3 Functions 52 SECTION F Graphs of Functions By the end of this section you will be able to understand what is meant by an ordered

d pair define a graph in terms of ordered pairs check for a function by examining the graph test a given function is injective and/or surjective by graphical and algebraic methods F1 Ordered Pair What does the term ordered pair mean? Pair means two pair of shoes, pair of socks, pair of gloves etc. What do you think ordered pair means? Ordered pair is two elements where order matters. One of the elements call it x is the first element and the other element say y is the second element. An ordered pair where x is the first element and y the second is denoted by ( x, y ) For example, points on the Cartesian coordinate system are ordered pairs.
y 5 This is the ordered pair (1,2)

3 This is the ordered pair (2,1)

Fig 35 Note that (1, 2) is different from (2,1), we say (1, 2) is an example of an ordered pair which is different from the ordered pair (2,1). The set { 1, 2} is not an ordered pair. Why not? Because { 1, 2} = { 2, 1} [ Equal] Remember the curly brackets represent a set and order does not matter in sets whilst for ordered pair it does matter. In 1914 Norbert Wiener defined the ordered pair ( x, y ) as

3 Functions 53

( x, y ) = { { x} , { x, y} } (3.17) where the element x is the first element and y the second. Therefore ( 1, 2 ) ( 2, 1) [ Not Equal]
When are two ordered pairs such as ( x, y ) and ( a, b ) equal? (3.18)

( x, y ) = ( a , b )

if and only if x = a and y = b

N Wiener was born in Columbia, USA. Both his parents were Jewish immigrants from Europe. Wiener was well ahead of his years in education receiving his PHD by the age of 18 from Harvard. After Fig 36 his PHD he studied in Europe under the most We can visualize a given eminent mathematicians of that era, around 1914, Norbert Wiener 1894 to 1964 function by plotting it on such Landau, Coordinate Hilbert and Hardy. the as Cartesian After the first Worldallows War he started as an System . This system instructor at MIT where you to plot a point in the he remained for the rest of his dimensional working lifeplane and becoming a professor. two 2

by assigning two real values generally labelled as x and y . The x value is called the x coordinate and y value is the y coordinate of the uniquely determined point in the plane. The coordinates are defined by two axes at right angles to each other with the common point called the origin and nominated O . A point in the Cartesian coordinate system is defined by an ordered pair, ( x, y ) , of real numbers. The ordered pairs (1, 3), ( 1, 2 ) , ( 0, 1) and below:
y 3 2 This point is (1,3) This point is (-1,2) 1 This is the origin ( 0 , 0 ) 1 -1 -2 -3 This point is ( 0 , -1 ) 2 3 x

( 1,

1) are illustrated

-3

-2

-1

This point is ( -1 , -1 )

Fig 37 that the horizontal axis is labelled x and is called the x -axis. Similarly the Note vertical axis is called the y -axis. Also note that the ordered pair ( x, y ) on the Cartesian coordinate system needs to be real numbers, that is x and y . The Cartesian coordinate system is an example of the plane 2 = .

3 Functions 54

Fig 38 Rene Descartes 1596 to 1650 The name Cartesian is derived from the French mathematician and philosopher Rene Descartes born in 1596. Descartes attended a Jesuit college and because of his poor health he was allowed to remain in bed until 11 oclock in the morning, a habit he continued until his death in 1650. In 1616 Descartes obtained a law degree from University of Poitiers in France. After this he travelled through Europe but settle in Holland for 21 years between 1628 to 1649. During this 21 year period he lived a secluded life and contributed to philosophy and mathematics. In 1649 he moved to Sweden but did not survive the cold winter there, dying of pneumonia in 1650.

F2 Graph of a Function Let f : A B be a function. We define Graph of f =

{ ( x,

f ( x) ) x A

What does this mean? In words we say the Graph of function f is the set of ordered pairs ( x, f ( x ) ) such that x is in the domain A . Generally we let y = f ( x ) and so Graph of f =

{ ( x,

y ) x A and y = f ( x )

For example let f : be a function given by the formula f ( x ) = x2 + 1 We can describe the graph as any one of the following: 2 1. Graph of f = ( x, y ) x and y = x + 1 or 2. Graph of 3. Graph of

In each case the graph is the elements in the set of ordered pairs ( x, y ) where The domain (start) of the function is plotted on the horizontal ( x ) axis and codomain (destination) on the vertical ( y ) axis. For a graph on the Cartesian coordinate system we need both the domain (start) and codomain (arrival) to be subsets of real numbers. Next we check whether a given graph on the Cartesian system is a function or not. y = f ( x ) = x 2 + 1 and x is in the domain

{ f = { ( x, f = { ( x,

f ( x ) ) x and f ( x ) = x 2 + 1 or x 2 + 1) x

3 Functions 55 Remember f : A B is a function if every element in A is assigned a unique element in B . How can we check whether a given graph is a function or not? Assuming A = B = because for the Cartesian coordinate system the domain and codomain need to be subsets of . Let y = f ( x ) then for each x value we have only one y value. How can we check this on a graph? Each vertical line will intersect the graph at only one point. Which of the following are graphs of functions?
y 10

y= x

Graph (a)

Vertical Line for Testing Function

20

40
y 1

60

80

100

0.5

Graph (b)
-1 -0.5

x +y =1 x

Vertical Line for Testing Function

1

0.5

-0.5

-1

y 2

1 y =x
2

Vertical Line for Testing Function

3 4 5 x

Graph (c)
-1

-2 Fig 39 Only graph (a) is a function because for graphs (b) and (c) we have a vertical line which cuts the graph at two points. That means for an x value we have two different y values, hence not a function. (Each x has two different destinations).

F3 Injection and Surjection Graph (b)

3 Functions 56 We can check a given function is injective or surjective by examining its graph. How do we check whether a function is injective? Injective means that the function is one to one so for each y there is only one x such that y = f ( x ) . In this case we use a horizontal line test. For the function to be injective, each horizontal line will intersect at only one point of the graph of the function. Which of the following graphs are injective?
y 10

8 y=x 6
2

Graph (a)

Horizontal Line for Testing Injection

-3

-2

-1

y 10

Horizontal Line for Testing Injection

Graph (b)
-2 -1

2
3

-5

y=x

-10
y = |x| + 1
5 y

Graph (c)

Horizontal Line for Testing Injection

Fig 40
-4 -2

Clearly ONLY graph (b) is injective because a horizontal line intersects only at one point of the graph. In graphs (a) and (c) the horizontal line crosses the graph at two different points therefore it is not injective. In graph (a) for y > 0 (greater than 0) we have two domain values x, x with the same y value: y = f ( x) = f ( x) Similarly for graph (c) for y > 1 we have two domain values x, x with the same y value:

3 Functions 57 y = f ( x) = f ( x) In both these cases the graphs cannot be injective (cannot be one to one). How do we check the graph of a given function is surjective? We examine the codomain and range of the function and if they are equal then we conclude that the function is surjective. For example if f : A B and the range of f does not equal B then the function is not surjective because the codomain is B . Remember the codomain is the vertical ( y ) axis. Example 27 2 Let f : be given by f ( x ) = x 1 . Show that the function is not surjective nor injective by graphical and algebraic methods. Solution Graphically 2 We can show this by plotting the graph of y = f ( x ) = x 1 :
y 5 4 3 2 1 x y=x 1
2

-2

-1 -1 -2

Horizontal Line for Testing Injection

Fig 41 Since f : therefore the codomain is all the real numbers, . What is the 2 range of this function f ( x ) = x 1 ? By examining the vertical axis in Fig 41 we can see that the range is all the real numbers greater than or equal to 1 . Therefore the codomain, , does not equal the range so we conclude the function is not surjective (not onto). Is it injective? No because the horizontal line shows that the graph cuts the line in two different points. For all y > 1 we have two domain values x and x which correspond to this y value. Algebraically We have tested functions for surjection and injection in previous sections by algebraic methods and only repeat the procedure below. How do we show the given function is not surjective algebraically? Let y = f ( x ) and solve this equation for x . Let y then y = x2 1 x2 = y + 1 x = y +1

[ Adding 1 to Both Sides] [ Taking Square Root ]

Only real values are possible for y + 1 0 which gives y 1 . Hence no real x value corresponds to y < 1 therefore the function is not surjective (not onto). How do we show that the given function is not injective?

3 Functions 58 Assume x, y are in the domain and show that f ( x ) = f ( y ) f ( x) = f ( y) x2 1 = y 2 1 x2 = y 2 x = y x = y means that x = y or x = y . Hence the given function is not injective (not one to one). Which method, algebraic or graphic, is easier? If you know what the graph of the given function looks like then the graphical method is straightforward. To show a given function is not injective or surjective it is generally easier to give a counter example. In the above example (27) to show the given function is not injective it is enough to say f ( 2 ) = f ( 2 ) = 4 Therefore f is not one to one or not injective. To show that f is not surjective, consider y = 2 then there is no real x such that f ( x ) = x 2 1 = 2 Hence there is no x in the domain with f ( x ) = 2 . The function f is not surjective. Example 28 1 . Check the function for surjection and x injection by graphical and algebraic methods. Let f :
+

x y:

be given by f ( x ) =

Solution Graphically The graph of y = f ( x ) = 1 for x > 0 (because domain is + ) is: x

y 5

3 y=1 x

Fig 42
1 2 3 4 5 x

Horizontal Line for Testing Injection

What is the codomain of f ? Since f : + therefore the codomain is all the real numbers, . What is the range of f ? By examining the graph in Fig 42 we can see that the range of the function ( y > 0 ) is all the positive real numbers, + . Since the codomain, , and range, + , are not equal, therefore the given function is not surjective. Is the function injective? Yes because the horizontal line crosses the graph at just one point.

3 Functions 59 Algebraically How do we show the given function is not surjective algebraically? Let y be in the codomain, . Solve the equation y = f ( x ) for x . 1 y= Because y = f ( x ) x 1 x= [ Transposing ] y 1 If y is negative then x = is negative and so there is no x in the domain, + , y which corresponds to this negative y . Why not? 1 Because x + (is a positive real number) therefore y = cannot be negative. x Hence the given function is not surjective. How do we check that the function is injective? Assume x, y are in the domain and show that f ( x ) = f ( y ) x = y : 1 1 f ( x) = f ( y) = which gives x = y x y 1 Hence the given function f ( x ) = is injective. x Sometimes the graph of a function is a set of isolated points. For example, graphs where the domain is the set of integers, , will be a set of isolated points. The graph of the function f : given by the formula f ( x ) = x is the set of ordered pairs ( x, y ) where x is an integer and y = x is the same integer because 2 ) , ( 1, 1) , ( 0, 0 ) , ( 1, 1) , ( 2, 2 ) etc The graph of these ordered pairs is:
y 2

y = f ( x ) = x . What ordered pairs are members of this set?

( 2,

-2

-1

-1

Fig 43 Example 29 3 Let f : be given by f ( x ) = x . Test the function for injection and surjection. Solution 3 By plotting the graph of y = f ( x ) = x for selected integer values of x we have:

-2

3 Functions 60
y 30 20 10 x

-3

-2

-1 -10 -20 -30

Fig 44

Horizontal Line for Testing Injection

Notice that we only have isolated points because the domain is the set of integers, . The graph of this function will be the set of ordered pairs given by ( x, y = x3 ) where x is an integer

A few selected ordered pairs of this graph are ( 2, 8 ) , (0, 0) and (3, 27). The function is not surjective (onto) because by examining the graph we can see that 3 there is no integer x such that f ( x ) = x = 20 . There is no integer in the domain, , which corresponds to f ( x ) = 20 therefore it is not surjective. Of course we could have selected most integers such as 5, 14, 22 etc which are not transformed to by the given function f . That is, there is no x in the domain such that f ( x ) = 5, f ( x ) = 14, f ( x ) = 22 etc Is the function injective? Yes because if we draw a horizontal line the graph only cuts the line at one point. Hence the function is injective but not surjective. SUMMARY Let f : A B be a function. We define Graph of f =

where ( x, f ( x ) ) is an ordered pair. Ordered pair are two elements x and y where one element say x is the first element and y the second. It is normally denoted by ( x, y ) . We can check a given graph is a function by the vertical line test: Each vertical line will intersect at only one point of the graph for it to be a function. For a function to be injective each horizontal line will intersect at only one point of the graph of the function. If the codomain of the function and the range of the graph are equal then we conclude that the function is surjective.

{ ( x,

f ( x) ) x A