Effects of Fuel Injection Timing in the Combustion of Biofuels in a Diesel Engine at Partial Loads

A. J. Sequera
e-mail: axzel@ou.edu

R. N. Parthasarathy
e-mail: rparthasarathy@ou.edu

S. R. Gollahalli
e-mail: gollahal@ou.edu School of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, University of Oklahoma, 212 Felgar Hall, 865 Asp Avenue, Norman, OK 73019

Methyl and ethyl esters of vegetable oils have become an important source of renewable energy with convenient applications in compression-ignition (CI) engines. While the use of biofuels results in a reduction of CO, particulate matter, and unburned hydrocarbons in the emissions, the main disadvantage is the increase of nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions. The increase in NOx emissions is attributed to differences in chemical composition and physical properties of the biofuel, which in turn affect engine operational parameters such as injection delay and ignition characteristics. The effects of fuel injection timing, which can compensate for these changes, on the performance and emissions in a single cylinder air-cooled diesel engine at partial loads using canola methyl ester and its blends with diesel are presented in this study. The engine is a single cylinder, four stroke, naturally aspirated, CI engine with a displacement volume of 280 cm3 rated at 5 HP at 3600 rpm under a dynamometer load. It was equipped with a pressure sensor in the combustion chamber, a needle lift sensor in the fuel injector, and a crank angle sensor attached to the crankshaft. Additionally, the temperature of the exhaust gases was monitored using a thermocouple inside the exhaust pipe. Pollutant emissions were measured using an automotive exhaust gas analyzer. Advanced, manufacturer-specied standard, and delayed injection settings were applied by placing shims of different thicknesses under the injection pump, thus, altering the time at which the high-pressure fuel reached the combustion chamber. The start of injection was found to be insensitive to the use of biofuels in the engine. The late injection timing of the engine provided advantages in the CO and NO emissions with a small penalty in fuel consumption and thermal efciency. [DOI: 10.1115/1.4003808] Keywords: biofuels, emissions, injection timing, diesel engine

Introduction

The growing demand of clean energy sources and the efforts to reduce the dependence on fossil fuels have resulted in the research and development of alternate energy sources. Biofuels produced from vegetable oils and animal fats have become attractive due to their capability of being used in unmodied commercial compression-ignition (CI) diesel engines. These fuels have physical properties similar to those of petroleum-derived diesel fuel; their suitability to automobiles with CI engines has been demonstrated in many studies [1,2]. In the last decade, many studies, however, have focused mostly on the global exhaust emissions from diesel engines using biofuels. A few of them are reviewed below. Durbin et al. [1] performed tests on four heavy-duty diesel trucks fueled by neat diesel, 80/20 dieselbiodiesel blend (B20), and a synthetic diesel to examine the effects on emissions. The results indicated that the biodiesel blends and synthetic diesel produced lower hydrocarbon and CO emissions than neat diesel; NOx emissions were comparable in most cases, except for the case of 100% biodiesel (B100), for which 115% higher NOx emissions were recorded. Tat and Van Gerpen [3] attributed the changes observed with the use of biofuels to the physical properties of the fuel. Their results indicated that the bulk modulus of ethyl and methyl esters of soy oil were 10% higher than those of No. 2 diesel, indicating the possibility of advanced fuel injection in the case of biofuels. Durbin and Norbeck [2] performed tests comparing emissions from seven heavy-duty trucks using diesel and a 20% biofuel blend. Lower hydrocarbon and CO emissions were observed with the biofuel blend; NOx emissions were comparable
Contributed by the Fuels and Combustion Division of ASME for publication in the JOURNAL OF ENERGY RESOURCES TECHNOLOGY. Manuscript received August 17, 2010; nal manuscript received February 28, 2011; published online May 26, 2011. Assoc. Editor: Professor Kevin M. Lyons.

among all the fuels. Tat et al. [4] tested soybean and yellow grease biofuels in a four cylinder turbocharged direct injection CI engine. It was found that the biofuels produced an earlier start of combustion; NOx emissions were found to be 115% higher for the biofuels compared to No. 2 diesel. Szybist et al. [5] investigated the effect of cetane number of biofuel blends on the emissions from a single cylinder air-cooled direct injection CI engine. NOx emissions were found to be insensitive to ignition delay and highly dependent on the timing of the combustion process, initiated by the start of fuel injection. Erazo et al. [6] tested the feasibility of operating a diesel engine fueled by ethanol, canola oil, and peanut oil blended with No. 2 diesel in volume ratios ranging from 10% to 90%. It was demonstrated that the engine could not be run steadily using the ethanol/ diesel blend due to the vapor lock in injection lines. On the other hand, vegetable oil/diesel blends formed stable mixtures that allowed the operation of the engine, but the measured thermal efciency was 26% lower than with diesel fuel. Cheng et al. [7] attempted to reduce NOx emissions from biofuel combustion in a CI engine by using alcohol as an additive; two congurations, 10% fuel-blended methanol and 10% fumigated methanol were used. The fumigation method consisted of injecting methanol in the air intake through a low-pressure injector. Only in the blended mode, the results were encouraging, where the cooling effect of methanol eliminated the NOx increase due to the biofuel; CO and hydrocarbon concentrations in the exhaust were comparable for both congurations. Kegl [8] investigated the effect of injection timing on the combustion of 100% rapeseed biofuel in a six-cylinder water-cooled CI engine. At an injection timing of 4 deg crank angle (CA) later than the manufacturer setting for No. 2 diesel, the emission advantages included 25% reduction in CO and NOx and a 50% reduction of smoke emissions. Nwafor et al. [9] studied the effects of advanced injection timing on the hydrocarbon (HC) JUNE 2011, Vol. 133 / 022203-1

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emissions of a diesel engine using rapeseed oil and found that the HC emissions were reduced by 12% when the injection timing was advanced by 5 deg. Sayin et al. [10] performed experiments in a single cylinder, naturally aspirated, air-cooled diesel engine (rated at 9 HP at 3600 rpm) and changed the injection timing with Canola methyl esterdiesel blends. It was found that with advanced injection timing, the smoke opacity and HC and CO emissions were reduced, but the NOx emissions were increased. Also, increasing the amount of canola methyl ester (CME) in the blend resulted in an increase in the specic fuel consumption. The effects of injection timing were reported only for full load of the engine. Moreover, the in-cylinder pressure was not measured in these experiments. The aforementioned studies demonstrate the advantages and problems in the use of biofuels and their blends in CI engines and that the optimal conditions for reduction in emissions appear to depend strongly on the specic conguration. The specic objective of the present study is to investigate emissions, performance characteristics, and in-cylinder pressure variation of a CI engine fueled with CME and No. 2 diesel blends at three different injection timing settings at partial loads. Partial loads were chosen to simulate the conditions at which these engines are usually operated. The variation of injection timing was accomplished by manipulating the plunger lift in the fuel injection pump. The effects of fuel injection timing were studied by documenting the needle lift diagram and the pressurecrank angle diagram, and thermal efciency, fuel consumption, and CO and NO concentrations in the exhaust.

Experimental Apparatus

A single cylinder, direct injection, four stroke, naturally aspirated, air-cooled CI engine with a displacement volume of 280 cm3 rated at 5 HP (3.7 kW) at 3600 rpm, that is commonly employed in portable electric generator units, was used. The engine was connected to a fuel delivery and injection system that consisted of a set of fuel tanks, a plunger injection pump, and a pintle injector. The system delivered fuel at high pressure (approximately 1920 psi) to the combustion chamber. An electric dynamometer (dc motor/generator) was coupled to the engines crankshaft. The dynamometer served two functions. First, it provided a means to start the engine by cranking it through the compression stroke in the motoring mode. After the fuel mixture ignited for the rst time, the engine could sustain itself. At this point, the dynamometer was switched to its second function, namely loading (generator mode). In this mode, the dynamometer placed a variable load on the crankshaft by changing eld or armature resistance and allowed the operator to test the engine under specic loads. The energy absorbed by the dynamometer was dissipated into the amosphere by aircooled resistance heaters. Two fuels, petroleum-based ASTM No. 2 diesel fuel and a biofuel, CME, and their blends of 20%, 50%, of CME (by volume) were used. The properties of CME and No. 2 diesel are presented in Table 1. No separation of the fuels in the blends was observed over a 3-month period. The biofuel concentration is abbreviated as B20, B50, and B100, where the numbers represent the volumetric percentage of CME in a fuel blend.
Table 1 Properties of the fuels tested Property/fuel Molecular formula Molecular weight (kg/kmol) Density (kg/m3) at 16 C Kinematic viscosity (cSt) at 40 C LHV (MJ/kg) Boiling point at STP ( C) Iodine number Cetane number No. 2 diesel C16H34 226 843 2.63 42.6 185345 8.6 4052 CME C19H36O2 296 876 4.37 37.4 340405 97 55

The crank angle position was determined using an incremental encoder attached to the engines crankshaft. It produced a signal with a resolution of 720 square wave cycles per turn of the shaft. Each square cycle was recognized by a data-acquisition system (DAQ) and provided information about the position of the crankshaft in steps of 0.5 deg. The pressure inside the cylinder was measured with an optical sensor. This sensor was designed to continuously monitor static pressure by providing an analog output signal that ranged from 0.5 to 5.0 V with a sensitivity of 1.5 mV/psi. The sensor tip was installed into a drilled and tapped hole in the cylinder head and sealed. The start and end of fuel injection and the injection prole were recorded using a custommade commercial injector needle lift sensor that was manufactured and installed with the injector. It was an analog Hall-effect sensor that delivered a voltage proportional to the position of the injector needle. In-cylinder pressure, crank angle position, and needle lift were sampled with a high speed DAQ installed on a personal computer and a data-acquisition program specically designed for this application. The crank angle and the pressure sensors were connected to the DAQ board through counter and analog input terminals, respectively. The program was designed to read the square waves from the crank angle sensor and use the rising part of each cycle as an external clock. The external clock was used to control the acquisition of pressure measurement from the other sensor, i.e., at every rise of the square signal (which represented an advance of 0.5 deg of crank angle) a pressure measurement was taken. Details of the data-acquisition system and the software program are provided by Sequera [11]. Exhaust gas concentrations were measured using an automotive exhaust gas analyzer. This portable unit was designed for the simultaneous measurement of the volumetric concentration of O2, CO, CO2, HC, and nitric oxide (NO) in exhaust gases from internal combustion engines. CO, CO2, and HC concentrations were detected by a nondispersive infrared detector that provided volumetric percentages of CO and CO2 and parts per million (ppm) of HC. O2 and NO were detected by electrochemical sensors in volumetric percentage and ppm units, respectively. Calibration of the exhaust gas analyzers was performed using standard gas mixtures. The air ow rate into the engine was determined by measuring the pressure drop across a calibrated venturi nozzle mounted on an accumulator connected to the air inlet pipe of the engine. A stroboscope was used to measure the engine speed. The fuel consumption rate was measured using a precision weight scale. The exhaust temperature was monitored using a type K thermocouple connected to a digital reader. The No. 2 diesel fuel was studied rst to provide a baseline for comparison to other fuel blends. The fuel delivery system was designed to rapidly switch from one fuel tank to another without interrupting the engine operation. A 12min period was allowed for the old fuel to clear the system as it was ushed by the new fuel. Uncertainties in the measurements were computed following standard procedures and are shown as error-bars in the graphs.

Results

3.1. Injection Timing. The injection timing setting of the engine was controlled by the thickness of the injection pump shims. The three timings used in the experiments are based on the following shim thicknesses: 0.2 mm, 0.7 mm (specied by the manufacturer for No. 2 diesel fuel), and 1.3 mm. The effect of changing the shim thickness is shown in Fig. 1 for CME B100 fuel. The needle lift sensors output signal was ltered to give an approximate value of 0 when the injector was completely closed and a value of 1 when it was completely open. From the gure, it is seen that the shim of 0.2 mm thickness produced a start of injection (SOI) at 15 deg before top dead center (bTDC) (advanced injection); these values were changed to 7 deg bTDC and 4 deg after top dead center (aTDC) for the 0.7 and 1.3 mm thicknesses, Transactions of the ASME

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Fig. 1 Needle lift diagram for various shim thicknesses with CME B100 fuel

Fig. 3 Cylinder pressure as a function of crank angle for three injection timings at torque 30 in. lb for CME B100 fuel

respectively. The 7 deg bTDC was the standard timing for No. 2 diesel fuel. The duration of injection was 18, 21, and 23 deg CA corresponding to these three thicknesses. The injection duration increased with the delay of injection due to the higher engine speed resulted when the injection was delayed [11]. Figure 2 shows the needle lift diagram for different mixtures of No. 2 diesel and CME biodiesel at SOI 7 deg bTDC. These experiments were conducted to isolate the effects of fuel compressibility on the start of injection, as speculated by Tat and Van Gerpen [3]. Figure 2 demonstrates that, for this engine, no signicant variation existed between the times of start of injection of No. 2 diesel fuel and that of CME B100, or for any of the intermediate blends of these fuels. These observations reveal that the changes due to biodiesel fuels took place only after the beginning of injection. The observation that the SOI did not change with the fuel indicates that the fuel compressibility is not a signicant factor that affects injection timing. 3.2. In-Cylinder Pressure and Combustion. To show the effects of injection timing on the in-cylinder pressure variation,

the Ph diagram for the three injection timings with CME B100 is presented in Fig. 3. It is observed that the peak pressure decreased and occurred later as the injection timing was delayed, in agreement with the observations of Kegl [8]. In terms of the power output of the engine, high peak pressures were favorable. The advanced injection produced peak pressures that were about 20% higher than those produced at the standard injection timing, whereas the retarded injection resulted in a 15% reduction in the peak pressure. The rate of pressure decrease is another variable worth paying attention; Fig. 3 indicates that the rate of pressure decrease was lower when injection was delayed; high pressures near TDC indicate more fuel burning in a premixed-ame mode, hence, less fuel is available for the subsequent nonpremixed combustion. Figure 4 shows the Ph diagram for different CME blends and No. 2 diesel at the standard injection timing and 30 in. lb torque. It is observed that the B100 fuel produced a slightly higher pressure than the rest of the fuels, in contrast to the observations of Kegl [8]. A closer inspection indicates that the higher pressure for B100 prolonged for approximately 40 deg of crank angle after the occurrence of peak pressure. This is a sign of more fuel being

Fig. 2 Needle lift diagram of various diesel/CME blends at standard injection timing (0.7 mm shim thickness)

Fig. 4 Cylinder pressure as a function of crank angle at standard injection timing and torque 30 in. lb for CME/diesel blends

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Fig. 5 Torque variation with rpm for CME B100 at three injection timings

Fig. 7 Brake specic fuel consumption as a function of BMEP for CME B100 at three injection timings

burned, and fuel consumption of B100 was nearly 10% higher than that for No. 2 diesel. Apart from B100, no signicant changes were observed for the CME blends as the variation in the measurements for different blends was within the experimental uncertainty. 3.3. Engine Performance. The brake horse power (BHP), brake specic fuel consumption (BSFC), and thermal efciency are presented to characterize the engine performance [12]. The torque developed during the combustion of CME B100 at different injection timings is presented in Fig. 5 as a function of rpm. While the torque developed was comparable for all the injection timings, the engine operated at a slightly lower rpm with advanced fuel injection. The output power was comparable for standard and advanced injection; in the case of retarded injection, the power was lower up to a torque of 35 in. lb (although within experimental uncertainties). The thermal efciency and BSFC for CME B100 at different fuel injection timings are presented in Figs. 6 and 7, respectively, as a function of brake mean effective pressure (BMEP). No significant changes are observed with injection timing (the variations

observed are within experimental uncertainties). The engine was run at partial loads; therefore, the efciency values were low. The exhaust temperature for CME B100 (Fig. 8) indicates that consistently higher exhaust temperatures were obtained as the fuel injection was delayed. 3.4. Exhaust Emissions. The exhaust gas concentrations of CO and NO were converted to emission index (EI) values, as dened by Turns [13]. The emission index is the mass of pollutant produced per unit mass of fuel consumed, assuming that all carbon in the fuel reacts to form only CO and CO2. Figures 911 present the exhaust gas concentrations for CME B50 as a function of BMEP at the three injection timings. Figure 9 shows that the advanced and retarded injection timings both reduced the CO emission index signicantly, when compared to the standard injection. The CO emission index was 515% lower for advanced injection and 1630% lower for retarded injection than for standard injection. The lower CO index for retarded injection agrees with the ndings of Kegl [8]. Figure 10 indicates that comparable amounts of CO2 were produced for the three injection timings.

Fig. 6 Change in thermal efciency with BMEP for CME B100 at three injection timings

Fig. 8 Exhaust temperature variation with BMEP for CME B100 at three injection timings

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Fig. 9 CO emission index as a function of BMEP for CME B50 at different injection timings

Fig. 11 Change in NO emission index with BMEP for CME B50 at different injection timings

The NO emission index for the three injection timings for CME B50 is presented in Fig. 11. It is observed that advanced injection produced a major increase in NO (4550% higher than at standard injection), whereas retarded injection resulted in NO emissions (130% lower than at standard injection). However, this advantage of retarded injection disappeared at higher loads. The variation of NO emission index with injection timing afrms the dependence of NOx on the start of injection, as presented by Szybist et al. [5]. The higher NO emissions produced in advanced injection were the result of higher in-cylinder pressures (Fig. 3), yielding higher temperatures.

Discussion

The needle lift diagrams show that crank angles at which the SOI and the end of injection occur did not materially change when CME or CME blends were substituted for petroleum-based No. 2 diesel fuel. The injection delay is a function of the bulk modulus or compressibility of the fuel, which is 10% higher for biofuels than that of No. 2 diesel [3], indicating the possibility of advanced SOI in the case of biofuels. The fact that we did not observe signicant changes in SOI indicates that this effect was negligible, perhaps due to the small length of high-pressure injec-

tion tubing between the pump and the injector. Hence, the observed changes in performance and emissions of CI engines reported with the use of biofuels seem to be caused by the thermochemical effects during the ignition and combustion stages. The adjustment of injection timing, which controls the SOI, is a potential tool to compensate for the effects of biofuels on the ignition and combustion processes. Advancing SOI results in increasing the physical ignition delay as the droplet evaporation occurs at lower temperatures during the compression stroke, while retarding does the opposite. The higher Sauter Mean drop diameter in a nonburning spray of biofuels compared to No. 2 diesel fuel reported by Erazo et al. [14] suggests a longer physical ignition delay for biofuels in CI engines, which can be compensated by retarding SOI. Retarding SOI also decreases the rate of pressure rise after top dead center (aTDC) and the peak pressure as seen in the pressurecrank angle diagrams (Fig. 3). The lower peak pressure and hence lower peak temperature in the cylinder result in lower thermal NOx. Also, longer combustion duration, as conrmed by higher exhaust temperature with retarded injection (Fig. 8), results in lowering the CO emission.

Summary and Conclusions

Fig. 10 Change in volumetric concentration of CO2 with BMEP for CME B50 at different injection timings

CME and CME blends with No. 2 diesel fuel were burned in a single cylinder, naturally aspirated, air-cooled four stroke cycle diesel engine. The fuel injection timing was varied by the use of shims of different thicknesses under the injection pump. Advanced, standard, and retarded injection settings were studied. The in-cylinder pressure was measured as a function of crank angle. The temperature of the exhaust gases was monitored with a thermocouple in the exhaust pipe immediately downstream of the exhaust valve. Pollutant emissions were measured using an automotive exhaust gas analyzer. The crank angle at which the start and end of the fuel injection occurred was not affected when CME or CME blends were substituted for No. 2 diesel fuel. Hence, the changes in engine performance and emissions with the biofuels could be attributed to the thermo-chemical processes that occurred after the fuel injection into the cylinder. Adjustment of the injection timing produced signicant effects on the in-cylinder pressure. Advancing injection by 8 deg CA from the standard setting increased cylinder peak pressure by approximately 20%, whereas retarding injection by 11 deg CA reduced peak pressure by about 10%. Retarding injection reduced CO and NO emissions, while advancing injection reversed those results. The changes that occur when biofuels are used in JUNE 2011, Vol. 133 / 022203-5

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place of conventional diesel fuel in compression-ignition engines are primarily due to effects on ignition delay and combustion rates.

Acknowledgment
This work was supported by the Department of Energy of Oklahoma and the Oklahoma Bioenergy Center.

Nomenclature
B20 B50 B100 BHP BMEP BSFC deg CA CI CME EI LHV P Pm SOI aTDC bTDC h 20% biodiesel, 80% No. 2 diesel fuel (in volume) 50% biodiesel, 80% No. 2 diesel fuel (in volume) 100% biodiesel brake horsepower brake mean effective pressure brake specic fuel consumption degrees of crank angle compression ignition canola methyl ester emission index lower heating value pressure BMEP start of injection after top dead center before top dead center crank angle

References
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