C H A P T E R T H I RT Y-F I V E

H EAT E XTRACTION E VAPORATORS , C HILLED WATER , E CONOMIZERS AND T HERMAL S TORAGE

he object of a refrigeration cycle is to produce a cooling effect, to maintain environmental or process conditions at desired levels. In the cycle, heat is extracted from the space or medium being cooled to the refrigerant in the evaporator. This is sometimes referred to as the cold-, low- (pressure) or suction-side of the cycle. The evaporator may provide direct or indirect heat extraction from a space or process. For large facilities and large processes, brine or chilled water usually serve as the indirect cooling medium. This chapter focuses on the evaporators and chilled water systems, with emphasis on chilled water distribution systems and design strategies. Also included is a discussion of other types of cooling optimization strategies including water-side economizer cycles, to obtain "free" cooling effect when ambient conditions permit, and thermal energy storage to reduce peak electric demand and/or balance system operation.

secondary cooling medium that circulates between the loads and a central refrigerant-to-liquid evaporator, or cooler. Upon exiting the cooler, the chilled water is distributed to coils housed in air handling units (AHUs) or to other air conditioning or process heat exchangers. The liquid cooler is a shell-and-tube heat exchanger of either the flooded or dry type. In a flooded cooler, the refrigerant is vaporized on the outside of bare or augmented surface tubes that are submerged in evaporating liquid refrigerant within a closed shell. Refrigerant may be metered by a float valve or orifice with flooded systems. Evaporators are said to be dry when a portion of the evaporator area is used for superheating the refrigerant. Refrigerant flow to the evaporator is controlled by a thermal expansion valve in response to superheat in the return line from the evaporator coil. Typically, this is set at about 10F (6C) of superheat to assure gas inlet to the compressor to avoid compressor damage due to liquid

LIQUID COOLERS
In the refrigeration process, heat is transferred from the medium being cooled to the refrigerant as it changes phase in the evaporator. A refrigerant-to-air, or direct expansion (DX), evaporator is typically used with smaller vapor compression systems with a higher-pressure refrigerant, such as HCFC-22, CFC-12, and HFC-134a. The DX evaporator shown in Figure 35-1 is a finned-tube coil over which air is passed and thereby cooled. Large central air conditioning or process cooling systems with multiple terminal units use a brine or chilled water cooling system because it is impractical to circulate large volumes of refrigerant throughout a facility. In this case, the Fig. 35-1 Illustration of Fin-Tube Evaporator. chilled water serves as an indirect or Source: The Trane Company

Fig. 35-2 Direct-Expansion Shell-and-Tube. Source: The Trane Company

Fig. 35-3 Cooler (Evaporator) for Centrifugal Chiller. Source: Carrier Corp.

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Combined Heating, Cooling & Power Handbook: Technologies & Applications

carryover. Figure 35-2 shows a direct-expansion shell-andtube evaporator. Figure 35-3 is a cutaway schematic of an evaporator (or cooler) used with a centrifugal chiller. Notice the eliminator which, in this case, is a series of parallel plates used to trap liquid droplets ahead of the compressor. Also notice the marine water box, which is sometimes used to allow for easier inspection and cleaning of heat exchanger tubes.

CHILLED WATER TEMPERATURE

AND

FLOW

Chilled water supply and return temperature are a function of the cooling load and flow rate, commonly measured in gallons per minute (gpm) or liters per minute (lpm). The temperature differential (T) between supply and return temperature can be calculated in English units as: (Btu/h)cooling T(F ) = 8.33 lbm/gal x 60 min/h x gpm x SG x Cp (35-1) and in SI units as: kWr T(C ) = 1 kg/liter x 60 min/h x lpm x SG x Cp (35-2) Where: SG = Specific gravity of fluid, which is assumed to be 1 Cp = Specific heat of fluid in Btu/lbm F, kJ/kg C or kWh/kg C [it is assumed to be 1 Btu/lbm F (4.187 kJ/kg C or 1.16 Watt-h/kg C)] Based on a T of 10F, required flow rate is determined to be 2.4 gpm/ton (2.6 lpm/kW r ) as follows: (12,000 Btu/h)cooling/ton 8.33 lbm/gal x 60 min/h x 10 F x 1 x 1 = 2.4 g pm/ton (2.6 lpm/kWr )

ture. In a large, diverse facility, available reset will be limited by the AHU or zone with the most severe cooling or dehumidification requirement. Chilled water supply temperatures can be adjusted manually or automatically. Commonly, higher supply temperatures are used in spring and fall months, when both the temperature and the humidity of outside air are generally reduced. Automatic controls can provide a varying reset based on specified conditions, such as AHU coil valve position, outside air temperature and humidity, supply air, or indoor conditions.

CHILLED WATER PIPING DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

AND

Increasing the T to 15F (8.3C), for example, would result in a reduced flow rate of 1.6 gpm/ton (1.7 lpm/kWr ). If the flow rate and supply temperature are held constant in an operating system, the return temperature will fall as facility load is reduced. Under part-load conditions, there is an opportunity to conserve energy by allowing the supply water temperature to increase. This reduces the energy input requirement for a given load level by minimizing the pressure differential between the evaporator and the condenser. This is called chilled water reset. In an air conditioning application, the ability to reset chilled water supply temperature is limited by the AHUs capacity to control humidity at the higher water tempera-

The most common multiple chiller systems involve parallel piping configurations designed for constant flow. Chilled water flows through all chillers whenever the system is operating and an identical T is maintained across each machine. Typically, three-way control valves are used at terminal units to maintain constant system flow by bypassing coils during periods of part-load. There are several limitations with this configuration: Pump energy is wasted due to system operation at constant full flow. Cooler tubes are subject to unnecessary wear and fouling. Supply temperature control is limited as supply water from operating and off-line chillers is mixed. Consider the example of two identical chillers designed to provide supply water at 44F (6.7C) with a 10F (5.5C) temperature rise. Under typical operating conditions, at 40% of design load, one chiller is operating at 80% capacity with 44F (6.7C) supply temperature and an 8F (4.4C) temperature rise. Due to mixing, the minimum supply temperature leaving the two-chiller plant is 48F (8.9C), which may not provide adequate dehumidification in all areas of the facility. Energy consumption is also penalized, because chilled water reset is not possible for the operating chiller. Reducing supply temperature, by operating both chillers at 40% load, could further penalize energy consumption due to the need for added condenser water pumping and, possibly, hot gas bypass to allow chiller operation at low-load. Inactive chillers can be isolated when individual chilled water pumps are provided for each unit. A common parallel chiller configuration includes the use of a bypass line, with differential pressure control designed to maintain constant flow to operating chillers under varying

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load conditions. Two-way control valves can be used with this approach. When two chillers are connected in series, as shown in Figure 35-4, a constant supply temperature can be maintained, even when only one chiller is operating. Overall refrigeration energy efficiency is improved, because the first chiller is able to operate at a higher leaving water temperature. Consider operation of a mixed (or hybrid) system that includes an absorption chiller and a vapor compression chiller. Because the COP of the absorption chiller is improved more than that of the vapor compression chiller at high evaporating temperature, the absorption unit is placed first in sequence. Also, since absorption chillers are limited to a minimum supply temperature of about 40F (4.4C), lower supply temperatures can be obtained by locating the vapor compression chiller downstream of the absorption unit. In addition to thermodynamic performance considerations, relative chiller loading may be varied based on other factors, such as prevailing time-of-use energy rates. For example, during peak electric rate periods, the temperature differential across the absorption chiller could be increased to reduce load on the electric-driven chiller. Absorption chiller load could then be decreased during off-peak periods when electricity prices are low. A disadvantage of the series arrangement is that the system experiences head loss (and tube wear) through offline chillers under part-load conditions. As with the parallel arrangement, series systems can be adapted for variable flow with a bypass that maintains constant flow through the chillers.

Chilled Water Supply

Constant Flow Pump

Chilled Water Return

Fig. 35-4 Series Flow Configuration.

PRIMARY/SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

In a typical primary/secondary system, there are two separate pumping loops: a primary loop for the chillers and a secondary loop for distribution to various facility

loads. The chillers, operating on the primary system, can be cycled, staged, and loaded in the most efficient configuration. The primary circulator pumps are matched to the individual flow and head of each chiller, and when a chiller in a multiple unit configuration is inactive, its pump is off. The secondary distribution system operates at variable flow based on load requirements. Typically, multiple variable speed pumps are used under differential pressure control. Primary/secondary piping arrangements increase capital costs, but can often produce significant pumping energy savings, particularly in systems that experience a wide range of load variation. A number of variations can be used for multiple chiller systems. In the most basic arrangement, shown in Figure 35-5, a bypass line decouples the chiller (primary) flow from the distribution system (secondary) flow. The bypass line is located so that all chillers operate at the same discharge and return temperature. When the secondary system pump is at part-load, flow is reduced and the bypass line allows a portion of the primary flow to bypass the secondary system. Chillers share load equally and constant supply temperature can be maintained. A modification of this basic arrangement, shown in Figure 35-6, locates the bypass line so as to create a lead chiller, which can be fully loaded before the second chiller is brought on-line. This arrangement may be preferable when there is an operational advantage to using a designated chiller to meet base loads. A more sophisticated arrangement, shown in Figure 35-7, locates the bypass between two chillers. A valve is installed between each chiller and the bypass, allowing either chiller to operate as lead unit. This arrangement can be particularly effective with mixed chiller systems. Consider, for example, a hybrid system consisting of an absorption chiller and an electric chiller, with the absorption unit providing baseload cooling during peak electrical rate periods and the electric chiller providing baseload cooling during off-peak periods. Historically, flow variation through chillers was severely limited by design parameters. Hence, primary/secondary systems were the only reasonable alternative available for capturing pump energy savings through variable system flow. However, current designs do allow for a relatively large variation in flow through chillers. This allows a single (primary) pump to operate with a variable flow rate, enabling the capture of significant

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pump energy savings. While this configuration does not offer the full range of flow variation achievable with a primary/secondary system, it does offer the potential for energy savings to be achieved at a far lower capital cost.
Chilled Water Supply

Variable Flow Drive Auto Switch Over

Constant Flow

Chilled Water Return

Fig. 35-5 Basic Primary/Secondary Configuration.

Chilled Water Supply Variable Flow Drive Auto Switch Over

Bypass

Priority Chiller

Constant Flow

Constant Flow

Chilled Water Return

refrigeration systems. In many localities, depending on the particular cooling process, there are periods during the course of the year when ambient wet-bulb temperature will be sufficiently depressed to permit the cooling tower (or other heat rejection system) to produce a low enough water temperature to satisfy the facility cooling requirement. Supply water temperature can also usually be raised during free cooling operation in air conditioning applications, because overall load, and particularly dehumidification load, is reduced as a result of cool and/or dry ambient air conditions. Direct water-side free cooling, illustrated in Figure 35-8, bypasses the chiller completely and allows condenser water to flow directly to the load. Typically, the chilled water pump is bypassed and only the condenser pump is used. It is critical to ensure that the raw condenser water from the tower or body of water does not contaminate the relatively clean chilled water circuit. This system is often referred to as a strainer cycle, indicating the need for a strainer or filter. Cooling tower freeze protection is also a concern, and variable-speed fans as well as basin heating are often required. While it has proven effective in a number of field applications, the stringent operating requirements and risks associated with this approach have limited its use.
Cooling Tower

Fig. 35-6 Primary/Secondary Priority Loading Configuration.

Chilled Water Supply Bypass Electric Chiller Absorption Chiller

Variable Flow Drive Auto Switch Over

Cooling Load Condenser

Constant Flow Valves

Constant Flow Chilled Water Return

Condenser Pump Full-Flow Filter

Evaporator Chilled Water Pump

Fig. 35-7 Primary/Secondary Variable Priority Loading Configuration.

Fig. 35-8 Direct Water-Side Free Cooling Configuration. Source: The Trane Company

WATER-SIDE ECONOMIZER CYCLE (FREE COOLING) APPLICATIONS

Free cooling, or economizer cycle, applications take advantage of favorable outdoor temperatures to meet air conditioning or process cooling load requirements. Water-side free cooling involves the use of heat rejection systems to produce chilled water without operation of

Indirect water-side free cooling, illustrated in Figure 35-9, is a common approach that is accomplished by the inclusion of a heat exchanger to separate the heat rejection and chilled water circuits. Available free cooling is somewhat reduced due to the temperature differential across the heat exchanger, although efficient plate-and-frame

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Cooling Tower

Heat Exchanger

Cooling Load

Condenser Chilled Water Pump

Condenser Pump

Evaporator

standard operation. Figure 35-10 is a schematic representation of a vapor compression system designed to operate as an isolated indirect free cooling loop. An additional water-side free cooling method, known as thermal-siphon or refrigerant migration, is accomplished by allowing the chiller itself to function as a heat exchanger. When the condenser water is at a lower temperature than the chilled water, it is sometimes possible for the refrigerant to reject heat absorbed from the chilled water to the condenser water without mechanical compression. A small refrigerant pump may be used. Care must be taken when switching to normal compressor operation, since condenser water must be brought up to safe operating temperatures.

Fig. 35-9 Indirect Free Cooling Configuration, with Heat Exchanger. Source: The Trane Company

units are generally used. The pumping energy requirement is also greater with indirect free cooling, since both condenser water and chilled water pumps are required and the heat exchanger presents additional head to be overcome by the pumps. The transition between chiller and free-cooling operation deserves attention in any application. In temperate climate regions, cooling tower water temperatures in the range of 40 to 45F (4 to 7C) are required for free cooling, while the minimum acceptable chiller condenser water temperature is often above 55F (13C). When chillers are started, controls are required to maintain condensing temperature above this lower limit as the temperature of the cooling tower circuit rises. A multiple cooling tower array can allow cells that operate on free cooling to be isolated from cells that provide heat rejection in

THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE

Thermal energy storage (TES) involves the capture of thermal energy generated during one time period for later use during another. TES has been used for decades in one form or another for space and process heating and cooling applications. There are many types of TES applications. Examples include storage of solar heat for night heating, storage of heat recovery-generated hot water for use as needed for fluctuating loads, storage of ice in winter for use in summer, and storage of a cooling medium generated by an electric chiller during off-peak periods for use during peak periods. TES may involve sensible or latent storage. Sensible storage is accomplished by raising or lowering the temperature of storage media, such as water or solids, without producing a phase change. Latent storage is accomplished by a phase change of the storage media, typically from liquid to solid, such as water/ice or salt hydrates. For heating applications, water, oils, phase change media (such as eutectic salts), and solids (such as rock or brick) are most commonly used. For cooling applications, water and phase change media, including both ice and eutectic salts, are typically used. Other latent-heat types of cool storage media include carbon dioxide (CO2), which is used for applications such as low-temperature food freezing, and liquid nitrogen, which is used for cryogenic operation conditions.

Heater

Compressor Cond Evap Load

Condenser Water Pump

Chilled Water Pump

REFRIGERATION-CYCLE TES TECHNOLOGY OVERVIEW

For refrigeration and air conditioning applications, all TES systems operate on the same fundamental concept: the cooling equipment produces a refrigeration effect

Fig. 35-10 Schematic Representation of Indirect Water-Side FreeCooling System.

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Combined Heating, Cooling & Power Handbook: Technologies & Applications

(direct or indirect), either to meet the load or to be added to storage. The storage system either accepts excess cooling capacity or supplies it to meet the load. The load may be served directly by the cooling system or the storage system. Figure 35-11 is a simplified schematic representation of a basic TES system. Descriptions of the three most common cool storage systems follow, and a fourth is briefly mentioned.

several techniques to limit mixing, although they add to system cost. Water storage systems are also subject to problems associated with lower than desired return water temperatures and the potential for leaks in large concrete installations. They also require chemical treatment and filtering systems.

Ice Systems
The high heat of fusion of ice 144 Btu/lbm (0.093 kWh/kg) makes it an excellent storage medium. Three common types of ice storage systems are ice builder systems, ice harvesting systems, and ice slurry systems. Ice builder systems may operate with DX systems or brine (typically 25% ethylene glycol/75% water) chiller systems. The refrigerant or brine coils, which are submerged in a water storage tank, freeze the water in their immediate vicinity. The water then melts when warm return water is introduced to the tank. Primary concerns with any type of refrigerant coil system are 1) minimizing bridging of ice between coils to promote water circulation and increase exposed ice surface area and 2) creation of the minimal necessary ice thickness to reduce compressor loading during the build cycle. Typical storage systems use plastic containers filled with deionized water and an ice nucleating agent placed in a steel, concrete, fiberglass, or polyurethane tank. The inventory of available ice can be determined by measuring the water volume and adjusting for the expansion to ice (about 9%). Ice harvesting systems consist of an ice producing section and an ice/water storage section. Ice is accumulated on the outside of the evaporator in the ice producing section and then drops to storage as hot gas is passed through the evaporator to break the bond between the ice and the evaporator wall. Typical cycle intervals are about 30 minutes. Since the ice floats on water and does not completely displace its own volume, inventory of available ice must be determined by water conductivity or heat balance methods. Ice slurry systems use a brine solution, which is cooled to its freezing point where ice crystals form in its fluid film. The slurry portion is pumped to storage, where it forms a floating porous ice pack, and the remaining concentrated solution is re-cooled. The process is continuous, with the brine solution continually circulating through the evaporator until the desired stored capacity is reached as indicated by temperature measurement of the solution in storage at

Liquid Systems
Liquid (water) storage is usually the simplest for heating and cooling applications. In cooling applications, liquid storage may be applied with a wider range of refrigeration systems than can ice systems, including LiBr-type absorption chillers. The high specific heat of water, which is approximately 1 Btu/lbm F (1.16 Wh/kg K), makes it well suited for TES. Above ground tanks are commonly made of steel and buried tanks are commonly made of concrete. The principle advantages of chilled water storage systems are simplicity and the ability to operate chillers at or close to normal supply (suction) temperatures. The ability to operate at relatively high supply temperatures results in greater chiller performance. A principle disadvantage of water storage is the immense storage equipment size and space requirement. Given the temperature differential range between stored and supplied chilled water, which is limited to 10 or 20F (6 or 11C), chilled water storage requires a very large amount of storage volume. With hot water storage systems, however, a far greater temperature differential can be used, resulting in a lesser volume requirement for equivalent amounts of stored energy. Another disadvantage of water storage systems is the tendency for mixing or temperature blending of the water returning to storage and the colder stored water. There are

Chiller Pump

Building Air Flow

Cooling Coil

Temperature Control Valve

Storage System

Fig. 35-11 Schematic Representation of Basic TES System.

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equilibrium conditions. An advantage of this system is that no defrost cycle is required. A primary advantage of ice versus water storage is that size requirements are much lower. Storage space requirements for ice systems are generally less than one fifth those of chilled water systems. Ice systems are also less subject to problems associated with lower than desired return water temperatures. A major disadvantage of ice systems is decreased cooling system performance due to the need to produce the lower refrigerant (suction) temperatures required for ice making. As discussed in Chapter 37, the performance of a vapor compression system depends on the saturated suction and discharge pressures of the compressor. The suction temperature is a function of the inlet and outlet supply temperature and the discharge is a function of ambient conditions. As the entering water temperature drops, the capacity of the system drops and the temperature differential increases. This results in a requirement for more energy input per ton-h (or kWhr) output. Another disadvantage is that ice storage tends to present more complications than water storage with respect to generation, storage, discharge, and control.

used as a solid, liquid, or gas. It can be used as a vapor compression refrigerant, a liquid refrigerant, and a solid storage medium. Though not as dense a storage medium as ice, CO2 typically requires less than one-third the storage space of chilled water. The advantage of a CO2 system is its compatibility with very low temperature refrigeration applications. The disadvantages are complexity of operation and significantly higher capital cost than conventional water or ice storage systems.

TES APPLICATIONS
TES applications can be classified into four basic categories: load shifting, downsizing equipment, intermittent use to improve system performance, and excess capacity storage.

Load Shifting
Load shifting involves generating thermal energy during periods when energy costs are lower and storing it for use when energy costs are higher. This type of application is used almost exclusively with electric motor-driven vapor compression systems. The basic concept is to generate thermal energy in the form of ice, chilled water, or other media during off-peak periods when electricity costs are low, and use it during peak periods when electricity costs are high. This can be particularly effective in eliminating peak electric demand charges. Over the past two decades, these applications were a major focus of electric utility demand-side management (DSM) and marketing programs. The impetus for the customer is operating cost savings resulting from replacing the use of high-cost peak cooling season electric usage with low-cost off-peak usage. The impetus for the electric utility has been to limit utility system peak demand and/or to retain loads that might otherwise be lost to nonelectric technologies. Given the reduced emphasis on DSM, due to the evolving process of deregulation and/or the condition of excess generation capacity in many regions, utility support for this technology application has recently declined. However, with the trend toward increasingly stratified electricity rates, load shifting remains an effective technology application for many facilities, even absent additional utility incentives. Systems may be designed for full storage where all of the peak cooling requirements are served by storage; or partial storage where only a portion of the peak cooling load is met by storage, with the rest served directly by the refrigeration-cycle machine. Frequently, partial storage

Eutectic Salts
Eutectic salts change phase at various temperatures. The most commonly used eutectic salt consists primarily of sodium sulfate, which has a heat of fusion of 41 Btu/lbm (0.026 kWh/kg) and freezes and melts at about 47F (8C). Other types of eutectic salts may have a higher heat of fusion. Systems typically consist of containers stacked in a tank with small clearances for chilled water to circulate. A principal advantage is that cool storage can be generated with typical chilled water temperatures in excess of 40F (4C). Their advantage versus ice is that they can operate more efficiently because they do not have to produce such low temperatures. Their advantage over water is that they require half of the space (significantly more space than ice). Their primary disadvantage is significantly higher capital cost than conventional water or ice storage systems.

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Although not common, CO2 systems are sometimes useful for very cold applications, such as commercial food freezing. CO2 has a triple thermodynamic equilibrium point of 70F (57C) at about 60 psig (5.2 bar), which makes it a somewhat unique storage medium because it is

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Combined Heating, Cooling & Power Handbook: Technologies & Applications

applications are more cost-effective because of their lower capital cost. With full storage, more refrigeration machine and/or storage capacity is required. In a typical partial storage system for a host facility with a one-shift operation, the refrigeration machine operates at part load during peak periods and at full load during off-peak periods to generate storage. In most cases, it is necessary for the host facility to be on a time-of-use (TOU) electric rate for electric-driven thermal storage to be cost-effective. However, for the remainder of the electric loads, more traditional, less time-differentiated rates are preferable for one-shift operations, since they cannot fully benefit from extensive low-cost off-peak usage. If a rate change is necessary, the facility must consider any negative economic impact on the remaining electricity purchases that result. Facilities with three-shift operations, such as hospitals and industrial plants, can effectively use storage if their off-peak cooling requirement is significantly lower than their peak requirement. In cases where such facilities have high load factors and require similar or only slightly lower levels of cooling during off-peak rate periods, excess refrigeration machine capacity may be required. This strategy may prove financially acceptable if redundant capacity is desired and considered an added benefit. The large reliance on the specific characteristics of the electric rate structure can be an application-limiting factor. In cases where the rate structure features either offpeak demand billing or where a demand charge is assessed to any portion of off-peak demand that exceeds the peak demand, the economic benefits of the load shift may be somewhat limited. Moreover, should the rate structure change, which is always a possibility given the dynamics of todays rapidly changing electricity market environment, long-term returns on the investment could be diminished since system selection and operations are so closely dependent on the specific (predictable) rate structure. It may therefore be beneficial to consider a long-term agreement on the rate structure with the utility. Given these risks, load-shifting TES systems still offer a good measure of operating flexibility, allowing facilities to dispatch storage and limit the use of electricity during the most costly periods of the day. With the advent of real-time-pricing (RTP) type rates, the ability to reduce electricity consumption during periods of very high market pricing provides a strong measure of financial security, though electricity market volatility does make system selection

and operational strategy a difficult challenge. Figure 35-12 shows a 3.3 million gallon stratified water thermal storage system tank used at a Veterans Medical Center to balance energy demand during peak load periods. With a 12F (5.6C) temperature rise, a system of this capacity can store about 27,500 ton-h (97,000 kWhr ) of cooling capacity. This could eliminate the operation of a 5,500 ton (19,300 kWr ) chiller over a 5 hour daily peak period or the same capacity chiller operating over an 8 hour peak period with a 62.5% load factor.

Downsizing Equipment
Given the short duration of design cooling load conditions, the limited use of storage can typically reduce refrigeration machine capacity requirement by providing cooling during those limited peak hours. Thus, the refrigeration machine and system auxiliaries, such as the cooling tower and condenser pump, can be sized at a capacity lower than that of a facilitys full peak requirement. The stored cold thermal energy, generated during off-peak load periods, can then be used during peak load conditions to make up the capacity deficit. With the trend toward market-based RTP electric rates, the availability of a limited amount of storage capacity may prove economical by providing the ability to eliminate the few most costly kWh purchased on a given day. As with other load shifting strategies, it is, however, difficult to predict the optimal amount of storage capacity. This strategy can be employed with virtually any type of refrigeration system. It can also be used when load growth has exceeded the current chiller or boiler capacity, or both. Storage can be employed permanently, or as a stop-gap measure until load growth is significant enough

Fig. 35-12 3.3 Million Gallon Stratified Thermal Energy Storage Water Tank. Source: Carter & Burgess, DoE/NREL

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to warrant investment in added capacity.

Intermittent Use to Improve System Performance

Storage of thermal energy for intermittent use can improve performance of systems that would otherwise cycle frequently or operate often under very low loads. In both heating and cooling system applications, equipment cycling and/or operation under very low loads often results in decreased overall system performance. In cases where equipment does cycle on and off due to low load conditions, cycling frequency can be reduced as run time is extended to charge the storage system. In other cases, limited cycling can be induced in conjunction with storage as an alternative to constant low load operation. The system generates cold (or hot) water and then cycles off for a lengthy period, which can improve efficiency and limit auxiliary equipment run time. Equipment with significant auxiliary usage, such as singlestage absorption systems, can be run at full load for shorter intervals rather than at part load for longer intervals. Further, as peak demand setting periods approach, the unit can be cycled off to limit peak demand. Limited storage can also be used to balance a closedloop water-source heat pump system when heating and cooling loads are not exactly coincidental. A relatively small tank can provide significant benefits. Another application is for cooling units (or boilers) that must be operated to serve only a small load for a given period of the day on a consistent basis. Under this circumstance, it may be effective to charge storage during normal (higher load) operation and shut off the cooling unit (or boiler), allowing storage to serve the small (off-peak) load.

and store recovered heat. While storage is typically in the form of hot water for these types of applications, there are cases in which it makes sense to use cool storage produced by heat recovery-driven cooling equipment. When heat recovery is in the form of steam, it may be effective to use the steam in an absorption chiller or steam turbine-driven chiller to generate cool storage, which can then be used to serve cooling loads as they occur. While typically a greater amount of energy can be stored in the form of hot water than chilled water, generating cool storage may also permit equipment downsizing, as described above.

EVALUATION OF TES APPLICATION OPPORTUNITIES

The economic performance analysis of potential TES applications should compare the cost of the storage equipment, minus any avoided capital costs, and the cost of generating or capturing the stored thermal energy with the alternative purchase and/or generation of that energy during the appropriate use period. Following are several factors that should be included in the evaluation of TES application opportunities. Operating at lower suction temperatures to produce colder temperatures as required with many TES systems reduces cooling unit performance and capacity and, therefore, increases energy usage. This is most significant with ice storage systems. Conversely, in some cases, during the off-peak periods in which the system operates to charge the storage tanks, ambient conditions may be cooler and or less humid. This allows for a lower condensing temperature and, therefore, an efficiency gain. Operation with reduced chilled water distribution temperatures can provide capital and operating cost benefits. In new construction, opportunities should be evaluated for designing a lower temperature chilled water distribution system. Capital cost savings may be achieved with smaller capacity pipes, ducts, pumps, and fans. Operating cost savings may be achieved through reduced pump and fan energy requirements. Caution should be taken in retrofit applications to account for all redesign costs, including, where applicable, fan, pump, pipe, and duct modifications and the installation of pipe and duct insulation. Partial storage systems often allow for the purchase of less refrigeration machine (i.e., chiller) capacity and associated heat rejection equipment. If, for example, the peak load is 6,000 tons (21,000 kW r ) and this can be ) chiller plus storage, satisfied with a 3,000 ton (10,500 kW r

Excess Capacity Storage

Storage of available thermal energy in excess of the amount that can be used during a given time period for use during periods when there is sufficient demand may allow this energy to be used rather than wasted. One of the most common uses of TES is to capture available thermal energy during periods when supply is greater than demand, which often is the case in heat recovery applications. The stored thermal energy is then metered in accordance with demand and, therefore, not wasted. This strategy is commonly used with solar heating systems and combustion engine applications that recover heat in the form of hot water. An example is a cogeneration-cycle system that operates to meet an electric or mechanical load during a low thermal load requirement period. While it may not be economical to operate the system and reject all of the heat, it may be economical to operate the system

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Combined Heating, Cooling & Power Handbook: Technologies & Applications

the savings on the additional 3,000 tons of chiller capacity and associated condenser pump, fan, and cooling tower capacity can offset much, if not all, of the thermal storage system capital cost. Counterbalancing the prospective benefits of potentially reduced distribution system capital and operating costs are capital costs associated with added storage system pumping, water treatment and filtering costs, and maintenance requirements. The opportunity cost of allocating space for storage and the cost of any additional landscaping or structural modifications should also be considered. Ice storage systems are fairly large; cold water systems are extremely large. In the case of large concrete water storage systems, consideration should be given to the potential for leaks. The use of at least two partitions should be considered to allow for simultaneous operation and repair. Sizing of storage capacity and predicting how much to store each day is difficult as a result of continually changing load requirements. If storage is undersized, the refrigeration machine may have to operate under peak conditions. If an electric-driven refrigeration machine is brought on line to serve the unintended need for peak operation, an electric demand may be set (under a demand sensitive electric rate), thus reducing the savings associated with load shifting. If a system is oversized, the refrigeration machine may operate

inefficiently under very low loads. Factors such as plant diversity and tenant use can further complicate prediction of required storage capacity. As with other peak-shaving technologies, it should also be assumed that, periodically, the system will be out of service during peak demand periods. In the case of electric-driven systems operating under a load-shifting strategy, this may also necessitate peak refrigeration machine usage and could result in the incidence of peak demand charges. As noted above, another risk associated with electric load shifting applications is that the system design and selection of the optimal amount of storage is so highly dependent on the specific electric rate structure. A system design that produces optimal economic performance under one rate structure may produce inferior economic performance under another. The dramatic changes occurring in the electricity industry, therefore, present uncertainty risk to loadshifting applications. Still, the application may remain very useful if electric rates experience further stratification between peak and off-peak periods, or move toward RTP. While perhaps more limited storage capacity will be required and the optimal amount may be difficult to determine, the ability to eliminate the most costly electricity purchases may become even more valuable over the next decade.

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Copyright 2003 by The Fairmont Press.