Dept. of Mech. Engg.

, IITD

MEL705 Experimental Methods for Thermal Engineering 1st sem. 2013-2014

FM-1 : Internal flow: Flow in a circular pipe Flow in a circular pipe (or duct) is encountered in oil and gas pipelines, water supply systems, and heat exchangers tubes, and air ducts, amongst others. A smooth straight pipe with smooth entry is the best-behaved configuration that has been studied extensively. In real life, complexities arise due to surface roughness, abrupt entry, bends, and fittings (valves, thermo-wells, etc.), amongst others. From fluid flow perspective, an important parameter in pipe/duct flow is the pressure drop; this decides the design and power consumption of the pump/fan/blower. The hydrodynamics of flow inside a pipe is classified as entrance region (also known as the developing region), and a fully developed region; the length of each depends upon Reynolds number as well as the geometrical configuration. In the latter, the pressure drop is related to the wall shear stresses via the pipe friction factor (and thereby to roughness). In this experiment, you have to measure the length of these regions, the fully developed velocity profile and compute the friction coefficient. Background reading and advance preparation: Pipe flow fundamentals are covered in the course AML715 Viscous Fluid Flows and are also available in basic fluid mechanics (or heat transfer) texts [1], [2]. Revise the conservation of mass and momentum equations from first principles. Revise the definition of mean velocity and how it is related to radial velocity profile. Understand the growth of boundary layers and nature of velocity profiles for both laminar and turbulent flows. Also, revise various terms related to surface roughness and its measurement. In the turn prior to taking data, understand the construction of the apparatus, pressure taps numbering, manometer construction and their tube numbering, and tap-to-manometer connectivity, probe construction; make a sketch of the apparatus and prepare data sheets. In the Laboratory, for one setting of the blower, first record the axial static pressures, then the radial velocity profile, and again, the axial static pressures. The axial static pressure measurements should be taken independently by each student. In your report (a) With only the value of the centerline velocity, decide whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. (b) Calculate the volumetric flow-rate (by numerical integration), mean velocity and actual Reynolds number. Compare this Reynolds number with that from part (a). (c) Plot the normalized radial velocity profile and compare it with the expected profile available in the texts. (d) Estimate the hydrodynamic entry length and reconcile it with axial pressure measurements. (e) Confirm that the flow is fully developed at the pitot probe location as also over the region from where axial pressure measurements have been used for roughness calculations. (f) Estimate the friction factor for this pipe and its roughness. (g) Comment on unsteadiness in the manometer readings. (h) It is desired to produce a laminar flow with this apparatus for which the blower speed can be adjusted. Comment on the hydrodynamic entry length requirement and whether this apparatus is suitable/adequate. (i) Comment on the repeatability of the friction factor measurements computed with the two different measurements. (j) Establish the 95 % C.L. uncertainty estimate for the static pressure measurement. References 1. White, F. M., Fluid Mechanics, International Ed., McGraw-Hill, 2003. 2. Kays, W. M., Crawford, M. E. and Weigand, B., Convective Heat and Mass Transfer, McGraw-Hill, 4th Ed., 2004.

Expt. briefings

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Dept. of Mech. Engg., IITD

MEL705 Experimental Methods for Thermal Engineering 1st sem. 2013-2014

FM-2 : External flow: Cross flow over a cylinder An isolated circular cylinder in cross-flow is a simple configuration for fluid mechanics and heat transfer studies. As a first try, it is a fair approximation to flow over a bluff body, e.g., wind flow over a standing person or a chimney, and water flow over offshore oil platform legs. This flow exhibits distinct patterns in the wake that depend on the Reynolds number, such as, symmetric flow, attached wake (asymmetric) and vortex shedding. Over the cylinder surface, there could be regions of laminar, transition, turbulent and separated flows leading to variations in local skin friction coefficient. A body immersed in a flow, such as, a cylinder in cross-flow, experiences lift and drag forces. For cylinders, and spheres, the drag coefficient is expressed as a function of Reynolds number. Experimentally, these forces can be obtained from either (a) pressure distribution over the surface, or (b) by applying the conservation of momentum to a control volume that includes the cylinder, or (c) by directly measurement. In this experiment methods (a) and (b) are to be used. Background reading and advance preparation: The basic theory is covered in AML715 Viscous Fluid Flows and in undergraduate fluid mechanics Revise the fundamentals on external flows, in particular, integral forms of the conservation of mass and momentum equations. In part (a) the surface pressure is to be measured at different angles from the nose; set up the equations for computing drag and lift forces from these data. In part (b), the mass and momentum fluxes at two planes, one upstream and the other downstream of the cylinder, have to be calculated from pointwise velocity measurements across the tunnel height; set-up the equations for this purpose. Both these will require numerical integration. Based on the methodology, prepare the data sheet. In the laboratory, a hollow cylinder (with one hole for pressure measurement) is placed in a wind tunnel; it can be turned about its axis and set to any desired position. Two pitot probes are provided; the downstream probe can be traversed vertically. All pressures are measured with a well-type inclined multi-tube manometer. Perform the experiment at one air flow rate. In the turn prior to conducting the experiment, study the construction features of the wind tunnel, instruments, spacing at which readings would be taken (and why), and refine the data sheets, amongst others. In your report: (a) For method (a) compute the drag and lift forces and associated uncertainties. (b) For method (b), compare mass in-flux and out-flux given the expected uncertainties? (c) Compute the drag force and drag coefficient for method (b) and associated uncertainties. (d) Compare experimental drag coefficient values with those from literature. (e) Calculate the uncertainties in individual measurements and in computed data. (f) Compare surface pressure variation with known data and comment on the flow. (g) Comment on pressure variations during the measurements, their causes and consequent interpretation of data. Comment on the nature of the downstream flow. (h) Compare the stagnation pressure at the cylinder nose with the upstream pitot probe. (i) Discuss the limitations of the set-up: (i) Maximum and minimum cylinder diameters that can be employed, (ii) location of the cylinder in the wind tunnel. (j) Estimate the vortex shedding frequency and compare it with the manometer fluctuations. (k) From boundary layer theory for a flat plate, estimate the boundary layer thickness at the cylinder location. References 1. White, F. M., Fluid Mechanics, International Ed., McGraw-Hill, 2003. 2. Fox, R. W., and McDonald, A. T., Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, 7th Ed., John Wiley, 2008. 3. White, F. M., Viscous Fluid Flow, McGraw-Hill, 2nd Ed., 1991.

Expt. briefings

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Dept. of Mech. Engg., IITD

MEL705 Experimental Methods for Thermal Engineering 1st sem. 2013-2014

TH-1 : Compressible flow: Flow through a varying-area passage Flow through a nozzle is a variant of internal flow; effects of compressibility and possible presence of shocks are the additional features over incompressible flow. Such situations arise in gas or vapor flows when there is a constriction in a passage across which there is a pressure difference, e.g. operation of safety valves, rupture of a high-pressure vessel, tyre puncture, flow through turbine/compressor blades and nozzles. The simplest analysis considers 1-dimensional flow without boundary layer effects with the working fluid being an ideal gas. The presence of shocks, and their interaction with a surface/boundary layer, is an important aspect of this class of flows. Compressible external flow, e.g. flight of aircraft and projectiles (bullets and artillery shells) is treated differently and is extremely important (see space shuttle Columbia accident report). In this experiment, the objective is to measure the pressure profile in a varying-area passage, a converging-diverging nozzle at different supply pressures and compare these with theory. Background reading and advance preparation: Revise the theory related to isentropic flow in passages and on normal shocks; write the governing equations, see [1], [2] or [3]. Identify the different flow regimes for converging and converging-diverging nozzles and the conditions under which they occur. Assuming air to be an ideal gas, estimate the pressure ratios required for producing a shock in the nozzle. Read about flow visualization techniques for compressible flow. Measurement techniques for compressible flows are described in [4]. In the visit prior to taking data, make a schematic of the air system, nozzle geometry and its connections. Develop a methodology for locating the shock position in a converging-diverging passage when nozzle geometry and inlet and outlet pressures are given (outlet pressure is ambient). In the laboratory: Operate the converging-diverging nozzle at 5-6 supply pressures, two with entirely subsonic flow and three/four with shocks in the diverging portion. Record the axial pressure variations from the manometer and with the pressure transducers. Ensure constant supply pressure when taking data. Study the construction and operation of the air compressor. In your report (a) Plot the measured pressure variation along nozzle length for different pressure ratios, and compare these with theory. (b) Estimate the position of the shock and compare it with theory. (c) Assess the impact of the length of the diverging portion of the nozzle (for same diameters) on its performance and on the experiment, i.e. if length were half or double the existing length, will it improve the experiment? (d) I had performed this experiment with the same nozzle and a compressor in the Thermal Science laboratory. The manometer readings became random and water drops were dripping out of the nozzle. Explain these observations. References 1. Shapiro, A. H., The Dynamics and Thermodynamics of Compressible Flow, Ronald, 1953. 2. Liepmann, H. W., and Roshko, A., Elements of Gas Dynamics, Dover, 2002. 3. Van Dyke, M., An Album of Fluid Motion, Parabolic Press, 1982. 4. Anderson, J. D. Jr., Modern Compressible Flow: with Historical Perspective, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1982. 5. Ladenburg, , Physical Measurements in Gas Dynamics and Combustion (Parts I & II).

Expt. briefings

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Dept. of Mech. Engg., IITD

MEL705 Experimental Methods for Thermal Engineering 1st sem. 2013-2014

TH-2 : Reacting flows: Measurements in a flame The structure and dynamics of flames are a fundamental aspect of all combustion phenomena. The reaction zone, a part of which is luminous, is designated as the flame. It has a finite thickness and there is gas flow relative to it. Both pre-mixed and diffusion flames occur in engineering applications. Combustion phenomena involve mass, momentum, energy and species changes, often with buoyancy effects, making them very complex relative to non-reacting flows. The current focus of most energy conversion applications (gas turbines, IC engines, furnaces, etc.) is on pollution control and fire safety. Major breakthroughs have occurred because of a better understanding of combustion fundamentals. Information required by design engineers includes spatial and temporal variations in velocity components, pressure, temperature and species concentration, and global parameters, such as, combustion rate and emission levels. This experiment is designed to give hands-on familiarity with producing a flame with different stoichiometric ratios and using the Schlieren technique to obtain quantitative data about its shape and size, and from it, the laminar burning velocity. Background reading and advance preparation: Fundamentals of combustion are described in many texts [1], [2], [3]. Read the chapters on basics of premixed flames and on experimental techniques. Descriptions about optical techniques for visualization are given in [4] and [5]. Read the basics of Schlieren and shadowgraph techniques. Details of measurements in combustion environments are given in [6]. Read about radiation effects when using a thermocouple to measure temperature inside a flame with a thermocouple (unshielded). In the visit prior to making measurements, study the apparatus and function of each component, including the orifice burner. Prepare a schematic (flow) diagram of air and fuel systems. Make a ray diagram of the Schlieren arrangement. Prepare the data sheet. In the laboratory: Project the flame with a Schlieren set-up and trace the features on a sheet or on a camera; try both. Repeat the measurement with different stoichiometric ratios keeping the mass flow rate constant. With this data, the flame speed can be obtained. With a digital camera, take a direct photograph of the flame with different apertures and foci. With the thermocouple, measure the temperature at a few radial positions at two axial locations, one approximately midway through the flame and the other above the flame. Make these temperature measurements for one flame. In your report (a) Comment on safety features of the set-up. (b) How does laminar burning velocity vary with air-fuel ratio? Make a plot. (c) Plot flame area variation with flow rate for a given stoichiometry. (d) Compare the above values with theoretical estimates. (e) Plot the radial temperature distributions. Estimate of adiabatic flame temperature. (f) Estimate the systematic uncertainty in the temperature measurement at each location individually. (g) Plot flame standoff distance with flow rate. (h) What will be the error if the optical camera image were to be used for analysis? References 1. Kanury, A. M., Introduction to Combustion Phenomena. Gordon and Breach, 1977. 2. Kuo, K. K., Principles of Combustion, John Wiley, 1986. 3. Williams, F.A. and Williams, F., Combustion Theory: the Fundamental Theory of Chemically Reacting Flow Systems, Perseus Publishing, 1985. 4. Ladenburg, Physical Measurements in Gas Dynamics and Combustion (Parts I and II), 5. Shapiro, A. H., Dynamics and Thermodynamics of Compressible Flow, Ronald, 1953. 6. Chigier, N., Combustion Measurements, Hemisphere, 1991.

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Dept. of Mech. Engg., IITD

MEL705 Experimental Methods for Thermal Engineering 1st sem. 2013-2014

MT-1 : Heat & mass transfer: Performance of a cooling tower Evaporative cooling is commonly employed in hot climates to enhance comfort levels, e.g. desert cooler. This concept is also used for cooling warm waters from condensers of some thermal power plants and refrigeration systems. levels. Water is cooled by evaporation into air at the liquid-air interface. To attain a large interface area, the liquid can either be atomized or made to fall through a 'fill' or by both. In forced draft cooling towers the air is blown by fans, where as in natural draft cooling towers the upward flow is established by buoyancy effect. The loss of water due to evaporation is compensated by make-up water. A challenge for designers is to make the tower compact by providing a large surface area per unit volume for heat and mass transfer, while minimizing air side pressure drop. In this experiment a miniature forced draft cooling tower has been instrumented to measure its performance. Background reading and work: Fundamentals of heat and mass transfer are available in many texts [1], [2]. Read the chapters on mass transfer and the concept of "driving force". Browse the web for design, theory and performance testing of cooling towers. Also look-up the HEDH Handbook. in particular study the mass, species (water), momentum and energy conservation equations. In the visit prior to making measurements, study the apparatus and the instruments provided. make a schematic of the system along with all instruments. Study the design of the wet bulb temperature measuring devices. In the laboratory: Perform two experiments for different liquid-to-gas mass flow rates ratios. The heater power can be set once for both experiments. Record instrument readings at regular intervals and decide when steady state has been attained. Subsequently, take at least six readings at 5 minutes intervals (or more, as per your experimental plan); the average of these readings will be the experimental result. During this period, also note the fall in the water level in the basin. Switch-off the heater and take a set of readings after steady state has been attained. In your report (a) Establish water conservation across for the estimated uncertainties. (compare evaporation rate with rate of level drop in the basin). (b) Check for energy conservation across the tower for the estimated uncertainties. (c) Calculate the efficiency of the cooling tower. (d) Estimate the surface area per unit volume of the fill. (e) Comment on variation in the ambient conditions and their effect on the performance measurement. (f) Comment on drift from the top of the cooling tower. (g) For a set of test conditions, predict the performance when ambient DBT and WBT are 40 oC and 27 oC, respectively. (h) Can this design be adopted in lieu of the desert cooler commonly used? Justify your answer. References 1. Kays, W. M., Crawford, M. E. and Weigand, B., Convective Heat and Mass Transfer, McGraw-Hill, 4th Ed., 2004. 2. Incropera, F. D., DeWitt, D. P., Bergman, T. L., and Lavine, A. S., Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 6th ed., John Wiley, 2006.

Expt. briefings

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Dept. of Mech. Engg., IITD

MEL705 Experimental Methods for Thermal Engineering 1st sem. 2013-2014

HT-1 : Pin-fin heat transfer under forced convection Extended surfaces are used for enhancing the overall heat transfer rate in convection as well as in radiation heat transfer. Applications of the former are heat sinks for -processors, heat exchangers, gas turbine blade cooling, transformers and air-cooled engine cylinders. Some other devices can also be modeled as a fin, e.g. kettle handle, thermowell and thermocouple leads. The solution of pin-fin of simple geometry can be obtained in a closed form. The engineers challenge is to maximize heat transfer rate within the smallest volume or at the lowest cost; in air-cooled engines, thermal stresses and air flow also are important considerations. In this experiment, you have to measure the temperature profile and heat input to the fin and compare these with analytical results. Background reading and advance preparation: Study fin heat transfer basics from texts [1], in particular, the boundary conditions and their solutions, and fin parameters (efficiency and effectiveness). Derive expressions for temperature variations where the base temperature is not known but the temperature at some points away from the base is known. Identify correlations for average heat transfer coefficient over a cylinder in cross flow. Estimate the changes in temperature profile due to uncertainties in heat transfer coefficient. Estimate the optimum heater power supply that will minimize uncertainties. In the visit prior to conducting the experiment, make a drawing of the apparatus and prepare the data sheet. In the laboratory: Under forced convection conditions measure the steady state temperature profiles for two air velocities. While waiting for steady state, prepare an ice bath and study the geyser and its thermostat. In your report (a) Compare the experimental results with predictions from correlations. Give a quantitative assessment, i.e. correlation coefficient. (b) Plot temperature profiles and mark the error bands. (c) Calculate fin effectiveness and efficiency. (d) Estimate radiation effects and their impact on part (a). (e) Comment on using rods of same dimension but of copper, or stainless steel or a ceramic. (f) For same air velocity, if heater power were reduced by half what will be the impact on measured temperatures and their uncertainty? References 1. Incropera, F. D., DeWitt, D. P., Bergman, T. L., and Lavine, A. S., Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 6th ed., John Wiley, 2006.

Expt. briefings

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Dept. of Mech. Engg., IITD

MEL705 Experimental Methods for Thermal Engineering 1st sem. 2013-2014

HT-2 : Natural convection: Heat transfer from a still body Some simple configurations in free convection are heat transfer from/to a vertical flat plate, or sphere, or horizontal cylinder, in a still medium. This idealized set-up is rarely encountered in practice and, consequently, recourse has to be taken to co-relations, keeping in mind the accompanying limitations. Experimental studies in free convection are complicated because of the boundary conditions, e.g. in free convection in air, it is crucial to have a quiescent environment isolated from air disturbances; for doing so an enclosure is necessary that induces the chimney effect which is not desirable. It is also necessary to prevent conditions that could lead to mixed convection, an aspect that can be ascertained in the laboratory by resorting to flow visualization. Because the body forces are a result of temperature gradients, the momentum and energy equations are coupled. Consequently, the solution, whether analytical or numerical, is more complex in comparison to forced convection where the only temperature dependence in the momentum equation arises due to temperature dependent thermo-physical properties. The two tasks in this experiment are (i) to make measurements on vertical or inclined plate/another body in free convection, and (ii) to prepare thermocouples and calibrate them against the RTD. You also have to prepare an ice bath, and study various schemes for wiring a thermocouple or a set of thermocouples. Background reading and advance preparation: Analysis of free convection on a vertical flat plate is given in [1]. Identify co-relations and uncertainties for vertical, horizontal and inclined plates. Study the lumped capacitance model, its underlying assumptions and apply it to obtain an expression for calculating the average heat transfer coefficient from the temperature history. In the visit prior to conducting the experiment, make a drawing, record instrument details and prepare data sheets. Make arrangements for minimizing disturbances due to surrounding air currents. Introduce smoke into the chamber and record its motion. Read about thermocouples, producing an ice bath, use of leads and compensating cables, RTD, and calibration techniques. In the laboratory Heat the given object by immersing it in a bath of hot water, then, remove it from the bath and record the plate temperature at regular time intervals as it cools. In addition to the data acquisition system, manually record a few temperatures to cross-check later. Calculate the average heat transfer coefficient. Prepare a thermocouple, ice-bath, and calibrate the thermocouple against the RTD. Study the effects of (i) copper leads, (ii) compensating cables and their lengths. Measure the time response of thermocouples (shielded and unshielded), RTD, and IR thermometer. In your report (a) Compare the average heat transfer coefficient with available correlations. (b) Estimate the impact of 1 oC uncertainty in temperature measurement on the average heat transfer coefficient calculation. (c) Comment on the nature of the flow based on flow visualization results. (d) Compare the time response and spatial resolution of the thermocouple, RTD and mercury thermometer. References 1. Incropera, F. D., DeWitt, D. P., Bergman, T. L., and Lavine, A. S., Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 6th ed., John Wiley, 2006.

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