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Real-Time Monitoring and Economic Dispatch of Smart Distribution Grids: High Performance Algorithms for DMS Applications
Alberto Vargas, Senior Member, IEEE, and Mauricio E. Samper, Student Member, IEEE
AbstractPower distribution networks are changing its traditional operation paradigm, due to the introduction of the smart grid concept, which encompasses, among others, continuous demand variations, as well as continuous dispatch variations of the distributed generation units. The latter may be controllable or noncontrollable. This paradigm shift means to switch from a xed radial operative topology network to a more dynamical conguration, which changes during the day and hour by hour. In this sense, the massive incorporation of new telecontrol and telecommunication technologies allows a dynamic operation in real-time (RT) of distribution networks. In order to achieve an optimal network operation, it is required a continuous RT monitoring, control and economic dispatch by means of a smart distribution management system (DMS). The named system must count on high performance algorithms and RT information systems. This paper presents three very efcient algorithms (in terms of speed, robustness and accuracy), which are: load estimation, ac power ow, and optimal reconguration for loss minimization. Furthermore, these algorithms have been tested in many real and large scale distribution networks for several utilities and have presented remarkable features for its implementation in a DMS for smart distribution grids (SDGs). Index TermsDistribution network, DMS, load estimation, optimal reconguration, power ow, real time, SDG.

I. INTRODUCTION OME OF THE main features of the smart distribution grid (SDG) are the increased participation by customers and the abilities to accommodate all distributed generation (DG) and distributed storage technologies. Moreover, it also provides increased reliability and power quality, self-healing capability, as well as real-time (RT) analysis and operation [1][3]. Advances in communications, power electronics, control, automation, and information technologies have played a signicant role in the evolution of the SDG [1], [3], and [4]. In this respect, the RT performance improvement of medium and low voltage distribution networks needs specic DMS tools for radial, as well as for meshed or isolated operation. An efcient RT management of a SDG requires RT computational algorithms of high performance. These are applied to several activities, such as RT monitoring and continuous control of the network capacity, the voltage levels, and the economic dispatch [4] and [5]. To that effect, the applications most used are:
Manuscript received February 24, 2011; revised June 24, 2011; accepted January 18, 2012. Date of publication April 16, 2012; date of current version May 21, 2012. Paper no. TSG-00065-2011. The authors are with the Instituto de Energa Elctrica-UNSJ, CP: J5400ARL, San Juan, Argentina (e-mail: avargas@iee.unsj.edu.ar; msamper@ieee.org). Digital Object Identier 10.1109/TSG.2012.2187078

power ow, load estimation, and optimal reconguration; which are in fact the three issues proposed and discussed in this paper. The conditions required for algorithm efciency are set by three main performance issues: robustness, accuracy and RT speed calculation. Robustness is determined by the ability to solve the electrical or operational state of any consistent scenario of generation-demand, as well as a networks conguration. As regards accuracy, the most important thing would be being able to specify the demand state in all nodes of the network. This process involves determining power pseudo-measurements at each distribution transformer. Hence, the present paper aims to estimate these pseudo-measurements, considering the data from the RT tele-measurement points in each feeder, as well as the data recorded from the advance metering infrastructure (AMI). In order to accomplish this, it is necessary to have a model which would determine power pseudo-measurements, in a fast, simple and accurate way. Finally, in terms of speed, it should be considered the fact that a SDG is characterized by: its extensive networks; its continuous demand variation; and its continuous dispatch variation. The latter is due to the dynamics of controllable and noncontrollable generation sources; and the need to use them in RT. In this regard, the DMS algorithms for SDGs should be calculated quickly, so as to analyze and make operational decisions in due time and proper form. Furthermore, power ow, load estimation, and optimal reconguration have traditionally been used as off-line study tools. Nowadays, their application for SDGs requires its use in RT, which sets out new paradigms regarding the handling of information, computing speed, and robustness in problem solving. With the purpose of contributing to this problems solution, the present work has formulated methods and algorithms of ac power ow and optimal reconguration for radial or radialmeshed distribution networks, basing on the concept of power losses reduction. These methods and corresponding algorithms consider the modeling and load estimation on the demand-side, so as to determine pseudo-measurements. They have been tested at many distribution levels of up to 32 000 nodes, at very large networks in South America, and as a result they offer notable characteristics, allowing the employment in a DMS for SDGs. II. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION AND METHODOLOGY This section presents the complete mathematical formulation of the quoted applications. It introduces the main features of the adopted solution methodology, as well. The working hypotheses are the following:

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The algorithms include the subtransmission, primary and secondary distribution networks, simultaneously. Every switching device (SD) can be automatically teleoperated an unlimited number of times. The problem of economic dispatch is based on losses minimization which presents a constant energy cost. An important and very discussed issue is getting to know in which cases the modeling of the distribution networks is done in a three-phase balanced way, and in which other cases it is done in an unbalanced one. South America follows the European standard and design of the three-phase balanced distribution systems, while in North America the use of unbalanced distribution networks is the typical pattern. In South American countries (Argentina, Peru, Chile, Bolivia, and others), there are three-phase distribution systems, with large distribution transformers, as well as large secondary networks. Every distribution transformer provides energy for a secondary network, which ranging from tens to hundreds or even thousands of single-phase and three-phase users. Users are assigned to each phase of the secondary three-phase lines. The load balancing is controlled by ad-hoc measures and the users reallocation. Experience has shown that the load balancing of primary network works good and that; as regards the secondary networks, it is acceptable to model them in a balanced way. The evidence for this is presented in the region, since there is a strict government control of the voltage quality; not having identied signicant problems with imbalance phase load, though. In these countries, there are only a very small percentage of small single-phase distribution transformers allocated to the different phase, and exceptionally some single-phase lines in rural areas. In the latter case, ground return single-phase distribution systems are used, so as to supply the very low demands. In both cases the same can be modeled as equivalent balanced three-phase systems, without signicantly affecting the results. In our opinion, both models should take into account the necessity of each country. The use of the unbalanced power ow is not always justied, since there are a majority of American cases in which typically balanced three-phase networks are used. In order to consider both network structures, this paper will rstly present the power ow methodology for balanced threephase systems, and then as a special case, an extension for unbalanced systems. It is according to the needs of each country that the most appropriate modeling should be considered. A. Balanced Power Flow for Subtransmission, Primary and Secondary Networks 1) Basic Equations: The problem of nonlinear power ow can be basically formulated considering the linear expression (1): (1) where Nodal admittance matrix. Nodal voltage vector. Nodal current vector.

Then, the nonlinear power ow could be formulated as (2): (2) where Power injection node i (complex load, generation, and distribution transformer losses). Admittance matrix (only longitudinal parameters). Shunt elements in node i (like line capacitance, reactive power compensation and others). Equation (2) considers the shunt elements of the line segments in the second member; instead of taking into account the admittance matrix, in order to avoid ill-conditioned problem. This innovation improves the convergence process, since the admittance magnitude of longitudinal elements is much higher than the shunt elements. Equation (2) is solved through a lineal iterative process (3):

(3) A Zollenkopf bifactorization method and programming scheme [7] is used to obtain implicit . This algorithm has three parts: simulation and ordering, reduction and direct solution. It presents two main advantages. Firstly, does not require to be stored in an explicit way, avoiding a great amount of storage. Secondly, it allows repeated solutions for different right-hand sides of (3), requiring only direct solution with low computation time. Voltage is computed solving (3), where is the current iteration. It is important to note that, during the iterative process, does not change. On the other hand, the righthand side of current injections (independent vector) changes because: on the one hand, it is necessary to update it, considering the results of ; and on the other hand, a direct solution with a very low computation time should be applied. This last process is repeated until reaching a convergence criterion, based on voltage variations or power mismatch node. During this iterative process, it is possible to update those current injections that are associated with load, capacitors, distribution transformers losses, line capacitance, and DG; as a function of . Likewise, the vector of current injections represents the different updated decision variables, which are related to the nodes and the automatic regulators. This generally results in heuristic methods (410) and (1315). 2) Supply Sources: a. Slack nodes : Injection nodes to the primary distribution system before or after substations HV/MV. In the case of more than one slack node with different voltages, these are modeled using ideal transformers which connect each one of them with the reference voltage slack node set in 1 pu. b. P-U nodes: Represent DG with dispatch of the active power xed, and dispatch of the reactive power control, so as to achieve the desired voltage :

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For the rst iteration: (4) (5) (6)

Fig. 1. Automatic voltage regulators.

For the second iteration onwards:

(7) where (8) (9) (10) In case comes where exceeds the preset limits, . Preset voltage. Apparent power of injection in node . Reactive power in bus , P-U type at iteration . ; Minimum and maximum reactive power node bewhere If t reaches either end, it is xed at that value. Desired preset Voltage. The and values are included in the independent vector of the second member of (3), which in turn is updated by using (13) to (15) during the iterative process, until convergence is satised. 5) Losses in Distribution Transformes: The core and copper losses in distribution transformers ( and , respectively) for the operating state are calculated as follows: (16) (17) where ; Rated voltage and power of the transformer. Power core losses at rated voltage. (11) (12) 4) Automatic Voltage Regulators: Fig. 1 shows the schematic diagram of automatic voltage regulators between the nodes . Tap is controlled by the voltage of the output node , or the remote node . In order to model the decision variable , it is necessary to use the ctitious currents injections method and , in the end nodes of the regulator. (13) Power copper losses at rated power. and are added to the power demand of Both each node, so as to be considered in the linearized power ow equations. Both and are updated in each iteration, according to (16) and (17). 6) Modeling of Single-Phase Lines and Loads: In the case of networks containing single-phase circuits, it is necessary to transform them into the equivalent three-phase balanced type. This model is acceptable if: the sum of the loads for the various phases of the single-phase and three-phase circuits are equal, if they are evenly distributed, or if their participation in the total load is small. Fig. 2 illustrates a single-phase circuit and the corresponding three-phase equivalent. The latter is an equivalent balanced and, as the single-phase one, it has a total demand.

Fig. 2. Modeling of single-phase circuits. (a) Original single-phase. (b) Balanced three-phase equivalent.

(14) (15)

c. P-Q nodes: Correspond to the DG which cannot control its generation (wind, solar, etc.). The nodal power of injection is modeled as a demand with a negative sign. In this paper it is assumed that in the case of any or nodes, they cannot operate isolated from a slack node. 3) Elastic Load: Elastic demand can be represented using different functions . In this work, a linear load model based on the elasticity factor of demand was adopted (Felas). The value of Felas is specic data to each distribution system.

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Fig. 4. Tele-measurements and pseudo-measurements in a feeder.

Fig. 3. Three-phase line modeling.

B. Three-Phase Power Flow for Distribution Networks 1) Networking Modeling: The modeling of the lines considers the model of the self and mutual impedances, as depicted in Fig. 3 where: Self impedances at each phase. Mutual impedances between phases ij. Shunt admittances of phase i. 2) Mathematical Formulation: The solution procedure for solving the nonlinear unbalanced three-phase power ow is analogous to the one presented for the corresponding balanced power ow. In this case, the set of nonlinear (3) is solved iteratively too; however, they are reformulated in (18) and (19). It should be considered; on the one hand, the detail of the various phases of the network; on the other hand, the mutual inductive coupling between them. Equation (18) describes, in a completely independent way, the electrical state of the network for each of the phases, i.e., it does not take into account the inductive coupling between phases. Equation (19) considers the inuences between phases, that is, the voltage drops that are the result of mutual inductance coupling.

The solution procedure consists of solving the problem, iteratively, by applying (18) and (19). Firstly, (18) solves the electrical state of each phase, assuming the total independence of the electrical state of the other phases. Then, with the current results obtained from (18) and the application of (19), it is possible to determine the inuence between the nodal voltages of the coupling in the phases, through the impedances associated with their mutual inductance. This iterative process is applied until the solution converges. At each full step of the iterative process, the state vector of nodal voltage is obtained by applying the principle of superposition, expressed in (20). (20)

C. Load Estimation In order to estimate the state vector of the distribution network, it is necessary to determine a set of pseudo-measurements at each distribution transformer. This is done basing on the last RT tele-measurements, and on the users demand that has been registered. These are grouped into their respective distribution transformers, directly or through the secondary networks. The users records are available through the AMI or the customer information system (CIS). Moreover, they serve as a reference to the allocation of the RT measurements in each feeder between the associated distribution transformers. The AMI measurements are obtained from records in RT or extended RT, as available. Firstly, this proposal bases on the fact that measurements of RT feeders are real and must be respected. Secondly, it considers that the AMI measurements are only used to determine the participation of each distribution transformer in the RT measurements that are immediately at the upstream of the feeder. 1) The Case of Single Tele-Measurement Point at Each Feeder: The proposed method for estimating simultaneous power in the distribution transformer, i.e., the pseudo-measurements, considers the use of RT tele-measurement data, which is available for each main feeder. It takes into account the consumer data that is accessible in the CIS of the distribution utility, as well. The latter are: measurement of energy consumption per month (South American case), and typical monthly shape per consumer type (residential, commercial, industrial, etc.). In the case of getting an AMI, these may provide a better and more accurate database of power-consumption. Fig. 4 presents the single-line diagram of a typical feeder, where the used data is shown. For the mathematical formulation of the load estimation method, it is necessary to add to the power ow (3), the following restrictions: (21) (22)

(18)

(19) where Modied admittance matrix of longitudinal parameters. Nodal voltage vector of phase i. Admittance matrix of mutual inductances between phases i-j. Correction vector of nodal voltage in phase i due to phase j. Current injection vector associated with the phase j (18). Number of network phases.

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(23) (24) where , or,

The followed procedure is similar to the one described in Section II-C1, where in each iteration the ought to be corrected. It should be consider the fact that this iteration is associated with the measurement of each section of the feeder. When allocating , the same criteria as in Section II-C1 should be used. D. Application of Power Flow and Load Estimation to the Case of Low Voltage (LV) Networks As for low voltage large networks, such as the secondary distribution networks in South American countries, the following applications are frequently used: load estimation, power ow, location and sizing of capacitors, minimum losses reconguration, and reliability. 1) The GIS Data of Primary and Secondary Networks: The geographic information system (GIS) of most utilities contain the necessary data of primary and secondary networks. These important data sources are generally of good quality, since there is a strong state control to private utilities. This control bases on typical quality of service indicators (reliability), even at the low voltage network and at each individual user. Both networks are modeled as a single line, not relying on the phase information to which the distribution transformers or single-phase users are connected. This latter aspect is due to the high costs of data gathering and because its subsequent system updates on the GIS. 2) Modeling of Secondary Networks: Usually, the modeling of LV networks considers the following issues: The injection points into the networks are the distribution transformers that were modeled as slack nodes, whose values were obtained from the power ow results for the primary networks. The physical support nodes comprise the poles or supports of both overhead lines and underground lines. In each pole (electrical terminals or nodes) it is possible to model as many electrical switching nodes as needed, depending on the number of independent lines that the pole can physically support. The line segments are dened between two successive electrical terminals or nodes. The secondary networks associated with each distribution transformer, usually operate radially, but there are also the ones that are meshed. Users can be connected to a line at intermediate points between two different poles or in the same pole. They are automatically assigned to the nearest pole or electrical node. The phase data is not identied when it is a singlephase user and; consequently, it is modeled as an equivalent three-phase. This means that the single-phase users are uniformly distributed in the three phases, in order to balance the load. The algorithm can simultaneously process many secondary networks despite being isolated from each other. If any of the networks with their respective distribution transformer has any problem when converging, corresponding results will not be calculated; yet the remaining ones will. The DG can be connected anywhere in the network.

Power line losses computed in iteration

Procedure: a. For the rst iteration of the process, are calculated at each distribution transformer. This is on the basis of the available data in the CIS of the distribution utility (energy clients, typical curve, voltage node), or in accordance with the measuring powers, using the data provided by the AMI. b. For each iteration, the proportionality coefcients are calculated. For this, it is necessary to consider (23) and (24) which might vary, depending on the losses that were estimated in the previous iteration. For the rst iteration, both and are adopted. and reactive are updated. These are c. The active associated with the distribution transformer that is used for the new iteration . d. The linearized power ow (3) are solved and with these results then it is possible to return to step b), and so the procedure is repeated until it reaches convergence. This process is repeated in each iteration and when the algorithm converges, the balance of power tele-measurement can be closed with the estimated power loads in distribution transformers and with the power losses in the feeder. This model can be combined with the one presented in section A.3), so as to consider the elasticity of demand. The additional benets of this proposal are that: methodologically, it can be embedded within the iterative solution process and the total power injection at the feeder can be kept constant and adjusted to tele-measurement. Moreover, it also presents excellent convergence characteristics with little additional iterations, regarding the constant or elastic power model. 2) The Case of Several Tele-Measurement Points Per Feeder: The method depicted in Section II-C1 can be extended to the tele-measurements which are located along a feeder. The mathematical formulation for a feeder can be applied to the sections of it. A section is delimited by two consecutive tele-measurements. Then, the mapping between the of each section is subject to:

(25)

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Fig. 5. Several tele-measurements and pseudo-measurements in a feeder.

Fig. 6. Physical modeling of secondary network at GIS.

Fig. 7. Electrical Modeling of secondary network.

Electrical Modeling: Fig. 6 illustrates the single-wire diagrams physical representation of a typical secondary network in South American countries. Fig. 7 shows the corresponding single-wire electrical modeling. In such modeling it can be observed that: Individual users are automatically assigned to the nearest pole or electrical node, such as is the case of users 1, 5, and 6. A pole contains many electrical terminals or nodes that are isolated from each other, as well as independent lines that are supported by the pole. For example, Pole 5 contains two electrical terminals or nodes. A single pole can support more than one LV line which is independent from each other; this is the very frequent case of preassembled lines. For example, Pole 5 supports the lines 2 and 3. Even a pole can support different independent lines of distribution transformers. For example, Pole 7. The networks have switches for transferring load between distribution transformers. This transfer is usually done for the purpose of losses minimization; load balancing, or fail over reserve; and networks maintenance. See switch Pole 7. 3) Demand Modeling of Secondary Networks: The demand is modeled in the same way the primary networks are. The modeling of demand is made based on the synergy of two pseudomeasurements: i Pseudo-measurements in the terminal poles of the demand side:

The kW power curves are calculated by using: the energy consumption data of the CIS, the AMI registries, and the typical curves by user type. Thus, it is possible to rely on the state of pseudo-power measurements at each pole of the LV network. In each pole or electrical node is associated the load of such users for the peak hour of either distribution transformer or feeder. This grouping is done at the pole or electrical node, as shown in Fig. 7. ii Injection pseudo-measurements in distribution transformer: The load estimation at each distribution transformer obtained in Section II-C1 is used as a pseudo-measurement injection in low voltage side, in order to allocate it to poles or electrical nodes, at the downstream of it. This process is done proportionally between the pole demands, using as reference the demands of electrical nodes (specied in item i, above). This pseudo-measurement must be respected so that they remain equal to the sum of the users simultaneous demands, plus the secondary networks losses, as in the case in Section II-C1. The applications in power ow calculation, as well as in other primary networks are based on an information system supported by the GIS, the CIS, and other information systems of the utility. This system allows the automatic preparation of input data and stores the results, which allows the coordination of the runs between the algorithms for primary and secondary networks. E. Optimal Reconguration For Loss Minimization 1) Mathematical Formulation: The aim of this optimal reconguration is to minimize the power losses for either MV or LV (medium-voltage or low-voltage, respectively) networks.

(26) Subjected to: Connectivity of all demand through the state of Switching Devices (SDs). Radial operative topology controlled by the SDs. The P-U y P-Q nodes cannot operate isolated from a slack node. Nodal power balance:

(27) where Resistance of branch section j. Complex current of branch section j. Quantity of branch section s.

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Quantity of branch section s join node i Quantity of nodes. Nodal power load, only users. Nodal power DG, type P-Q or P-U. Thermal limits of branch section current j. Voltage limits of node i. This formulation is a mixed-integer nonlinear mathematical model, containing both binary variables (operative status of SDs, on/off) and continuous variables (branch currents, power injections and nodal voltages). 2) Optimization Algorithm: The adopted optimization methodology is heuristic and it takes into account the application of the Lagrange multipliers developed by Shirmohammadi [8], which in turn is based on Merlin [9]. In addition, a number of relevant improvements to the SDG case have been introduced. The new procedure involves the following steps: a. Meshing the entire network for the current conguration, by closing the open SDs. b. Determining the dispatch of both; on the one hand, the active power of all injection nodes; on the other hand, the active-reactive power of nodes, respectively. This dispatch is input data for the algorithm. c. Calculating an ac power ow using ), in order to determine the active power injection in the slack nodes and reactive power injection in the nodes, as well as in the slack nodes. d. Making all branches pure resistive. e. Calculating an optimal power ow using ), the network described in d) and the power injections calculated in step c). The current distribution of the meshed network is different from the one in step c), since it only uses the resistive part of the branches, and, therefore the minimum voltage drops coincide with the minimum power losses. f. Opening the SD that is associated with the lowest current branch. This one does not leave isolated nodes, or its equivalent belongs to a mesh. This criterion responds to the fact that interrupting lower current means increasing minimal losses. With the current results it can be checked that there is no violation of lines capacity. If a violation is detected, the open SD is closed and the next one of lower current is opened, and so forth. If no violation exists, the process in g) continues. g. Calculating the new electrical state through Woodbury [10], using as its basis the electrical state calculated in c) and the branch removed in f). If the results do not violate the voltage limits, steps e) and f) are repeated, basing on the new network obtained in f). Otherwise, the SD, that was previously opened, is closed and so step f) continues. h. This procedure is repeated until network radialization is reached. 3) Successive Calculations of Electrical States Basing on Woodbury: The proposed methodology for optimal reconguration comprises a sequence of branch section removal by forming meshes, as already stated in Section II-E2. The

criterion, for determining the branch sections to be removed, is based on detecting the one that forms a mesh. This one has an enabled SD for changing the state and it also has the lowest current. This process requires calculating the electrical state of the network, through a power ow, each time a branch section is removed. According to the method proposed in Section II-A1, such process is necessary in order to perform a new bifactorization of the new longitudinal admittance matrix . Starting in this way, the whole process of ordering and simulation is done, as well as the process of reduction and direct solution. The highest calculation time is given by the bifactorization of the admittance matrix. Otherwise put, if Woodbury [10] is used, it is possible to calculate the new electrical state in an exact way. This becomes possible after removing a branch section from: the previous electrical state, the admittance of the removed branch section and the previous inverse matrix. This has the advantage of being accurately performed and in a much shorter time than when performing the bifactorization process all over again. By eliminating from the network, the change in can be expressed as follows: (28) where New admittance matrix without the branch Longitudinal admittance of branch . .

Column vector with all its zero elements except that is 1, and that is . Therefore, the second term in the second member of (28) is a square matrix of the same order as , with all zero elements except and mm which are equal to . Then, this matrix is the matrix of changes. According to Woodbury, the inverse of is given by (29).

(29) For the output km branch, (1) can be stated as (30) If (29) is substituted in (30),

(31) where Known nodal voltage vector associated with . Changes vector of nodal voltage when the branch is eliminated.

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In addition, the output of this branch section has to be reected in the power injections vector. From (31), it is obtained:

(32) If done (33) then (3) can be written as

(34) The and scalars are elements of , as well as , and are elements of . Then, by using (34) it is possible to know the new electrical state when the branch section is removed. The tting formula will allow the power ow to reduce the calculation time to almost half. Taking into account the fact that the successive changes of the electrical state are generally not very signicant, and that sometimes when removing a branch section of a mesh this one does not have links with other parts of the network, (34) can be successively used, without changing the previous inverse matrix. This implies that time savings can be much larger at the expense of a negligible accuracy loss. After having removed a branch section without updating the electrical state by a full power ow, the successive application of Woodbury affects the accuracy of its results in a theoretical way. However, the impact is minimal due to the fact that successive electrical states vary very little, because the removed branch section is the one of lower current. Tests on a variety of real networks, some of them large scale networks, have shown that at most one or two power ow updates are enough, in order to nd an acceptable solution to the problem. That is, in practice, there have been no signicant accuracy losses and the calculation time saving is very high. III. NUMERICAL RESULTS A. Test System The proposed algorithm was implemented in calculation software based on Fortran 90, using double precision. Tests were performed in a part of an MV distribution network of Mendoza, Argentina. Fig. 8 shows the single-wire diagram of the simplied network. Table I depicts the main technical characteristics of the test network. Then, Table II lists the data of the installed DG units. In the feeder 0408, ve remote RT measurements, along the same feeder, are considered. These are illustrated in Fig. 8 and shown in Table III. The named measurements are done in order to improve the accuracy of the load estimation process. The proposed method joins such RT measurements properly and adjusts, in an exact way, the data of the remote meters for estimating the load power on the referenced feeder.

Fig. 8. 290-node test network. TABLE I CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TEST NETWORK

TABLE II DISTRIBUTED GENERATION (DG) UNITS

B. Power Flow and Load Estimation Results A power ow run was conducted for the normal operation of the network, taking into account the test case data. Firstly, it

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TABLE III REMOTE RT MEASUREMENTS

TABLE IV ELECTRICAL STATE OF THE NETWORK.

Fig. 9. Convergence evolution.

was considered the network without DGs; yet, secondly, they were taken into account. The power ow algorithm achieved converge in the fth iteration for the rst case (without DGs) and in the eighth iteration considering the DGs. The increase of iterations in the second case is due to the extent of the decision variables that should be adjusted, as regards the three DGs.Table IV shows the electrical state of network obtained in both cases. The total power in DGs is 4900 kW, which represents the 25% of the total load. The DG improves the voltage prole in those feeders where they are installed; but, it decreases the power losses about 57% (which are 377 kW and 161 kW, without DG and considering DG, respectively). As can be observed in Fig. 9, for the case without DGs, the method convergence is very fast, achieving in the fth iteration an acceptable outcome of nodal voltages below , this for any node with a total computing time of 0.7 milliseconds. The data preparation time and bifactorization took 66%

and the direct and inverse replacement process 34%, for 5 iterations. Other checks made with the power ow algorithm were: In order to verify the possible accuracy to be achieved, it was allowed to continue the computing process up to 20 iterations. The error in the real and imaginary components of nodal voltages for iteration 16 is below , and so the process continues. Regarding the number of iterations, it is noticed that increasing them affects the computing process a little. For instance, when increasing iteration, the process requires an average of 5%6% of the total time computing. The number of iterations increases as the voltages drop is bigger, and to the extent that the decision variables should be adjusted, during the iterative process. For instance, in order to correct preset voltages in automatic voltage regulators and P-U nodes or to adjust the demand in distribution transformers to the tele-measurements. For the testing case, when considering three P-U nodes (DGs), it has been found that the number of iterations increases between two and four iterations, depending on the magnitude of change of the control variables, similar in other methods. When it is necessary to know successive electrical states, where the demands vary and/or the supply conditions vary, it is not necessary to run the algorithm in full. The tests made, simulating important variations, for instance of the 30% of the demand and/or the generation, showed that it is simply needed to change the independent vector of nodal injections, and to make very few additional iterations. This implies important computing time saving, since it is not necessary to bifactorize again the admittance matrix. This is the continuous monitoring situation of the networks electrical state in RT, when no changes in the operational topology were made. The algorithm is very robust and there have been no oscillatory processes of convergence observed, neither for the test case, nor for the case of several networks in South American. The latter was done under different scenarios, some of them very large or charged (several ten thousand of nodes), radial, meshed, at combined HV with MV, even in extensive LV networks, etc. The number of iterations does not vary with radial or network meshing degree. Numerous comparisons were made with other algorithms presented in the bibliography, which are suitable for such applications (e.g., Shirmohammadi [11] and Zhang [12]), and in all cases, calculation times which are higher in the latter, according to the extrapolations made, could be inferred. However, they are of the same order, provided that they are compared to the case of running a full power ow. The power ow model were tested and developed during more than 10 years in South America. It can be concluded that the characteristics of this algorithm meets the requirements of: robustness, accuracy and great speed; for its application in the RT monitoring of SDGs, under a DMS environment, as well as for its use as a subordinated algorithm for optimal reconguration. In the latter case, the advantage of calculating successive electrical states can be added. This can be achieved without fully

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running the algorithm, but only recalculating the independent term vector and applying a direct and inverse substitution. C. Optimal Reconguration Results With the purpose of evaluating the results and performance of the proposed method for an optimal reconguration of the minimum losses, its application to the test case is presented. The skills that can be noticed make reference to the behavior of convergence robustness, result accuracy and calculation speed for its RT application. In order to determine the absolute accuracy, the results were contrasted with an exhaustive approach. The amount of feasible solutions for the operating radial networks is 9 657 700. It ought to be considered the fact that these radial networks result from the combination of 26 SDs which were taken from 12 to 12 (number of meshes or SDs to be opened). From this, only 31 140 are feasible combinations so as to supply the demand of all nodes. Through power ow, the losses of all feasible combinations were calculated, which are shown in Fig. 10 (ordered from the lowest to the highest value). These are discriminated according to all the losses components, where it can be observed that: Distribution transformer losses, both in copper and core, do not vary signicantly with the adopted conguration. For this reason, it is evident that its consideration in the optimization process is not necessary. The curve of branches losses has a nonlinear behavior, according to a merit order. The range of possible losses is between 1.83% and 25% of net demand. This wide range justies the equipment and technology invested when trying to reduce them, basing on different scenarios evolution. In the loss curve (see Fig. 10), three areas, which differ from the point of view of their form variation, can be seen. The rst near to absolute optimum, where there are approximately 1200 feasible congurations with a range of losses variation of 0.4%; relatively small. The second area is characterized by an almost linear variation of loss function. That is, in a nonnegligible range of losses variation from 1.1 to 1.5%, there are approximately 13 000 feasible congurations. Finally, the third area shows a signicant increase in the losses values in a range between 3% to 25%, characterized by a strong variation of the exponential type. In Fig. 10, zone 1 is expanded, which is shown in Fig. 11, only for the case of line losses. Here, the relatively signicant losses variation, within the range of approximately the rst 900 congurations, can be seen. By using the model proposed in this paper, it was possible to determine that the optimal conguration which was obtained is one of the 31 140 feasible congurations that have already been analyzed. This is associated with a loss rate of 1.9% with a difference of 0.07%, as regards the absolute optimum which is very small. The obtained solution is located in the 14th place within the already mentioned merit order. In Fig. 10, the arrow shows the obtained optimal solution, where the accuracy of the proposed method can be absolutely appreciated. Comparative tests with respect to the models used by Shirmohammadi [8] and Borozan [13] were conducted and the dif-

Fig. 10. Ordered evolution losses with different radial operative topology.

Fig. 11. Optimal solution localization.

ferences, in both directions, are around 0.01%, taking into account that multiple demand scenarios were analyzed. In other words, there are practically no differences regarding accuracy in the solution, nevertheless, there is an important difference in calculation time, favoring the proposed method. In case of applying the method based in Woodbury, it was necessary to investigate a criterion for dening in which step the optimal reconguration process is necessary to run again a full power ow. It was concluded that in both, the example case and the real cases, it was only necessary to make a run at the beginning of the process and another one in the middle course. In the example case, from a total of 12 runs, which corresponds to the 12 meshes to be opened, it was only necessary to run two full power ows. This improvement is due to the implementation of Woodbury, since it allows reducing the calculation time [8] to a quarter, according to what was inferred. In the case of greater number of meshes of the original network, this relationship is further enhanced favoring the proposed method. This since the variation in successive electrical states is fewer than in the example case, and therefore Woodbury can be used many times greater than the test case used. From this analysis, it can be concluded that the proposed method leads to solutions which are very close to the absolute optimums, with calculation time several times lower than the published methods based on Lagrange multipliers. It should be noted that this conclusion is reinforced in the light of the extensive experiences made with several networks of different sizes and scenarios of demand-supply points in South America.

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As regards the robustness convergence of the method, this was shown quite strong despite the diversity of data, the scenario diversity and the multiplicity of control variables in order to meet the preset parameters. Some modeling examples are: some very short branches (few meters), and some others very large (50 000 meters); some nodes with demands greater than 5000 kW and others in the order of 0.1 kW, among others. The algorithm is very fast. The total CPU time without input/ output for different network size is: 100 ms for 4700 nodes; 0.7 ms for 290 nodes, and 0.017 ms for 16 nodes. The computer used is a PC AMD Athlon 2.21 GHz. Additionally, it must be consider that the original network can compress the number of nodes and branches several times [14]. This was not considered in this paper, though. With this reduction it is possible to remove the radial nodes-branches with only one supply option. The load of removed node-branches is reallocated at these nodes upstream, which remains explicit in the equivalent-reduced network. D. Discussion on the Economic and Operational Implications of Feeder Reconguration Since 1975, from the early work of Merlin and Back [9], the minimum losses reconguration has occupied an important place in the state of the art with many dozens of publications. These studies focused their contributions in achieving minimum loss conguration, as close as possible to the global optimum and/or reduction of computation time. But these works did not consider a number of important restrictions which are crucial for its practical implementation in the industry, for instance when using this technique frequently (sometimes daily). Therefore, these were only applied to those utilities with a seasonal frequency. Consequently, there are few reports about specic experiences, as is the case of Chen and Cho [15] or Rajicic Taleskiand [16]. This resistance of utilities, is due to the fact the economic savings by reducing losses are not justied, due to two reasons: on the one hand, the risk involved for reasons of reliability, because they originate additional costs of operation and maintenance; on the other hand for the reduced life switching equipment. Even in the South American case, it is added a third reason of nancial penalties for deterioration in service quality. Since the increase of automation levels and the introduction of smart grid concept, early in the present century, there has been a renewed interest in the study of topological reconguration programs on daily and even hourly times, considering renewable energy sources (See et al. [6] and Lopez et al. [14]). These authors conducted studies on the convenience of online reconguration, using a criterion of losses minimization. The latter work proposes a program to monitor daily demand by topological reconguration which involves the execution of 318 drives of SDs per day. However, the feasibility of online reconguration is subject to further evaluation, in order to take into account other aspects, such as reliability. Then, in 2008, Fajardo and Vargas [17] and [18] analyzed the effect of considering maintenance costs and the reduction of SDs useful-life, evaluating a multiobjective function of cost minimization. For this, it is necessary to consider a period of time of about a week, where a basic algorithm for minimizing losses is used, by performing dynamic programming. These last works even consider the pos-

sibility of using different costs at different supply points in the distribution network, thus solving a real economic dispatch. The ndings of Fajardo and Vargas clearly show the great impact when considering the wearing costs of the s SDs that are associated with the change of operational conguration. This meant that even though they do not represent a signicant cost compared to the total operating costs, they constitute an important signal for reducing the number of operations in a very signicant way. It is interesting to notice that, although the switching cost represents an improve of less than 0.2% of the total operative cost for all cases, its consideration reduces about 92% the number of SD maneuvers, without substantially affecting the net reduction of operative cost. This is a very different conclusion than the one previously mentioned on the technical and economic justication of using high frequency RT reconguration when there is no such economic impact. All in all, regarding the scope of this reconguration technique in the future SG, the authors of this paper state that: It can be applied for technical and economic reasons; however, it is necessary to explore its possible efcacy, in a practical way, for its implementation in the short and medium term. The reasons for reconguration will be led in the following order: rstly, the case of dispatch needs, considering the networks limitations; secondly, the case of load balancing; nally, the case of operating costs minimization. It is interesting to note that the dispatch might change when it is connected to that DG based on renewable resources. The frequency of reconguration should be studied in great depth, so as to reduce it to those cases in which it is absolutely necessary and justied. In this way, it is possible to avoid the adverse effect in the quality of service. This technique should be used as a tool for programming and verication. It would be difcult, though, to apply it to RT decisions, without previous studies. The reconguration should only be applied to those areas in the distribution networks where the typical scenarios of generation, demand and network conguration have been previously studied. These further investigations are power ow, shortcut analysis, intelligence in protection coordination, and reliability. However, its extended application to the entire network is not a viable option. The design of distribution networks should be based on new planning paradigms which need to be reformulated. IV. CONCLUSION New RT algorithms are proposed for DMS applications to be employed in a SDG. These algorithms are very accurate, robust and fast. What is more, they are tools for RT monitoring, control and economic dispatch of SDGs. Such applications include power ow, load estimation and optimal reconguration. These consider all type of generation sources, such as the controllable and noncontrollable DG, elastic load, distribution transformers losses, and other network equipments. The power ow algorithm, besides its high performance, is very versatile for the use of subtransmission, primary and secondary distribution networks. In addition, it is an open framework of low time-computing. This is so, because it allows the calculation of electrical

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states successively and without the need of completely running them, signicantly reducing the computing time. The power ow can also include some constraints, allowing, through additional iterations, the load estimation at the distribution transformer. This process matches with the power tele-measurement in each feeder. The optimal reconguration algorithm reaches the solution precisely and very fast through the use of Woodbury formulation. Thus, it is possible to calculate the successive electrical states by avoiding running a complete power ow during the reconguration. Some comparisons with optimal solutions were made. They were obtained through exhaustive search techniques, which have demonstrated that the optimal reconguration method nds solutions very close or equal to the global optimal solution for different scenarios of the system. Finally, within the scope of DMS in a SDG, important applications of the proposed methodologies can be foreseen as a support tool in the RT monitoring, control and economic dispatch. REFERENCES
[1] R. Brown, Impact of smart grid on distribution system design, in Proc. 2008 IEEE PES Gen. Meet.Convers. Del. Electr. Energy 21st Century. [2] J. Momoh, Smart grid design for efcient and exible power networks operation and control, in Proc. 2009 IEEE/PES Power Syst. Conf. Expo. (PSCE 09). [3] J. R. Agero, Tools for success, IEEE Power Energy Mag., vol. 9, no. 5, pp. 8293, Sep./Oct. 2011. [4] G. Heydt, The next generation of power distribution systems, IEEE Trans. Smart Grid, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 225235, 2010. [5] A. Meliopoulos, G. Cokkinides, R. Huang, E. Farantatos, S. Choi, Y. Lee, and X. Yu, Smart grid technologies for autonomous operation and control, IEEE Trans. Smart Grid, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 110, 2011. [6] J. See, W. Carr, and S. Collier, Real time distribution analysis for electric utilities, in Proc. 2008 IEEE Rural Electr. Power Conf. (REPCON). [7] K. Zollenkopf and Bi-Factorization, Basic computational algorithm and programming techniques, in Large Spare Sets of Linear Equations. New York: Academic, pp. 7596. [8] D. Shirmohammadi and H. W. Hong, Reconguration of electric distribution networks for resistive line loss reduction, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 14921498, Apr. 1989. [9] A. Merln and H. Back, Search for a minimal-loss operating tree conguration for an urban power distribution system, Proc. 5th PSCC. Cambridge, pp. 118, 1975. [10] A. W. Max, Inverting modied matrices, in Memorandum Rept. 42, Statistical Research Group. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ., 1950, p. 4.

[11] D. Shirmohammadi, H. Hong, A. Semlyem, and G. Luo, A compensation-based power ow method for weakly meshed distribution and transmission networks, IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 753761, May 1988. [12] F. Zhang and C. S. Cheng, A modied newton method for radial distribution system power ow analysis, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 389397, Feb. 1997. [13] V. Borozan, D. Rajicic, and R. Ackovski, Improved method for loss minimization in distribution networks, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 14201425, Aug. 1995. [14] E. Lpez, H. Opazo, L. Garca, and P. Bastard, Online reconguration considering variability demand: Applications to real networks, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 549553, Feb. 2004. [15] C. S. Chen and M. Y. Cho, Energy loss reduction by critical switches, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 12461253, Jul. 1993. [16] R. Taleski and D. Rajicic, Distribution network reconguration for energy loss reduction, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 398406, Feb. 1997. [17] O. Fajardo and A. Vargas, Reconguration of MV distribution networks with multicost and multipoint alternative supply, Part II: Economic dispatch through radialization, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 13931400, Aug. 2008. [18] O. Fajardo and A. Vargas, Reconguration of MV distribution networks with multicost and multipoint alternative supply, Part I: ED through radialization, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 14011407, Aug. 2008. Alberto Vargas (M97SM02) received the Electromechanical Engineer degree from Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, Argentina, in 1975 and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering in 2001 from Universidad Nacional de San Juan, Argentina. He is currently a Professor at Instituto de Energa Elctrica, Universidad Nacional de San Juan (IEE-UNSJ), Argentina. Since 1985, he has been the Head Researcher of the Regulating and Planning team in electric markets, at IEE-UNSJ. He is a Consulting Program Manager of Asinelsa S.A, a specialized software company for electric distribution development dealing with electrical AM/\FM GIS and DMS applications.

Mauricio E. Samper (S07GS11) received the Electrical Engineer degree from the National University of San Juan (UNSJ) in 2002 and the Ph.D. degree from the Institute of Electrical Energy (IEE), UNSJ, Argentina in 2011. Presently, he is an Assistant Research Professor at the IEE-UNSJ. His areas of expertise include competitive power markets, distribution networks, quality of service, distributed generation, smart grids, and investments under uncertainty.