SAFETY AND MULTIPLE REDUNDANCY SYSTEM

Major types of accidents that may occur in chemical industries:

Types of accident

Probability occurrence High

of Potential for fatalities Potential for economic (death by accident) losses Low Intermediate

1. Fire

1. Explosion

Intermediate

Intermediate

High

1. Toxic release

Low

High

Low

A. Fire: rapid exothermic oxidation of an ignited fuel. substance combines with an oxidant and releases energy. Part of this energy is used to sustain the reaction. Essential components for fire to occur:
a.Fuel: Liquid fuels: Gasolene, acetone, ether, pentane Solid fuels: Plastic, wood dust, fibers, metal particles Gaseous:Acetylene, propane, CO, H2

b.Oxidant: Solid oxidants: Metal peroxides, ammonium nitrates Liquid oxidants: H2O2, HNO3, perchloric acid Gaseous oxidants: O2, Cl2, Fl2.
c.Ignition sources: sparks, heat, flames, static electricity. Some basic concepts regarding Fire: 1.The Fire Triangle: Essential elements for combustion--- fuel, oxidizer and ignition source.

three sides of triangle---- fuel, oxidant and ignition source No fire --- if any one side of this triangle is missing The combustion always occurs in vapor phase liquids are volatilized and solids are decomposed into vapor before combustion Fire to occur--- fuel should be between LFLand UFL---oxygen should be above limiting O2 concentration---- ignition source should have energy above minimum ignition energy.

Left side---Air or Oxygen; Right side---- Fuel Bottom side---- Ignition source

2.Ignition: of flammable mixture---possible when--in contact with source of ignition with sufficient energy--- gas reaching a temperature high enough to cause gas to auto ignite. 3.Auto ignition temperature (AIT): Fixed temperature above which additional energy is available in environment to provide an ignition source. 4.Flash point (FP): the lowest T at which it gives off enough vapor to form an ignitable mixture with air; At FP, inadequate vapor is produced to maintain combustionFP increases with increasing P. 5.Fire point: lowest T at which vapor above liquid will continue to burn once ignited; Fire point T > FP T.

6. Flammability limit: Vapor-air mixture will ignite and burn only over a wellspecified range of composition. The mixture will not burn when composition is < LFL or too rich i.e. >UFL. Units used for it is (% of fuel + air i.e. volume% fuel). Types of Fire: 1. Class A fires: Involve ordinary combustible such as wood, cloth, paper, rubber, plastic, etc. 2. Class B fires: Involve flammable and combustible liquids and gases such as gasoline, oil, paints, alcohol, grease, etc. 3. Class C fires: Involve energized electrical equipments like, TV, computer, etc.

4.Class D fires: Involve combustible metals likeAl, Mg, Ti, Zr, Na, and K.
B.Explosion: rapid expansion of gases resulting in a rapidly moving pressure or shock wave expansion--- can be mechanical (by means of sudden rupture of pressurized vessel)or can be result of rapid chemical reaction damage is caused by pressure or shock wave.

 Types of Explosion: 1.Mechanical explosion: sudden rupture in vessel containing high pressure nonreactive gases. 2.Deflagration: reaction front moves at speed less than speed of sound in unreacted medium. 3.Detonation: reaction front moves at speed greater than speed of sound in unreacted medium. 4.Confined explosion: explosion occurring within vessel or building most common one results in injury to inhabitant and extensive damages

5.

Unconfined explosion: occurring in open result from flammable gas spill gas disperse and mix with air until it comes in contact with ignition source rarer than confined explosion because explosive material is frequently diluted below LFLby wind dispersion destructive as large quantities of gas and large areas are involved 6. Dust Explosion: results from rapid combustion of fine solid particles solid materials (common metals, like Fe, Al) becomes flammable when reduced to fine powder

7. Boiling liquid expanding-vapor explosion (BLEVE): occurs if vessel containing a liquid at T above its atmospheric pressure boiling point, ruptures explosive vaporization of large fraction of vessel contents and possible followed by combustion or explosion of vaporized cloud if it is combustible occurs when an external fire heats the contents of tank of volatile material As these tank contents get heated, vapor pressure of liquid within tank increases and tanks structural integrity is reduced because of heating and if tank ruptures, hot liquid volatilizes explosively.

8.

Shock waves: abrupt pressure wave moving through gas in open air it is followed by strong wind the combined shock wave and wind called as blast wave Pressure increase in shock wave is so rapid that process is adiabatic.

9. Over pressure: pressure on object as result of impacting shock wave.

10. Vapour-cloud explosion (VCE): most dangerous and destructive explosions It occurs in following sequence: (a)sudden release of large quantity of flammable vapour (typically it occurs when vessel, containing a superheated and pressurized liquid, ruptures) (b)dispersion of vapour throughout plant site while mixing with air (c)ignition of resulting vapour cloud.

Overpressure (kPa) 0.21

Damage Occasional breakage of large glass windows already under strain

1.03
4.8 13.8 17.2 34.5 to 48.2 48.2

Typical pressure for glass breakage

Minor damage to house structure Partial collapse of walls and roofs of houses 50% destruction of brickwork of house Nearly complete destruction of houses Loaded train wagons overturned

C. Toxic release: Toxicology: qualitative & quantitative study of adverse effects of toxicants on biological organisms Toxicant: any chemical or physical agent, like, dust, noise, fiber or radiation Damage is based on exposure Entry routes for toxicants & method of control:

Entry route

Entry Organ

Method for Control

Ingestion

Mouth or stomach

Enforcement of rules on eating, drinking & smoking

Inhalation

Mouth or nose

Ventilation, respirators, & other personal protection equipments

Injection

Cuts in skin

Proper protective clothing

Dermal absorption

Skin

Proper clothing for protection

 Source Models: Part of consequence analysis procedure for chemical release Describes---how materials are discharged from process; rate of discharge; total quantity discharges; state of discharge (solid, liquid, vapor , etc) Types of Source Models: 1. Puff model: Instantaneous release Describes---changing concentration of material from single release of fixed amount of material

2. Plume model: Continuous release Describes steady state concentration of material released from continuous source Dispersion model: Describes how material is transported downwind & dispersed to some concentration levels Maximum concentration occurs at point of release Concentration downwind is less (due to turbulent mixing of toxic material with air)

 Parameters affecting dispersion includes--- wind speed, atmospheric stability, ground conditions(buildings, water, trees), height of release above ground level, etc.
Effect model: Converts the incident-specific results into effects on people (injury or death) & structures Effects are compared with certain values like--1. TLV: Threshold limit value

 Time weighted average for normal 8 hours work day, to which all workers can be exposed, day after day, without any adverse effect 2. STEL: Short term exposure limit Maximum concentration to which workers can be exposed for a period of up to 15 minutes continuously without any suffering (intolerable irritation, chronic or irreversible tissue change, etc.) 3. IDLH: Immidiately dangerous to life & health Exposure to this quantity & above should be strictly avoided