Review

Future of Mobility
Since the first powered flight at Kitty Hawk, there has been a constant development, for a variety of reasons, in the materials used in aviation applications. Apart from two periods in the 50s and 60s, where fatigue properties and supersonic applications drove material development, the main aim has been an overall weight reduction. These developments have continued to the present day with the current driving force being the challenges facing aviation on reducing its impact on climate change. Improving a materials properties, mechanical or other wise, allows designers to produce lighter and simpler parts thus reducing the weight of the aircraft, and likewise the fuel burn, reducing the emissions. This has been achieved by a number of different methods, from improving incumbent materials by new production methods and processing, producing new improved materials to replace the incumbent or latterly by utilising novel str uctures and hybrid combinations. This paper sets out a review of current aviation materials, their recent and future developments and future applications.

Foresight Program

Aviation Materials
by Christian Carey and Oliver Inderwildi
1. Introduction
Since the start of aviation, development and enhancement of material properties has been a consistent driver to enable improvements in aircraft performance. Even at the first powered flight, innovation in aerospace materials was present, with the Wright brothers using a 8% copper (by weight) aluminium alloy crank case, some 16 years before the theory of precipitation hardening was first proposed, to produce an engine light enough to fly [1]. During the pioneering years of aviation, between 1903 and 1930, the goal in material development was to achieve the minimum airframe weight possible whilst maintaining structural strength. This yielded maximum performance out of the low powered engines available at the time. Sitka spruce and a fabric cover doped in varnish was the preferred method of fuselage construction, with there being very little metal present in the structure. Apart from two eras, spanning 1954 to 1970, when fatigue and corrosion resistance was paramount, due to the Comet crashes [2, 3] and high temperature alloys were required for supersonic jet applications [4]. At all other times, the main driving force behind material developments in the aerospace industry has been one of weight [5]. Whether the reason for weight reduction was to increase performance, as in the early days of flight, or to reduce operating costs, % Reported Material Content by Weight the consequence has been a reduction in the overall weight of the aircraft. This is also true today, with the current desire to lessen the impact of aviation on the environment, since lighter aircraft burn less fuel, reducing the carbon footprint and climate impact of aviation. Current materials research follows one of a number of threads of investigation. There is a considerable amount of work being done on current materials, such as aluminium-copper alloys which have been in use since the start of powered flight. This has been achieved by improving processing methods and alloy composition to produce improved properties. This is particularly true for aluminium alloys, with the major producers undertaking a considerable amount of work in refining both the processing of and composition of current materials. They are also developing new materials, such as aluminium-lithium alloys, which, with current processing technology are now a practical material for aviation applications. Another area of investigation is novel constructions, such as cellular systems, sandwich structures and composite systems to provided hybrid properties from a combination of materials. The composition of aircraft, as shown in figure 1, has steadily changed from primarily aluminium in construction, to a mixture of materials, with composites now the main structural material. The

Hayes House 75 George Street Oxford OX1 2BQ United Kingdom Contact: Dr Oliver Inderwildi enquiries@smithschool.ox.ac.uk

Year of First Flight Figure 1: Material Use in Boeing and Airbus Aircraft by % weight and year of first flight [5, 6]

ISSN: 2041-5028

DOI: 10.4210/SSEE.RES.2009.0003

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Foresight Program
2024 is a T3 temper, which consists of a solution heat treatment to allow dissolution of soluble phases, quenching to develop supersaturation and then age hardening, at either room temperature (natural aging) or elevated temperature (precipitation heat treatment), to allow precipitation of solute atoms. These processes affect the alloy properties by altering the grain structure and the level of precipitates present in the microstructure [13]. Recent aluminium developments result from a combination of advances, including the refinement in manufacturing of traditional alloys such as the Al-Cu alloy 2024, differing tempers to produce application-specific properties in already existing alloys and new alloys systems with qualities superior to the current alloy systems. An example of modifications to current alloy systems is the development of 2024. By altering the specific composition of the alloy, within the aluminium association boundaries, and refining the heat treatment process, an improvement in the materials strength and fracture toughness has occurred. This has meant that 2024 now meets the heightened requirements for Boeing fuselage skins and has allowed the use of new production methods, such as extrusion, which makes the venerable 2024 alloy more applicable for use in modern aircraft [14, 15]. Another area of development is the production of new alloys to replace older compositions. The new alloy systems are design for specific applications, such as fuselage skins. An example of this is the replacement of 2024 fuselage skins with 2027, as the new alloy exhibits improved mechanical properties allowing an overall weight reduction. Aircraft wheels are another area where a new alloy composition, 2040, is replacing incumbent alloys 2014 and 7050 as it offers improved properties at lower density resulting in lighter parts [16, 17]. The 7XXX series alloys (magnesium is the main alloying element) have seen a great deal of advancement with alterations to the composition and available tempers to provide aluminium alloys with specific properties for given applications [5, 18, 19]. Particular attention has been paid to fatigue life and damage tolerance, but also variation in material properties required in differing locations in the aircraft. Early 7XXX series alloys (7075) were excellent in tension loading but limited in corrosion resistance [5]. Recent developments have seen a rise in the number of alloy types, with the Airbus A380 containing nine different 7XXX series alloys and temper combinations, each specifically designed for its task [18]. The final area of development is in new alloys of aluminium. Whilst Al-Li alloys were originally introduced in the late 50s, property anisotropy, low toughness, poor corrosion resistance and manufacturing issues reduced the overall take up by industry [20]. However, recent developments in alloy composition, reduction in lithium content, and refinement of production processes have resulted in alloys which do not exhibit these problems [21]. The addition of 1% of lithium to the alloy composition reduces the density by approximately 3% and increases its Youngs modulus by about 6% [22]. The improvement in properties of Al-Li over previous alloys is illustrated by figure 2. Here the static strength and toughness of various aluminium alloys, normalised by density, are plotted as a relative change to a base line material (2024 and 7050). The later Al-Li alloys exhibit a significant increase in static strength per unit mass [22, 23]. ALCOA produces a number of alloys, 2090, 2099 and 2199, and ALCAN 2050, 2195 and 2x98 that are used in the latest aircraft (787, A380) and increased future use of Al-Li alloys is planned (A350 XWB) [6, 17, 24]. Another area of development for aluminium alloys is new processing techniques, such as powder metallurgy with rapid solidification or mechanical alloying, spray forming and vapour deposition. The use of powder metallurgy has a number of benefits. It allows for an increase in number and amounts of alloying elements present in the system, it vastly extends the possibilities for microstructural features and reduction in grain size. It also produces material with higher levels of uniformity of the microstructures. These various benefits allow for higher temperature aluminium alloys to be created which could be substituted for titanium alloys in moderate temperature applications. Spray forming and vapour

Table 1: Material costs [8,9]

Material Aluminium alloys Titanium Steel Carbon Fibres $/lb 0.56 12 0.40 5.50-18

increasing use of lower density materials, such as composites and titanium alloys, has led to an overall reduction in aircraft weight, which in turn gives a reduced fuel burn, increased range and cargo capacity, whilst maintaining a cruising speed of mach 0.85 (561 mph, 903 km/h at typical cruise altitudes). Even the increased cost of newer materials (see table 1) has also failed to reduce up-take, since fuel costs have risen to be the greatest operational cost of todays commercial airlines, out-stripping both labour and capital costs [7]. This paper will give a concise review of each of the major aerospace materials with respect to their ability to reduce aviations impact on the environment. Examples of current applications and possible future applications will be discussed as well as both long and short term developments in this field by both academic and commercial groups.

2. Aluminium
Aluminium is one of the more mature aerospace materials, finding initial use in the crankcase on the Wright Flyer and Duralumin, which was used in airships [10]. The discovery of methods to protect the aluminium alloys from corrosion (bonding of a pure aluminium coating or anodizing) led to the commonplace use of aluminium in airframe construction after 1927 [11, 12]. Since then, there has been a considerable investment in improving the properties of aluminium alloys by varying the alloying content and by modifying the post-production treatment. Aluminium alloys are defined by their constituent elements, as illustrated in table 2, where the initial digit relates to the major alloying element present and the remaining three digits relate to a specific alloy composition, as registered with the Aluminium Association. For example, 2024 consists of approximately 5% by weight of copper, the main alloying element (as indicated by the initial 2), 2% magnesium, 1% manganese and 2% others (combination of Cr, Fe, Si, Ti, Zn), with the specific composition boundaries registered at the Aluminium Association. To these alloy systems a number of post-production treatments can be applied, these being indicated by a combination of letters and numbers after the series designation. These processes can include strain hardening, solution heat treating, natural aging and cold working. All of these treatments alter the properties of the aluminium alloy significantly. For example, a common aging process applied to

Table 2: Designations for wrought aluminium alloys [13]

Four digit series 1XXX 2XXX 3XXX 4XXX 5XXX 6XXX 7XXX 8XXX 9XXX Al content or main alloying element 99.00% minimum pure AL Copper Manganese Silicon Magnesium Magnesium and silicon Zinc Others including lithium Unused

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200 Relative Delta (%) vs. Baseline 180 160 140 120 100 80

Foresight Program

Upper Plate Alloys - Static Lower Plate Alloys - Static Lower Plate Alloys - Toughness Upper Stringers - Static Lower Stringers - Static

1950

1960

1970

1980 Year of introduction to AA

1990

2000

2010

Figure 2: Property improvement of ALCAN advanced alloys showing static strength and toughness normalised by density over time [23] depositing, which is the creation of ingots from droplets of conventional alloys, allows for rapid solidification, which produces much refined microstructures, exhibiting superior properties to traditionally produced alloys [25]. Another major development in the use of aluminium alloys is the production of foam or cellular materials. Metal foams are produced by a number of methods, including direct foaming using gas, investment casting, sintering and electrochemical deposition, but all produce a material containing voids. The size, density and structure of the void produced is dependent on a number of variables, including creation rate of the voids and alloying elements present, and is highly dependent on the method used to produce the foam. The end application of these materials depends on the porosity of the material, with those with a closed structure more likely to be used in structural applications, as illustrated in figure 3. It is envisaged that foam structures will replace honeycomb structures, leading to a higher performance at a reduced cost [26]. Whilst not strictly monolithic, this term has been applied to materials that consist entirely of ceramic and typically have low porosity [27]. Monolithic ceramics include aluminium oxide (Al2O3), silicon nitride (Si3N4), silicon carbide (SiC), zirconium oxide (ZrO2), transformationtoughened zirconia (TTZ), transformation-toughened alumina (TTA) and aluminium nitride (AlN). Ceramics exhibit superior thermal properties and major progress in improving their capability for wear and corrosion has been achieved over the last 30 years. Particular attention has been paid to improving the strength and toughness of the material, so ceramics can now compete with metals in applications for which they where previously unsuitable [27]. Uses for ceramics in aviation are split into two main areas, hot i.e. engine components and sensing applications. In hot applications, the high temperature resistance of most ceramics allows jet engines to run at a higher temperature, improving thermodynamic efficiency. In addition the improved wear capabilities allow higher rotational speeds and lower tolerances. In sensing applications ceramic systems provide greater accuracy in measuring the various aircraft systems, allowing more precise control, leading to efficiencies and improvements in the operation of the aircraft. Examples of hot applications include main shaft bearings, which allow the main shaft to transfer power to the main fan from the turbine stage. These ceramic bearings can withstand much higher operating temperatures and bearing speeds at a lower weight than their steel counterparts. Ceramics engine seals can also operate at higher temperatures than most current materials, again leading to greater efficiency [27]. The use of ceramic materials as thermal barrier coatings on super alloy turbine blades has resulted in an increase turbine inlet temperature, improving the thermodynamic efficiency of the engine [28]. Ceramic materials are also used in sensing applications, utilising electroceramic materials (piezoelectric and dielectrics) in accelerometers, gyroscopes and level sensors. An example of this is the 52 fuel level sensors located within the fuel tanks of the Boeing 777. This system offers a much higher degree of accuracy in fuel measurement and thus provide more accurate fuel burn data, allowing maximum fuel efficiency lowering overall cost (in both weight and maintenance costs) [29]. A limitation with utilising ceramics in other roles is due to the mechanical properties of the materials, such as ductility and fracture toughness, although Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs) are overcoming some of these problems. The use of monolithic ceramics for the foreseeable future will be restricted to individual components and coatings, rather than structural items.

3. Ceramics

Figure 3: Applications of cellular metals grouped according to the degrees of openness needed and whether their application is more structural or functional [26]

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Foresight Program

which was used in a number of military applications such as the tail rotors on the S-61 helicopter [39]. Further development led to the production of carbon fibres which demonstrated a much higher strength and modulus than had previously been achieved [40] and it is these fibres that have been used to great extent in the aviation industry to produce structures that are light and strong. The first use of carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) for a major structural component in civil aviation was the vertical fin on the Airbus A310 and A300-600 in 1985. Other components, such as the wing leading edge, control surfaces and fairing were also made from composites, including GFRP. The use of composite empennages in the A310 was carried across into the highly successful A320, A330 and A340 families, allowing optimisation of the vertical fin to improve aerodynamics and hence reduce fuel consumption and improve the flying characteristics of the aircraft [32]. The Boeing 787 is the first airliner that is primarily composite, with a fully composite skin, fuselage, wing box and empennage [41]. The recent rapid uptake of composite materials is best illustrated by the variation in composite structures in the Boeing 777 and 787. The 777 is 9% composite by weight, where as the 787 is 50% [42]. The new A350 has also followed this path with 52% composite construction by weight planned [43]. Fibre-reinforced composites have also found applications in aircraft subsystems, most notably in turbofan and turboprop engines. Largely composite compressors (GFRP) were used in the Rolls-Royce RB162 turbojet as far back as the 1960s in an effort to save weight and improve performance. The RB211 turbofan trialled the use of composite fan blades (Hyfil CFRP) during its development, and in production had composite engine cowl doors on the Lockheed L-1011 TriStar in the 1970s [32]. The use of composite structures in such highly-loaded components as compressor and main fan blades has proven successful, and the General Electric GENx turbofan (an engine option for the Boeing 747-8 and 787 Dreamliner) will enter service with fan blades, containment casing and cowling produced out of CFRP [44]. Whilst further developments in traditional composites are occurring, they are associated with smaller advancements in specific material parameters and characteristics, such as fibre/matrix interface and developing applications such as control rods etc. Specific material development is concentrated on the use of hybrid materials to overcome some of the issues in polymeric composites, such as low maximum working temperature and poor impact properties. Fibre Metal Laminates (FMLs), Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs), Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs) and Nanocomposites are developments in the composite area which are starting to be applied in service. Some recent developments in these areas are discussed below: 4.1 Fibre Metal Laminates (FMLs) Fibre Metal Laminates are hybrid composite sandwich structures comprising multiple layers of a thin aluminium alloy, less than 0.5mm in thickness and alternating layers of composite material, as shown in figure 5 [45]. A number of composite materials have been used to produce FML panels, including the initial aramid/epoxy composites (ARALL) [46], the glass fibre/epoxy system commercially available as GLARE [47-49] to various combinations of carbon fibre/PEEK or GF/PEI [49, 50]. Further work has been carried out on materials with more specialized properties such as titanium metal layers and high-temperature composite systems for supersonic applications [51, 52] and on using self-reinforced polypropylene to produce easily recyclable panels to meet manufacturers end of life commitments [53, 54]. FMLs offer a number of advantages over monolithic aluminium. They combine the fatigue properties of aluminium alloys and directional strength of composites with a weight saving of approximately 15-25%

Figure 4: Classification of Composite Material Systems [30]

4. Composites
A composite material is a system consisting of two or more phases on a macroscopic scale, whose mechanical performance and properties are designed to be superior to those of the constituent materials acting independently [30]. Composite materials can be classified into three broad areas characterised by the reinforcing phase, as illustrated in figure 4. For areas subjected to low levels of loading or secondary applications, it is common to use short fibres whereas continuous fibre reinforced composites are used for primary structural application [31, 32]. The central concept to the mechanical behaviour of composites, when loaded, is that the load is shared between the matrix and the reinforcing phase. The stress level may vary sharply from point to point, particularly with particulate filler or short fibres, but the proportion of the external load borne by the constituents can be gauged by volume averaging the load within them. The fibres carry most of the stress while the matrix binds the fibres and distributes the stresses to them. The matrix also acts as a barrier protecting the fibres from mechanical and chemical abrasion and, due to its plasticity, prevents the propagation of cracks from one fibre to another [33]. The manufacturing procedure of composite materials depends on the type of fibres and matrix and the end use of the product. All manufacturing methods have advantages and disadvantages in relation to the final cost and quality of the produce [34]. Polymeric-matrix composites are the most widely used composite system in the aviation industry. They are used in a number of applications in primary, secondary and tertiary structures for their tailored strength at low density. A variety of fibre and matrix combinations, dependent on the application requirements, are used in a number of different fibre orientations and weaves and applications [35]. The earliest composite material used in commercial aviation was glass fibre reinforced plastic or GFRP and was first used in the Boeing 707, where it represented 2% by weight of the structure [36] and is still in use on the airbus A380 [37]. GFRP consists of glass fibres embedded in a polymeric matrix, usually epoxy resin, which are then moulded and cured into the desired shape using heat and pressure [38]. Positive results from these initial applications led to the development of a number other fibre matrix composites, namely boron and carbon fibres embedded in epoxy resin

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matrix. A major issue for MMCs is their production and manufacturing cost. The composite nature makes MMCs difficult to machine, and whilst a number of methods are used for production, aerospace grade production methods are complicated and have a high cost. Aluminium based MMC has been applied cost-effectively, reducing weight in Eurocopter blade sleeves [66]. Current development is in the areas of understanding and improving the material properties and reducing production costs. An example of this is a low cost MMC produced by MC-21 Inc. It is claimed possible to produce aluminium matrix MMCs at $2.5 per kg compared to 5.50 to 6.50$ per kg for a traditional method [67]. 4.3 Ceramic Matrix Composites

Figure 5: Typical Fibre Metal Laminate lay-up over monolithic aluminium alloys [55]. Owing to their laminate structure they also exhibit crack bridging during fatigue failure, which prevents catastrophic failure, display improved flame resistance and impact properties when compared to the aluminium alloys currently used in aviation [56]. GLARE-type FMLs are currently used in A380 fuselage sections consisting of approximately 380m2, as illustrated in figure 6, saving 749kg over aluminium [57]. Recent research has concentrated on the investigation of the various properties of GLARE type FMLs [57] and improvements [59], modified hybrids with differing composite/metal compositions [51] and lay-ups for specific applications such as lower wing surfaces [60]. All these advances are in order to improve the mechanical properties of FMLs thus allowing them to be used in an increasing number of applications, allowing the aerospace industry to benefit from their lower density, and thus offering weight savings. Further use of FMLs appears limited as both the 787 and A350 initially planned the use of FML structures, TiGr (titanium-graphite) and GLARE respectively [61, 62], but have since been replaced with CFRP composites and Al-Li alloys [63, 64]. Airbus A350XWB chief engineer Gordon McConnell stated that CFRP was chosen due to the re-design of the XWB fuselage [43]. 4.2 Metal Matrix Composites Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) offer many advantages over monolithic materials including higher specific modulus, higher specific strength, improved properties at elevated temperatures, lower coefficient of thermal expansion and increased wear resistance. However their toughness is inferior to monolithic materials, they are more expensive and they are difficult to machine [65, 66]. MMCs usually consist of an aluminium or titanium matrix with oxide, nitride or carbide reinforcement such as SiC, Al2O3, B4C, TiC, TiB2 or graphite. Aluminium alloy matrix with SiC reinforcement is common MMC and where performance is paramount, titanium alloys are often used as a

Ceramic matrix composites or CMCs combine ceramic matrices with reinforcing ceramic phases. This creates a material with the excellent thermal properties of monolithic ceramics with an increased toughness and characteristics that help prevent catastrophic failures [27, 65, 68]. CMCs exhibit high temperature stability, high thermal-shock resistance, superior hardness, high corrosion resistance, light-weight, nonmagnetic and nonconductive properties. The possible applications of CMCs in aerospace are generally in the hot section of aero engines, such as turbine disks, combustor linings, turbine aerofoils, transition duct convergent flags and acoustic liners [69]. (The use of CMCs in aero engines would allow an increase in turbine inlet temperature from the current 1200C to 1500C, which would lead to a 6-8% increase in fuel efficiency [68].) A number of problems are preventing widespread use of CMCs, there is limited availability of high temperature fibres for example, with early fibres failing when used at over 1200C for any length of time, although SiBN3C fibres (Siboramic from Bayer) are a promising material [68]. Another issue is the high temperature production cycle, varying coefficients of thermal expansion of the fibres and matrix leads to debonding between the fibres and matrix causing failures. This is not present in MMCs due to plastic deformation of the metal matrix, a mechanism which is not possible in ceramics [65]. However these problems are being overcome, with GE/Rolls-Royce using CMCs (SiC fibres within an SiC matrix) for the third stage low-pressure turbine blades in the JSF F136 propulsion engine, which is currently under development [70]. 4.4 Nanocomposites [71] Nanocomposites contain nanoscale fillers (<100nm) to improve their properties of materials due to the huge surface area per mass, ultra low filler levels required for connectivity through the sample, extremely small inter-particle separations and high length-to-width ratios of nanoscale objects [72]. As with macro-scale composites, a number of combinations are possible with CMC, MMC and polymer matrix composites (PMC) all under investigation. MMC composites include copper-niobium and silver-nickel for high temperature applications [73] and CMCs are used in low friction coating [74]. PMCs rival metals in stiffness and strength with improved gas-barrier characteristics, superior dimensional stability and high heat-distortion temperatures with low mineral loading and virtually no loss in impact resistance at low density [71]. As with macro-scale composites, the attractiveness of nano-composites technology is that they will do the same job as the incumbent material at a lower weight or improved properties which allow greater efficiency, therefore reducing fuel burn and hence emissions. The immediate issues which are required to be addressed is developing a method for producing the necessary quantity for nanoparticles for a commercially attractive price, ensuring the dispersion of particles within the matrix, improving the adhesion of particles to matrix and the issue of degassing due to gas trapped by the particles while processing. Due to the small size of the particles involved there is also health and environmental aspects to be understood before wider use of nanocomposite can occur [75]. Due to the risk adverse nature of the aviation industry, it is forecast that wider application of nanocomposites will take a decade or more [76].

Figure 6: Application of Glare in A-380 fuselage [59]

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5. Titanium
Titanium is the ninth most abundant element present in the earths crust and in its alloy form exhibits a density of approximately 60% of that of steel or nickel-based super alloys. The tensile strength is comparable to that of martensitic stainless steel and is better than austenitic or ferritic stainless steel. Alloys can have tensile strength similar to super alloys such as A286 (an iron-based superalloy). Titanium also exhibits good creep properties at elevated temperatures, commercially-pure titanium is useable up to 595C. The melt temperature is greater than 1660C. While cost is about four times that of stainless steel, it is comparable to super alloys. Ti is highly corrosion resistant when processed using standard production techniques, such as casting and forging. [77] Titanium has a number of possible uses and is used in applications that require a high tensile strength/density ratio, a high corrosion resistance and moderate creep resistance at elevated temperatures. Recent applications have included safety critical applications such as landing gear on Boeing 777, where the mechanical properties of titanium allow for the saving of hundreds of kilos over the incumbent high strength low alloy steels [21]. Another application of titanium alloy is in springs, where a weight reduction of over 70% is possible over steel springs [78]. Titanium is also used extensively in primary structural roles in the F22 Raptor, to give the best possible performance and survivability. The aircraft is 42% titanium alloy by weight and uses a combination of six application-specific alloys to ensure maximum performance [79]. There have also been advances in a number of manufacturing processes for titanium, such as electron beam welding and hot stretch shaping which will allow for a greater number of applications of titanium in aerospace structures [80]. Considering the current high production cost of titanium, and the large amount of production waste (up to 90% of input material can be removed in some applications [81]), it is unsurprising that there is a high level of recycling of titanium alloys. Scrap from the production of parts and from end of life parts, when properly processed, can be used in both ingot production and for steel and aluminium alloys. The importance of recycling titanium, and other metals, has led a number of leading original equipment manufactures to establish the Aircraft Fleet Recycling Association (AFRA) to decide and set standards for the breakdown and recovery of materials. The use of recycled titanium also impinges on production methods, as GE has moved towards methods which allow use of recycled titanium (cold hearth melting over vacuum arc remelting) [82]. There are, however, a number of disadvantages associated with the use of titanium. The major TiO2 carrying ores (rutile, anatase and brookite) are present in heavy mineral sands and ore deposits, requiring large areas of mining using mass extraction techniques (wet dredging). Even in concentrated areas, only 1% of extracted material is viable, usually occurring in areas where water is scarce (for example Australia and Africa) [83, 84]. The current processing technique, the Kroll process, uses a complicated multi-stage method requiring the use of a number of different materials (for example magnesium) which increases the production cost [85]. Whilst production of titanium has increased from 50,000 metric tonnes (2003) to 70,000 metric tonnes (2007), when compare with 39.1 million tonnes (2007) of aluminium the imbalance in production is obvious. A number of processes are in development to reduce the production cost of titanium alloys and boost production rates, but none are currently at a commercial scale [86]. Greater production of Ti will lower prices and produce greater availability which will lead to replacing more steel and aluminium. This will lighten aircraft and thus further reduce fuel use and carbon footprint. Current processes under investigation will produce Ti powder, which when used with selective laser sintering, will allow complex selfsupporting structures to be produced [87]. If the titanium price is reduced to less than $5/lb then automotive application become cost effective [86].

6. Superalloys
Many superalloys exhibit excellent mechanical strength and creep resistance at high temperatures, good surface stability, and corrosion and oxidation resistance. The base alloying element for such alloys is usually nickel, cobalt, or nickel-iron. Nickel-chromium alloys date back to the early 1900s when their high temperature oxidation resistance was recognised [88]. Developments driven by the introduction of jet turbines, led to the development of cobalt-based alloys. Further research was dominated by optimising the alloy composition until the 1970s, when manufacturing process became the focus. This led eventually to the production of single crystal and directionally solidified materials with excellent resistance to high temperature creep and fatigue [89]. Generally used at temperatures exceeding 540C, in aviation this relates to the high pressure and low pressure turbines where the stator and rotor blades are either single crystal or directionally solidified super-alloy [90]. Early superalloys were either wrought or cast, limiting the maximum working temperature (defined by creep rupture after 1000h at an elevated temperature). These early alloys were then replaced with directionallysolidified and single crystal alloys, which produced much higher working temperatures [88]. Once single crystal production was developed to a commercial level, there have been a number of developments in generational alloys, where the component alloying elements define the generation, and the properties of the superalloy. The first generation superalloys, such as CMSX-2, were developed to aid single crystal production and offered a good balance of properties. The second generation alloys were modifications of their predecessors and contain rhenium, which acted as an obstacle against dislocation movement, thus increasing creep strength. The third generation alloys contained an increase in refractory metal level (W+Ta+Re+Mo) and low Cr content and exhibit good strength and corrosion properties [91-94]. Current research in this area is on fourth generation superalloys, containing ruthenium to remove the TCP phase formation present in third generation alloys due to higher levels of refractory elements, which improve microstructural stability and thus increase the high temperature creep strength [95]. More recent studies have investigated differing structures using the current alloy systems. One area of particular interest is lattice block structures, which work on either pyramidal or tetragonal truss arrangements produced using investment casting. These structures weigh approximately 15% of a solid plate having the same external dimensions whilst still maintaining good strength and damage tolerance [96, 97]. Another possible use for superalloys is the use of low density superalloy foam in noise-abatement applications, where it replaces acoustic liners [98]. The benefit of improved noise reduction would allow for an increase in engine burn efficiency, for example in-order to meet stringent noise restrictions at Heathrow the Airbus A380 took a 1.5% drop in fuel burn efficiency . Further advancement in super alloy development has been undertaken by NASA, with a focus on the high speed civil transport (development cancelled in 1999) which has claimed that with 500 supersonic aircraft in operation the overall the CO2 emission in 2015 would have been lower, when compared with an entirely subsonic fleet [99]. The super alloy developed, HSR-EPM, exhibits a 24C increase in maximum temperature and could possibly be used in high by pass ratio fans to increase overall fuel burn efficiency and is still under development [100]. The cost of a modern single crystal turbine blade is several hundred times that of micro-alloyed steel, reflecting the high degree of technological sophistication attained in the super-alloy [90, 101]. This high cost linked with high density, between 4 and 15 g/cm3 for nickel based alloys, makes them unsuitable of other applications and this has led to the development of other materials to lighten the weight of commercial engines [70, 102]. A further disadvantage of super-alloys is that they have reached a maximum operating temperature of 1050C,

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increasing the turbine inlet temperature, which increases the efficiency of the engine overall, requires coatings and boundary cooling effects which allow a limited increase in operating temperature for a mass/energy cost [88].

Foresight Program
aluminium alloys [113]. To achieve this a number of areas require research, such as manufacturing processes, corrosion resistance, flammability as well as certification processes and new design rules [113].

7. Steel
Whilst the use of steel in commercial aircraft is reducing, as illustrated in figure 1 above, the rate of change is lower than to aluminium due to the nature of the parts produced in steel, which are safety-critical components, requiring a high strength, such as landing gear, transmission gears and bearings [103]. While steel has been replaced in a number of applications, such as by Ti in the Boeing 777 landing gear, the structural efficiency with steel is still much higher [21]. Advances in steel alloys have concentrated on improvements in systems with ultra-high strength and toughness, with the AerMet family of alloys representing a significant development, offering similar specific strengths (UTS/ density) to common Ti alloys, but a vastly improved ductility, and significantly higher yield strength [104]. Other advancements in steel alloys are in the area of novel structures, as observed in aluminium, with both foam cored steel laminates for fan blade and propeller use and powder metallurgy giving graded parts [105]. Both of these technologies are still in the development stage.

10. Conclusions
A number of significant advances have been made in aerospace materials over the past 100 years and this has allowed significant improvement in performance and efficiency in primary, secondary and tertiary systems. The main gain has been in primary structures, such as the fuselage and propulsion systems. The use of new materials and methods has reduced the overall weight of aircraft, and thus reducing fuel burn. For example, Boeing claim a 20% reduction in fuel use in the 787 over pervious aircraft, although the reduction is a combination of factors including aerodynamic and propulsion changes and not just material changes. However such claims are hard to substantiate due to the number of variables present and the lack of information provided. The advances in aluminium can be summarised as improvements to current alloys systems, such as 2024, in content of constituent alloying elements and processes producing improved properties. Variations to current alloy systems, such as 7XXX series, where the present alloys systems are improved upon by varying the constituents. And the development of new systems, such as aluminium-lithium systems, which while they have been available for over 50 years, only recent production methods have produced stable alloys. Development has occurred in the area structure of aluminium, by using laminates, foams and cellular structures that have produced lower density materials, with mechanical properties superior to the current material, allowing further weight savings in the design stage. The development of monolithic ceramic materials has reached the stage where specific applications for the material are being investigated and applied, with limited work on new ceramic materials. Pure ceramic bearings are currently in use in low load situations (small scale jet turbines and biological centrifuges [114]) and hybrid steel ceramic bearing systems for turbine/auxiliary power unit applications are currently under investigation and are under test for the next five to seven years, with commercial application scheduled after that [115]. The use of composite materials has recently increased in the aviation industry, overtaking aluminium as the primary material for wide body airliner construction. This is on the back of many years of research into composite materials, gradual introduction in various aircraft locations, building up confidence within the aviation industry and meeting the various criteria for certification. This development continues with improved fibre and matrix combinations, such as CMC and MMC materials and hybrid structures such as FMLs. These developments should allow further use of composite systems in aircraft, replacing higher density materials such as super alloys. CMCs and MMC have made the transition to military applications (F-16 ventral fin [66]) and are slowly being developed for future civil applications. With the A350 XWB design already frozen it is unlikely these materials will see use on commercial flights until the next generation of airliners in 10 years time. The main development in titanium has been a more efficient and cost effective method for the production of Ti in large amounts. A number of processes are in development and the greater availability of titanium will lead to an increased use, replacing particularly steel in various aerospace applications. For example the A380 uses titanium bearings (a saving of 200Kg per aircraft) and titanium springs (70% weight reduction) [78,116]. Availability, and therefore cost is preventing increased use of titanium alloys. The Kroll process is a high cost process, which not only restricts use due to its high final cost, but also limits the number of companies prepared to invest and produce titanium. Current research is in methods to produce titanium from its ores by different methods, however the most promising, the Cambridge FFC process is

8. Shape Memory Alloys

Shape Memory Alloys (SMA's) are a family of alloy systems which have the ability to return to a predetermined shape when heated. When below their transformation temperature they are easily deformable into any shape. However, when the material is heated above its transformation temperature it undergoes a change in crystal structure which causes it to return to its original shape. SMAs can generate extremely large forces during the transformation stage if they encounter resistance. They can be created by a number of different alloy systems, the most common being Cu-Zn-Al-Ni, Cu-Al-Ni or Ni-Ti, though other materials, such as stainless steel, can be used [106]. The advantage for the aerospace industry is that light low cost actuators can be produced, which are much simpler than mechanical or hydraulic systems and can be used in restricted areas [107]. Another advantage of the simplicity of SSM actuators is that they can be used for hybrid applications such as variable jet intake and morphing variable geometry chevrons. Traditional mechanical and hydraulic systems are too large and heavy to be used in this application as they outweigh the savings possible [108, 109].

9. Magnesium Alloys
Magnesium alloys were used extensively during World War I and II, over 228,000 t consumed in all areas in 1944 alone, but after the war demand dropped as greater performance materials were required. Magnesium and its alloys exhibit the lowest density of all metallic constructional alloys, 65% that of aluminium and are therefore attractive to the weight conscious aerospace industry. They have a high specific strength, respond well to various processing methods, particularly casting, are readily available (8th most abundant material) and high recycle ability. However the use of magnesium has been limited by some poor properties such as low elastic modulus, poor toughness, poor strength and creep at elevated temperatures and high chemical reactivity [110]. Magnesium alloys can be divided into two main areas, casting alloys and wrought alloys [111]. Statistically 90% of structural magnesium alloy parts are produced using a casting process and during the last decade AZ series alloys (Mg-Al-Zn) have been extensively studied for application in both automotive and aerospace applications [112]. Magnesium alloy parts are finding application in aerospace, such as intermediate engine casings for Rolls Royce Tay engines and gearboxes for the RB211, Tay and BR710 engines. Current research is in developing magnesium alloys, both wrought and castable, that can be used to replace secondary and tertiary

Future of Mobility
scheduled for commercial availability in 2010, already a six year delay from initial forecasts [85,14]. Superalloys have undergone steady developments, leading to various increases in maximum working temperatures, leading to significant efficiency improvements in jet engines, not only in higher temperatures but also reduced blade cooling systems which lead to power loss. Unless significant improvements are made in CMCs, superalloys appear to be the main material for hot engine sections for the foreseeable future. As with aluminium, novel structural approaches, such as lattice structures will possible reduce the density of super alloys, without affecting the mechanical properties, but these is still very much laboratory techniques. Improvements in steel have centred on enhancing the mechanical properties, particularly strength, but the improving properties of titanium and other materials is reducing the use of steel in aircraft, due to its high density. However specific applications such as transmission gears are likely to be produced in steel due to the high toughness and strength possible with steels. Shape memory alloys offer great promise for use in actuators, with a number of applications. The size, weight and complexity of traditional systems, such as mechanical and hydraulic, prevent their use. Magnesium alloys offer a 35% reduction in density over aluminium alloys and are of significant interest to the aerospace industry, with a number of important companies investing in their development. It should be noted that each of the materials in use today has long lead times from development to deployment. GLARE FMLs were patented in October 1987, and the first flight in a designed for application, the A380, occurred in April 2005, some 18 years later. Aluminium lithium alloys have been known of for over 50 years, but are only now starting to be used in aerospace applications. This suggests that some of the latest technologies, such as nanocomposites and some MMC combinations will have similarly long lead times, unless demand increases for lighter aircraft. This change in demand will require a significant driver, either airline policy due to cost/conscience, consumer demands or government policy, or a combination of all three, to make these changes occur. Although an indication of this occurring is the re-design that Airbus undertook on the A350 after discussions with operators which suggested that the original A350 design would not meet the operators requirements. To meet these demands a combination of improvements

Foresight Program
to current systems and an increasing use of new materials will lead this in both reducing weight and increasing efficiency from a materials point of view.

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Alloys - partial or complete solid solution of one or more elements in a metallic matrix. Creep -tendency of a solid material to slowly move or deform permanently under the influence of stress. Fatigue - the progressive and localized structural damage that occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic loading. Fuselage - aircrafts main body section which holds crew, passengers and cargo. Primary structure - a safety critical component (e.g. wing) whose failure would result in catastrophic loss of the airframe. Secondary structure - a performance-based structure (e.g. engine) whose loss would affect aircraft operation but not lead to loss. Tertiary structure - a structure whose failure would not significantly effect the operation of the aircraft (e.g. seating). Transmission - Using the principle of mechanical advantage, a transmission or gearbox provides a speed-torque conversion from a higher speed motor to a slower but more forceful output. Youngs Modulus - is a measure of the stiffness of an isotropic elastic material.

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