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Magnetic & Gravity Gate

Bouguer Gravity

Philosophy behind the recommended and adopted GeoRock work flow for Potential Field Magnetic & Gravity.
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Main targets are : Regional tectonic events that affected the concession area. Construct a basement tectonic map for the concession area including basement depth and major structural trends. Define the density heterogenities within the sedimentary section along with creating gravity layers.

General Approach
Often calls for the remedial involvement of potential field methods - gravity and magnetic methods in particular and their involvement in the interpretation process to not only assures a greater uniformity of interpretation coverage, but it is also important in locating features that are seismically less easy to recognize such as strike-slip faults, regional discontinuities, dykes, and true basement surface. There are 2 aspects to gravity and magnetic interpretation - qualitative and quantitative. The qualitative element is largely map-based and dominates the early and late stages of a study. The preliminary structural element map that results from this can be regarded as the cornerstone of the interpretation. Qualitative interpretation involves recognition of: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. The nature of discrete anomalous bodies including intrusions, faults and lenticular intra-sedimentary bodies - often aided by the running of simple test models; Disruptive cross-cutting features such as strike-slip faults; Effects of mutual interference between anomalies that are vertically or horizontally adjacent; Age relationships of intersecting faults; Structural styles; Unifying tectonic features/events that integrate seemingly unrelated interpreted features; and Delineate depth to different wavelength anomalies.

In this way, a preliminary framework of mapped features is generated. Ideally the data coverage would enable the interpretation to be set within its regional context. This qualitative understanding is then used as a basis for detailed quantitative refinement, for example, of depth estimates to tops of anomalous magnetic bodies generated by various means. For example, the results of source Parameter Imaging (SPI) can be more easily and sensibly discriminated on the basis of likely body types as determined from the qualitative and quantitative stages of the interpretation. A qualitative fore-knowledge of the possible significance of magnetic anomalies and their inter-relationships also benefits the recommended future modeling of seismically controlled magnetic and gravity profiles, helping in the more accurate extrapolation of the results to un-modeled regions of the study area. In this way body geometries can be more accurately defined, more precise xyz location of bodies determined and interfering bodies better resolved. Interpretation of magnetic data is theoretically more involved than the corresponding gravity data, due to: i. The dipolar nature of the magnetic field in contrast with the simpler monopolar gravity field; and ii. The latitude/longitude dependent nature of the induced magnetic response for a given body due to the variability of the Earth's inducing field over the Earth's surface. Despite this, interpretation of magnetic data is in practice often simpler than that of the gravity due to smaller number of contributory sources. Often, though not always, there is just one source - the magnetic crystalline basement. The entire geologic section, by contrast, generates the gravity response. The apparent complexity conferred by the dipolar nature of magnetic data lends an interpretative advantage in the case of intra-sedimentary magnetic bodies, as the dipolar response is particularly diagnostic of the disposition (e.g. dip) of the source. For that reason it is important for the interpreter to be familiar with a wide range of induced magnetic responses produced by simple yet geologically sensible bodies specific to the magnetic inclination of the region. Modeling of potential field data is an important aspect of the interpretation process. It is often performed using a "bottomup/outside-in/magnetic first" approach. This ensures that deep (magnetic basement related) and distal sources, which impact regionally on the study area, are sensibly configured before attention is focused on the detail within the area of interest. In practice the interplay of deep, distal and centrally shallow crustal features invariably requires a degree of iteration between deep and shallow source assignments.
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The "magnetic first" approach is favored recognizing that the sedimentary section within petroleum provinces often possesses little in the way of magnetic susceptibility, in which case a very large proportion of magnetic signal is generated at crystalline (igneous or metamorphic) basement level. This is useful, because unlike gravity where the entire section contributes to the observed field leading to a potentially confusing overprint picture, all but the shortest wavelength magnetic responses can be ascribed to the underlying basement. If shallower intra-sedimentary magnetic sources do exist these are usually sufficiently discrete and of contrastingly short wavelength to be recognized for what they are. The modeling of the magnetic data is therefore particularly important for extending interpretation below the effective level of seismic penetration. Once the magnetic data has been addressed in this way, consistency is then sought with the longer wavelength gravity features. By this means any remaining long wavelength gravity anomalies may be more properly ascribed to broad shallow sources, rather than to deep sources. The final modeling configuration relies on seeking consistency between the gravity and the magnetic data while adhering to sensible geological principles and experience.

GeoRock Magnetic & Gravity Work Flow

1. Geological Data Client shall provide all available geological and geophysical data; surface as well as subsurface. Drilling information will be very helpful, in term of log or lithological information. The tectonic history of the concession area is important for fault intersection age relation and structural style. 2. 3. Data Loading And Quality Check Processing Of Magnetic/Gravity Data Production of Reduced to Pole (RTP) magnetic or Reduced to Equator (RTE) magnetic maps. Investigating the power spectrum of the magnetic and gravity data to enhance the shallow, intermediate and deep frequency components using regional residual separation and bandpass filtering techniques. Several maps will be produced by GeoRock from this step: a. b. c. High pass; residual; and derivative magnetic and gravity maps Intermediate frequency range; band pass for both magnetic & gravity Regional; low pass; for both magnetic & gravity

Computation of residual anomaly and Horizontal Gradients using the Batterworth filters or other filters with suitable cutoff frequency to separate the regional and residual components. The total horizontal gradient of the gravity and magnetic data shall be computed using the gradient in X and Y direction. Computation of first vertical derivatives Production of derivative maps of magnetic and gravity data; First Vertical Derivative (FVD), etc 4. Qualitative Interpretation Preliminary computation of the depth to basement at each frequency bands level by using different depth estimation techniques (Euler de-convolution, Wener de-convolution). These techniques shall be applied to causatives features of each component. An integrated interpretation from step II.3 should be done in order to define both the tectonic features that are persistent in all maps., i.e throughout geological time and affecting both basement and the sedimentary section, and those tectonic features or elements that affect a certain period of geologic time; and which of these tectonic features or elements which control oil traps and migration mechanism. 5. 2D Gravity/Magnetic Modeling Along Selected Profiles The proposed modeled profiles; should be carefully selected to be at right angles across the geologic structure of the area as indicated by fault patterns of the area. Some of which will be in the strike direction as tie profiles to achieve better control of the already modeled profiles. Interpreted seismic profiles shall be used as initial models for the gravity
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modeling profiles. 6. 3D Gravity/Magnetic Modeling In The Area Under Study A depth to basement grid will be generated for the study area from the results of 3D gravity inversion. The inversion technique is that of Cordell and Henderson (1968) whereby the subsurface is represented by a series of squaretopped vertical prisms of known density contrast, fitting the thickness variation to the observed gravity in an iterative manner. The success of this technique relies on the existence of a clear and definable density contrast at the principal formation boundary and on having some control points where the depth to the inverted horizon is well constrained. In addition it is necessary to carry out calculations on grids extended well away from the area of interest to avoid edge effects. This is required because the calculated gravity effect takes account only of subsurface elements within the area of the grid, assuming the layer to have zero thickness outside of that area. Two approaches for such an inversion are commonly used: i. A layer-by-layer stripping of calculated gravity response from the top down based on regularly mapped interval thicknesses. ii. A two-layer approach with the topmost layer being the entire sedimentary section. A density contrast at the basement, which is the difference of the basement density and the weighted mean of the overlying sediments, is used. The control will be confined entirely to the results of the 2D modeling. Initially the Bouguer gravity anomaly grid will be adjusted so that it matched the expected gravity effect of the surface being inverted for basement at the control points (the 2D models). These will be achieved by calculating the difference between the expected response and the value from the gravity anomaly grid at the control points and interpolating these onto a smoothed grid which will then applied to the gravity. Then iterated across the entire grid until either the calculated gravity anomaly matched the actual gravity response to within a certain tolerance or a specified number of iterations had been performed. 7. Computation of Magnetic basement depth Basement depth map shall be computed using magnetic data and results from modeled profiles, and other possible techniques like: 2D GeoMagnetic-Gravity-Seismic Modeling The fundamental concept of 2D modeling is the calculation of the anomaly of the assumed source and then comparing this anomaly with the observed data.2-D. Depth Estimating Procedures Depth analyses are carried out on magnetic & gravity anomalies along selected profiles. These methods consist of interpretation of the sources of magnetic & a gravity anomaly into geological terms, such as faults, dikes, and contacts. The rectangular form of these anomalies as well as the steep gravity/magnetic gradients surrounding the anomalies, define to a great extent the size, shape and the fault boundaries of the different tilted basement blocks. Two-dimensional (2D) models assume the earth is two dimensional; i.e. it changes with depth (the z directional)and in the direction of the profile(x direction; perpendicular to strike). 2D models do not change in the strike direction (y direction), 2D blocks and surfaces are presumed to extend to infinity in the strike direction. Because magnetic calculations are non-linear, the calculation uses an iterative process. The forward calculation equations are approximated by linear equations. Magnetic models are not unique; i.e. several earth models can produce the same magnetic response. Furthermore, many solutions may not be geologically realistic, because of this non-uniqueness, and because the process is non-linear the final result or solution depends on the starting model. The
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better the starting model, the better the end result is. As the term optimization implies, inversion is best used to make small changes to the model to obtain the final optimal fit to the observed data. Inversion should not be used to create a hypothetical earth model from a poorly-defined starting model. Choose to model rotated-to-pole magnetic data when doing so, the inclination and declination of the earth's field must be set to 90 and 0, respectively. The inverse problem in Potential Field interpretation is to calculate the anomaly along a geologic profile assuming the different formations, their densities or magnetic susceptibility, and their structural configuration from the qualitatively interpreted regional map and subsurface geologic information as deduced and controlled by the drilled wells IF ANY. The second step is to compare the calculated anomaly with the observed one. Local Wave Number Approach (Source Parameter Imaging, SPI) Thurston and Smith (1997) introduced the Source Parameter Imaging (SPI) method; it requires second-order derivatives of the total field and uses a term known as the local wave number to provide a rapid estimate of the location of buried magnetic or gravity bodies. The local wave number has maxima located over isolated contacts and depths can be estimated without assumptions about the thickness of the sources. Solution grids using the SPI technique show the edge locations of susceptibility or density contrasts. The local wave number approach has been applied to the reduced to the pole magnetic data. Values of the maxima local wave number were detected using the method of Blakely and Simpson (1986). Analytic Signal Approach Analytic signal is one of the semi-automatic interpretation methods for magnetic and gravity anomalies, which was initially used in its complex function form and makes use of the properties of the Hilbert transform. Initially, it was successfully applied on profile data to locate dike-like bodies. The method was further developed by Roest et al. (1992) for the interpretation of aeromagnetic maps. Moreover, Bastani and Pedersen (2001) employed the method to estimate many parameters of dike-like bodies, including depth, strike, dip, width, and magnetization. Recently, Salem and Ravat (2003) presented an automatic analytic signal method to estimate horizontal location, depth and the nature of 2D magnetic sources, using the derivatives of the analytic signal (AN-EUL). In this method, derivatives of the field of up to third order are used. Using these derivatives, depth and model type are estimated at the location of maximum analytic signal without any a priori information about the nature of the source. Radially Averaged Power Spectrum Regional depth estimates are calculated from the computed radially averaged power spectrum of the magnetic field, this spectral representation can be broken up into a series of straight-line segments, which are related to various "groups" of sources at varying depths. The automated depth estimating technique allows a large amount of data, in gridded form, to be evaluated fairly quickly. The results must be carefully viewed and calibrated. 8. Identification Of Major Structural Trends (Basement Tectonic Map) Construction of a basement tectonic map for the concession area through integrating the results obtained from the previously mentioned geophysical techniques, coupled with available geologic information. 9. Submittals "Just An Example But Not Limited To It" Map of short wavelength component of Bouguer gravity anomaly. Map of mid wavelength component of Bouguer gravity anomaly. Map of long wavelength component of Bouguer gravity anomaly. Map of residual gravity anomaly map. Map of first vertical derivative of gravity. Map of horizontal gradient of gravity. Contour map of depth of magnetic causative for short wavelength component. Contour map of depth of magnetic causative for mid wavelength component. Contour map of depth of magnetic causative for long wavelength component. 2D gravity/ Magnetic modeling along selected profiles. 3D Gravity/Magnetic modeling for the area. Map of the magnetic basement shape.
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Map showing the major structural trends in the area. Digital archive of the above mentioned submittals. Back To Top >>> | Magnetic & Gravity Gate >>> | Seismic Interpretation >>> | Seismic Sequence Stratigraphy >>> | GeoMechanics >>> Fracture Modelling >>> | Reservoir Studies & Engineering >>> | Prospect & Risk Assessments >>> | Surface Geology >>> | Integrated Studies >>>

Seismic Interpretation

The objective of 2D/3D Interpretation of geoscientific data is to provide adequate outputs for delineation and mapping of structural and stratigraphic prospects / leads with the help of the present optimally processed 3D seismic data combined with available 2D seismic data. GeoRock will also utilize all other available 2D/3D seismic data, well data, well logs etc... in and around the nearby areas mainly for integration of the geoscientific information. Primarily, the data is required to be processed for structural / stratigraphic interpretation and reservoir delineation/ characterization. Detailed analysis of the identified prospects / Leads for their prospectivity from 2D/3D seismic standing point, estimation of hydrocarbon reserves and risk weighted analysis in terms of both chance of success (COS) and risk assessment, using stateof-the art technology. GeoRock will request all the available surface geological information/ reports and information on the areas/blocks. GeoRock shall integrate all the available wells information, surface geological information, structural and tectonic interpretation from remote sensing data, gravity & magnetic data with seismic data in the area/block for interpretation. Using the above data, knowledge, worldwide experience and expertise, GeoRock will carry out integrated interpretation of seismic data. On top of that, GeoRock has its own unique methodology for depth conversion.

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GeoRock Philosophy Of Depth Conversion (Velocity Without Tears)

The sources for the velocity information in the seismic business are: Stacking velocity. Sonic log Check shot or VSP Etc... Velocity is one of the challenging aspects of the seismic workflow; it is an issue because different things are measured to calculate several values that go by the name of velocity of one sort or another. For example, there are stacking velocities, RMS velocities, effective velocities, average velocities, interval velocities and so on. It is important to know the differences so that the proper velocity can be chosen for the job at hand. The seismic exploration would probably be better if the stacking velocity term had never been used. It should be called stacking function or stacking approximation because it is not really velocity at all. It specifies the hyperbola which would describe the move out curve for a certain reflector if the velocity were constant from the surface to the reflector. It never is, except occasionally in very shallowest beds. The equation of hyperbola is met only in a situation of constant velocity. Since this hardly ever happen in real data, the case is proved. Average velocity is what we get from the well-velocity survey (VSP or check shot) and it is what must be used for time-todepth conversion. So the confusion between average and stacking velocity must never be, they are almost never the same. As a general rule, stacking velocity is always greater than average velocity; the question is that what is the relation between the stacking velocity and the average velocity at the well location? Dix formula simply answer that where it assume the straight ray path from the shooting to CDP. In the other hand Snell's law requires that the ray path curve when velocity varies with depth, so with depth the ray path will have the concave upward shape. Physically the Dix path is shorter, since it follows straight lines, but not the shortest time path. In areas where the velocity is layered instead of constant, the offset travel time will be less than time associated with straight ray path, and then the stacking velocity will be greater than the average velocity. Since the difference between the average velocity and the stacking velocity is related to the difference in length between the assumed straight ray path and actual curved ray path, it is clear that the greater the ray path difference, the greater the difference between stacking and average velocity. Snell's law established that more oblique the angle more the ray will bend as it passes into the next layer. The RMS of the interval stacking velocity will tend to reduce the difference between the stacking velocity and average velocity but doesn't really solve the problem. Using stacking velocity to convert time to depth will always cause the reflectors to be plotted deeper than they really are. The other sources for the velocity information is sonic log and well check shot. For sonic tool or what so called acoustic tool, is the only tool which produce direct in situ measurement of rock velocity. The tight sampling of this tool provides data that can be considered as instantaneous velocity. To obtain interval velocity over relevant interval, divide along whole thickness of the interval by the integrated travel time. The consideration for this tool is that the sonic log highly affected to the bore-hole condition. Also the sonic tool measure the velocity of acoustic waves in Kilo Hertz (KHz) rang but the surface or reflection seismic uses frequencies in the 40 Hertz (HZ) range, this phenomenon of frequency dependent velocity called dispersion. In areas of uniform lithology which have not undergone tectonic inversion or sever structural deformation, depth conversion can often be performed according to simple mathematical function e.g. average velocity as linear function of depth. In areas where there are dramatic changes of velocity, such as carbonate units alternating with thick clastic units, then simple velocity function cannot cope with this issue and is inadequate for depth conversion. One of the good sounding methods for time-to-depth conversion is the layer cake conversion which is simply to treat each lithological unit separately and define each unit by different mathematical function. The simplest functions at all assume that each lithological unit has a constant but different interval velocity.
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Many types of the functions have been proposed in the literature over the past years. Some of the most common methods, the interval velocity is considered as a linear function of depth of burial, or what so called V0K approach. V=V0+K*Z, where z is the depth to the top As per the previous function, the interval velocity is composed of two components, V0 which is a function in X & Y and K*Z which is a function in depth. Therefore, in general, lateral lithology variation is modeled by the V0 term, and compaction is modeled by K*Z term. By using the midpoint depth versus interval velocity cross-plot coming from check shot or the calibrated sonic, the V0 & K can be easily calculated. Back To Top >>> | Magnetic & Gravity Gate >>> | Seismic Interpretation >>> | Seismic Sequence Stratigraphy >>> | GeoMechanics >>> Fracture Modelling >>> | Reservoir Studies & Engineering >>> | Prospect & Risk Assessments >>> | Surface Geology >>> | Integrated Studies >>>

Seismic Sequence Stratigraphy

Sequence stratigraphic analysis is based on the identification of depositional sequences, which are stratigraphic units, composed of a relatively conformable succession of genetically related strata bounded by two major unconformities (Mitchum, 1977). This method is usually used to reconstruct the effects of sea level rise and fall on the history of deposition on continental margins. Seismic stratigraphic analysis differs from traditional sequence stratigraphy in that the stratal succession was not significantly influenced by sea level changes. In spite of the difference between the processes controlling changes in sediment deposition patterns, similar types of angular unconformities can be distinguished based on the geometry of the strata and their termination. The unconformities bound sets of relatively concordant strata. Each of these sets is interpreted to represent one depositional sequence. Each seismic unit is subdivided into a few depositional sequences. Characteristics of the sequences are controlled by syn- and post-depositional tectonic activity. Seismic sequence analysis of the depositional sequences currently is used to reconstruct the sedimentary and tectonic events that deformed the sediments in the fold and thrust system and the concomitant active basins and to derive a relative time-correlation of these events. The method included evaluating the relationship between the syn-sedimentary thrust and fold systems responsible for the formation of the ridge and the migration of the intervening slope basins, such processes control the location and growth of sediment depocenters and result in tilting of the strata on the limbs of folds and/or along the flanks of subsiding depocenters. The seismic stratigraphy interpretation objective is to define the genetic reflection packages that envelope seismic sequences (A depositional sequence identified on a seismic section (Mitchum, AAPG Memoir 26). Thus this is a relatively conformable succession of seismic reflectors bounded at its top and base by sequence boundaries (unconformities and their correlative conformities) (Vail, et al., 1977). Within this package of reflectors it is sometimes possible to identify reflector geometries representing a succession of genetically linked deposition systems (Systems Tracts) which are interpreted to have been deposited between eustatic-fall inflection points (Posamentier, et al., 1988).) and systems tracts. These bounding discontinuities are identified on the basis of reflection termination patterns and their continuity. Boundaries are defined on a seismic line by identifying the termination of seismic reflectors at the discontinuity surfaces. Recommended procedures for performing seismic sequence analysis include: Identifying the unconformities in the area of interest. Unconformities are recognized as surfaces onto which reflectors converge. Mark these terminations with arrows. Draw the unconformity surface between the onlapping and downlapping reflections above; and the truncating and toplapping reflections below. Extend the unconformity surface over the complete section. If the boundary becomes conformable, trace its position across the section by visually correlating the reflections. Continue identifying the unconformities on all the remaining seismic sections for the basin. Make sure the interpretation ties correctly among all the lines.
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Identify the type of unconformity: Sequence boundary: this is characterized by regional onlap above and truncation below. Downlap surface: this is characterized by regional downlap.

Systems Tracts
Genetically associated stratigraphic units that were deposited during specific phases of the relative sea-level cycle (Posamentier, et al, 1988). These units are represented in the rock record as three-dimensional facies assemblages. They are defined on the basis of bounding surfaces, position within a sequence, and parasequence stacking pattern (Van Wagoner et al., 1988). Five of these systems tracts are:

Falling Stage Systems Tract (FSST)

Includes all the regressional deposits that accumulated after the onset of a relative sea-level fall and before the start of the next relative sea-level rise. The Falling Stage Systems Tract is the product of a forced regression (one should not confuse this with the sediments deposited during a normal regression). The FSST lies directly on the sequence boundary and is capped by the overlying Lowstand Systems Tract sediments. A variety of parasequence stacking patterns can be produced including: downward stepping prograding clinoforms, stranded parasequences, and mass flow deposits in distal areas. Each of these parasequence stacking patterns depends on the depositional profile, the rate of sediment supply, and the rate of relative sealevel fall. The FSST was first fully defined by Plint and Nummedal, (2000). This systems tract has also been termed the Early Lowstand Systems Tract (ELST) (Posamentier and Allen, 1999). The fall is evidenced by the erosion of the subaerially exposed sediment surface updip and the formation of a diachronous sequence boundary that caps the Highstand Systems Tract (HST). On seismic data, the upper boundary is the first definable horizon that onlaps the FSST, but when well logs and outcrops are used this boundary is instead recognized as the first marine-flooding surface that overlies the FSST. Coincidently it is often marked by a time transgressive ravinement surface overlain by a sediment lag. Earlier papers that defined systems tracts, including Vail (1987) and Posamentier and Vail(1988), placed part of the FSST within the Lowstand Systems Tract (LST). The sediments of this former LST definition included the deposits that accumulated just after the maximum rate of relative sea-level fall, and were divided into three separate depositional units - basin-floor fan, slope fan, and lowstand wedge, all of which overlie a so-called Type 1 sequence boundary.

Low-stand Systems Tract (LST)

Includes deposits that accumulate after the onset of relative a sea-level rise. This systems tract lies directly on the upper surface of the Falling Stage Systems Tract and is capped by the transgressive surface formed when the sediments onlap onto the shelf margin. Stacking patterns exhibit (backstepping, onlapping, retrogradational, aggrading clinoforms that thicken updip). Lowstand Systems Tract sediments often fill or partially infill incised valleys that were cut into the Highstand Systems Tract, and other earlier deposits, during the FSST. This systems tract has also been termed the Late Lowstand Systems Tract (Posamentier and Allen, 1999). In earlier work the Shelf-margin Systems Tract was recognized as the lowermost systems tract associated with a type 2 sequence boundary and a low relative position in sea level. This term is now redundant since these deposits are now considered to be part of the LST.

Transgressive Systems Tract (TST)

Comprises the deposits that accumulated from the onset of coastal transgression until the time of maximum transgression of the coast, just prior to the renewed regression of the HST. The TST lies directly on the transgressive surface (TS) formed when the sediments onlap the underlying LST and is overlain by the maximum flooding surface (mfs) formed when marine sediments reach their most landward position. Stacking patterns exhibit backstepping onlapping retrogradational clinoforms that thicken landward. In cases where there is a high sediment supply the parasequences may be aggradational.
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High-stand Systems Tract (HST)

The progradational deposits that form when sediment accumulation rates exceed the rate of increase in accommodation space. This HST constitutes the upper systems tract of a stratigraphic sequence, and lies directly on the maximum flooding surface (mfs) formed when marine sediments reached their most landward position. This systems tract is capped by a sequence boundary. Stacking patterns exhibit prograding aggrading clinoforms that thin upward.

Regressive System Tract

The Regressive Systems Tract was defined by Embry and Johannessen (1992). In this definition it lies above a Transgressive Systems Tract and is overlain by the initial transgressive surface of the overlying Transgressive Systems Tract. This complete sequence is know as a Transgressive-Regressive Sequence (T-R Sequence). The sediments of this systems tract include the Highstand System Tract of Posamentier and Allen (1999), and the Falling Stage System Tract defined by Plint and Nummedal, (2000) and/or the systems tract termed the Early Lowstand Systems Tract (ELST) (Posamentier and Allen, 1999). Back To Top >>> | Magnetic & Gravity Gate >>> | Seismic Interpretation >>> | Seismic Sequence Stratigraphy >>> | GeoMechanics >>> Fracture Modelling >>> | Reservoir Studies & Engineering >>> | Prospect & Risk Assessments >>> | Surface Geology >>> | Integrated Studies >>>

GeoMechanics
Geomechanics is the technical discipline that deals with prediction and management of rock deformation inherent in oil field development from exploration to abandonment. To help our clients understand and manage the risks associated with rock deformation, throughout the exploration and production cycles, GeoRock Consulting Services (GCS) offer a full range of geomechanics products and services. Common Geomechanics applications include: Pore pressure prediction, Well location and trajectory optimization, Wellbore stability forecast and Control, Drilling problem, Earth stress analysis, Sand production prediction and control Reservoir stimulation, Design fractured reservoir characterization, Using Seismic Inversion to Improve Fault and Fracture Characterization, Reservoir compaction prediction and control, Fault Seal Analysis. GeoRock Geomechanics products and services help clients to access and manage today's more complex assets located in deep water, depleted fields or fractured reservoirs. Along with the Mechanical Earth Model (MEM), which is refereeing to a description of strengths, stresses and pressure as a function of depth, referenced to a stratigraphic column. Once a mechanical earth model is constructed, it can be used as a basis for design of drilling and completion programs, for single well or field wide. The MEM is designed to be updated in relevant real time, as new data is acquired, so that the design applications can use the best available data. Typical data sources include seismic, well logs, drilling reports and frac data. While a limited data set will yield a simple model, it can still be a very valuable tool for general predictions, as well as identifying critical areas requiring further data acquisition.

Fault Seal Analysis

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Fault reactivation potential (Geomechanics) requires the in-situ stress field to be defined the likelihood of dynamic failure/fault reactivation and possible seal breach can be assessed given knowledge of the contemporary stress field, fault orientation and the failure envelope of the fault rocks. However, the fact that the fault may be optimally oriented for slip does not necessarily mean that the fault will reactivate with the subsequent breaching of the seal.

Structural Modeling
Structural modelling in GeoRock is carried out in the most used software packages that form the main tools for structural geologist in the petroleum industry. It simulates and analyses the deformation history of geological models (from seismic interpretation or other sources) by geometrically and numerically mimicking structural deformation concepts (such as folding, faulting, compaction and isostacy). Both forward and inverse modelling is possible. The software's architecture is based on advanced geological model building, allowing integration, visualisation and manipulation of multiple data sources that ultimately facilitates quantitative and qualitative integration with other disciplines such as geophysics, stratigraphy and sedimentology. Originally the techniques were developed as a tool to quality-control geological interpretations (popularly known as "balancing"). Nowadays the main scope is to: Identify the various processes responsible for the deformation of strata Constrain the intensity, timing and spatial distribution of deformation (strain) Backstrip (de-compact) sedimentary basins and constrain burial histories Validate geological interpretations Constrain paleo topographies (for sediment facies interpretations) Constrain fault-seal analysis Structural modelling is one of the main controlling factors for the characterization of fractured reservoirs. As such, Discrete Fracture Modelling has become a standard module of the structural modelling routine. It simulates deterministic fracture growth using geological or geophysical drivers (such as strain values and coherency patterns). These simulation results form a base for exploration strategies and dynamic flow modelling of fractured reservoirs.

An example of an original seismic interpretation (left) and a partly decompacted and restored section (right). Although the formation (between dark blue and green marker) shows no apparent thickness variations at present day (left), the modeling shows that significant tectonic activity (here the beginning of a fault-propagation-fold) occurred during the sediment deposition. Onlaps and thinning of reflectors over the fold is now more evident, and important for facies interpretation. Simple "flattening" would not have revealed these structures.

Balancing
Deformation is assumed to neither create nor destroy rock volume; thus, reassembling the undeformed state from the deformed state is possible. Traditionally, balancing was restricted to cross-sections in which the transport direction must be contained within the plane of section. Structures that involve oblique to strike-slip displacement, rotation about a nonhorizontal axis, and/or salt related structures cannot be successfully balanced by traditional techniques.

Forward Modelling Strain

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To study the effects of sedimentation during phases of deformation along a propagating duplex structure, and the results on the final geological structure. Also, to demonstrate how to model 2D strain using strain models.

Determining Sedimentary Sequence Geometry

Forward modelling can be used to model how sedimentary packages are deformed through time. The following example attempts to model one case of structural movements interacting with sediment deposition through time.

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Fracture Modelling
Where fractures play a role in reservoir behavior, it is important to extrapolate detailed well-scale fracture datasets derived from cores and image logs to the inter-well spaces. In order to do this GeoRock adopts a multi-disciplinary approach, its
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structural specialists working closely with geophysicists, reservoir geologists and reservoir engineers in order to build successful fracture models. Stochastic modeling techniques are now regularly used to model fracture density. This involves correlation-ranking different parameters that may affect fracture density (e.g. distance from faults, surface curvature and other seismic attributes, bed thickness, rock type, etc.) and then using those parameters with the strongest correlation with well data to model away from wells. Fracture orientation and stress regimes are also modeled, either deterministically or probabilistically.

Fractures Characterization
Certain fractures increase the mud losses risk Certain fractures enhance production in fractured reservoirs What kinds of fractures may contribute to production optimization/Lost circulation? Will fractures behaviour the same during drilling and during production?

Fractures Objectives
Investigate relationship between fracture and select those will enhance production Improve the understanding of fracture permeability and their contribution to production Provide recommendations to improve production

Integrated Studies
GeoRock can provide special studies that cover any areas and usually include more than one geological & geophysical discipline. This could include but not limited to the tectonic, dispositional and structural history, integrate a wide array of geologic, geophysical and geochemical data and provide a context for petroleum exploration in addition to special studies in the reservoir.

Main Activities
Seismic Investigations and Gravity Measurements Reservoir Engineering Quantifying and Qualifying Oil and Gas Reserves
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Data Management Geoscience Consulting Back To Top >>> | Magnetic & Gravity Gate >>> | Seismic Interpretation >>> | Seismic Sequence Stratigraphy >>> | GeoMechanics >>> Fracture Modelling >>> | Reservoir Studies & Engineering >>> | Prospect & Risk Assessments >>> | Surface Geology >>> | Integrated Studies >>>

Reservoir Studies & Engineering

Our reservoir engineering team comprises of experienced professionals who have acquired their extensive skills over a period of years through the participation and supervision of integrated exploration and field development studies. Our global knowledge of the oil and gas industry is an integral part of GeoRock. Our services are delivered with an excellent level of professionalism, integrity, technical knowledge and facilitating the technological transfer for clients' projects in order to maximize the economic recovery of hydrocarbon at all stages of the field lifecycle. In multidisciplinary multicultural environment our engineers, geoscientist and other technical disciplines will execute and coordinate all projects to satisfactory quality and adapting to complement the client's primary objectives in all phases; enabling the client to make rapid & informed business decisions. The subsurface team will cover the complete sequence for oil and gas reservoirs, from exploration through appraisal and development to mature field. GeoRock cover wide range of services for conventional clastic and carbonate reservoirs, basement, fractured reservoirs and unconventional resources. Versatility in the use of most of the Petroleum industry related packages. Our team experience in providing high quality training to the international petroleum industry in all areas of upstream petroleum exploration. Our portfolio ranges from specialist five-day short courses through to long-term personnel development programs and attachment training targeting specific client's needs. Our scope of work may include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Asset Evaluation Reservoir Geophysics Reservoir Geology Petrophysics Reservoir Engineering Fractured Reservoir Studies Reservoir Characterization Dynamic Modeling Economics

Back To Top >>> | Magnetic & Gravity Gate >>> | Seismic Interpretation >>> | Seismic Sequence Stratigraphy >>> | GeoMechanics >>> Fracture Modelling >>> | Reservoir Studies & Engineering >>> | Prospect & Risk Assessments >>> | Surface Geology >>> | Integrated Studies >>>

Prospect & Risk Assessments

The purpose of risk assessment in hydrocarbon exploration is to estimate the probability of discovery prior to drilling a prospect. Prospect assessment plays a significant role in hydrocarbon exploration, not only at the prospect level but also at
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the play level. Risk assessment is a value that is used both during the calculation of the economic value of the prospect, where the prospects are in somehow considerable degree of uncertainty. Estimation the probability of discovery is an important part of prospect evaluation. Geological prospect assessment requires an evaluation of those geological factors that are critical to the discovery of recoverable quantities of hydrocarbons in a mapped prospect, each of which must be evaluated with respect to presence and effectiveness: Probability of Retention Probability of Reservoir Reservoir Geology Probability of Trap Probability of Hydrocarbon Charge The probability of discovery is a when assessing the ranking of prospects; i.e. which of a portfolio of prospects is most favorable. For a COS we have therefore six factors to be considered in term of risk (geological): Reservoir Presence Reservoir Effectiveness Source Presence Source Effectiveness Trap Presence Trap Effectiveness The assessment of the risk of the above factors, should be carried out without relationship between the two aspects (presence and effectiveness) of each element; this because normally there is the propensity to uniform the judgement on the same element, for instance, a low possibility of presence for the reservoir doesn't mean that its quality is low as well: within a given area we could hardly find a reservoir, but with high porosity and high permeability?? Back To Top >>> | Magnetic & Gravity Gate >>> | Seismic Interpretation >>> | Seismic Sequence Stratigraphy >>> | GeoMechanics >>> Fracture Modelling >>> | Reservoir Studies & Engineering >>> | Prospect & Risk Assessments >>> | Surface Geology >>> | Integrated Studies >>>

Surface Geology
Remote sensing data and imagery collected by satellite and aerial sensors are powerful methods for helping oil and gas companies in exploration and production. GeoRock offers a team of geoscientists who emphasize geologic exploration using satellite multispectral and airborne hyperspectral digital imagery and datasets in conducting image analysis, geologic exploration, and field surveying & logistics services. Services provided by our team include mapping, modeling, and interpretation solutions that enable decision makers in oil and gas companies to improve their potential for successful discoveries, reduce risks, and control costs. Surface Mapping for Oil & Gas Exploration Seismic Planning Oil & Gas Field Analysis Mapping or Evaluating Prospects for new Oil and Gas Discoveries Well Siting Pipeline Routing

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Geologic Mapping
Accurate mapping is of critical importance in oil and gas exploration. The risk and costs involved in establishing where to build infrastructure are simply too high to leave to inaccurate information - when so much is at stake, there's no substitute for precise, up-to-date information. GeoRock can help oil and gas operators and owners with their surface geologic mapping services to map or evaluate prospects for new oil and gas discoveries. GeoRock provides professional specialists with years of experience working with both large multi-national and independent petroleum companies in many geologic basins worldwide.

Lineament Studies
GeoRock offers lineament analysis services that can be applied to surface lineament analysis for hydrocarbon reservoirs for oil and gas exploration and development. Identifying linear features on satellite imagery, which are often called lineaments, are commonly interpreted as surface expressions of rock fractures which may provide pathways for seepage of oil and gas from subsurface reservoirs.

Our Services
Compilation and up-dating of existing geological maps Geological integrity control of multi-scale and multi-format input data Integrated common geo-referenced database including client's data Selection and process of satellite images to match your costs and objectives Digital Elevation Model production (DEM) Structural mapping 3D processing of geological features (dips, thicknesses, cartographic fault-throw, etc.) Export of the geologic database to petroleum software Image analysis includes custom digital enhancement for structural geology and lithologic/alteration predictions with applications for oil and gas exploration and operational logistics Optimized planning for ground truth geologic surveys loaded into GPS or tablet computers Optimized planning for soil geochemistry or drill sampling loaded into GPS or tablet computers Back To Top >>> | Magnetic & Gravity Gate >>> | Seismic Interpretation >>> | Seismic Sequence Stratigraphy >>> | GeoMechanics >>> Fracture Modelling >>> | Reservoir Studies & Engineering >>> | Prospect & Risk Assessments >>> | Surface Geology >>> | Integrated Studies >>>

Integrated Studies
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These are regional geologic studies that cover large areas and usually include more than one discipline, for instance: Tectonics, Dispositional and Structural history, integrate a wide array of geologic, geophysical and geochemical data and provide a context for petroleum exploration along with the prospect generation and assessment.

Hydraulic Fracturing
Addressing the problem of the interaction of borehole and fracture fluid pressures on fracture reopening during pressurization cycles used to determine the maximum principal stress perpendicular to a borehole in impermeable rock. For these tests, the maximum principal stress was determined from the secondary breakdown pressure. Recognizing the pressure in the fracture is coupled to the borehole pressure and depends on the fracture aperture, the rate of pressurization, fluid properties, and the deformability of the fracture, a simple equation, such as this equation, is a crude approximation for a complex process. Optimize the treatment (pumping schedule) increase well production reduce cost Control where the fracture is growing avoid fracturing near layers with different content: oil, gas, water create long fractures in some layers Predict the response during treatment Post-evaluation of the treatment

Elasto-Plastic Hydraulic Fracturing Model

Investigate the influence of plasticity on net-pressures and fracture dimensions fracture closure Fracturing weak formations for sand control closure stress on proppant formation stability after fracturing Delft Fracturing Consortium experiments on soft rocks Back To Top >>> | Magnetic & Gravity Gate >>> | Seismic Interpretation >>> | Seismic Sequence Stratigraphy >>> | GeoMechanics >>> Fracture Modelling >>> | Reservoir Studies & Engineering >>> | Prospect & Risk Assessments >>> | Surface Geology >>> | Integrated Studies >>>

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