once it has deposited. In summary, the techniques con be divided into the following four categories: (1) mechanical scrapers, (2) injection of chemicals, (3) injection of microbes, and (4) thermal methods. This study will be limited to the following thermal methods: (1) injection of hot oil, @) electric downhole heaters and (3) electrical heating of the tubing (see Fig. 2).7 Production ‘Tubing Downhole Heater Fig. 2 - Thermal methods (downhole heater, electric heating of the tubing and hot oil injection) used to remove deposited paraffin from inside of production tubing. Gne of the most common and well documented thermal removal technique is hot oil injection. Yet, few operators know the limitations and the possible problems that hot oiling can created, These limitations and possible problems are summarized in an SPE paper published by a member of Sandia National Laboratories. This work was funded by the United States Department of Energy to help keep paraffinic wells economical ‘The following are the key findings of this work: °(1) during a typical hot oiling job, a significant anount of the oil injected into the annulus goes into the formation, and hence ‘has a potential to damage the formation. (2) Organic Paricles in the stock tank oil may not completely dissolvefmelt as the oil passes through the hot-oiling-truck heat ‘exchanger, hence, these particles may plug the formation. (3) Hot oiling can vaporize oil in the tubing faster than the pump Iifis oll" When this occurs the wax is not transported out of the well, and it can fall deeper in the well and stick the rods, Even with these potential problems, hot oil remains the most common thermal removal18 technique. Sandia National Laboratories also developed some new software to evaluate hot oil injection. This public domain software could be used by operators to study individual hot oiling jobs. This software gives critical information such as whether the melting point of the paraffin will be reached at a given depth. ‘Similar work has been published by Nenniger and Nenniget.” This simulator also considers the heat losses into the formation during a hot oil job. The model uses a falling film flow regime above the annular fluid level and an annular flow regime below the annular fluid level, This simulator also gives the temperature of the tubing at any given depth, Therefore, operators can also use this model to obtain critical information such as whether the melting point of the paraffin will be reached at a given depth. The other two thermal removal techniques that are researched in this study do not have an ample of literature covering them. The use of downhole heaters to remove paraffin in the production tubing is not well documented. Yet, they are mentioned to be a possible thermal removal technique.‘ For this thermal technique a heater is lowered to the bottom of the well. This heater is assumed to be an electrical resistance heater. The amount of energy that is supplied to the resistor can be controlled. This in tum controls the temperature of the fluids that enter the production tubing. However, due to heat losses that occur while the fluid is flowing up the tubing, the solid paraffin at the top of the tubing may remain in tact. Therefore, downhole heaters may not be effective in removing deposited paraffin near the top of the tubing. Studies on the effectiveness of downhole heaters to remove paraffin is not a common topic in the literature, Electrical impedance heating of the production tubing to remove and eliminate paraffin deposition is also not a common topic in our industry.” For this technique, energy is fed into the top of the production tubing. For safety, the wellhead is electrically insulated from the production tubing, This electrical current flows down the production tubing to a desired depth. This depth is usually below the bottom of the paraffinic zone. At this point a contactor makes a solid electrical contact with the casing. The current flows through the contactor to the casing where the circuit is9 completed. The use of electrical impedance heating in surface lines and vessels has ‘some popularity, as is reflected by the publication of an IEEE standard on the subject." Yet, the use of this technology to remove paraffin is still emerging in our industry. With ‘paraffin simulator these three thermal removal techniques can be studied.SIMULATOR DEVELOPMENT ‘The two dimensional (R-Z), three phase (vapor, liquid and solid), three pseudocomponent (gas, oil, and paraffin) thermal simulator uses three sequential simulations. Each simulator models one of the following domains: (1) reservoir/underburden, (2) overburden and (3) wellbore (see Fig. 3). Fig.3- Illustration showing the three domains that the simulator is composed of. ‘The entire domain of this paraffin simulator (the wellbore, reservoir, underburden and overburden) is decomposed into three domains because the basic equations in each domain do not apply in the other domains. For example, in the reservoir domain, Darcy's, Laws used to calculate the mass flow rates. However, in the wellbore domain, the mass flow rates must be calculated with other equations, and in the overburden domain there is no mass flow. Therefore, the entire domain is decomposed into three principal2 domains, for each of which iterative solutions are performed sequentially. The reservoit/underburden domain is further decomposed into two subdomains (the reservoir and the underburden), but it is still considered to be one of the three principal domains in this research. Iterations are performed between these three domains to make each simulator fully implicit in temperature. ‘The reservoir/underburden simulator is fully implicit, and calculates temperatures, pressures and saturations with Newton's method (see Appendix A, "Reservoir Simulation Solution Method"). This simulator was initieted by Ring” and the following modifications were made to increase its accuracy: (1) improved enthalpy calculations, (2) increased maximum timestep by damping the Newton iterations, and (3) programmed the variable bubble point and the variable cloud point problems. This modified simulator ‘was then linked to an overburden and wellbore simulator. For the overburden simulator, the only solution variable is temperature. This simulator also uses Newton's method to calculate fully implicit temperatures. Newton's method is also used in the wellbore simulator to calculate fully implicit temperatures. However, for the wellbore simulator, the pressures, velocities and saturations are calculated explicitly. These pressures and velocities are calculated with a steady state two phase flow correlation. The vapor and liquid saturations relative o the volume of the tubing minus the volume of the deposited paraffin are also calculated with the two phase flow correlation. A single cell material balance is used to transform these relative saturations into true vapor and liquid saturations, This single cell material balance is also coupled to a paraffin solubility ‘model that takes the form of the ideal solution theory, and to diffusion and shear deposition models to calculate the suspended and deposited solid saturations. ‘Once paraffin has deposited, it may be removed from the inside of the production tubing with either of the following three thermal methods: (1) hot oil injection, (2) downhole heater, and (3) electric heating of the tubing. To model these thermal removal methods, energy is added to the simulator. For the downhole heater, energy was added to the perforated wellbore cell that connects the reservoir simulator to wellbore simulator (see Fig. 4). This pattem of energy input was chosen because it is assumed that the downhole heater is in this celli ee Fig. 4~ Iilustration showing the locations where energy is added to remove solid paraffin from the tubing (the perforated wellbore cell, the tubing, and the casing) For the electric heating of the tubing, energy is added to the production tubing and the ‘easing (see Fig. 4), This energy is split 70/30 and is distributed evenly along the tubing and the casing respectively. ‘This patter of energy input was used because it a realistic interpretation of electric heating of the tubing according to a major manufacturer of tubing heating hardware. To vary this heating pattem, trivial coding changes could be made to accommodate almost any energy input profile if the need arises. For hot oil injection, energy is also added to the production tubing and the casing, This energy is distributed with a first order differential equation. This pattem of energy input was chosen because it matches field data. All these thermal removal techniques are modeled in the paraffin simulator which is decomposed into three domains. Domain Decomposition ‘The paraffin simulator is composed of three sequential simulations in the followingB domains: (1) a reservoirhunderburden domain, (2) an overburden domain and (3) a wellbore domain. By decomposing the entire domain into these three domains, the simulator was divided into three simulators. These three simulators are solved sequentially by using the information from the other two simulators in the third wulator. By iterating between all three simulators during one timestep, all the solutions, can be updated. This sequential solution method is commonly called domain decomposition. ** ‘A particular sequence is used to solve the three simulators. First, the ‘teservoir/underburden simulator is solved, then the overburden simulator, and finally the wellbore simulator. To solve one simulator, the solutions from the other two simulators must be estimated from the previous or current domain iteration. A domain iteration is the solving of the reservoislunderburden, overburden, and wellbore simulators (Gee Fig. 5). “Heat Flow Rates at ReservoirUnderburden Boundary ‘Overburden Simulator is solved for: ‘ert Wail Heat Implicit -7 Flow Rates ed eat Flow Rates at Reservoir/Overburden Boundary | Pafeonverge Wellbore Simulators solved for: Implicit = 7°, Explicit p,m, Sh Sip Sig Heat Flow Rates at Oveburden/Wellbore Boundary Mass Balance In Perforated Wellbore Cell and Annulus: Explicit - Pf/Annuls fui level Energy Balance In Peforated Wellore Cell Explcit- Taf Fig. 5 - Illusration showing a domain iteration and the convergence criteria,‘These estimated solutions from the other two simulators are used for the boundary conditions in the third simulator. To make sure that all the boundary conditions are appropriate, domain iterations are continued until convergence is adequate between previous boundary conditions and current boundary conditions. ‘The convergence rate of these iterations is highly dependent on the type of boundary conditions used in each simulator, ‘The accuracy of the solutions are also dependent on the type of boundary conditions used in each simulator. Accurate solutions ccan be obtained when Neumann boundary conditions are used. These boundary conditions specify the exact mass or heat flux across a boundary with the derivative of the unknown value. However, Dirichlet boundary conditions can improve the convergence rates in many cases. These boundary conditions specify the unknown value at the boundary. The following subsections document the type of boundary conditions that are used and whether the boundary conditions are from the previous or current domain iteration, Or in other words, how the three simulators are link together. ReservoirUnderburden Boundary Conditions. To conserve thermal energy across the reservoirfunderburden boundary, the reservoir simulator internally solves forthe heat flow rates at this boundary. To calculate the heat flow rates that cross this boundary, thermal ‘tansmissibilities of the boundary and the temperatures on both sides of this boundary ‘must be known, To calculate the temperature on the reservoir side, two dimensional, 2-D, convection and conduction is modeled. On the underburden side, there is no mass flow so convection is unnecessary. To calculate the temperatures in the underburden, a series of one dimensional, 1-D, vertical thermal conductivity models are used. Use of these models requires, the assumption that heat flow in the underburden can be approximated with only vertical heat flow is made, This assumption has been used by ‘Marx and Langenheim. With this and other assumptions Marx and Langenheim developed an analytical expression for the heat remaining in the reservoir. Further work by Prats! shows that this expression is reasonable. In fact, Prats showed that the expression developed by Marx and Langenheim is adequate "when heat transfer in the ‘adjacent formations is by three-dimensional (rather than by solely vertical) conduction.*®28 Therefore, modeling heat flow in the underburden with 1-D conduction is considered adequate With these 1-D conduction models, the temperatures on the underburden side of the boundary are calculated. With the temperatures on both sides of this boundary, ‘Neumann boundary conditions can be calculated for each reservoir cell that contacts the underburden. ‘These Neumann boundary conditions are the temperature gradients at the reservoir/underburden boundary. These gradients are then translated by the means of a thermal transmissibilities into a heat flow rates at the reservoit/underburden boundary. ‘Since these heat flow rates are calculated in the reservoir/underburden simulator, these ‘Neumann boundary conditions are from the current domain iteration (see Fig. 6). HReservoir/Underburden Simulator 2D Model Fig. 6- Ilustration showing reservoir ‘/underburden Neumann boundary conditions from the current domain iteration that are used in the reservoir simulator. Reservoir Overburden Boundary Conditions. Like the reservoir/underburden boundary, to calculate the heat flow rate at the reservoir/overburden boundary, a thermal transmis ibility of this boundary and the temperatures on both sides of this boundary ‘must be known. In other words, the reservoir simulator needs the solutions of the26 ‘overburden simulator to conserve thermal energy across this boundary. To satisfy this need, estimated Neumann boundary conditions are used in the reservoir simulator. These boundary conditions specify the heat flow rates into the overburden for each reservoir cell that contacts the overburden, These heat flow rates are calculated during the previous domain iteration in the overburden simulator. Therefore, the Neumann reservoirloverburden boundary conditions (heat flow rates) in the reservoir simulator are lagging by one domain iteration (see Fig. 7). ‘The overburden simulator uses Dirichlet boundary conditions at the reservoirloverburden boundary 10 calculate the heat flow rates into the overburden, ‘These Dirichlet boundary conditions are the temperatures of each reservoir cell that contacts the overburden. Since the reservoir simulator was solved before the overburden simulator, the overburden simulator uses Dirichlet boundary conditions from the current domain iteration (see Fig. 8). A similar approach that uses previous Neumann boundary conditions and current Dirichlet boundary conditions is used to calculate the heat flow tate at the overburden/wellbore boundary. [sda esc Fig. 7- Illustration showing reservoir Fig. 8- Ilustration showing reservoir Joverburden Neumann boundary conditions /underburden Dirichlet boundary conditions from the previous domain iteration that are from the current domain iteration that are used in the reservoir simulator, used in the overburden simulator.Overburden/Wellbore Boundary Conditions. Like the reservoir simulator, Neumann ‘boundary conditions are used in the overburden simulator to specify the heat flow rates at the overburden/wellbore boundary. Since these heat flow rates are calculated in the wellbore simulator, the overburden simulator uses Neumann boundary conditions are lagging by one domain iteration (see Fig. 9). ‘The wellbore simulator uses Dirichlet boundary conditions to calculate the heat flow rate at the overburden/wellbore boundary. This simulator uses overburden ‘temperatures that are from the current domain iteration to calculate the heat flow rates at the overburden/wellbore boundary. Therefore the wellbore simulator uses Dirichlet boundary conditions from the current domain iteration (see Fig. 10). Fig. 9 Ilustration showing overburden Fig. 10 - Illustration showing overburden fweellbore Neumann boundary conditions wellbore Dirichlet boundary conditions from the previous domain iteration that are from the current domain iteration that are used in the overburden simulator. used in the wellbore simulator. Once the boundary heat flow rates from the previous domain iteration converge to the heat flow rates of the current domain iteration, the appropriate amount of heat is ‘transferring across the boundaries. The convergence of these boundary heat flow rates is one of the convergence criteria used to stop the domain iterations (see Fig. 5). ‘Another domain iteration convergence criteria comes the reservoin/wellbore boundary conditions.28 Reservoir/Wellbore Boundary Conditions, The reservoir/wellbore boundary conditions are somewhat different than the previously discussed boundary conditions. The difference comes from the fact that the reservoir/underburden simulator is coupled with the wellbore by a single perforated wellbore cell, hereafter referred to as the perf-cell (Gee Fig. 4). Since there is a volume in the perf-cell, accumulation of mass and thermal energy can occur between the reservoir and the wellbore boundaries. ‘The size of the perf-cell that couples these two boundaries is relatively small. Hence, the mass and thermal energy that are being transported through the perf-cell are very large compared to the amount of mass and thermal energy that this cell contains. Consequently, any accumulation of mass or thermal energy in this cell is relatively small but necessary for the overall balance of mass and thermal energy between the reservoir/underburden simulator and the wellbore simulator. By performing mass and ‘thermal energy balances on the perf-cll, two reservoir boundary conditions, bottom hole flowing pressure and temperature, are calculated, The mass balance is performed on the perf-cell along with a mass balance in the annulus to calculate the bottom hole flowing, pressure p,y. The mass balance in the annulus will be discussed in more detail under the subtitle "Mass Balance In Annulus." As mentioned, a thermal energy balance is also performed on the perf-cell to calculate the bottom hole flowing temperature Ty. The bottom hole flowing pressure and temperature are boundary conditions for the reservoir simulator. The bottom hole flowing pressure p,, is the boundary condition that defines the ‘mass flow leaving the reservoir. With this mass flow rate and with upstream fluid properties, the convective heat flow rate leaving the reservoir is defined, However if ‘mass is entering the reservoir, the bottom hole flowing temperature Ty is needed to define the convective heat flow rate. For the conductive heat flow leaving or entering the reservoir, the bottom hole flowing temperature T,, is always needed. Since the bottom hole flowing pressure and temperature are calculated at the end of each domain iteration, the two reservoir inner boundary conditions (Dirichlet boundary conditions) are lagging one domain iteration (see Fig. 11). One of these boundary conditions (the bottom hole flowing temperature) is also a boundary condition for the wellbore simulator.29 atin, Pressure & Tecaperatue at the Reservoirs Inner Boundary are Domain Iteration Behind Fig. 11 - Ilustration showing reservoit/wellbore Dirichlet boundary conditions from the previous domain iteration that ‘the reservoir simulator. To define the convective heat flow rates at the bottom boundary of the wellbore the bottom hole flowing temperature T,, , and the following two mass flow rates are needed: (I) the tubing mass flow rate, and (2) the annulus mass flow rate. The tubing mass flow rate is defined with a user specified pump rate (a Neumann boundary condition). Only the liquid and solid phases are allowed to enter the tubing since it is assumed that the pump has a gas anchor. The annulus mass flow rate is defined by subtracting the tubing mass flow rate from the reservoir mass flow rate. In other words, the mass that is produced by the reservoir and that is not removed by the pump will low into the annulus (a Neumann boundary condition). For the conductive heat flow rates, only the bottom hole flowing temperature a (Dirichlet boundary condition) is needed. ‘These Neumann and Dirichlet bottom boundary conditions in the wellbore simulator are also lagging one domain iteration (see Fig, 12). ‘To make sure that the appropriate amount of mass and heat is flowing out of the reservoir simulator through the perf-cell and into the wellbore simulator, domain iterations are used, Once the pressure p,, and temperature T,, that were specified during the previous domain iteration are equal to the pressure p,, and temperature Ty of the ‘current domain iteration, the appropriate amount of mass and heat is flowing through the perf-cell. The convergence of the bottom hole flowing pressure p,y is the last ‘convergence criteria tha is used to stop the domain iterations. The bottom hole flowing temperature Tyy and the tubing and annulus mass flow rates are not used for a convergence criteria because they always converge long before the pressure p,, does.30 ‘Thereafter, the domain iterations are stopped only when all the boundary conditions that ‘changed from one domain iteration to the next have converged. The following paragraph discusses the boundary conditions that do not change from one domain iteration to the next, Wellbore Simulator Jwellbore Neumann and Dirichlet boundary conditions from the previous domain iteration that are used in the wellbore simulator. (Other Boundary Conditions, The reservoir inner, top and botiom boundary conditions have been discussed. © The only remaining boundary condition for the reservoir/underburden domain is the outer boundary for which the temperature, pressure and saturations were held constant. Therefore, the reservoir simulator has Dirichlet outer boundary conditions. ‘The reservoir simulator also includes the underburden. The underburden is simulated with a series of 1-D models. with lengths arbitrarily set equal to the height of the overburden. These models use the reservoir temperature for a top boundary condition, A constant temperature that is defined by the geothermal gradient is used for the bottom boundary condition, Therefore, the underburden models used Dirichlet top31 and bottom boundary conditions. ‘The overburden botiom and inner boundary conditions have been described. The top boundary for the overburden simulator is the surface. For this study, it is assumed that a constant mean surface temperature could be used to simulate this surface boundary condition, ‘To simulate the outer boundary condition, the assumption is made that atthe ‘external radius of the overburden domain, the geothermal gradient remained undisturbed. ‘This assumption gives a constant temperature at the outer boundary that is equal to the ‘geothermal gradient Hence, the overburden simulator used Dirichlet top and outer boundary conditions, ‘The wellbore's bottom and outer boundary conditions have been discussed. The inner boundary of the wellbore domain is a vertical line (see Fig. 12). A Neumann boundary condition is used at the inner boundary of the wellbore to preserve symmetry. ‘The top boundary of the wellbore domain is the wellhead. At the wellhead different boundary conditions were used in different regions. For example, the pressure in the tubing and the casing were held constant, But, the temperature for these regions are defined by conductive and convective heat flow rates. The temperature of the solid regions (the wal of the tubing, the wall ofthe casing and the cement) are defined by the existing convective heat flow rates. Therefore, the wellbore simulator used Neumann and Dirichlet boundary conditions, The previous discussion describes all the boundary conditions of each simulator. The following discussion is a brief description of each simulator. Reservoir/Underburden Simulator ‘The reservoir/underburden simulator is a two dimensional (R-Z) three phase (vapor, liquid and solid) three pseudocomponent (gas, oil, and paraffin) thermal simulator. As ‘noted earlier the simulator developed by Ring™ was used as a starting point for this work. Thermal energy and mass balances were developed by Ring’ and are used to calculate the dependent variables. The following four dependent variables are calculated using Newton's method: (1) pressure p, (2) temperature 7, (3) solid saturation $, and (4) vapor saturation S, (see Appendix A, “Reservoir Simulation Solution Method").32. Reservois/Underburden Thermal Energy Balance. In the reservoir, heat is transferred by conduction and convection. Since the amount of paraffin precipitation and deposition vary dramatically with a slight change in temperature, equation of state enthalpies and internal energies are incorporated into the reservoir/underburden simulator. These properties are used to model convection and the hest content changes due to temperature . Pressure, phase and compositional changes. Passut Danner enthalpy equations are used to model heat content changes due to temperature and compositional changes.“ The 1Leo-Kesler equation of state is used to’model heat content changes due to pressure, phase ‘and compositional changes. These modification were initiated and completed by Keating and a detailed description of the procedure used to calculate these heat content ‘changes is included in a MS. thesis by Peddibhotia” These calculations are coupled to the following finite difference energy balance to obtain the dependent variables (all symbols are defined in the nomenclature. Aa,AT + AdyhyA®, + Ba,,h,A®, + AP gazh,AO, + Mfydy h,A®, + Mfyay hsb, = Lotde,Syt, + berSits * 2,8,t, + C-OepH] Q ~ Gu * Ton * Ico * Ios * Tun The first term on the left hand side of this equation describes conductive heat flow. The other terms on the left hand side of this equation describes the convective heat flow in the gas in vapor phase, the ol in the liquid phase, the gas in the liquid phase, the paraffin in the liquid phase and the suspended solid paraffin flowing with the liquid phase, respectively. The next large term on the right hand side of this equation describes the accumulation of intemal energy in the vapor, liquid, and solid hydrocarbon phases along with the accumulation of internal energy in the formation. Finally, the last five terms are sources and sinks used to model the boundary conditions and power input from an electromagnetic energy.” q,, is the power input from a electromagnetic source (this rate is a source all the other rates are sinks). dey, is the heat leaving the reservoir and entering the perforation cell by means of convection. ep, is the heat leaving the3 reservoir and entering the perf-ell by means of conduction. dog is the heat leaving the reservoir and entering the overburden by means of conduction. These values are calculated in the overburden simulator. qup isthe heat leaving the reservoir and entering the underburden by means of conduction. These values are calculated with’a series of 1-D conduction models that were incorporated directly into the reservoir/underburden simulator. These 1-D conduction models use the following finite difference energy balance. a,AT Zoteatal @ ‘The first term in this equation models conductive heat flow in the vertical direction and the second term models the accumulation of thermal energy. These thermal energy balances are coupled to mass balances to solve for the dependent variables. ‘Reservoir/Underburden Mass Balance. In the reservoir/underburden simulator it is assumed that the crude can be modeled with just three pseudocomponents (gas, oil and paraffin). This simulator also assumes that the oil pseudocomponent can only exist in the liquid phase and the gas pseudocomponent can only exist in the liquid and vapor phases. This is a very common assumption in the petroleum industry that is incorporated in all black oil simulators. Unlike a black oil simulator, this reservoir/underburden simulator has a paraffin pseudocomponent. The assumption that the paraffin ean only exist in the liquid and solid phases is also included in this simulator (see Fig. 13). Phases vapor | liquid | solid 13 - Pseudocomponents and phases.34 With these simplifying assumptions, the following finite difference mass balances were developed and are solved for the dependent variables Gas Pseudocomponent AayA Oy + A(hgey,)A, = Lstorrsy + OhefaSi] * 4 — @ Oil Pseudocomponent = AazA@, = E8tOaS1) + Pa, % ® Paraffin Pseudocomponent A pa)A2, + A y0,)A8, = LdlbreSs + OyhuSil + 4% © ‘A complete description of these equations has been documented by Ring A description of the solution method used to solve these equations isnot included in Ring's documentation, and therefore is described in Appendix A. These mass balances are also coupled to a solubility model and a depositional model to consider solid paraffin precipitation and deposition Paraffin Precipitation, Deposition and Permeability Reduction. As just mentioned this simulator has a solubility model for paralfin that is used to calculate the amount of solid paraffin that precipitates, This solubility model is based on the Ideal Solution Theory (Gee Fig. 14), A paraffin deposition model that is based on filtration theory is also included in this simulator. This deposition model is used to calculate the amount of solid paraffin that deposits onto the rock (see Fig. 18). This simulator also contains a permeability reduction model that was used to calculate the reduction in the absolute permeability due to the deposition of solid paraffin. This depositional model is an ‘empirical model that is based on lab data (see Fig, 16). These three previous models are well documented and will not be discussed here.” These models are used to address paraffin deposition, For paraffin removal, the variable cloud point problem is addressed.(mole fracticn of paraffin) Fig, 14 - Illustration of paraffin solubility model and the solubility model that is based on the Ideal Solution Theory. x q Deposiion Model i do. -2Gl oe & i Reservoir Radius ig. 15 - Ilustration of paraffin deposition and depositional model that is based on filtration theory. ake ‘volume of deposited solid | are voi — Fig. 16 - Ilustration of permeabi the perm ‘eduction model and ity reduction model that is based on lab data. 3536 ‘Simulating the Variable Cloud Point Problem. In the reservoir/underburden simulator, solid paraffin deposits onto the rock when the liquid is saturated with paraffin. When this occurs, the mass fraction of paraffin in the liquid is easily obtained. It is equal to the saturated paraffin mass fraction (saturated ?, ). This saturated paraffin mass fraction ccan be easily obtained from the solubility curve by knowing the gridblock temperature Gee Fig. 14), ‘This reservoir/underburden simulator also simulates the removal of deposited paraffin, To remove this deposited solid paraffin, the temperature of the fluid in the reservoir is raised above the original cloud point temperature with electrical resistance heating“ Generally, at a temperature below the original cloud point, the solid saturation S, goes to zero and the liquid becomes undersaturated with paraffin. This ‘undersaturated liquid has a new cloud point temperature that is indirectly defined by the undersaturated paraffin mass fraction. However, this mass fraction is not easily obtained because it can no longer be taken from the solubility curve, Therefore, a different approach must be taken to solve for the paraffin mass fraction when the liquid ‘temperature is raised above the old cloud point temperature. To calculate the undersaturated paraffin mass fraction which indirectly defines the new cloud point temperature, the paraffin mass balance can be reformulated or @ ‘more original iterative technique suggested by Dr. Wattenbarger can be used. The most direct technique to obtain the undersaturated paraffin mass fraction would be to reformulate the paraffin mass balance. In other words, solve the paraffin mass balance for the undersaturated paraffin mass fraction, . This can be done for the following reason, When the liquid is undersaturated with paraffin, the solid saturation is known (S, = 0), Therefore, the original dependent variable S, can be replaced with a new dependent variable 7, . This reformulation and other techniques have been documented for the variable bubble point problem.”"” To obtain zero solid saturations whenever the liguid is undersaturated with paraffin, the paraffin mass balance was not reformulated. ‘The other technique, the original iterative method, is used to calculate the undersaturated paraffin mass fraction when the liquid temperature is greater than the old cloud point temperature,37 This iterative technique involves iterations between the property calculations (calculating the undersaturated paraffin mass fraction) and the mass and thermal energy balances (calculating the liquid gas, oil, and paraffin in a gridblock). This technique ives a zero solid saturation for an undersaturated gridblock, If either a negative or positive solid saturation is calculated, the incorrect undersaturated paraffin mass fraction has been used. If zero solid saturation is calculated, the correct paraffin mass fraction has been used. The results from over fifty runs indicate that the correct paraffin mass fraction is obtained from this original iterative technique. A more detailed description of this iterative technique and the variable cloud point problem is included in Appendix B, ‘Reservoir Simulation of a Variable Cloud Point Problem." The following paragraphs is a brief description of the overburden simulator. (Overburden Simulator ‘The overburden simulator is a two dimensional (R-Z) thermal simulator. Only conservation of thermal energy is solved in this domain since there is no transportation of fluids in this region. A thermal energy balance is used to celculate the only unknown variable, temperature, with Newton's method. ‘Overburden Thermal Energy Balance. For the overburden, only conduction is modelled. ‘The following equation is the thermal energy balance that is used in this model. Aa,AT = Zrtrostoal am C ‘The first term in this equation models conductive heat flow and the second term models the accumulation of thermal energy. The last term gy, is the heat leaving the overburden and entering the wellbore by the means of conduction. These values gy, are calculated in the wellbore simulator. The heat leaving the reservoir and entering the overburden is handled with a specified temperature boundary condition at the reservoir/overburden interface, This method of calculating the heat flow rate at this boundary has been discussed in a previous section titled "Domain Decomposition” under the subtitle ““Reservoir/Overburden Boundary Conditions.”38 ‘Wellbore Simulator ‘The wellbore simulator is similar in some respect to the reservoir simulator. Both simulators are two dimensional (R-Z) three phase (vapor, liquid and solid) three pseudocomponent (gas, oil, and paraffin) thermal simulators. However, the cells in this simulator are composed of vastly different materials such as the fluid inside the tubing ‘and the steel the tubing is made of. ‘The cells in the annulus which are filled with either liquid or vapor are also different. Finally, the casing is similar to the tubing but is not similar to its neighbor cells the annulus and the cement, For the cases run, the fluid in the tubing was composed of one cell inthe radial direction. ‘The tubing was another cell in the radial direction. There are two radial cells in the fluid inside the annulus. The steel casing is another cell and the cement consisted of four cells radially. Only one region, the fluid inside the production tubing, is limited to a particular number of radial cells, one radial cell. However, any number of vertical cells can be used in this simulator. Since the wellbore is physically much different than the reservoir, the basic equations in the wellbore simulator are also different than the basic equations in the reservoir simulator. To model this diverse region, mass, mechanical and thermal energy balances were developed and solved for the dependent variables. For mechanical energy, either the Hagedorn and Brown™ or the Beggs and Brill” two phase flow correlations that are based on the steady state equation of mechanical energy is used. These ‘empirical correlations that do not conserve mechanical energy are commonly used in the petroleum industry to solve two phase flow problems. With the balances and a ‘correlation, the following seven dependent variables are calculated: (1) temperature 7, (2) pressure p, (3) vapor velocity vy , (4) liquid velocity v, , (5) vapor saturation Sy, (6) suspended solid saturation 5,,, and (7) deposited solid saturation Sy. ‘Since fluids are being transported in some regions in the wellbore model (in the production tubing and in the annulus) and there are no fluids the other regions (in the wall of the tubing, in the wall easing and in the cement), only conservation of thermal energy was solved over the entire domain of the wellbore simulator (see Fig. 11), Therefore, only one dependent variable, temperature 7, is solved implicitly using,39 ‘Newton's method. Explicit techniques such as the empirical two phase flow correlations are used to calculate all the other variables. ‘Wellbore Thermal Energy Balance. For the wellbore simulator, both heat conduction and ‘convection are modelled. ‘The same enthalpies and intemal energies that were incorporated in the reservoir simulator are also used in the wellbore simulator to model convection and heat content changes. These enthalpies and intemal energies are coupled to the following two thermal energy balances that are used to solve for the temperature in the regions of the wellbore which contain fluid, the tubing and the annulus. ‘The following thermal energy balance is used for the fluid inside the production ‘tubing: Ma, AT + A,(1-Sy) [Vyhy + Prva, + Ps¥z hs] Frtoysray + esSat + PsSsts] o ‘The term on the right hand side of this equation models the accumulation of heat. The first two terms on the left hand side equation describe the convective and conductive heat fiow, respectively. The convective terms are multiplied by a reduced flow area, A, (I-Szq ), to model the paraffin deposition in the tubing, The superficial velocities vy and v, of the liquid and vapor phases are calculated in a two phase flow correlation. Either Hagedorn and Brown or Beggs and Brill two phase flow correlation is used. ‘These empirical correlations are based on the mechanical energy equation but do not conserve momentum. For the slower moving fluids in the annulus, momentum is ignored. ‘The following thermal energy balance is used for the fluid inside the annulus: Aa, AT + Aglpyryhy * PLYehz] = LotorSyy + eySiail ® ‘Again, the term on the right hand side of this equation models the accumulation of hest. ‘The first two terms on the left hand side of this equation describe the convective and40 conductive heat flow, respectively. ‘The convective term in this energy balance uses A, which is the cross sectional area of the annulus. v, is the velocity of the liquid level in the annulus, To calculate all the velocities in the annulus, a simple assumption is made. This assumption is that all the velocities in both phases (vapor and liquid) are equal to the velocity of the liquid level. This assumption is more accurate for the liquid phase than the vapor phase due to compressibility differences. ‘The following thermal energy balance is used for inside the tubing, casing and the cement: v Na, AT = EBL euital ~ Ser o ‘The first term in this equation models conductive heat flow and the second term models the accumulation of thermal energy. The last term qyy is the energy rate added to the ‘tubing or casing by electric heating of the tubing or hot oil injection. With these thermal energy balances the temperature of the entire domain of the wellbore simulator is ‘obtained. To obtain the temperatures, the vapor and liquid velocities in the tubing are needed. ‘These velocities are obtained from a two phase flow correlation that is based ‘on the steady state mechanical energy balance. ‘Mechanical Energy Balance in Tubing. In the wellbore simulator the mechanical energy in the annulus is neglected. In fact paraffin precipitation and deposition in the annulus is neglected. This is done because, the main region of interest is inside the production tubing, To determine the amount of paraffin that is going to deposit onto the inside of the production tubing requires adequate pressure, velocities and saturations. To obtain these dependent variables in a two phase flow system can be a very complex procedure. For a laminar single phase flow systom, the equation of motion can be used to obtain pressures and velocities. This equation is based on the conservation of momentum and can be transformed into an equation of mechanical energy (a mechanical energy balance) ‘When this mechanical energy equation is coupled to the continuity equation (a mass balance) and to the appropriate rheology and equation of state (which describe the fluid properties and the flux of matter and energy across the phase boundaries), it should bea theoretically possible to calculate not only the pressures and velocities but also the ‘saturations of a two phase flow system. However, due to the complex dynamics which ‘cause the fluid to change flow regimes (aot only from laminar to turbulent but also from stratified to wavy, annular, plug, slug, bubble or mist), the modelling of a two phase flow ‘system with a completely theoretical approach is impractical.” To overcome this problem, the petroleum industry has developed several adequate empirical two phase flow correlations that are based on the steady state mechanical energy equation. For these multiphase flow correlations it was necessary to modify several terms in the mechanical energy equation. ‘These modifications were done to take care of the two phases. For example, a mixture density, velocity and friction factor were introduced.” These modified equations that are based on theory, were used to develop ‘empirical correlations. By regressing on a large amount of data, empirical approaches ‘that could adequate reproduce the measured data were developed and published. The following widely used empirical two phase flow correlations are installed as optional paths to obtain the pressures, velocities and a relative vapor and liquid saturations inthe production tubing: (1) Hagedom and Brown,” and (2) Beggs and Brill.” These correlations needed some extra assumptions, listed below, to handle the suspended and ‘the deposited solid paraffin. 1, The vapor and liquid saturations are relative to the volume of the tubing minus the volume of the deposited paraffin 2, The liquid saturation includes the suspended solid saturation, 3. The liquid and suspended solid paraffin has a liquid phase velocity. 4, The suspended solid saturation has a negligible effect on the liquid density and viscosity. 5. The roughness of the paraffin coated tubing is equal to the roughness of the tubing, 6. Violating the steady state assumption by removing and adding of paraffin mass from the tubing during a timestep has a negligible effect on the pressures, velocities and relative saturations, 7. The deposited paraffin reduces the effective diameter of the tubing. ‘With these assumption the pressures, velocities and a relative vapor and liquid saturationsa2 are obtained from a two phase flow correlation. ‘A complete description of both two phase flow correlations is given by Brown.” These two phase flow correlations are coupled to mass balances to calculate the solid saturations. Mass Balance in Tubing. In the wellbore simulator, the three pseudocomponents (gas, cil, and paraffin) can be present only in the following two regions of the wellbore: (A) inside the production tubing, and (2) inside the annulus, The main region of interest is inside the production tubing since the two main objectives of this research are to simulate paraffin deposition and removal in the production tubing. To model this phenomena, steady state two phase flow correlations are used, These correlations directly give pressures, liquid velocities and vapor velocities in the tubing. These correlations also give the vapor and liquid saturations relative to the volume of the tubing ‘minus the volume of the deposited paraffin. However these correlations cannot model the paraffin deposition and removal, therefore, the two phase flow correlations are coupled to single cell mass balances, fluid property calculations, and depositional models. By coupling these calculations, paraffin deposition and removal can be modelled and the following phase saturations can be obtained: (1) vapor saturation, (2) liquid saturation, G) suspended solid saturation, and (4) deposited solid saturation. Since the fluid property calculations and to the depositional models are closely linked to the mass balances they will be included in this section. Oil and gas steady state mass balances are calculated internally in the two phase flow correlations. However, these correlations do not consider paraffin so it was necessary to superimpose the paraffin mass balance onto the oil mass balance, This is done with single cell mass balances that are used to calculate all the true saturations. ‘These single cell mass balances will be discussed in more detail below. ‘The correlations oil and gas steady state mass balances are used to calculate the relative vapor and liquid saturations. These relative saturations have a base volume equal to the relative volume of the tubing. The relative volume of the tubing isthe volume of the tubing minus the volume taken by the deposited solid paraffin. The relative liquid4a saturation also includes the volume of the suspended solid saturation, ‘These saturations are needed to perform the single cell mass balances that are used to calculate all the true saturations. The first step taken to calculate the true saturations is to estimate the relative ‘volume of the tubing. To obtain this relative volume, the following logic was used to calculate the volume of a cell taken by the deposited paraffin. ‘The following logic is for paraffin deposition which reduces the relative volume of the tubing. If a particular cell has a deposited solid saturation and the temperature stays below the cloud point temperature from one timestep to the next, the deposited paraffin is left on the tubing and more paraffin is added to the deposit. This quantity of paraffin is added to the deposit is obtained from the a single cell mass balance, a solubility curve that was discussed previously and the depositional models which will be discussed later. When more paraffin is added to the deposit, the relative volume of the tubing is reduced again. ‘The following logic is for paraffin removal which increases the relative volume of a cell. If a particular cell has a deposited solid saturation and the temperature rises above the cloud point temperature from one timestep to the next, the amount of deposited paraffin thet con be put into the liquid is removed from the tubing. This quantity of paraffin is obtained just from the single cell mass balance and the solubility curve, If all of the deposited paraffin can be put into the liquid, then all the solid paraffin is removed from the tubing and the relative volume of the tubing is set equal tothe tubing volume. After estimating the relative volume of the tubing, the relative vapor and liquid saturations can be transformed into true saturations that have a base volume equal tothe ‘volume of the tubing. This is done with single cell mass balances. These mass balances are also used to calculate the suspended and deposited paraffin saturations. Since the paraffin mass balance is superimposed onto the oil mass balance, the liquid and suspended solid paraffin mass is transported up the production tubing at the same ‘velocity of the oil. These velocities are used directly in the single cell mass balances. A single cell mass balance uses a volumetric calculation to calculate the mass in place with the previous saturations and fluid properties such as the solution gas oil ratio,“4 the solution paraffin oil ratio and the suspended paraffin oil ratio. Then, this mass balance adds and subtracts mass respectively to consider the mass entering and leaving the cell with previous upstream fluid properties. Upstream velocities obtained from the ‘two phase flow correlation are also used in this single cell mass balance to calculate the ‘amount of mass entering and leaving a cell, After calculating the new mass in place, new fluid properties and relative saturations are calculated. Then, iterations are performed until the mass in place and the fluid properties converge. After the correct amount of mass is in each cell and is in its proper phase, the relative saturations can be transformed into true saturations (saturations that have a base volume equal to the volume of the tubing). Then, the if necessary the deposition models ‘are used to quantify the amount of suspended paraffin that will deposit. By coupling the two phase flow correlations, the single cell mass balances, the fluid property calculations, and the depositional models, the vapor, liquid suspended solid and deposited solid saturations can be calculated. This single cell mass balance approach that is used to calculate the deposited paraffin in the production tubing is not incorporated in the annulus because paraffin precipitation and deposition is neglected in the annulus. Mass Balance in Annulus. Paraffin precipitation and deposition in the annulus is neglected, Several other simplifying assumptions are also made to calculate the velocities, saturations and pressures in the annulus. For example, itis assumed that the momentum of the fluids is negligible, and the velocity of all the mass in this region moves at the torpid velocity of the fluid level. Another assumption for this region is that all the paraffin present stays in solution. ‘Therefore, all the mass exists in the liquid and ‘vapor phases, With these and a few more simplifying assumptions, the other dependent variable (saturations, velocities and pressures) are calculated explicitly. To calculate the saturations, the following procedure is used. As mentioned previously it is assumed that all the paraffin isin solution. This assumption gives 2er0 solid saturations over this entire region. Next it is assumed that above the liquid level, only the vapor phase was present. This assumption gives a vapor saturation of one and 4 liquid saturation of zero in this region4s The third and final assumption is that below the liquid level the liquid and vapor saturations could be directly obtained from an adjusted liquid gradient. When vapor was ‘bubbling up through the approximately static column of liquid, it reduces the liquid gradient.” The reduction in this liquid gradient is proportional to the vapor rate. A simple empirical correlation called the "Gilbert $ Curve" is used to obtain this reduction in the liquid gradient due to gas bubbling up through a static column of liquid. With this adjusted liquid gradient and the densities of the vapor and liquid, the vapor and liquid saturations could be calculated with the following equations. These equations were derived using a mass balance and volume balance, 5, = Pe Par (10) PL ~ Py 5, 5)-1 a 5, =0 (2) where p, is the liquid density, p, is the vapor density, p,, is the density of the liquid and ‘vapor mixture obtained from the adjusted liquid gradient. To calculate the velocity of the mass in the annulus, it is assumed that the ‘velocity of all the mass in this region is moving at the velocity of the fluid level. The following equation that is derived from a mass balance in the perf-cell is used to obtain this velocit (3) where g;, was the liquid rate from the reservoir and q,, is the liquid rate that is going up through the tubing. This tubing liquid rate is specified by the user as a pump rate With this velocity, found. With this new fluid level, the pressure distribution in the annulus is found. The pressures in the top cell found by using the given casing head pressure p., and ges gravity ¥,, The following equation is used to calculate the pressure of the other cells that timestep size, and an old fluid level, a new fluid level is were above the fluid level in the annulus: ‘After the pressures above the fluid level are calculated, the pressures below the46 | WoitiS y, Ale | (14) na er “9 ‘With these two equations, the cell pressures in the annulus and the bottom hole flowing pressure p,, are obtained. Once the temperatures, pressures, and phases saturations in the production tubing and in the annulus are determined as described above, the quantity of solid paraffin that deposits onto the i ‘may be calculated. le ofthe production tubing Paraffin Precipitation and Deposition in Tubing. Before solid paraffin can deposit onto ‘the inside of the production tubing, it must precipitate from solution. To calculate the amount of mass that precipitates from solution the solubility curve that is used in the reservoir simulator was used again, This solubility curve is documented by Peddibhotla” and Ring To calculate the amount of deposited solid paraffin, diffusion and shear deposition models proposed by Weingarten and Euchner are used." These models define the ‘amount of solid paraffin that deposits onto the inside of the production tubing. ‘The following paragraphs describe ‘was programmed into the simulator. Diffusion deposition is driven by a concentration gradient and the deposition rate is calculated with the following equation originally iffusion deposition and how this mechanism proposed by Weingarten and Euchner: a9) a where C, is their lab determined diffusion constant. With a diffusion deposition cell, the diffusion deposition rates for dead oil were measured for a range of conditions. The deposition cell is a cylindrical pressure vessel that has five circular steel plates in it.47 ‘These steel plates made six separate oil chambers that were not sealed from each other. ‘Therefore these steel plates were incorporated into this cell to act as sights where paraffin deposition could occur. The temperatures on the top and bottom ends of this eylindrical cell could be adjusted. Fora typical experiment one end of the cell was heated and the coher end was cooled. This temperature difference was held constant for a period of 48 to 170 hours. Then, the oil was drained while the temperature gradient was maintained. Next, cell was disassembled and the remaining mixture of wax and oil was removed. Finally, an acetone precipitation procedure was used to determine the amount of wax deposited.” ‘The results of these experiments were plotted ini the following manner. The product of the diffusion constant C, and the derivative of the mole fraction of paraffin in solution x,, with respect to the temperature T were plotted as a function of the temperature of the cold surface on a semilog plot (log(C, dx,/47} vs. 7). This plot resulted in two straight lines that intersected at about 70 ‘F. The low temperature line ranged from 30 °F to 70 “F. ‘The high temperature line ranged from 70 “F to 95 °F. Since it is uncommon for the production tubing to be colder than 70 °F, the high temperature line was programmed into the wellbore simulator with the following equation. G os = 199s HED a7 where 7, is the temperature of the production tubing. By coupling this equation to finite difference approximation of the diffusion deposition equation Eq, 16, the following procedure was developed. This procedure is used to calculate the amount of paraffin that deposited from diffusion, First the derivative of the mole fraction of paraffin in solution x,, with respect to ‘the temperature Tis calculated. To do this, the mole fraction of paraffin in the liquid phase at the fluid temperature 7, and at the tubing temperature 7, is calculated with the solubility curve, ‘Then, the following two point finite difference approximation is used to calculate this derivative.4B Sy, Hat et io a7 -% Next, the diffusion constant C, is calculated from the previous two equations. This constant may be multiplied by a user defined deposition constant C, . This deposition constant was used to increase the amount of paraffin that is depositing onto the inside of the production tubing, If the user defines a deposition constant equal to ‘one, then the diffusion deposition of paraffin onto the inner wall of the production tubing ‘will be proportional to the diffusion deposition obtained from the lab experiments performed by Weingarten and Euchner, Next, the following two point finite difference approximation is used to calculate the derivative of the mole fraction of paraffin in solution x, with respect to the radius 7, Sy, Fut — Fos 9) a 7; for use in Eq, 2-26, In this approximation r, is the radius of the tubing, x,,, and py are the mole fraction of paraffin in solution at the tubing and fluid temperatures respectively. Finally, the wellbore simulator calculates the density of the paraffin p, , the viscosity of the liquid jz, and the surface area of the production tubing A, With all these values, the diffusion deposition equation (Eq. 16) is used to calculate the diffusion deposition rate. This rate is multiplied by the timestep size to obtain the mass of the paraffin that deposits onto the production tubing from diffusion deposition. ‘Shear deposition is the other mechanism used in the wellbore simulator to define paraffin deposition that occurs in the production tubing. Shear deposition is driven by a velocity gradient (shear rate 7”) and is calculated with the following equation that was also proposed by Weingarten and Euchner:* a eres? 20) where A, is the surface area of the production tubing and k* is a shear deposition constant defined by lab experiments. A loop of 1/4 inch stainless steel tubing was used49 to obtain k*. Oil was circulated through this tube which was emersed in a glycol cooling bath. The amount of paraffin that was depositing onto the inside of this tubing was measured indirectly with the pressure drop. A uniform distribution of paraffin was assumed to calculate this volume. Diffusion deposition also adds to this deposited volume. ‘Therefore, the shear deposition rate was obtained by subtracting a calculated diffusion deposition rate from the total deposited rate. Then, the shear deposition rate ‘was normalized and plotted as a function of the shear rate. The normalized deposition rate was defined with the following equation. sy 1} a en The slope of this plot was approximately constant for shear rates less 2,650 second”. This slope for these shear rates was reported to be 1.022 hr-secift Es 102 2) 1 For shear rates greater than 2,450 second", the solid paraffin sloughed off the tubing. In this study itis assumed that this sloughing would not occur and that shear deposition only occurs at shear rates less than 2450 sec". ‘Therefore, the shear deposition constant e* could be calculated from Eq, 22. In the wellbore simulator, the concentration of precipitated paraffin C, is calculated with the following equation. eae where ris the moles of solid paraffin suspended in the liquid, ny, is moles of gas in solution, ,, is the moles of oil and ny, is moles of paraffin in solution. “The shear rate’? is obtained from the velocity of the liquid phase. This velocity ‘was calculated with the two phase flow correlation, With this velocity and the relative radius ofthe tubing 7, the shear rate was calculated with the following finite difference approximation50 ”, "Tg (24) ‘The liquid velocity v, was assumed to be an average velocity. For laminar flow, the average velocity occurs at a radius of yO F,, which justifies the use of the adjusted relative radius (Y0.5 7,) in this finite difference approximation. With the shear rate, the concentration of the suspended solid paraffin, the deposition constant and the area of the surface area of the production tubing, the shear deposition rate is calculated with Eq, 2- 30. Together shear deposit paraffin that will deposit onto the inside of the production tubing in the wellbore n and diffusion deposition quantify the total amount of simulator. Paraffin Removal in Tubing. There are various techniques used to remove paraffin once thas deposited. This study is limited to the following thermal methods:"* (1) electric, downhole heaters (2) electrical heating of the tubing, and (3) injection of hot (see Fig. 1-2). The only removal mechanism used in this simulator is the dissolving of the solid paraffin. Once the paraffin had been deposited onto the tubing, it is not removed until undersaturated oil comes in contact with the deposit. For the oil to be undersaturated, the temperature of the liquid must be raised above its cloud point temperature, When this occurs, the oil is resaturated with the deposited paraffin, If the oil in a wellbore cell could hold all the deposited paraffin, then all the solid paraffin is removed from the inner wall of the production tubing, This allows the solid paraffin to be dissolved and transported away in the liquid phase. This is apparently somewhat elementary compared to the elaborate depositional mechanisms. However, since studies concerning the removal of the solid paraffin by sloughing are not available, this removal mechanism is neglected, and therefore most likely a conservative amount of paraffin is removed with this simulator. Hot Oil Injection. The energy rate that is supplied by injecting hot31 the user. This energy is split between the tubing and the casing according to the user. These two increments of energy are distributed with the following linear frst order differential equation to the designated depth aE a where Z, is the heated depth. This technique of modelling hot cil injection was verified with field data form Sandia National Laboratories. Sandia performed a field test of heat AE @5) transfer that occurs during hot oil injection. This was done by setting a bridge plug between the perforations and the bottom of the tubing and then circulating out cool oi ‘with hot water, The temperatures that were recorded as a function of depth immediately after circulating the hot water were used to validate the temperatures obtained from the linear first order differential equation. A very good agreement was obtained ‘When hot oil is injected, the liquid level in the annulus increases accordingly. ‘The paraffin concentration of the liquid added to the annulus is specified by the user. ‘Therefore, the effects of removing the light ends (all the solution gas and some of the oil) is also being simulated. This high paraffin concentration hot oil was also capable of flowing back into the reservoir. When this occurs paraffin can deposit within the reservoir and reduce the effective permeability of the reservoir. The possibility of this ‘occurring has been well documented: This paraffin simulator has been designed to address this situation with a simplistic approach. This simulator lets the user specify the concentration of the oil at the perforations at any time. If no concentrations are specified, then the concentration of the oil in the first cell of the simulator is used. Downhole Heater, To model a downhole heater, an energy rate is specified, This energy rate is added to the cell that connects the wellbore model to the reservoir model (pert-cell). Then with a single cell thermal energy balance, the temperature of the perf-cell is calculated. All three pseudocomponents as well as all three phases are present in the perf-cell. The following three pseudocomponent, three phase thermal energy balance is used in the perfcell to calculate the temperature,52 26) Fates + eaSute * Pats] = dow * dew * ex * ere * ee ‘The accumulation of thermal energy is modeled with the first term in this equation and the following terms are qoy the thermal energy rate specified by the user, dr, + dere the sum of all heat flows due to convection (reservoir, production tubing, and annular fluids) and qcpy"+ dcop the sum of all the heat flow due to conduction (reservoir, cement, casing, annular fluid, tubing, produced liquid). This one dimensional nonlinear equation ‘was solved for the temperature of the perforation cell with Newton's method, ‘An operating maximum and minimum downhole temperatures are also specified. This thermal control is analogous to a thermostat. When the temperature of the perforation cell exceeds the specified maximum temperature, the thermal energy rate is temporarily set to zero, Once the temperature reaches specified operating minimum temperature, the thermal energy rate is returned to its original value, The user may also tum this downhole heater on and off any time during the run, Hectic Heating of the Tubing. To model electric heating of the tubing requires an energy rate. This user specified energy rate is added to the tubing and the casing. According to published results,” approximately 70 to 75 percent of the electrical energy added to the tubing is dissipated in the tubing for typical tubing/casing sizes. The rest of the electrical energy goes through the contactor (see Fig. 2) and is dissipated in the casing. Dissipation of electrical energy in the cement and the formation were neglected. However, the transfer thermal energy throughout the wellbore and the overburden is considered, In this model, the fraction of the total electrical energy that is dissipated by the tubing, may be specified by the user. These two increments of electrical energy are distributed evenly along the tubing and casing to the designated depth (the depth of the contactor). This distribution is a realistic interpretation of electric heating of the tubing according to a major manufacturer tubing heating hardware.**53 RESULTS ‘To validate the results obtained from this simulator, paraffin deposition and removal data ‘would have to be obtained from the field. This data was not available, therefore this study only documents the results obtained from this paraffin simulator by running, the following four cases: (1) paraffin deposition, (2) hot oil injection, (3) downhole heater, ‘and (4) electric heating of the tubing. With these four cases, conclusions are made from ‘observing the behavior of the simulator. Paraffin Deposition (Case 1) ‘This case was designed to illustrate paraffin deposition in the production tubing. The data used to simulate this case were chosen to represent a typical well with paraffin problems (see Table 1). This 5000 foot well has a constant production rate of one hundred stock tank barrels per day. The liquid entering the production tubing has a paraffin content of 6,83 percent by weight. The original cloud point temperature of liquid is 111.69 °F. The reservoirs temperature is 120.0 °F. Therefore, the liquid which is entering the production tubing is undersaturated with paraffin and all the paraffin exists in the liquid phase. As the liquid is produced up the tubing, paraffin solidifies at and below the original cloud point temperature. At the surface, the fluid temperature is 93.84 °F, The paraffin content in the liquid phase is reduced to 1.43 percent by weight at this lower temperature. However, only a small fraction of the precipitated paraffin deposits onto the production tubing. Most of the solid paraffin is produced as solid particles with the liquid. Since only a small amount of the precipitated paraffin deposits onto the tubing, this is nearly a steady state process. Therefore, the total paraffin content does not change much as the fluid travels up the tubing. In other words at the surface, 1.43 percent of the paraffin is in the liquid phase and almost all the rest, 5.40 percent of paraffin, is suspended as solid particles in the liquid phase as solid particles. However, sinceTABLE 1 - DATA USED TO SIMULATE (CASES 1-5). Oil Density Paraffin Density at Standard Conditions Cloud Point Temperature Latent Heat of Fusion of Paraffin ‘Melting Point Temperature of Paraffin User Defined Deposition Coefficient Thermal Conductivity of Oil ‘Thermal Conductivity of Gas ‘Solid Material Properties Density of Steel Density of Cement Density of Overburden and Underburden Isobaric Heat Capacity of Stee! Isobarie Heat Capacity of Cement Isobaric Heat Capacity of Rock ‘Thermal Conductivity of Steel ‘Thermal Conductivity of Cement ‘Thermal Conductivity of Rock Wellbore Data Tubing Head Pressure Casing Head Pressure Surface Mean Temperature Pump Rate Grid Data ‘Number of Vertical Grids in Well ‘Number of Vertical Grids in Overburden Number of Radial Grids in Overburden Number of Grids in Fluid ‘Number of Grids in Tubing ‘Number of Grids in Annulus ‘Number of Grids in Casing ‘Number of Grids in Cement Outer Radius of Rods Inner Radius of Tubing Outer Radius of Tt Inner Radius of Casing Outer Radius of Casing Outer Radius of Cement 50.66 56.61 111.69 30.0 185.0 33000.0 1.70 0.70 487.0 1200 1350 0.3 0.210 0.200 600.0 150 35.0 250.0 $0.0 70.0 i00. 25 15 9 1 1 2 1 4 0,000 1.2205 1.4375 2.506 2.75 3.0 Ibmift? Iomift? °F Keal/g-mole F dimensionless BrwD-f--F BrwD-f-F Ibmift? Tomift? Tbm/ft? Btulbm-"F Brulbm-"F Brulbm-"F BrwD-ft-F BrwD-f-F BtwD-f-F psig. psig ¥ sTBD in in in 5455 paraffin deposition is occurring the total paraffin content increases at a very slow rate, ‘The simulated paraffin deposition profiles are shown in Fig, 17. This figure illustrates that most of the paraffin deposition occurs at the top of the tubing. At this position in the tubing, diffusion deposition and shear deposition are the largest. Diffusion deposition is the largest because the temperature gradient isthe largest atthe top. Shear deposition is the largest, because the concentration of precipitated paraffin particles is also the largest atthe top. ‘The following paragraphs discuss in more detail ‘why the diffusion and shear deposition are the largest at the top of the tubing. 0 — — 1000 ae € 20 = 2000 e t eq 3000 4000 $000! 0 0.05 Ol 0.15 02 Deposited Parafin Thickness (in) ‘Fig. 17 - Simulated paraffin thickness profiles from the depositional period. Diffusion deposition is one of the two mechanism that defines the amount of paraffin deposition, and is driven by a concentration gradient that is produced from a temperature gradient. A temperature gradient only creates a concentration gradient in saturated liquids. The hotter saturated liquid in the center of the tubing will have a higher concentration of paraffin because of the increasing solubility of paraffin with increasing temperatures. Hence, the paraffin will diffuse from the hotter center of the tubing toward the relatively cool inner wall of the tubing. At the surface, the difference56 in the fluid and the tubing temperatures is the largest. Therefore, diffusion deposition is the largest at the top of the tubing. Shear deposition is driven by a velocity gradient and is proportional to the ‘concentration of precipitated paraffin particles. At the top of the tubing, both the velocity gradient in the radial direction (due to a reduction in the effective tubing diameter), and the concentration of precipitated paraffin particles (due to the relatively low fluid temperature) are the largest. Therefore, shear deposition is also the largest at the top of the tubing. With the contributions from both these depositional mechanisms, 0.175 inches of solid paraffin was deposited at the top of the tubing (see Fig. 17). ‘This quantity of deposited paraffin cannot be obtained unless a very large deposition coefficient is used. The deposition coefficient C, is a user defined constant that is used to increase the amount of paraffin depositing onto the inside of the production tubing, If the user defines deposition coefficient equal to one, then the

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