Chapter 3

Vector differentiation, the operator, grad, div and curl.

Syllabus topics covered: 1. Vector elds 2. Grad, div and curl operators in Cartesian coordinates. Grad, div, and curl of products etc. Here we cover differentiation of vectors. Note that this differs from the gradient introduced in Chapter 1, which we obtained by differentiating a scalar eld.

3.1 Vector functions of one or more variables

(See Thomas 13.1) In many physical contexts one is interested in vectors that vary with position or time. For example, the position of a point can be described by a vector r. Thus, if we consider a moving particle, its position can be described as a function of time t by the vector r(t ), and its rate of change with respect to t will be the velocity (which has magnitude and direction, i.e. is a vector: its magnitude is the speed). The position vector is then a function of one variable. Another context is where we have a vector dened at each point, say F(r) = F(x, y, z) and a curve with a parameter u, say, so its points are (x(u), y(u), z(u)). Then we can dene a vector function of u, F(u) = F((x(u), y(u), z(u)). We can deal with this and the moving particle case as follows. A vector function of a scalar u, F(u), can be dened by specifying its components as functions of u: F(u) = ( f1 (u), f2 (u), f3 (u)) . The derivative dF/du of F with respect to u is then: dF = du d f1 d f2 d f3 , , du du du .

This simply goes back to the fundamental denition of a derivative: dF F(u + u) F(u) = lim . du u0 u 28

Clearly one can compute higher derivatives, such as d2 F/du2 , by differentiating the components of F the required number of times. Example 3.1. If r(t ) is the position vector of a particle, as a function of time t , then dr/dt is the velocity v of the particle. Also dv/dt d2 r/dt 2 is the particles acceleration. Example 3.2. The continuous parameter t can take all real values. Write down the derivatives dr/dt and d2 r/dt 2 for the vector r = (sin t )i + t j. Also, sketch the curve whose parametric equation is r = r(t ). The rst and second derivatives are dr dt d2 r dt 2 The sketch is shown in Fig. 3.1. = (cos t )i + j, = ( sin t )i.

t= t = /2

-1
2

t=0 1

Figure 3.1: Sketch of the curve dened parametrically by r = (sin t )i + t j It is easy to prove, by writing out the components and collecting terms, that if F and G are vector functions of u, then d(F.G) dG dF = F. + .G. du du du Proof: d(F.G) du d ( f 1 g1 + f 2 g2 + f 3 g3 ) du d f2 d f3 dg1 dg2 dg3 d f1 = f1 + f2 + f3 + g1 + g2 + g3 du du du du du du dG dF = F. + .G. Q.E.D. du du =

Exercise 3.1. Sketch the curves whose parametric equations are 29

(a) r = (3 sin t )i + (2 cos t )j (b) r = (cos t )j (c) r = t i + t 2k ( t ), and write down the derivatives dr/dt and d2 r/dt 2 where they are dened. 2

If F is a vector function of more than one variable, say F = F(u, v), then it is straightforward to dene its partial derivatives with respect to u or v, in terms of partial derivatives of its components. Thus, for example, if F = ( f1 (u, v), f2 (u, v), f3 (u, v)), then

F = u

f1 f2 f3 , , u u u

One case where this arises is if the vector is dened at each point on a surface (x(u, v), y(u, v), z(u, v)).

3.2 Vector Fields

(See Thomas 16.2) For the rest of this course, we shall be concerned mostly with vectors and scalars which depend on position in three-dimensional space, i.e. which are functions of three variables x, y, z. Sometimes they may depend also on a fourth variable, such as time t , or we may only be interested in their values on a particular path r(s). A vector depending on position is said to constitute a vector eld. We write a vector F that varies with position as F = F(x, y, z) F(r) An example is shown in Figure 3.2. We can also write F in terms of its components, which again depend on position: F = (F1 (x, y, z), F2 (x, y, z), F3 (x, y, z)) . A physical example of a vector eld is the velocity in a owing uid (e.g. the water in the oceans, moving because of currents and tides; or the air in the atmosphere, moving because of winds). The velocity at any point in the uid is a vector quantity it has magnitude and direction. If we attach a velocity vector to each point of the owing uid, we have a vector eld dened in the region occupied by the uid. Another physical example is a magnetic eld; now things are not necessarily moving with time, but the magnetic eld has a direction and a strength at each point in space; so at each point in space we have a vector; and this vector (in general) varies with position so it is a vector eld. We can add vector elds and multiply them by a constant in the obvious way, so if F and G are two vector elds then F + G is also a vector eld, and if is a constant then F is also a vector eld. Given a vector eld, we could of course now differentiate the vector eld with respect to each of the coordinates (x, y, z) in turn, in the manner described in the previous section; this gives us a total of 9 quantities for each of the x, y, z derivatives of F1 , F2 , F3 . Here we will be assuming that F is a smoothly-varying function of position, so all these derivatives exist at all points of interest r, (except possibly for one or two singular points). Note: the set of all 9 derivatives of a component by a coordinate forms a quantity of a new kind, called a tensor. These are used in uid mechanics, solid mechanics and relativity, for example. 30

1.0

0.8

0.6
y

0.4

0.2

0.0 0.0

0.2

0.4
x

0.6

0.8

1.0

Figure 3.2: Example of a ow. In this case the speed and direction at each point is a function of the position (x, y) However, in this course we will not deal with tensors, we will restrict ourselves to forming scalar and vector quantities from these derivatives. To do this, it will turn out that we have to take certain combinations which are well behaved if we rotate the x, y, z axes; these will turn out to be forming the dot and cross products of with F , where = i +j +k x y z is the operator called del which we met previously in forming the gradient of a scalar. Note again that is not a true vector (because on its own we cant dene its length or direction), but it is a vector differential operator.

3.3

The Divergence of a vector eld

(See Thomas 16.8) Suppose F(x, y, z) = F1 i + F2j + F3k is a vector eld. The divergence of F is dened to be F =

F1 F2 F3 + + x y z

Here div F is a scalar and depends on position, so it is a scalar eld. We can also get the above result if we write out and F in components, F = (i

+ j + k ).(F1 i + F2j + F3k) x y z

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and use the properties i.i = 1, i.j = 0, etc. Note that, given a scalar eld V , we found a vector eld V . Here, given a vector eld F, we have produced a scalar eld F. We can also write F as div F. These notations are completely interchangeable. It is easy to show, by direct calculation, that div behaves as expected for addition and multiplication by a constant, i.e. (F + G) = ( F) + ( G) , ( F) = ( F) The geometrical meaning of the divergence is as follows. Loosely speaking, if at some point in space the divergence is positive, and one considers a small closed surface surrounding that point, then on balance the vector eld is pointing away from the point and out of the surface. If the divergence is negative, then on balance the vector eld is pointing towards the point and into the surface. (See Fig. 3.3.) This idea will be made more precise when we come to the Divergence Theorem in the next Chapter. A vector eld F for which F = 0 everywhere is called divergence-free or solenoidal. The reason for the name solenoidal is historical: that a solenoid is a coiled wire that produces a magnetic eld, and a magnetic eld B is an example of a eld that has B = 0 everywhere (this is an observational fact, and arises because magnetic monopoles have never been found in many searches). Example 3.3. If F = 3xy2 i + ez j + xy sin zk, calculate F. F =

(3xy2 ) ez (xy sin z) + + = 3y2 + xy cos z. x y z

Exercise 3.2. If F = (y x)i + (z y)j + (x z)k, calculate F. [Answer: -3]

3.4

The Curl of a vector eld

(See Thomas 16.7) The curl of a vector eld F is dened to be F =

F3 F2 F1 F3 F2 F1 i+ j+ k. y z z x x y

Note that curl F is another vector eld. We can write F as curl F again the two notations are completely interchangeable. It is convenient to remember F in terms of a determinant like the one for v w: i j k F = / x / y / z . F1 F2 F3 It is easy to verify, by writing out the determinant in full, that this is equivalent to the original denition. It is also easy to show, by writing out the components, that if F, G are any two vector elds, (F + G) = ( F) + ( G) 32

-1

-2 -2 -1 0
x

Figure 3.3: Example of a vector eld with positive divergence (everywhere): F = xi + yj. and if is any constant then

( F) = ( F)

Note in the above that must be independent of position; see the next section for multiplying a scalar and vector eld. The geometrical meaning of the curl is as follows. Loosely speaking, if at some point in space the component of the curl in the n direction is positive, it means that in the vicinity of the point and in a plane normal to n, the vector eld tends to go round in an anticlockwise direction if one looks along vector n. If the component of the curl were negative, it would mean that the vector eld tends to go round in a clockwise direction. (See Fig. 3.4.) This idea will be made more precise when we come to Stokess Theorem. A vector eld F for which F = 0 everywhere is called curl-free or irrotational. Example 3.4. The velocity in a uid is v = yi xj + 0k. Find v. i v = / x y j k / y / z = i(0 0) + j(0 0) + k(1 1) = 2k. x 0

Exercise 3.3. If F = (x2 + y2 + z2 )i + (x4 y2 z2 )j + xyzk, nd F. Exercise 3.4. Find the divergence ( F) and curl ( F) of the following vector elds: F = x2 i + xzj 3zk F = x2 i 2xyj + 3xzk F = (1/r) where r = (x2 + y2 + z2 )1/2 = 0. 33

-1

-2 -2 -1 0 x 1 2

Figure 3.4: Example of a vector eld with positive curl (in the z direction): F = xj yi. 2

3.5 Grad, Div and Curl of products

(See Thomas 16.7 and the exercises to 16.8) We can now consider the application of grad, div and curl to products. We saw above that grad, div and curl behave in the obvious way for addition and multiplication by a constant. However, we can also multiply scalar and vector elds together: e.g. if we have two scalar elds U (r), V (r) we can multiply them (at each point r) to get a new scalar eld UV (r); likewise for a scalar eld U and a vector eld F(r) multiplying them gives U F(r). Also, if we have two vector elds F, G we can dene their dot product F.G(r) and cross product F G(r) in the obvious way, by taking the dot or cross products of each eld at the same point r. We can now apply grad, div and curl to these products, but only for the following allowed combinations: to apply grad, we have to have a product which is itself a scalar eld: that can be an ordinary product of two scalar elds, say UV , or a scalar product (dot product) of two vector elds, F.G. Div and curl can only be applied to vector elds, so the possible products we could have are U F, where U is a scalar eld, or the cross product F G of two vector elds. If we were dealing with functions of a single variable, the derivative would just give the well-known product rule for derivatives, dg d f d( f g) =f + g. (3.1) dx dx dx Some of the vector cases are just like that, but some are more complicated: we next give the results, and discuss the details afterwards. 34

For grad of products we have: (UV ) = U (V ) + V (U ) grad (UV ) = U grad V + V grad U (F.G) = F ( G) + G ( F) + (F.)G + (G.)F For div of products we have: (U F) = U ( F) + (U ).F (F G) = G.( F) F.( G) and for curl of products, we have: (U F) = U ( F) + (U ) F = U ( F) F (U ) (F G) = F( G) + (G.)F G( F) (F.)G (3.6) (3.7) (3.4) (3.5) (3.2) (3.3)

We see above that equations 3.2, 3.4, 3.5 and 3.6 look quite similar to 3.1, except for the minus sign in 3.5 and the possible minus sign in 3.6. Note also that Eqs. 3.2 and 3.3 are symmetrical in the two variables, while 3.5 and 3.7 are antisymmetric, i.e. they must change sign if F, G are swapped due to the antisymmetry of the cross product. The other two 3.3, 3.7 are more complicated, and involve the new operator (G.): Here the notation (G.)F is to be interpreted as (G.F1 , G.F2 , G.F3 ), taking F = (F1 , F2 , F3 ); where for a scalar eld V , if G = (G1 , G2 , G3 ), (G.)V = G1

V V V V = G1 + G2 + G3 + G2 + G3 , x y z x y z

Thus writing out the whole thing, we have (G.)F = G1

F1 F1 F1 F2 F2 F2 F3 F3 F3 + G2 + G3 , G1 + G2 + G3 , G1 + G2 + G3 x y z x y z x y z

This is essentially the directional derivative of vector F in the direction of G, i.e. it is |G| times the derivative d F/ds along the direction of the unit vector parallel to G. (Warning: the form of this denition will not persist in curvilinear coordinates, but the directional derivative will remain the same). Note: you are not expected to memorise Eqs. 3.3 and 3.7, but you may be given those formulae in an exam question. You should know the denition of (G.)F above. Example 3.5. Let a be a constant vector, and r = |r| as usual. Then, using Eq 3.6, (ra) = r( a) a r ar = 0 r

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Example 3.6. Let a be a constant vector. Then, using Equation 3.7, (a r) = a( r) + (r.)a r( a) (a.)r = 3a + 0 0 a = 2a (On the top line, the two middle terms differentiate the constant a so are both zero, and it is simple to check from the denitions that r = 3 and (a.)r = a.) Proofs: All of the equations 3.2 to 3.7 can be proved directly from the denitions by inserting components, expanding out using the ordinary product rule and doing some rearrangement; this can be fairly long, but is not difcult. For a couple of examples: rstly for Eq. 3.2 it is simple, we have (UV ) = i

(UV ) + j (UV ) + k (UV ) x y z V U V U V U = i(U +V ) + j(U +V ) + k(U +V ) x x y y z z V V V U U U +j +k +j +k +V i = U i x y z x y z = U (V ) + V (U ) QED.

Next well prove Eq.3.6: from the denition of curl, (U F) = i

(UF3 ) (UF2 ) + j (UF1 ) (UF3 ) + k (UF2 ) (UF1 ) y z z x x y F3 U F2 U F1 U F3 U = i U +j U + F3 U F2 + F1 U F3 y y z z z z x x F2 U F1 U + F2 U F1 +k U x x y y

Now we just re-order the 12 terms so that the six with a U Fi come rst, then the six with an Fi U come next; and from the denitions, it becomes clear that the result is (U F) = U ( F) + (U ) F QED.

The others can be proved in a similar way, though it gets quite long for Eqs. 3.3 and 3.7. Much shorter proofs can be given using index notation, but this is no longer on the syllabus.

3.6 Vector second derivatives: applying twice

We also have a second set of identities arising from applying two of grad, div or curl in succession. Here grad U and curl F produce vector elds, to which either div or curl can be applied; while div F produces a scalar eld, and then we can apply grad to that. This gives a total of ve allowed cases, which are as follows: 36

div(grad U) = (U ) 2U curl(grad U ) = (U ) = 0 div(curl F) = ( F) = 0 curl(curl F) = ( F) = ( F) F grad(div F) = ( F) = ( F) + 2F

2

(3.8) (3.9) (3.10) (3.11) (3.12)

We see here that two of these cases (curl grad U, and div curl F) are identically zero ; this is true for any elds, as long as they are sufciently well behaved that the partial derivatives commute, see below. These two zero cases can be helpfully memorised by the fact that they would also give zero if was replaced by an ordinary vector a ; but beware, this sort of rule is not applicable to every equation containing . The rst equation above Eq. 3.8 introduces a new operator 2 called the Laplacian; this is very important in a wide range of physical problems, and we will meet it extensively in Chapter 8. In components, as expected from the denition of , it is simply 2U

2 2 2 U + 2U + 2U 2 x y z

(3.13)

This operator can be applied to either a scalar eld or a vector eld, producing a eld of the same type; so 2 F means apply 2 to each component of F separately, giving 2 F = i2 F1 + j2 F2 + k2 F3 so 2 F is another vector eld. Note that the last two of the above equations 3.11 and 3.12 are just a rearrangement of each other, giving a relationship between curl curl F, grad div F and 2 F. All of the relations above can be proved by direct substitution, e.g.: Proof of 3.9: curl(U ) = = i j k / x / y / z U / x U / y U / z

2U 2U 2U 2U 2U 2U , , y z z y z x x z x y y x

= 0.

[Note, we assume that the function U is sufciently well-behaved for its partial second derivatives to commute.] The relation curl grad U = 0 is particularly useful, since it is often interesting to ask, given some vector eld F, can we nd a scalar eld U such that U = F ? If we can, this simplies things from 3 components to 1. Now we can see immediately that if curl F = 0, it is impossible to nd such a scalar eld U : because for any U , the vector eld dened by H U will have curl H = 0, therefore H = F. However, we will show in the next chapter that if curl F = 0 everywhere in a given domain then we can nd such a scalar eld U , and well also show how to construct the desired U with a suitable integral.

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