GSM

RF Engineering
Continuing Education and Training

Unit 11

GSM Based Networks
GSM 900 DCS 1800 PCS 1900

Prepared by:

TEC CELLULAR, Inc. a Division of SAFCO Corporation
7619 Emerald Drive
West Melbourne, FL 32904 USA
Phone (407) 952-8300
Fax (407) 725-5062
www.tecc.com
RF Engineering Continuing Education
GSM Based Networks
Copyright 1998 by TEC CELLULAR
ii
GSM Based Networks

Target Audience

This class is intended for both experienced and novice RF engineers.

Course Description

This one-day course covers one of the international TDMA digital standards, GSM.
Through the course students should gain practical knowledge of GSM features and
system operation.

Objectives

Upon completion of the course students will:

- Be able to identify GSM system features and organization
- Have a detailed knowledge of:
Common air interface, handovers, voice and error control coding, radio interface
and modulation, time advancing, equalization, sleep mode, network services,
MAHO, DTX, power control, etc.
- Be able to perform essential tasks of RF System design such as:
Link budget analysis, frequency reuse efficiency, frequency planning, capacity
calculation and system optimization.

Length: 8 Hours
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Table of Contents

1 Introduction. ................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 History and Development of GSM, DSC1800 and DCS1900 ................................ 1
1.2 Usage of GSM across the world ............................................................................. 3
1.3 GSM Standards ....................................................................................................... 6
2 System Organization ................................................................................................... 7
2.1 What is TDMA? ...................................................................................................... 7
2.2 GSM as a TDMA system ........................................................................................ 8
2.3 GSM Efficiency ...................................................................................................... 9
2.4 GSM System Components .................................................................................... 10
2.5 RF Carrier ............................................................................................................. 12
2.5.1 GSM - Europe ............................................................................................... 12
2.5.2 Extended GSM -Europe ................................................................................ 12
2.5.3 DCS-1800 ..................................................................................................... 12
2.5.4 PCS-1900 ...................................................................................................... 13
2.6 Time Slots and TDMA Frames ............................................................................. 14
2.7 Physical channels and bursts ................................................................................. 15
2.7.1 Dedicated Control Channels ......................................................................... 16
2.7.1.1 Stand Alone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH) ................................. 16
2.7.1.2 Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH) ........................................... 16
2.7.1.3 Fast Associated Control Channel (FACCH) ............................................. 16
2.7.2 Common Control Channels........................................................................... 16
2.7.2.1 Random Access Channel (RACH) ............................................................ 16
2.7.2.2 Paging Channel (PCH) .............................................................................. 16
2.7.2.3 Access Grant Channel (AGCH) ................................................................ 17
2.7.3 Broadcast Channels ....................................................................................... 17
2.7.3.1 Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH) ........................................................ 17
2.7.3.2 Frequency Correction Channel (FCCH) ................................................... 18
2.7.3.3 Synchronization Channel (SCH)............................................................... 18
2.7.4 Bursts ............................................................................................................ 18
2.7.4.1 Normal burst (NB) .................................................................................... 18
2.7.4.2 Frequency correction burst (FB) ............................................................... 19
2.7.4.3 Synchronization burst (SB) ....................................................................... 19
2.7.4.4 Dummy Burst ............................................................................................ 20
2.7.4.5 Access burst (AB) ..................................................................................... 20
2.7.5 Guard period ................................................................................................. 21
2.8 Call Processing Messages ..................................................................................... 21
2.9 Processing the Voice Signal.................................................................................. 22
2.9.1 The GSM codec ............................................................................................ 23
2.10 Data Coding ...................................................................................................... 25
2.11 Interleaving ....................................................................................................... 27
2.12 Equalization ...................................................................................................... 29
2.13 Modulation ........................................................................................................ 31
2.13.1 Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK)....................................................... 31
2.13.2 Minimum Shift Keying (MSK) ..................................................................... 31
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2.13.3 Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK) .................................................. 33
2.13.4 GMSK specifics for GSM ............................................................................. 35
3 GSM RF Planning ..................................................................................................... 38
3.1 Link Budget .......................................................................................................... 38
3.1.1 Example of a GSM Link Budget .................................................................. 38
3.1.1.1 Calculation of Receiver Sensitivity .......................................................... 38
3.1.1.1.1 Noise Figure of the Receiver ............................................................ 39
3.1.1.1.2 Other Sources of Noise ..................................................................... 39
3.2 Calculation of the Nominal Cell Radius ............................................................... 41
3.3 Reuse Efficiency ................................................................................................... 43
3.4 Capacity Calculations ........................................................................................... 44
3.5 Frequency Planning .............................................................................................. 46
3.6 Interference Reduction Strategies ......................................................................... 48
3.6.1 Hierarchical Cell Structures .......................................................................... 48
3.6.2 Overlay/Underlay .......................................................................................... 48
3.6.3 Frequency Hopping ....................................................................................... 50
3.7 MAHO .................................................................................................................. 52
3.7.1 Signal Strength Measurement Technique ..................................................... 52
3.7.2 BER Measurement Technique ...................................................................... 53
3.8 Power Control ....................................................................................................... 54
3.9 Time Delay Estimation ......................................................................................... 56
3.10 Discontinuous Transmission ............................................................................. 58
3.11 Mobile Station ................................................................................................... 59

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Index of Figures
Figure 1: An illustration of the TDMA concept ................................................................. 7
Figure 2: GSM as a TDMA/FDMA system ........................................................................ 8
Figure 3: GSM System Architecture................................................................................. 11
Figure 4: PCS Spectrum Allocation in the United States ................................................. 13
Figure 5: TDMA Frame Hierarchy ................................................................................... 14
Figure 6: GSM - Time Division Duplex ........................................................................... 14
Figure 7: Logical Channels ............................................................................................... 15
Figure 8: Control Multi-Frame ......................................................................................... 17
Figure 9: Normal Burst ..................................................................................................... 19
Figure 10: Frequency Correction Burst ............................................................................ 19
Figure 11: Synchronization Burst ..................................................................................... 20
Figure 12: Dummy Burst .................................................................................................. 20
Figure 13: Access Burst .................................................................................................... 21
Figure 14: Messages Sent during Call Processing ............................................................ 21
Figure 15: Sampling and Quantization of Analog Signal ................................................. 22
Figure 16: Scheme of audio signal processing in telephony............................................. 23
Figure 17: Block diagram of GSM speech encoder .......................................................... 24
Figure 18: Block diagram of GSM speech decoder .......................................................... 24
Figure 19: Block diagram of channel coding for GSM technology.................................. 25
Figure 20: Illustration of the interleaving process ............................................................ 27
Figure 21: Interleaving for the traffic channel in GSM .................................................... 28
Figure 22: An example of a Power Delay Profile (PDP). ................................................. 29
Figure 23: Principals of the GSM equalizer operation ..................................................... 30
Figure 24: Example of MSK modulation.......................................................................... 33
Figure 25: Shape of the time and frequency response of the Gaussian filter ................. 34
Figure 26: Spectral characteristics of GMSK and MSK ................................................... 34
Figure 27: Bandwidth of the GSM signal versus the percentage of signal power. ........... 36
Figure 28: Modulation scheme for GSM technology ....................................................... 36
Figure 29: N=3 Reuse Scheme ......................................................................................... 46
Figure 30: N=4 Reuse Scheme ......................................................................................... 47
Figure 31: Area of interference ......................................................................................... 49
Figure 32: Signal strength at point of interference ........................................................... 49
Figure 33: Baseband Hopping .......................................................................................... 51
Figure 34: Synthesizer Hopping ....................................................................................... 52
Figure 35: Illustration of the MAHO Measurement Process ............................................ 52
Figure 36: Regulation of MS Power Control .................................................................... 54
Figure 37: TDMA MS transmission Time Alignment ...................................................... 56

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Index of Tables
Table 1: Percentage of total signal energy (%E) carried by the bandwidth (B
E
) ............. 35
Table 2: Example of GSM Budget Rural Environment ................................................. 40
Table 3: Example of GSM Link Budget Suburban Environment .................................. 40
Table 4: Example of GSM Link Budget Urban Environment ....................................... 41
Table 5: Typical Slope and Intercept Values. ................................................................... 42
Table 6: Capacity of Network Using 3/9 Reuse Scheme .................................................. 45
Table 7: Capacity of Network Using 4/12 Reuse Scheme ................................................ 45
Table 8: Signal Strength / RXLEV Mapping .................................................................... 53
Table 9: BER /RXQUAL Mapping .................................................................................. 53
Table 10: Power Control Levels ....................................................................................... 55
Table 11: Analysis of Voice Activity Factors................................................................... 58
Table 12: PCS-1900 Mobile Class and Power .................................................................. 59
Table 13: DCS-1800 Mobile Class and Power ................................................................. 59
Table 14: GSM-900 Mobile Class and Power .................................................................. 59
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1 Introduction.
The concept of cellular theory was introduced by Bell Labs and studied around the world
during the 1970s. Cellular communications consists of numerous base stations with
transmission and reception capabilities, whose individual coverage areas partially
overlap. The frequencies that are transmitted and received at each base station are reused
between clusters of cells. The United States first implemented the cellular concept in
1979 with the development of the Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS), where a pre-
operational network was deployed in Chicago, Illinois. Meanwhile, Northern Europe
countries worked together to develop the Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT) system. The
system was operational in Sweden by 1981, and later on other European countries.
Networks based on these two analog specifications accounted for most cellular networks
during the 1980s.

This successful deployment and operation of NMT systems throughout Northern Europe
drove other countries to develop systems such as United Kingdoms Total Access
Communications System (TACS, derived from United States AMPS), Frances
Radiocom 2000, Italys RTMS, and Germanys C-450. Of all these, NMT and TACS
systems gained the most popularity in the European community. Eventually, most
countries established their local services using either NMT or TACS based systems. This
created problems for many European countries later on since these two systems (and
variations of them, obviously) were not compatible, and some operated in different
frequency bands (450 MHz & 900 MHz).
1.1 History and Development of GSM, DSC1800 and DCS1900
Throughout the early 1980s, European cellular networks, with nation-wide coverage and
several hundreds of thousands of subscribers, experienced enormous growth. The
cellular networks used an analog air interface (NMT and TACS) that by todays
standards was not spectrally efficient. Because the demand was so high, the operators
were forced to install more analog infrastructure to handle this constantly increasing
capacity. As networks were launched the availability of additional spectrum became
scarce. Service providers even borrowed frequencies from the spectrum that had been
allocated to a future European Cellular System. Therefore, adding more systems was
no longer a feasible resolution to the demand problem.

Along with the capacity problems, the European community was working toward
standardization of the wireless telecommunications arena. Most networks were
developed specifically for operation within a particular country. Since the air interfaces
were incompatible, it was impossible for wireless subscribers to roam in neighboring
countries. At the 1982 Confrence Europenne des Postes et Tlcommunications
(CEPT - Conference of European Posts and Telecommunications), a new standardization
group was formed and tasked with the specification of a unique 900 MHz radio
communication system for Europe. More than 20 European countries were represented at
this conference to insure the definition of a standard that made sense and suited everyone.
The group responsible for writing the new standard was named Groupe Spciale
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Mobile (GSM). The standard was later renamed Global System for Mobile
Communications (GSM).

From its inception, the group had several clear objectives for the GSM standard including
roaming and improved capacity. Roaming was desirable so that the subscribers could
travel freely throughout Europe while using a single mobile. This was a very ambitious
goal since it required the alliance and commitment of wireless industries across the
continent, some of which were already providing wireless service at different
frequencies. Capacity improvements were desired by using a spectrally efficient
technology relative to the existing analog network. The objective was for GSM to
offload the analog networks without encountering capacity problems soon after. Many
basic objectives were stated at the onset of the GSM standard. However, it took years for
these to become firm requirements and then a reality.

The original requirements for the GSM standard did not specify the technology to be used
for speech transmissions. However, the trend in telecommunications was toward digital
technology. Since the GSM group was interested in developing a standard that would
serve the needs of the fast growing European subscriber base, they concentrated their
efforts in comparing analog and digital technical specifications, with respect to spectral
efficiency. The group opened the forum for technological proposals from industry,
business, and government agencies across Europe. All prototype systems submitted were
digital, and completely compatible with the new wire-line digital standard, Integrated
Services Digital Network (ISDN). Given the fact that wireless communications relies on
the wire-line infrastructure, it made sense to take advantage of the latest advances in
wire-line technology.

Some of the important factors that led to the development of the GSM are:

- The need for a system without the capacity limitations of the existing
cellular networks.
- The spectrum was already reserved in the 900 MHz band throughout
Europe.
- The need to deregulate mobile telephony.
- The unification of the European community politically, economically and
socially.
- The incentive for European equipment manufacturers to develop and
produce new infrastructure and mobile terminals for a market that is much
larger than the small markets in single countries.
- Exportation of technology and products to countries outside Europe.

Some of the requirements the standardization group set for the new system were:

- To be able to economically cover vast areas as well as densely populated
urban and suburban territory.
- It should work reliably at high speeds (in fast moving vehicles, i.e. cars,
trains)
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- It should work reliably in urban jungles in the hands of pedestrians among
tall buildings, and within large buildings, parking structures, airports and
trains stations.
- The system must not be based on existing technologies or systems to avoid
favoritism toward regional institutions or industries.
1.2 Usage of GSM across the world
The following tables list the nations currently committed to GSM technology. Most of
the countries have already launched commercial systems, although some of the countries
have only committed to GSM deployment.

Africa
Ghana GSM 900 96 October Scancom
Libya GSM 900 97 March MADAR Telephone Company
Morocco GSM 900 98 Itissalat
South Africa GSM 900 94 June MTN
Zimbabwe GSM 900 98 Econet

North America
Canada GSM 1900 96 November Microcell Telecom Inc.
USA GSM 1900 95 November American Personal Communications
USA GSM 1900 96 November Pacific Bell Mobile Services
USA GSM 1900 Pocket
USA GSM 1900 96 October Powertel
USA GSM 1900 96 November Omnipoint Communications Inc.
USA GSM 1900 97 March Airadigm

Latin America
Chile GSM 1900 Entel

Pacific
Australia GSM 900 93 April Telstra
Australia GSM 900 93 September Vodafone
Fiji GSM 900 94 July Vodafone Fiji

Middle East
Bahrain GSM 900 95 April Batelco
Iran GSM 900 96 January KIFZO
Lebanon GSM 900 95 February FTML / Cellis
Oman GSM 900 GTO
UAE GSM 900 95 December Etisalat
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Asia
Azerbadjan GSM 900 96 November Azercell Telekom B.M.
Bangladesh GSM 900 97 March GrameenPhone
China GSM 900,1800 93 December Guandong Mobile Com. Corp.
China GSM 900 95 August Liaoning PTA
China GSM 900 96 January Guangxi PTA
China GSM 1800 Shanghai PTA
China GSM 900,1800 95 September Heilongjiang PTA
China GSM 900 95 August Jiangsu PTA
China GSM 900 95 September Shandong PTA
China GSM 900 Tibet PTA
China GSM 900 96 January Hebei PTA
China GSM 900 96 August Sichuan PTA
China GSM 900 95 September Unicom (Jiangsu)
China GSM 900 96 May Chongqing PTB (Sichuan)
China GSM 900 Unicom (Anhui)
China GSM 900 Unicom (Sichuan)
China GSM 900 Unicom (Hainan)
China GSM 900 Unicom (Jilin)
China GSM 900 93 January SmarTone
(Hong Kong) China GSM 1800 97 January Peoples Telephone Company
(Hong Kong) Georgia GSM 900 97 March Geocell
India GSM 900 95 September Bharti Cellular (New Delhi)
India GSM 900 95 September Hutchison Max Telecom
(Mumbai) India GSM 900 95 September RPG Cellular Services
(Chennai) India GSM 900 97 January Birla AT&T Communications
(Maharshtra) India GSM 900 97 March Birla AT&T Communications
(Gujarat) India GSM 900 97 February RPG Cellcom (Madhya Pradesh)
India GSM 900 97 January JT Mobiles (Karnataka)
India GSM 900 97 January JT Mobiles (Andhra Pradesh)
India GSM 900 97 January Bharti Televentures
(Himachal Pradesh) India GSM 900 97 May Hexacom (Rajasthan)
India GSM 900 Reliance Telecom (Bihar)
India GSM 900 Reliance Telecom (Orissa)
India GSM 900 Reliance Telecom (West Bengal)
India GSM 900 Reliance Telecom (Assam)
India GSM 900 Reliance Telecom (North East)
India GSM 900 Reliance Telecom
(Madhya Pradesh) India GSM 900 Reliance Telecom
(Himachal Pradesh) Indonesia GSM 900 94 July Telkomsel
Indonesia GSM 900 96 October PT. Excelcomindo Pratama
Laos GSM 900 94 December EPTL / Shinawatra
Macau GSM 900 95 October CTM
Malaysia GSM 900 95 July Celcom
Malaysia GSM 1800 5 July Mutiara Telecommunications
Singapore GSM 900 94 April Singapore Telecom
Taiwan GSM 900 94 October Shinawatra (AIS)
Uzbekistan GSM 900 Daewoo Corporation
Vietnam GSM 900 94 April VMS / CIV

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Europe
Bosnia-Herzegovina GSM 900 96 November PTT
Bosnia-Herzegovina Cyprus GSM 900 95 April CYTA - PTT
Denmark GSM 900,1800 92 March Tele Danmark Mobil
Denmark GSM 1800 Telia Mobile
Estonia GSM 900,1800 95 January Eesti Mobiltelefon
Finland GSM 900,1800 92 June Telecom Finland
France GSM 1800 96 May Bouygues Telecom
France GSM 900 92 July France Telecom Itineris
France GSM 1800 96 November FTM 1800
Germany GSM 900 92 July Mannesmann Mobilfunk
Gibraltar (UK) GSM 900 95 January Gibtel
Greece GSM 900 93 June Tele STET
Greece GSM 900 93 July Panafon
Guernsey (UK) GSM 900 96 March Guernsey Telecom
Hungary GSM 900 94 March Westel 900
Iceland GSM 900 94 August Postur OG Simi
Ireland GSM 900 93 June Telecom Eireann
Isle Of Man (UK) GSM 900 96 March Manx Telecom
Italy GSM 900 92 October Telecom Italia
Lithuania GSM 900 95 November Mobilios Telekomunikacijos
Luxembourg GSM 900,1800 98 Millicom Luxembourg
Macedonia GSM 900 96 October PTT Macedonia
Netherlands GSM 900 95 September Libertel
Netherlands GSM 900 94 July Netherlands PTT
Norway GSM 900 93 May Telenor Mobil (PTT)
Poland GSM 900 96 September Polska Telefonia Cyfrowa(PTC)
Portugal GSM 900 92 October Telecel
Portugal GSM 900 92 October TMN
Romania GSM 900 97 April MobiFon
Russia GSM 900 Udmurt Telecom
Russia GSM 900 98 Tatarian-American Investment &
Finance
Slovakia GSM 900 97 February Eurotel
Slovenia GSM 900 96 September Mobitel
Spain GSM 900 95 July Telefonica MoviStar
Spain GSM 900 95 October Airtel
Sweden GSM 900 92 September Europolitan
Sweden GSM 900,1800 92 November Telia Mobitel
Switzerland GSM 900,1800 93 March Swiss PTT
Turkey GSM 900 94 March Turkcell
Ukraine GSM 900 98 Kiev Star
United Kingdom GSM 900 92 July Vodafone
United Kingdom GSM 900 94 July Cellnet
United Kingdom GSM 1800 93 September One-2-One
Yugoslavia (Montenegro) GSM 900 96 July ProMonte GSM
Yugoslavia (Serbia) GSM 900 96 November Mobile Telecom

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1.3 GSM Standards
GSM is an international standard for wireless voice and data communications. The
following standards are of primary interest to RF network design engineers and are
frequently referenced throughout this document:

GSM 04.01 European digital cellular telecommunication system (Phase 2);
Mobile Station Base Station System (MS BSS) interface
General aspects and principles
Mobile Station Base Station System (MS BSS) interface
Channel structures and access capabilities
Multiplexing and multiple access on the radio path
Channel coding
Modulation
Radio transmission and reception
Radio subsystem link control
Radio subsystem synchronization
Full rate speech processing function
Full rate speech transcoding
Substitution and muting of lost frames for full rate speech
channels
Comfort noise aspects for full rate speech channels
Discontinuous Transmission (DTX) for full rate speech channels
Voice Activity Detection (VAD)
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2 System Organization

2.1 What is TDMA?
GSM is a Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) technology. In TDMA systems,
multiple users operate on the same frequency. However, they do not operate
simultaneously. Each user is given access to the system at a different time. The principle
of the TDMA scheme is presented in Figure 1.

Uplink ( From MS to BS)
Base Transceiver Station
f
u0,
Ts
1
f
d0,
Ts
1
, Ts
2
, Ts
3,
...,TS
6
,TS
7
TS
1
TS
2
TS
3
.... TS
6
TS
7
TS
2
TS
3
....
TS
1
TS
2
TS
3
f
u0,
Ts
2
f
u0,
Ts
3
f
u0,
Ts
4
f
u0,
Ts
5
f
u0,
Ts
6
f
u0,
Ts
7
Downlink ( From BS to MS)
Wireless Communication Channel

Figure 1: An illustration of the TDMA concept

Since users are accessing the channel one at a time, the transmission is discontinuous.
This effectively means that modulation used in TDMA systems must be digital. TDMA
based communications are conducted in an accumulate and burst fashion. While waiting
for the time slot assignment, each user accumulates the portion of the data stream to be
transmitted. When the slot is assigned, all the accumulated data is transmitted over the
channel at higher data rate. The ratio of the channel data rate and user data rate is
directly proportional to the number of users sharing the communication channel. From
Figure 1 we see that slot assignment commonly follows a cyclic pattern. One cycle of the
slot assignments is commonly referred to as frame. In the case of the TDMA system, a
channel can be thought of as a particular slot in the frame. Some advantages of the
TDMA scheme are:

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- It has a relatively low complexity.
- Because of the discontinuous transmission, the hand-off process is greatly
simplified and the reliability improved. In periods when it is not transmitting or
receiving, the mobile can perform the channel measurements and assist in the hand-
off process Mobile Assist Hand-off (MAHO).
- It is possible to allow different number of slots per frame to different users and
therefore, accommodate users with different data rate requirements.

Some disadvantages of the TDMA are:

- High synchronization overhead is required.
- Guard times have to be incorporated in order to minimize probability of collision
between the different users.
- Only digital modulations can be used.

TDMA, in general, is heavily effected by the selective fading properties of the mobile
channel. For that reason, it is mandatory for TDMA systems to incorporate channel
equalization.
2.2 GSM as a TDMA system
Although GSM is considered a TDMA system, GSM is essentially a combination of two
access schemes TDMA and FDMA. The manner in which mobiles access the GSM
system is illustrated in Figure 2. It can be seen that before the communication
commences, the user has to be assigned with a unique carrier frequency as well as the
time slot. In the case of full rate implementation, seven users share the same carrier
frequency. Since the communication is full duplex, separate frequencies are assigned to
forward and reverse links. This is commonly referred to as frequency division duplexing
(FDD). In short, GSM is a TDMA/FDMA system with FDD.

BTS
USER 1 USER 2 .... USER 8
USER 9 USER 10 .... USER 16
USER 1,
F
1
USER 2,
F
1
USER 8,
F
1
USER 9,
F
2
USER 10,
F
2
USER
16,
F
2
Frequency F
1
Frequency F
2

Figure 2: GSM as a TDMA/FDMA system
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2.3 GSM Efficiency
There are several types of bits transmitted over the channel in a TDMA based system.
Some of the bits transmitted are control bits necessary for synchronization, training or to
provide guard periods at the end of each time slots transmission cycle. Synchronization
bits are used during access of the network, and training bits are sequences of bits used by
the mobiles equalizers. In addition, consecutive bits are dedicated to guard periods to
prevent the collision of transmissions coming from different transmitters.

Control bits present an overhead relative to the data passed over a channel and therefore
decrease the efficiency of the GSM technology. The efficiency of the technology is
calculated as a ratio of the number of bits dedicated to the overhead and total number of
bits transmitted over the GSM channel i.e.[1]:

100 1
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
T
OH
f
b
b
o (1)

where:

f
o = GSM modulation efficiency.

OH
b = Number of bits per frame allocated to overhead channels.

T
b = Total number of bits.

Reliable digital communication over the mobile wireless channel has to be protected with
error control coding. The coding process deliberately introduces redundancy in the
transmitted bit stream that helps correct errors caused by the harsh propagation
environment. As such, the coding can be viewed as a special case of the overhead and
therefore reduces the efficiency of the GSM scheme as well.

Example 1. Consider a digital technology applying a GSM access scheme where the
communication channel is shared by 8 users. Assume that the bit rate coming out of the
vocoder for each of the users is 13 Kb/s. The actual channel data rate is 270.833 Kb/s.
What is the efficiency of the particular GSM access scheme.

Total rate dedicated to the user information is:

s Kb b
u
/ 104 13 8 = = (2)

The efficiency of the TDMA is given by:

| | % 4 . 38 100
104
104 833 . 270
1 = |
.
|
\
|
=
f
o (3)

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2.4 GSM System Components
The GSM system architecture consists of four major parts as depicted in Figure 3. The
four major sub-systems are defined as follows:

1. The Switching Sub-System controls the call processing and subscriber related
functions. The most important building blocks of the switching system are:
a) MSC (Mobile Switching Center) Performs the telephony switching
functions for the mobile network. It provides the connection of the network to
the PSTN.
b) AUC (Authentication Center) Provides authentication and encryption
parameters that verify the identity of every user and insures the privacy of the
conversation. The authentication center also stores information regarding lost,
stolen, or fraudulent phones in the EIR (Equipment Identity Register)
c) HLR (Home Location Register) Database that contains all subscriber
information, including location for each user within the coverage area of the
MSC.
d) VLR (Visitor Location Register) Data containing temporary subscriber
information needed for serving of the visiting roaming customers. Once a
roaming subscriber has been identified within the coverage area of a particular
MSC / VLR, the serving MSC sends information to the subscribers home
network, so that incoming calls are routed to the serving MSC.
2. The Base Station Sub-System Controls the radio equipment providing the
connection between the mobile user and the land communication network. The
building blocks of the base station sub-system are:
a) BSC (Base Station Controller) connects the MSC to a network of up to
several hundred base stations.
b) BTS (Base Station) infrastructure that provides the RF link to the mobile
subscriber.
3. The Operation and Support Sub-System Supports the maintenance activities of
the network including the following three functions:
a) providing call-processing statistics and troubleshooting functionality
b) provides billing information
c) manages all mobile equipment in the system
4. Mobile Station End-user device allowing the subscriber to access the system.

The interface between the BSC and the BTS is referred to as the Abis interface. This
interface is GSM specified, although each infrastructure provider has subtle differences
requiring network operators to purchase their equipment from a single manufacturer.

Likewise, GSM has specified an interface between the MSC and the BSC, the A interface
which uses an SS7 protocol. The A interface allows network operators to use different
base stations and switching equipment from different infrastructure providers.

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MSC/
VLR
HLR
AUC
EIR GMSC
GIWU
PSTN
Switching
System
BSC
MXE/
MIN
Cellular
Networks
PCS
Networks
BTS
Base
Station
System
Operational
Support
System
OMC
NMC
AUC - Authentication Center
BSC - Base Station Controller
BTS - Base Transceiver Station
EIR - Equipment Identity Register
GIWU - GSM Interworking Unit
GMSC - Gateway MSC
HLR - Home Location Register
MSC - Mobile Switching Center
MIN - Mobile Intelligent Network
MXE - Message Center
NMC - Network Management Center
OMC - OPeration & Maintenance Center
VLR - Visitor Location Register

Figure 3: GSM System Architecture
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2.5 RF Carrier
The RF carrier is the physical frequency assigned to the channel. The following four
sections describe the frequency band and the channel number schemes for the various
applications of GSM.
2.5.1 GSM - Europe
GSM, as initially launched in Europe, uses two 25 MHz frequency blocks in the 900
MHz band. Since the technology allows full-duplex operation, the base station transmit
spans from 935-960 MHz, while the mobile station transmit spans from 890-915 MHz.
The frequency band is divided into individual 200 kHz channels. Each 200 kHz channel
is numbered according to the Absolute Radio Frequency Channel Number (ARFCN)
scheme. Although there is a capability to use 125 channels, the first channel is used as a
guard band. Therefore the channel assignments are from 1-124. The procedure for
calculating the uplink and downlink frequency, relative to the channel numbers is as
follows:

Uplink
frequency = 890 Mhz + (0.2 Mhz) x ARFCN

Downlink
frequency = 935 Mhz + (0.2 Mhz) x ARFCN

2.5.2 Extended GSM -Europe
As GSM networks matured, an additional 10 MHz of spectrum was allocated, providing
an additional 50 channels of capacity. The channel numbering for the extended GSM
band ranges from 974-1024. Again, the first channel, 974, is reserved for a guard band.
In order to calculate the frequency of a particular channel in the extended band, the
procedure is as follows:

Uplink
frequency = 890 Mhz + (0.2 Mhz) x (ARFCN-1024)

Downlink
frequency = 935 Mhz + (0.2 Mhz) x (ARFCN-1024)

2.5.3 DCS-1800
GSM has also been used as the air interface for the Personal Communications Networks
(PCN) in Europe. Officially referred to as DCS-1800, the technology is essentially the
same as GSM although the channels used are at a higher frequency. DCS-1800 ranges
from 1,805-1,880 MHz in the downlink and 1,710-1,785 MHz in the uplink. Although
the frequency band and the duplex distance are larger, the channel bandwidth remains at
200 kHz. The ARFCN scheme for DCS-1800 ranges from 512-885, where the frequency
of a particular channel can be calculated as follows:
GSM Based Networks
13

Uplink
frequency = 1,710 Mhz + (0.2 Mhz) x (ARFCN-511)

Downlink

2.5.4 PCS-1900
GSM has also been used as the air interface for the Personal Communications Networks
(PCN) in United States. Officially referred to as PCS-1900, the technology is essentially
the same as GSM in Europe although the channels used are at a different frequency.
PCS-1900 ranges from 1,850-1,910 MHz in the downlink and 1,930-1,990 MHz in the
uplink (see Figure 4). Although the frequency band and the duplex distance are larger,
the channel bandwidth remains at 200 kHz. The ARFCN scheme for PCS-1900 ranges
from 512-812, where the frequency of a particular channel can be calculated as follows:

Uplink

Downlink

Figure 4: PCS Spectrum Allocation in the United States
GSM Based Networks
14
2.6 Time Slots and TDMA Frames
The time frame structure of GSM is divided into time slots, frames, multiframes,
superframes, and hyperframes (see Figure 5). The hyperframe has the longest repetitious
time period, and is composed of 2048 superframes. Fifty-one multiframes comprise one
superframe, and twenty-six voice traffic frames are grouped into one multiframe. Each
hyperframe contains 2,715,647 individual TDMA frames. The GSM timing structure is
setup in this manner to ensure encryption methods provide secure communications.

1 hyperframe = 2048 superframes = 2,715,648 frames
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 2043 2044 2045 2046 2047
1 superframe = 51 (26 frame) multi- frame or 26 (51 frame)multi-frame
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 46 47 48 49 50
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 21 22 23 24 25
1 (26 frame) multi-frame
0 1 2 3 23 24 25
1 (51 frame) multi-frame
0 1 2 3 23 24 25
1 TDMA Frame
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
TB Encrypted Data Flag 1 Training Sequence Flag 1 Encrypted Data TB GP
TB Fixed Bits TB GP
TB Encrypted Data Synchronization Sequence Encrypted Data TB GP
TB Synchronization Sequence Encrypted Data TB GP
TB Mixed Bits Training Sequence Mixed Bits TB GP
Normal Bursts
Frequency Correction Burst
Synchronization Burst
Access Burst
Dummy Burst
TB = Tail Bits
GP = Guard Period

Figure 5: TDMA Frame Hierarchy
Eight time slots form a TDMA frame, where each frame has a duration of 4.62 mS.
Therefore each time slot has a period of 577 microseconds. The time alignment of the
TDMA frames is constant at the base station, although adjusted at the mobile station to
compensate for propagation delays. A detailed discussion is provided in Section 3.9.

However, there is a delay of three time slots between the alignment of the uplink and
downlink signal. This allows the mobile station time to process incoming information
before replying back to the base station. The time delay also prevents the mobile from
transmitting and receiving at the same time (see Figure 6).

Base Station Transmits
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0

Mobile Station Transmits
5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5
Figure 6: GSM - Time Division Duplex
GSM Based Networks
15
2.7 Physical channels and bursts
The description of a physical channel will be made in terms of timeslots and TDMA
frames and not in terms of bursts. This is because there is not a one-to-one mapping
between a particular physical channel and the use of a particular burst.

In a GSM network, there are two types of channels that are commonly referred to as
physical and logical channels. A physical channel uses a combination of frequency and
time division multiplexing and is defined as a sequence of radio frequency channels and
time slots. The complete definition of a particular physical channel consists of a
description in the frequency domain, and a description in the time domain.

Physical channels are frequency-specific carriers over which the mobile and base stations
communicate. Each carrier is 200 kHz wide and the number of physical channels varies
according to the bandwidth of the spectrum allocation; all channels are divided into eight
time slots.

Logical channels carry specific types of data such as control and traffic information.
Control channels are defined by their specific functions used in call processing, and
traffic channels are defined by their data rate. Figure 7 illustrates the individual
characteristic of the logical channels.

Control
Channels
Logical
Channels
Traffic
Channels
Broadcast
Channels
Common Control
Channels
Dedicated Control
Channels

Figure 7: Logical Channels

Traffic channels carry voice information while control channels are used in the setup of
calls. Control channels are broken up into three categories:

- Dedicated Control Channels (DCCH)
- Common Control Channels (CCCH)
- Broadcast Channels (BCH)

Each of these logical channels performs unique call control functions and is described in
the following subsections.
GSM Based Networks
16
2.7.1 Dedicated Control Channels
Dedicated control channels are further broken up into logical channels with unique
functions. All three of these channels are bi-directional, meaning that the channels are
used for uplink and downlink messaging. Their designation and definition are listed as
follows:
2.7.1.1 Stand Alone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH)
The Stand Alone Dedicated Control Channel is a temporary channel used to connect the
mobile and base station. After the mobile has originated on the BCH the link is
maintained by the SDCCH before subscriber verification and channel assignment is
complete. Authentication and alert messages are sent via the SDCCH as the mobile
aligns itself with the frame structure.
2.7.1.2 Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH)
The Slow Associated Control Channel transmit call control data, typically handover
measurement information such as RXLEV and RXQUAL on the uplink, and power
control or timing advance information on the downlink.
2.7.1.3 Fast Associated Control Channel (FACCH)
Fast Associated Control Channel carry urgent signaling information. Messaging
associated with the FACCH is accomplished by replacing frames from a traffic channel.
Two designated bits, dubbed stealing bits, are set so that the mobile realizes that the
subsequent data is related to the FACCH.
2.7.2 Common Control Channels
Common control channels are broken up into logical channels with unique functions. The
Random Access Channel (RACH) is used by the mobile to access the network, therefore
it is used only on the uplink. The Paging Channel (PCH) and Access Grant Channels
(AGCH) are used by the base station to communicate with the mobile; therefore, it is
used only on the downlink. Their designation and definition are listed as follows:
2.7.2.1 Random Access Channel (RACH)
The Random Access Channel is used by the mobile to seek access to the network on call
origination or as an acknowledgement of system page. The RACH uses a slotted ALOHA
access scheme, because of the random nature of mobiles accessing the network. RACH
messaging occurs during time slot 0. However, all 51 TDMA frames are available (see
Figure 8 - b). The base station will respond by allocating a traffic channel and assigning
a Stand-Alone Dedicated Control Channel during call setup.
2.7.2.2 Paging Channel (PCH)
The Paging Channel is used by the network for two functions. The primary function of
the PCH is to page individual mobiles, and the secondary function is to send ASCII text
messages as part of the short messaging services feature of GSM networks. When paging
mobile stations, the PCH sends the targeted mobiles IMSI and a request for page
confirmation. As mentioned above the mobile responds via the RACH.
GSM Based Networks
17
2.7.2.3 Access Grant Channel (AGCH)
The Access Grant Channel is used by the base station to respond to a particular mobiles
RACH message. Contained in this logical channel is information that will direct the
mobile to the correct physical channel and time slot.

(a)

Control Multi-Frame Downlink = 51 TDMA Frames

0
F

1
S

2
B

3
B

4
B

5
B

6
C

7
C

8
C

9
C

10
F

11
S

12
C

13
C

14
C

15
C

20
F

21
S

49
C

50
I

F: Frequency Correction Channel (FCCH)
S: Synchronization Channel (SCH)
B: Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH)
C: Paging Channel / Access Grant Channel (PCH/AGCH)
I: Idle

(b)

Control Multi-Frame Uplink = 51 TDMA Frames

0
R

1
R

2
R

3
R

4
R

5
R

49
R

50
R

R: Random Access Channel (RACH)
Figure 8: Control Multi-Frame
2.7.3 Broadcast Channels
Broadcast control channels are sub-divided into three logical channels with unique
functions. The Broadcast Control Channel (BCH) operating in time slot 0, is used to
broadcast cell and network identity information to all mobiles. The Synchronization
Channel (SCH) and Frequency Correction Channel (FCCH) also operate in time slot 0.,
Both channels are used to synchronize the mobile station with the base station in
frequency and time. Their designation and definition are listed as follows:
2.7.3.1 Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH)
The Broadcast Control Channel is used to relay the cell and network identity to the
mobile station, as well as neighboring cell frequency information, cell options and access
parameters. In a control multi-frame, the BCCH information is passed to the mobile in
four out of fifty-one specific frames (see Figure 8 a).
GSM Based Networks
18
2.7.3.2 Frequency Correction Channel (FCCH)
The Frequency Correction Channel passes information that allows every mobile station to
synchronize its internal oscillator with the base stations frequency. It occupies the first
piece of control information in the Control Multi-Frame (51 TDMA frame), and is
repeated every 10 frames (see Figure 8 a).
2.7.3.3 Synchronization Channel (SCH)
The Synchronization Control Channel follows the FCCH frame and contains the BSIC
and TDMA frame number. Coarse timing advance information is passed to the mobile
over the synchronization channel as well (see Figure 8 a).
2.7.4 Bursts
Bursts are instantaneous transmissions of data over an RF channel, with voice or data
information. There are five types of burst in GSM which are defined as follows:

- Normal carries voice and control information.
- Frequency Correction Burst used for frequency synchronization.
- Synchronization Burst used for timing synchronization between base station
and mobile station.
- Dummy Burst mixture of bits sent when there is not any other
communications taking place on the BCCH.
- Access Burst used on access and handover where timing advance
information is unknown.

Each timeslot is divided into 156.25 bit periods, where every bit period is referenced to a
bit number. The first bit period is numbered 0 and the final .25 bit period is numbered
156. Bit 0 is transmitted first and continues through to bit 156. The description of bit
numbering is important because the following sections describe the transmission timing
and data associated with bit period during a burst. Guard periods occur between
consecutive bursts appearing in successive timeslots.
2.7.4.1 Normal burst (NB)
The normal burst is used for carrying control and traffic information. Tail bits are located
before and after the encrypted data, and occupy four consecutive bit periods. Twenty-six
bits form the training sequence, allowing the receivers equalizer to adapt its filters to the
local RF environment. Before and after the training sequence bits, is a stealing flag bit.
Stealing flags are used only for traffic channels and are used during FACCH messaging.
Bits 148 through 156 provide a guard period to avoid collisions with the next subsequent
burst.
GSM Based Networks
19

0
TB

1
TB

2
TB

3
ED

ED

ED

60
F

61
TS

62
TS

TS

TS

86
TS

87
F

88
ED

89
ED

ED

ED

144
ED

145
TB

146
TB

147
TB

148
GP

149
GP

156
GP
Figure 9: Normal Burst

Where:
TB = Tail Bits
ED = Encrypted Data
F = Flag
TS = Training Sequence
GP = Guard Period
2.7.4.2 Frequency correction burst (FB)
The frequency correction burst is used for frequency alignment of the mobile. This is
accomplished by adjusting the mobiles internal oscillator, or frequency source, to the
same frequency of the serving base station. Tail bits are located before and after the
encrypted data, and occupy four consecutive bit periods. 142 bits form the sequence of
frequency correction information, which essentially appears as an unmodulated carrier
with a frequency offset of 67.7 kHz. The frequency correction channel is made up of
consecutive frequency correction bursts. Bits 148 through 156 provide a guard period to
avoid collisions with the next subsequent burst.

0
TB

1
TB

2
TB

3
ED

ED

ED

ED

ED

ED

ED

ED

ED

ED

ED

ED

ED

ED

144
ED

145
TB

146
TB

147
TB

148
GP

149
GP

156
GP
Figure 10: Frequency Correction Burst

Where:
TB = Tail Bits
ED = Encrypted Data
GP = Guard Period
2.7.4.3 Synchronization burst (SB)
The synchronization burst is used to adjust the time reference of the mobile station. This
is accomplished by adjusting the mobiles clock to the relative time of the serving base
station. This will allow the mobile units transmission to be received by the base station
in the correct time slot. Contained within the burst is a long synchronization sequence, as
well as TDMA frame number and Base Station Identity Code (BSIC) information. Tail
bits are located before and after the encrypted data, and occupy four consecutive bit
periods. Bits 148 through 156 provide a guard period to avoid collisions with the next
subsequent burst.

GSM Based Networks
20

0
TB

1
TB

2
TB

3
ED

4
ED

ED

ED

41
ED

42
SS

43
SS

SS

SS

105
SS

106
ED

107
ED

ED

ED

144
ED

145
TB

146
TB

147
TB

148
GP

149
GP

156
GP
Figure 11: Synchronization Burst

Where:
TB = Tail Bits
ED = Encrypted Data
SS = Synchronization Sequence
GP = Guard Period
2.7.4.4 Dummy Burst
The dummy burst is used on the BCCH when there are no other channels sending
information. This will allow the mobile scanning the BCCH to receive valid power
measurements. Contained within the burst is a mixture of bits carrying no relevant data
and twenty-six training sequence bits. Tail bits are located before and after the encrypted
data, and occupy four consecutive bit periods. Bits 148 through 156 provide a guard
period to avoid collisions with the next subsequent burst.

0
TB

1
TB

2
TB

3
MB

4
MB

MB

MB

60
MB

61
TS

62
TS

TS

TS

86
TS

87
MB

88
MB

MB

MB

144
MB

145
TB

146
TB

147
TB

148
GP

149
GP

156
GP
Figure 12: Dummy Burst

Where:
TB = Tail Bits
MB = Mixed Bits
TS = Training Sequence
GP = Guard Period
2.7.4.5 Access burst (AB)
The access burst is used for random access and handover access by the mobile. The burst
is characterized by a long guard period, required when the mobile does not have timing
advance information during access or handover. Access bursts are used by the RACH
and TCH after a handover. Contained within the burst is a series of forty-one
synchronization bits, followed by twenty-six encrypted data bits. Tail bits are located
before and after the encrypted data, the first series of tail bits occupy eight bit positions
and the final four occur after the final encrypted bits. Bits 88 through 156 provide a guard
period to avoid collisions with the next subsequent burst.
GSM Based Networks
21

0
TB

1
TB

TB

TB

7
TB

8
SS

9
SS

SS

SS

48
SS

49
EB

50
EB

EB

EB

84
EB

85
TB

86
TB

87
TB

88
GP

89
GP

90
GP

GP

GP

GP

156
GP
Figure 13: Access Burst
Where:
TB = Tail Bits
SS = Synchronization Sequence
EB = Encrypted Bits
GP = Guard Period

2.7.5 Guard period
The guard period is provided to allow mobile stations transmissions to be attenuated for
some time between bursts. This allows the mobile time to ramp-up and ramp-down
during the guard periods. The base station is not required to have the same ramping
capabilities between adjacent bursts, but is required to have the ramping capabilities for
non-used time-slots.
2.8 Call Processing Messages
In order to grasp the significance of the logical channels, consider the following messages
passed between the base and mobile stations during call processing (see Figure 14).

Mobile Station Base Station
PCH Network pages Mobile
Channel Requested RACH
AGCH
Channel Assigned
Answer page SDCCH
SDCCH Authentication Requested
Authentication Response
SDCCH
SDCCH Request Cipher Mode
Acknowledge Cipher Mode SDCCH
SDCCH Setup Message
Message Confirmed SDCCH
SDCCH
Assign Traffic Channel
Acknowledge Traffic Channel FACCH
FACCH Alert
Connect Message FACCH
FACCH Connect Acknowledge
Speech TCH Speech

Figure 14: Messages Sent during Call Processing

GSM Based Networks
22
2.9 Processing the Voice Signal
The voice signal processing in any digital communication system occurs in three stages:

- Sampling
- Quantization
- Encoding

The process of voice signal sampling assumes taking instantaneous measurements of a
continuous voice waveform. According to one of the fundamental concepts of
communication (Sampling theorem), the signal is to be sampled at the rate that is at least
two times greater than the highest component in the signals spectrum. Since the voice
signal consists of frequency components up to 4KHz, the sampling has to be performed at
the rate of 8000 samples per second.

Every sample can take a value within the dynamic range of the signal. Consider the
analog signal represented in Figure 15, the process of quantization maps the amplitude of
the signal according to a predetermined number of discrete values. In this simplified
example, each value is represented by a three-bit word. However, the process of
quantization introduces degradation in the signal due to the finite number of samples and
resolution of the discrete values. The digital representation of the analog signal does not
have infinite resolution, therefore the quantization levels are rounded to the nearest
discrete value. The effect of rounding to the nearest quantization level introduces an
error when the signal is reproduced. Any error in the reproduced analog signal has the
same effect as noise; therefore it is referred to as quantization noise.

However, if the number of quantization levels is sufficiently large, the quantization noise
can be made negligible. For the quantization of the speech signal, the number of levels
that need to be used, so that degradation of signal quality becomes insignificant, is 256
for a logarithmic A or -law compression, or 4096 levels if linear compression is used.

111 +3V
110 +2V
101 +1V
0V
001 -1V
010 -2V
011 -3V
111 +3V
110 +2V
101 +1V
0V
001 -1V
010 -2V
011 -3V
Analog Signal
Sampling Pulse
PAM
101 110 101 100 010 010 010 100 111 111
PCM

Figure 15: Sampling and Quantization of Analog Signal
GSM Based Networks
23
About 64Kb/sec of data is required to digitize a voice signal with sufficient quality.
Transmitting such a large amount of data for each conversation will lead to inefficient
bandwidth requirements for each voice channel. In mobile communication systems,
spectrum is a very expensive commodity and high speech compression is necessary for
its effective usage. Speech compression is accomplished with speech coders that remove
redundancy in the speech signal. They typically extract the properties of the signal so
that it can be reconstructed at the receiver side. By coding the signal properties rather
than the actual signal waveform, vocoders achieve high compression rates. Todays
commercial systems use vocoders that compress speech signals to bit rates from 8Kb/sec
to 13Kb/sec. In the future we can expect even greater compression capabilities.
2.9.1 The GSM codec
The Codec is a device that transforms the human voice into a digital signal and
regenerates an audible analog signal from the received digital data. Therefore, it
performs encoding and decoding of the speech signal. Its place in the speech processing
order is illustrated in Figure 16.

BPF
A/D
converter
SPEECH
ENCODER
CHANNEL
CODING
TO
MODULATOR
MICROPHONE
BAND-PASS
300 Hz-3.4 kHz
SPEECH
DECODER
CHANNEL
DECODER
LP
LOW-PASS
4 kHz
D/A
converter

Figure 16: Scheme of audio signal processing in telephony

The GSM system uses a simplified regular pulse excited (RPE) codec, with long-term
prediction (LTP), operating at 13 kbits/s to provide toll quality speech. It is a full rate
speech codec. The latest half rate codec allows two times as many users per physical
channel. A block diagram of the encoder is shown in Figure 17.

The input speech is pre-emphasized, split up into frames 20 ms long, and for each frame,
a set of 8 short-term predictor (STP) coefficients are found. Each frame is then further
split into four 5 ms sub-frames. It is a function of the codecs long-term predictor to find
a delay and gain for each sub-frame.

The residual signal after both short and long term filtering is quantified for each sub-
frame as follows. The 40-sample residual signal is decimated into three possible
GSM Based Networks
24
excitation sequences, each 13 samples long. The highest energy sequence is chosen as
the best representation of the excitation sequence, and each pulse in the sequence has its
amplitude quantized with three bits.

Pre-emphasis
Segmentation
Hamming
Window
Pre-processing
Short-Term
Prediction
(STP) Analysis
Long-Term
Prediction (LTP)
Analysis
+
LPF
LTP Filter
M
U
X
Grid
Selection
Regualar
Pulse
Excitation
r
n
pitch p
n
LAR coefficients
gain g
n
INPUT SPEECH SIGNAL CODED SPEECH

Figure 17: Block diagram of GSM speech encoder

Reconstruction of the signal at the decoder is performed through the long term and then
the short-term synthesis filters. A post-filter is used to improve the perceptual quality of
this reconstructed speech. This is schematically shown in Figure 18.

D
M
U
X
RPE Decoding
LTP Sythesis
Filter
STP Synthesis
Filter
Post-Processing
o
u
t
p
u
t
A
n
P
n
, g
n
LAR
n
(k)

Figure 18: Block diagram of GSM speech decoder

The output bits do not have the same importance for speech reconstruction. A total of
260 bits are ordered by their importance into three groups (50, 132, and 78 bits each.
These groups of bits are protected differently by error coding control algorithms. The
process of bit-protection by introducing redundancy into the bit stream will be explained
in the next section.
GSM Based Networks
25
2.10 Data Coding
Once the voice data is compressed, control information, along with error correction bits
are added. Adding control and error correction bits introduces additional redundancy and
significantly increases the data rate of the channel. However, coding also increases the
robustness of the communication channel necessary in the difficult mobile propagation
environment.

At the output of the vocoder, data is separated into three bit streams. The separation is
performed in accordance to its relative importance. The first group contains the most
significant bits (type Ia bits), the second group contains important bits (type Ib bits) and
the last 78 bits are called type II bits. There are 50, 132 and 78 bits in group Ia, Ib and II,
respectively.

Fifty bits of class Ia are considered vital for quality reconstruction of the speech signal
and they are coded with a rate convolution encoder. Furthermore, those bits are
additionally protected by the three parity bits for error detection. Type Ib bits are
protected by rate convolution encoder while type II bits are considered less important
and they are not error protected. Illustration of error protection scheme is given in Figure
19. Total of 456 bits per frame at the output of channel coding make 75% overhead bits.
It is a price to be paid for more reliable transmission.

TYPE Ia
BITS
TYPE II
BITS
TYPE Ib
BITS
CONVOLUTIONAL
ENCODER
r=1/2
K=5
M
U
X
ERROR DETECTING CODE
50
132
78
3
4
189
189
378
456
0
TO
INTERLEAVER
F
R
O
M

V
O
C
O
D
E
R

Figure 19: Block diagram of channel coding for GSM technology.
Two important entities in the process of channel coding are Convolutional Coding and
Error Detecting Codes (as illustrated above in Figure 19).

Convolutional coding consists of convolution of input a bit-sequence and a pre-defined
digital filter. The filter is defined by binary polynomials. In the case of GSM, the
convolution algorithm assumes:

1. The addition of 4 tail bits (set to zero),
2. two different convolutions (polynomials are ( ) 1
3 4
1
+ + + = X X X X C and
( ) 1
3 4
2
+ + = X X X C )
GSM Based Networks
26
3. and bit puncturing, that presumes the transmission of only certain bits of output
sequence.

The process of convolution defines two output sequences of 189 bits. However, before
signal modulation, the 78 unprotected (type II) bits are added to the protected bit
sequence (2189) which results in 456 bits per 20ms (22.8 kbps).

The Viterbi algorithm performs convolutional decoding, where every possible user data
sequence is explored. The algorithm is a maximum likelihood decoder and has the ability
do decimate the number of possible input bit combinations by discarding sequences that
cannot belong to the maximum likelihood path.
GSM Based Networks
27
2.11 Interleaving
Rayleigh fading characterizes the mobile propagation environment. In essence, Rayleigh
fading manifests itself through deep short fades. Approximately 1% of the time a signal
falls 20dB below its mean value and about 0.1% of the time it suffers fades in excess of
30dB. Depending on the velocity of the receiver, deep fades can completely erase an
entire segment of the channel data causing bursts of errors that cannot be corrected
efficiently through error control coding. Optimal performance in error correction is
obtained when errors are more or less uniformly spaced throughout the received bit
sequence.

The process of interleaving provides an easy way to increase performance of the error
control coding without adding any data overhead. There are two methods for
implementation of the interleaver: a block interleaver and a convolution interleaver. Due
to its simplicity, a block interleaver is the most frequently encountered structure in
mobile communications. The block interleaving process is illustrated in Figure 20. The
data is written in the block interleaver matrix column by column and read row by row.
This ensures separation between the adjacent bits during the transmission. As illustrated
in Figure 20, errors caused by Rayleigh fading have burst characteristics and therefore
several consecutive bits get destroyed. However, after the de-interleaving process, the
burst errors caused by the channel are evenly spaced so that most of them can easily be
corrected using the Forward Error Control Coding (FECC).

(
(
(
(
(
(
25 20 15 10 5
24 19 14 9 4
23 18 13 8 3
22 17 12 7 2
21 16 11 6 1
b b b b b
b b b b b
b b b b b
b b b b b
b b b b b
Data is written
column-wise
Data is read
row-wise
Interleaver
b
1
b
2
b
3
b
4
b
5
b
6
b
7
b
8
b
9
b
10
b
11
b
12
b
13
b
14
b
25
b
16
b
17
b
18
b
19
b
20
...
b
1
b
6
b
11
b
16
b
21
b
2
b
7
b
12
b
17
b
22
b
3
b
8
b
13
b
18
b
23
b
4
b
9
b
14
b
19
b
24
..
Burst Error
Caused by
Rayleigh Fading
Errors are spread over the bit stream

Figure 20: Illustration of the interleaving process
In GSM, full rate speech bits are interleaved on 8 bursts: the 456 bits of one code word
are split into 8 sub-blocks of 57 bits each. For example, bit #0, #8, #16, ,#448 will
belong to the first sub-block and bits #7, #15, , #455 will belong to the eight sub-block.
One burst in GSM consists of 114 bits and, therefore, it includes two sub-blocks. In
GSM, the interleaving algorithm uses sub-blocks from two consecutive code words and
combines them into eight bursts.

As illustrated in Figure 21, four sub-blocks of code word C and four sub-blocks of the
previous code word C-1 are combined into four bursts. Moreover, bit-positions (even
or odd) within the burst are defined by the number of used sub-blocks. For example,
four bursts (N, N+1, N+2 and N+3) consist of eight sub-blocks: sub-blocks #1, #2, #3
GSM Based Networks
28
and #4 from code word C occupy even positions while sub-blocks #5, #6, #7 and #8
from the previous code word C-1 occupy odd positions.

CODE WORD 'C-1' CODE WORD 'C' CODE WORD 'C+1'
#1
#5
#4
#3
#2
#6
#7
#8
8

s
u
b
-
b
l
o
c
k
s
57 bits
#1
#5
#4
#3
#2
#6
#7
#8
8

s
u
b
-
b
l
o
c
k
s
57 bits
#1
#5
#4
#3
#2
#6
#7
#8
8

s
u
b
-
b
l
o
c
k
s
57 bits
COMBINED INTO
FOUR BURSTS
COMBINED INTO
FOUR BURSTS

Figure 21: Interleaving for the traffic channel in GSM

The process of bit interleaving introduces a delay in the data processing. Transmission
time from the first burst to the last one for one complete code word, having in mind the
additional burst for the SACCH is (98)-7=65 bursts which is about 37 msec. One
should have in mind that the described scheme of interleaving is used for full rate speech
transmission or fast signaling mode. Other channels and transmission modes use
different interleaving schemes.
GSM Based Networks
29
2.12 Equalization
On its way from transmitter to receiver, signal travels several different propagation paths.
Multipath propagation results in several replicas of the original signal, which arrive at the
receiver with different time offsets. Multipath properties of the mobile channel can be
examined using channel-sounding devices. Over the past couple of decades, a lot of
research has been done in the multipath characterization of the mobile propagation
environment. A typical shape of a power delay profile is shown in Figure 22.

Figure 22: An example of a Power Delay Profile (PDP).

Multipath propagation is the main source of the Inter Symbol Interference (ISI), which
has been recognized as a major obstacle for high-speed communication over mobile radio
channels. Equalization can be defined as a set of techniques used in communication
systems to combat the damaging effects of the ISI. Equalizers implemented in mobile
communications have to be adaptive. The reason for this is the random and time varying
nature of mobile channel.

There are two operating modes of the adaptive equalizers implemented in mobile
communication systems: training and equalization. Over the training process, the
equalizer receives a known bit sequence sent by the transmitter. By comparing what the
transmitter has sent with what was actually received, the equalizer can determine the
effects of the propagation environment were over the channel. It is reasonable to assume
that the degradation in bits of the user data is the same as the one suffered by the training
sequence. Since the degradation effects on the training sequence are known, the
GSM Based Networks
30
equalizer can be adjusted so that it compensates for the ISI. During equalization, the user
data is passed through the equalizer and most of the channel degradation gets removed.

Equalizers implemented in mobile communication must have the following properties:

1. Small adjustment time (fast convergence) The algorithm must be fast enough that it
can operate on a relatively short training sequence. Sending the training sequence
reduces the throughput of the user information, so there is an interest in keeping it
small.
2. Relatively small complexity A small complexity equalizer is needed in order to
reduce the processing burden imposed on the receiver. Also, an equalizer with small
processing requirements consumes less power, which is a very important factor,
especially from the standpoint of subscriber units battery life.

There is a conflict between the above two requirements and performance of the equalizer.
The tradeoff between the two is used to decide on the actual equalization algorithm and
hardware used.

A diagram that describes the functionality of the equalizer in a GSM system is presented
in Figure 23.

RF
Processing
Adaptive
Equalizer
Equalization
Algorithm
Extraction of
Synchronization
Bits
Unequalized
Data
Equalized
Data

Figure 23: Principals of the GSM equalizer operation

GSM sends a 28-bit synchronization word to every time slot. Out of 28 synchronization
bits, the last four are unique so that each slot can be identified. This causes a 9%
overhead in terms of bit rate. In addition, when the equalizer is functional there is an
increase in the mobile power consumption. In a site with a small cell radius and few
multipaths, the base station can command the mobile to disable the equalizer and hence
reduce its power consumption.
GSM Based Networks
31
2.13 Modulation
The process of digital modulation serves to superimpose a binary digital waveform on the
RF carrier. Modulation may affect any of the carriers characteristics: amplitude (AM),
frequency (FM) or phase (PM). In GSM technology, frequency modulation is used.
More specifically, it uses a distinctive type of continuous phase frequency modulation
Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying. This section explains GMSK modulation starting from
the basic theory of binary frequency shift keying and minimum shift keying.
2.13.1 Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK)
This type of frequency modulation uses two distinct carrier frequencies ( f f
C
A and
f f
C
A + ) according to the binary symbols 1 and 0:

t f f K t r
C H
) 2 2 cos( ) ( A + = t t ,
b
T t s s 0 , high tone for binary 1 (4a)
t f f K t r
C L
) 2 2 cos( ) ( A = t t ,
b
T t s s 0 , low tone for binary 0 (4b)

Generally, the waveform composed from ) (t r
H
and ) (t r
L
has discontinuous phase that
results in spectral spreading and spurious transmissions. The more common method of
generating a FSK waveform is accomplished by the modulation of a single carrier by the
digital waveform ) (t m :

(
+ =
}

t
f C
d m k t f K t r t t t t ) ( 2 2 cos ) ( (5)

When the frequencies of signals ) (t r
H
and ) (t r
L
are appropriately chosen, the product of
those signals is zero:

dt t r t r
H
T
H
b

}
) ( ) (
0
= 0 (6)

Hence, ) (t r
H
and ) (t r
L
are orthogonal. This leads into MSK modulation that uses
orthogonal waveforms.

2.13.2 Minimum Shift Keying (MSK)

When the two frequencies used in BFSK are minimally separated and provide
orthogonality, the modulation is called minimum shift keying. Using (3), it can be shown
that the minimum frequency spacing is determined according to equation (4)

b
L H
T
f t f t f
= A =
4
1
2 2 ) ( ) ( (7)
GSM Based Networks
32

where
b
T is the bit period, f f f
C H
A + = and f f f
C L
A = . In GSM, the binary
message signal is divided into two sets of bits: odd bits sequence ( ) | | t m
I
and even
bits sequence ( ) | | t m
Q
. This is illustrated in Figure 24, where 10 original data bits are
mapped to 5 bits of odd-bit stream and 5 bits of even-bit stream. The bit-period in
those two sequences is two times larger than original bit period
b
T . Additionally, two
sequences have a relative offset of
b
T . As a result of this bit separation, the two signals
may differ at any time period
b
T . Since the possible values of ( ) t m
I
and ( ) t m
Q
are
( ) 1 , 1 , the mapping to the frequencies and phases of the RF signal, given in Table 1,
guarantees relatively constant phase of MSK signal. The smoothness of the MSK signal
is illustrated at the bottom of the Figure 24.

Table 1: Message bit to frequency / phase mapping
Odd bit Even bit Frequency (high/low) Phase
*

1 1 L +
1 -1 H +
-1 1 H -
-1 -1 L -
(same as reference signal / opposite of the reference signal)

Since the message bits are either 1 during a bit interval, the desired frequency spacing
is
b
T 4 1 around the carrier, and the RF signal is

(
= t t m t m
T
t f K t r
Q I
b
C
) ( ) (
4
1
2 2 cos ) ( t t (8)

according to equation (2). Coefficient
f
k is
b
T 4 1 , and message ) (t m , consists of an odd
and even bit stream as is illustrated in Figure 24.

GSM Based Networks
33
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
DATA
ODD BITS
EVEN BITS
HIGH FREQUENCY
LOW FREQUENCY
MSK SIGNAL

Figure 24: Example of MSK modulation

Note that at a particular instant, both high and low frequency may have a + or
orientation on the waveform. This provides relatively smooth phase transitions between
consecutive bits. In GSM, the two frequencies (
H
f and
L
f ) differ by one half of bit rate
which is 135.4 kHz. In other words, those frequencies are 67.7 kHz above and below the
assigned carrier frequency. There is one important modification of MSK that defines
GMSK modulation: filtering of the baseband signal.
2.13.3 Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK)
If the rectangular pulses corresponding to the data bit stream are filtered using a
Gaussian-shaped impulse response filter, we get Gaussian MSK (GMSK). The time and
frequency responses of the Gaussian filter are illustrated in Figure 25. The resulting
signal has low sidelobes compared to MSK, as is illustrated in Figure 26. Since it has
low spectral sidelobes, the GMSK signal provides good spectral efficiency. The GMSK
signal also has a constant envelope and continuous phase as every MSK signal. For
3 . 0 = T B which is used in GSM, the spectral density has a negligible sidelobe that is
more than 30 dB below the peak. Compared with the MSK spectral density (sidelobe 20
dB below peak), that is a substantial improvement.

GSM Based Networks
34
The price that is paid for that benefit is a fairly large inter-symbol interference (ISI)
introduced by Gaussian filtering. Namely, a baseband message signal consists of
symbols that occupy a single bit period. Hence, ISI is negligible. After Gaussian
filtering, each symbol spans over several consecutive bits. The harm induced by ISI does
not have an effect on overall performance as long as the GMSK error rate is less than the
error rate produced by the mobile channel.

h(t) H(f)
t/f

Figure 25: Shape of the time and frequency response of the Gaussian filter

MSK
Filtered MSK
GMSK
(f-f
o
) / Rb 0 1 2 3
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
POWER SPECTRAL
DENSITY
dB

Figure 26: Spectral characteristics of GMSK and MSK

GSM Based Networks
35
2.13.4 GMSK specifics for GSM
The Gaussian filter used by GSM systems has a BT product of 0.3. The BT is a
product of the 3dB bandwidth of the filter and bit period of the filtered data. Since T is
about 3.7 sec, the 3 dB filter bandwidth is 81.3 kHz.

It would be interesting to describe the spectral density of the resulting baseband GSM
signal. Due to use of the Gaussian filter, the signal will have approximately a Gaussian
power spectral density (PDF(f)):

(
=
(

= =
2
2
2
2
2
2
exp
1
2
exp ) (
o o
f f
H f PDF (9)
where o
2
is the variance, related to the 3 dB bandwidth of the filter through the value of
o:

( )
2
2
2 ln 2
B
= o ;
( )
( )
( ) 2 ln 8 2 ln 8 4
1
2 2
2
2
2
=
b
R BT B
o
o . (10)

This description provides an opportunity to characterize the width of the spectrum that
contains E% of the signal energy, as is listed in Table 2 or Figure 27. It can be seen that
90% of signal power falls into 113 kHz (56.5% of the total channel bandwidth).
Table 2: Percentage of total signal energy (%E) carried by the bandwidth (B
E
)
Percentage of
signal energy (%E)
Bandwidth (B
E
) that
contains %E [kHz]
B
E
/200 kHz (%)
99% 177.1 88.5%
95% 135 67.5%
90% 113 56.5%
80% 88 44%
70% 71 35.3%
60% 57.8 29%
50% 46 23.2%
40% 36 18%
30% 26.5 13.3%
20% 17.4 8.7%
10% 8.6 4.3%

GSM Based Networks
36

Figure 27: Bandwidth of the GSM signal versus the percentage of signal power.
The implementation of the GMSK modulator may be expressed by the diagram in Figure
28. A differentially coded bit sequence is integrated to obtain a signal that will be used as
the phase (| ) of the carrier. A convolution with a Gaussian filter smoothes this signal
and introduces a considerable amount of inter-symbol interference to consecutive bits.
The corresponding I and Q components of the signal are modulated by ( ) nT f
o
t 2 cos
and ( ) nT f
o
t 2 sin before being added to obtain an output signal.

INTEGRATOR
GAUSSIAN
FILTER
COS ( )
SIN ( )
+1
-1 NRZ format
data
S(nT)
|
COS(eT)
SIN(eT)
'NRZ' is non-return to zero data format

Figure 28: Modulation scheme for GSM technology

The GSM specifications do not impose one particular demodulation algorithm. However,
they define the minimal performance measured after the correction of errors by channel
decoding. The algorithm used must be able to support two multipaths of equal power
GSM Based Networks
37
received at an interval of up to 16 sec (i.e. more than four symbols). With such a level
of intersymbol interference, simple demodulation techniques are ineffective and an
equalizer is required.
GSM Based Networks
38
3 GSM RF Planning
RF planning of a cellular network involves providing adequate coverage and network
capacity over a certain geographic area. As such, it is somewhat technology independent.
However, each technology has a set of specific properties that need to be taken into
consideration in this stage of network design. Some the most important issues related to
GSM systems are covered in this section.
3.1 Link Budget
In the cellular system design process, the link budget is used to determine the maximum
allowable path loss required to achieve balanced forward and reverse link coverage. In
most mobile cellular communication systems, the reverse link is the limiting link due to a
relatively small ERP from the mobile terminals. Therefore, the forward ERP has to be
adjusted so that the maximal allowable path loss on the forward link matches the reverse
link path loss. Once the path loss is calculated, a propagation model can be used to
estimate the nominal coverage radius of the particular cellular site.
3.1.1 Example of a GSM Link Budget
This is an example of a typical link budget for a GSM system. The entries used in the
link budget represent generic values and do not reflect exact specifications of any
particular manufacturer. When performing a real world system design, parameters are to
be obtained from the actual data sheets of the equipment vendor.

3.1.1.1 Calculation of Receiver Sensitivity

In general, the receiver sensitivity is calculated according to:

( ) | | ( )
other
required
N
I
C
dB F kTW RxSens + + + = log 10 (11)

where:
RxSens - Receiver sensitivity (dBm)
kT - Power Spectrum density of the thermal noise
W - Operating bandwidth of the particular technology
| | dB F - Noise figure of the receiver expressed in dB
( )
required I
C
- Required carrier to interference ratio for sufficient voice quality
other
N - Noise coming from other sources, such as man made noise,
atmospheric noise, etc.

GSM Based Networks
39
Since the bandwidth of a GSM channel is 200KHz, the thermal noise floor can be
calculated as:

( ) dBm kHz
Hz
mW
kTW 121 200 10 1 . 4 log 10 log 10
18
= |
.
|
\
|
=

(12)

Determining the Required C/I Ratio
The required carrier to noise ratio is a technology specific parameter and depends on
many different things such as: performance of vocoder, velocity of the users,
performance of the equalizer, multipath profile of the environment, etc. Taking all of
these factors into account in some analytical sense is both tedious and impractical, and, in
practice the required carrier to noise ratio is determined through experimental field
testing. In a GSM network, it is industry-accepted practice to design a non-frequency
hopping network based on a 12 dB C/I ratio and 9 dB C/I ratio for a frequency hopping
network.
3.1.1.1.1 Noise Figure of the Receiver
The noise figure of the receiver is a measure of the noise floor increase due to the active
devices in the receiver circuitry. Good quality base station receivers can have a noise
figure as small as 5 dB. Very often, specially designed low noise, tower-mounted
amplifiers achieve a noise figure of 2-3 dB. Due to the size and cost constraints, mobile
phones have noise figures in the range of 8-10 dB.
3.1.1.1.2 Other Sources of Noise
The thermal noise floor, noise figure, and required C/I, determine the sensitivity of the
receiver operating in an ideal environment. In actuality, there are various sources
producing energy that fall within the frequency band of cellular systems. For example, a
car ignition, an industrial environment, power lines, etc., are known sources of RF energy
in the frequency band from 100 KHz to 2 GHz. In short, all these other sources of RF
energy produce a net increase to the thermal noise floor. The amount of increase is very
specific to the environment that the cellular system is operating, and is usually from 0 dB
in some quiet rural areas up to several dB in highly urban industrial districts.

Examples of GSM link budgets prepared for three different morphological types and
three coverage requirements are presented in Table 3 through Table 5
GSM Based Networks
40

Table 3: Example of GSM Budget Rural Environment
In vehicle Outdoors
Parameter DL UL DL UL
Maximum TX Power
[dBm]
44.5 33 44.5 33
MS Antenna Gain [dBd] -2.16 -2.16 -2.16 -2.16
Head Loss [dB] -2 -2 -2 -2
Maximum Cable and
Connector Losses [dB]
-4.5 -4.5 -4.5 -4.5
BS Antenna Gain [dBd] 16 16 16 16
In Vehicle Loss [dB] -8 -8 0 0
Noise Floor Adjustment
[dB]
0 0 0 0
Fade Margin (90%
Coverage Reliability)
-6.05 -6.05 -6.05 -6.05
Diversity Gain [dB] 0 3 0 3
RX Sensitivity [dBm] -102 -108 -102 -1086
Maximal Path Loss [dB] 139.79 137.29 147.79 145.29

Table 4: Example of GSM Link Budget Suburban Environment
In Building In Vehicle Outdoors
Parameter DL UL DL UL DL UL
Maximum TX Power
[dBm]
44.5 33 44.5 33 44.5 33
MS Antenna Gain [dBd] -2.16 -2.16 -2.16 -2.16 -2.16 -2.16
Head Loss [dB] -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2
Maximum Cable and
-4.5 -4.5 -4.5 -4.5 -4.5 -4.5
BS Antenna Gain [dB] 16 16 16 16 16 16
In Vehicle Loss [dB] 0 0 -6 -6 0 0
In Building Loss [dB] -15 -15 0 0 0 0
Fade Margin (90%
-6.2 -6.2 -5.53 -5.53 -5.12 -5.12
Diversity Gain [dB] 0 3 0 3 0 3
RX Sensitivity [dBm] -102 -108 -102 -108 -102 -108
Maximal Path Loss [dB] 132.64 130.14 140.97 139.81 147.38 146.22

GSM Based Networks
41

Table 5: Example of GSM Link Budget Urban Environment
In Building In Vehicle Outdoors
Parameter DL UL DL UL DL UL
Maximum TX Power
[dBm]
44.5 33 44.5 33 44.5 33
MS Antenna Gain [dBd] -2.16 -2.16 -2.16 -2.16 -2.16 -2.16
Head Loss [dB] -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2
Maximum Cable and
-4.5 -4.5 -4.5 -4.5 -4.5 -4.5
BS Antenna Gain [dB] 16 16 16 16 16 16
In Vehicle Loss [dB] 0 0 -6 -6 0 0
Building Penetration
Loss [dB]
-18 -18 0 0 0 0
Fade Margin (90%
-10.9 -10.9 -7.3 -7.3 -7.1 -7.1
Diversity Gain [dB] 0 3 0 3 0 3
RX Sensitivity [dBm] -102 -108 -102 -108 -102 -108
Maximal Path Loss [dB] 124.94 122.44 140.54 138.04 146.74 144.24

3.2 Calculation of the Nominal Cell Radius
Based on the maximum allowable path loss obtained from the link budget, and known
parameters of a particular propagation environment, we can calculate the nominal radius
of the cell. As an example, consider the link budget provided in Table 4, in the case of
providing in-vehicle coverage. To calculate the nominal cell radius we will use Lees
propagation model for which the formula for RSL prediction is given as[4]:

( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
tref
t
mref
m
tref
t
m
P
P
h
h
h
h
d m P dBm RSL log 10 log 10 log 15 log ] [
1
(13)

Where:
RSL - Received signal level

m
P
1
- One mile intercept
m - Slope

t
h - Height of the BS antenna

m
h - Height of the MS antenna

t
P - Transmit power

tref mref tref
P h h ,
,
- Reference conditions

GSM Based Networks
42
Table 6 summarizes some typical values for slope and intercept obtained for the
following reference conditions:

feet h
tref
150 =

feet h
mref
10 =
W P
tref
100 =

Table 6: Typical Slope and Intercept Values.
Carrier Frequency
[MHz]
Environment Type One Mile Intercept
[dBm]
Slope
[dB/dec]
800 MHz [9] Dense Urban -74 -43.1
Urban -63 -40.0
Suburban -59 -38.4
Rural -49 -43.5
1900[10] Dense Urban -80 -43.1
Urban -69 -40.0
Suburban -65 -38.4
Rural -55 -43.5

Lets assume the height of the site is 120 feet and that the height of the mobile is
approximately 6 feet above the ground. From the link budget example we can see that
the transmit power of the site is:

CL Gt P ERP + =
max

(14)

where:
ERP Effective radiated power

max
P Power delivered at the output of the transmitter
CL Cable and other losses
Gt Antenna gain

In this example:

W dBm ERP 290 5 . 54 5 . 4 16 42 = = + =
1

Knowing the maximal allowable path loss, the minimum received signal level at the edge
of the coverage region is calculated as:

dBm dB dBm RSL
m
64 . 75 14 . 130 5 . 54 = =

1
Note that the power on the downlink is reduced by 0.4dB to provide balanced path
GSM Based Networks
43
Substituting the minimal RSL into Lees equation, and assuming the typical values for
suburban slope and intercept at PCS frequencies of dBm P
m
65
1
= ,
dec dB m / 4 . 38 =
,

the nominal cell radius is calculated:

( )
|
.
|
\
|
+ |
.
|
\
|
+ |
.
|
\
|
+ =
100
290
log 10
10
6
log 10
150
150
log 15 log 4 . 38 65 64 . 75
0
d
miles d 44 . 3
0
=

In general, the equation giving the size of the nominal cell radius obtained by using Lees
propagation model is given by:

|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
min 1 0
log 10 log 10 log 15
1
log RSL
P
P
h
h
h
h
P
m
d
tref
t
mref
m
tref
t
m
(15)

Similar formulas can be derived using other macroscopic propagation models.
3.3 Reuse Efficiency
The minimum distance that allows the same frequency to be reused will depend on the
number of co-channel cells in the vicinity of the serving cell, the individual cell
configuration, and the C/I requirements for the specific technology. Typical C/I
requirements for a GSM based network is 12 dB C/I without frequency hopping and 9 dB
C/I with frequency hopping. A reasonable estimation of the minimum distance required
for reuse may be made for various C/I requirements for some nominal conditions. These
conditions are:

- The level of co-channel interference experienced by the serving cell is attributed
primarily to the first tier of reuse cells.
- All cells in the system are of identical configuration.
- All cells in the system are evenly and appropriately spaced based on effective
coverage areas.

Therefore the theoretical frequency reuse pattern is derived by:

( )
=
o
i
i
n
i
n
D
R
I
C
1
(16)

In practice, a GSM network will use one of the following reuse schemes

Reuse Scheme
Theoretical C/I
Ratio
3 8.48 dB
4 11.43 dB
GSM Based Networks
44
3.4 Capacity Calculations
The capacity of a GSM-based network is dependent on the frequency reuse scheme and
the amount of the operators spectrum. Frequency reuse schemes are used to divide the
spectrum into unique groups of channels, so that the frequency planner can methodically
assign channels to a network of cells. The reuse scheme is chosen to minimize the
amount of interference in a network of cells, but also has an impact on the capacity of a
particular site.

The amount of spectrum a license holder has must be considered as well. Since the GSM
channel is 200 kHz wide, five channels can fit into 1 MHz of spectrum. Therefore, a
European operator, with 25 MHz of spectrum, will have 62 channels available; whereas,
a PCS operator in the United States, with 30 MHz of spectrum, will have 75 channels
available. Remember that half of the spectrum is for downlink and half is for uplink.

A GSM market that has just launched commercial service will likely use a 4/12-reuse
scheme. Using a 4/12-reuse scheme will have less capacity (not likely to be a problem as
the network turns on), but more importantly, the larger distance to reuse will minimize
interference. As subscribers are added to the network, the capacity increases to the point
that frequencies must be reused over shorter distances. Using frequency hopping, the
GSM network may be frequency planned using all of the channels within three sites.
Frequency hopping is explained in a later section.

The number of channels available per sector when considering the two reuse schemes is
calculated as follows:

ector Channels/S 2.7
9
1
kHz 200
Mhz 5
Channels
Scheme 9Reuse 3
= =
(17)

ector Channels/S 2.1
12
1
kHz 200
Mhz 5
Channels
Scheme 12Reuse 4
= =
(18)

To calculate the capacity of the network, the Erlang capacity of each sector must be
identified. The Erlang capacity of each sector is calculated by considering the desired
Grade Of Service (GOS) and the number of voice channels per sector. It is industry-
accepted practice to design a network with 1 - 2% GOS. The number of voice channels
per sector is calculated with respect to the number of RF carriers per sector. Generally,
eight time slots are considered for each carrier except the first carrier, which dedicates
one or two time slots for control and messaging. By using an Erlang-B table, the Erlangs
per sector are determined.

The Erlang capacity of the network is calculated as follows:

Network
Sites
Site
Sectors
Sector
Erlangs
Network of Capacity Erlang = (19)
GSM Based Networks
45
Comparing the total capacity of networks using the two different reuse schemes is
depicted in Table 7 and Table 8.

Table 7: Capacity of Network Using 3/9 Reuse Scheme
Total Number of Cells Required 100
Number of Voice Channels/ Sector 22
Blocking Rate 1 %
Erlangs/Sector 13.65
Sectors per Site 3
Erlangs/Site 40.95
Erlang Capacity of Network 4095

Table 8: Capacity of Network Using 4/12 Reuse Scheme
Total Number of Cells Required 100
Number of Voice Channels/ Sector 14
Blocking Rate 1 %
Erlangs/Sector 7.351681
Sectors per Site 3
Erlangs/Site 22.05
Erlang Capacity of Network 2205

In the case of a network using a 3/9-reuse scheme, there would be 810 channels.
Conversely, the same network of sites using a 4/12-reuse scheme would have 630
channels; however, the capacity has almost doubled. This example is a bit over
simplified, and conservatively assumes that all sites in the network have the same
distribution of traffic; however, it depicts the gains associated with a tighter reuse
scheme.
GSM Based Networks
46
3.5 Frequency Planning
Good frequency planning starts with well-chosen sites. Although some designers are
primarily concerned with the sites location relative to a hypothetical grid, a much more
critical factor is coverage and reuse potential. Fortunately, a system-wide frequency
retune can be done relatively easily allowing poor or compromised site locations to be
corrected at a reasonable cost.

Frequency planning is customarily accomplished by dividing the frequency band into
frequency groups. The same frequency group is reused in different cells at a distance
sufficient to prevent co and adjacent channel interference. The number of frequency
groups will depend on the standard site configuration and the reuse scheme (N). Each
frequency group is split up into a number of sets that correspond to the number of sectors
at each site.

Since the number of frequencies is fixed by the bandwidth of the spectrum, an increase in
the number of frequency groups will increase the distance to frequency reuse and reduce
the level of interference. The tradeoff to larger reuse distances is fewer channels are
available per cell. Conversely, reducing the number of frequency groups increases the
capacity of a network. Thereby the distance to reuse is reduced and interference
increases.

For GSM-based networks there are two commonly used cluster designations: 4/12 and
3/9. The first digit indicates the number of cell sites that make up a cluster and the
second number represents the number of frequency groups. As an example a 4/12-reuse
plan would require 12 frequency groups within a four-cell cluster, assuming all cells are a
three-sector configuration.

Figure 29: N=3 Reuse Scheme

GSM Based Networks
47

Figure 30: N=4 Reuse Scheme

Regular channel assignments may offer reasonably low levels of interference and simple
network growth opportunities. In actual practice many factors effect the network
configuration and frequency plan. These include terrain undulations that create
irregularities in site coverage areas, and uneven traffic loading in developed population
centers. Often times, frequency assignments based solely on a grid pattern result in
unsatisfactory levels of interference. Typical frequency plans deviate from the ideal
channel layout due to the intolerable levels of interference and the borrowing of channels
from other frequency groups in order to provide capacity.

Some basic guidelines for assigning voice channels are to maintain proper channel
spacing and maximize the distance between reusing cell sites. Likewise, the assignment
of co-channels and adjacent channels at the same site, assigning co-channels and adjacent
channels in adjacent sites, and mixing frequency groups in a cell or sector should be
avoided.
GSM Based Networks
48
3.6 Interference Reduction Strategies
GSM-based networks have several features that can be used by the frequency planner to
reduce or eliminate interference. Typical methods used for interference reduction include:

- Hierarchical cell layout
- Overlaid / Underlaid Subcells
- Frequency hopping
3.6.1 Hierarchical Cell Structures
Hierarchical cell structures are used in high traffic areas, where micro-cells, macro-cells
and umbrella-cells co-exist. Micro-cells provide coverage over a small area, but offer a
relatively large amount of capacity. Since micro-cells cover a small area, they are
configured to transmit at lower ERPs; hence, their contribution to co-channel interference
is minimized. Macro-cells provide coverage over a larger area, where the coverage area
is dependent on the environment in which they are located. Umbrella-cells provide
coverage over a larger area, where their primary purpose is to fill-in coverage holes
between micro-cells.

In order to take advantage of this interference reduction strategy, the switch attempts to
process calls first by micro-cells, then macro and umbrella cells. Since a macro-cell or
umbrella-cell transmits at a higher power, the mobile would always tend to use them as
the serving cell. Therefore, the switch must have some knowledge of the type of cell
serving a call. Typically the cells are classified in three unique types, known as layers,
where:
- the micro-cell is a layer one cell,
- the macro-cell is a layer two cell,
- the umbrella-cell is a layer three cell.

Once the switch knows the type of cell, access and handover decisions will be tailored to
favor the lower layer cells. Calls will then originate or handover to a micro-cell even
though the signal from a macro-cell may be stronger from the perspective of a mobile.
As the mobile moves away from the coverage area of a micro-cell, it may handover to the
coverage area of a macro or umbrella cell.
3.6.2 Overlay/Underlay
Overlay/Underlay is another interference reduction strategy, typically used in areas of
high capacity and tight frequency reuse. The scheme may be necessary when more than
one channel set is required at a site, and the level of interference for a particular channel
set is unacceptable away from a site, but not close to the site. Essentially the strategy is
to guarantee a distinct channel set serves mobiles close to a cell, while mobiles away
from a cell are served by another channel set. Using this interference reduction scheme,
the mobile will handover from the underlay channels to the overlay channel set, within
the same cell, before the mobile experiences interference.

GSM Based Networks
49
Consider the following example: Two cells are reusing the same channels at a relatively
close reuse distance. The cell and sector experiencing interference has high traffic
demands because of its location relative to two nearby highways; therefore, it requires
two sets of channels. The level at the point of interference is reported as 10 dB C/I (see
Figure 31).

Radio Tower
Radio Tower
Radio Tower
Radio Tower
C/I = 10 dB

Figure 31: Area of interference
Using the overlay / underlay strategy, one channel set is used for the overlay sub-cell and
one channel set is used for the underlay sub-cell. The engineer must ensure that the
mobile served by this sector does not use the underlay channel set in the area it would
experience the interference. Therefore, only the overlay channel set must serve the
mobile in this area.

The signal level, with which the mobile has to handover to the overlay channel set, is
determined by analyzing the signal strength level at the point of interference (see Figure
32). The hand-out threshold for the mobile would be set at a signal strength above this
bin specific signal level. In this case 85 dBm is the serving level, so a hand-out
threshold of 81 would be appropriate, assuming a hysteresis of 4 dB.

Radio Tower
Radio Tower
Radio Tower
Radio Tower
RSS = -85 dBm

Figure 32: Signal strength at point of interference
GSM Based Networks
50

Conversely, the underlay channel set (set 12), should carry mobiles served by the site
above 85 dBm. Therefore, the hand-in threshold should be set at 85 dBm.
3.6.3 Frequency Hopping
The network operator can use the frequency hopping capability on all or part of its
network. The two primary advantages of this feature are to reduce the impact of co-
channel interference and to increase the efficiency of coding and interleaving for slow
moving mobile stations. Frequency hopping will also average the voice quality of all
communications through interference diversity.

Frequency hopping may be used in a high capacity network, where the distance to
frequency reuse is relatively small and the probability of interference is large. Generally,
the mobile experiencing co-channel interference will remain in that state until the
interfering signal is attenuated, due to shadowing or log normal fading, or the mobile
retunes to another channel. In either case, the co-channel interference will degrade the
quality of speech and may cause the call to drop.

Frequency hopping is a technique used in high capacity networks to combat the undesired
effects of co-channel interference. Frequency hopping decreases the probability of co-
channel interference because the mobile station is constantly switching channels.
Although the opportunity exists for two mobiles to be tuned to the same channel and
interfere with each other, the mobile is tuned to that channel for only a fraction of a
second, therefore the time the mobile experiences co-channel interference is shortened.
Since the level of interference changes with each channel, the quality of the connection is
improved relative to the mobile that endures interference during the entire duration of the
connection. The short periods of interference experienced on colliding channels can be
dealt with using error correction algorithms and the interleaving process.

Additional benefits of frequency hopping include reductions in adjacent channel
interference, external sources of interference and intermodulation products. The C/I ratio
of a frequency-hopping network improves by approximately 3 dB.

Frequency hopping also can improve the performance of a network by reducing the
harmful effects of multipath. Multipath is a phenomenon related to the combination of
multiple RF signal paths, where the resultant signal waveform may appear as a deep fade
at the mobile station receiver. A deep signal fade can cause degradation in speech quality
or possibly dropped calls. Multipath varies over distance and time, and is also frequency
dependent. Therefore, frequency hopping can counteract the effects of multipath by
switching the mobile from one channel to the next.

GSM uses slow frequency hopping, where every mobile transmits in time slots according
to a sequence of frequencies. The sequence of frequencies is derived from a frequency-
hopping algorithm. Frequency hopping occurs between time slots, occurring as a mobile
station transmits (or receives) during one time slot and hops to the time slot of another
channel before the next TDMA frame.
GSM Based Networks
51

The mobile will use parameters broadcast during channel assignment to derive the
hopping sequence. These parameters include the set of frequencies on which to hop, the
hopping sequence number of the cell and the offset index. The offset index is used to
distinguish the different mobiles of the cell using the same mobile allocation. It must be
noted that the basic physical channel supporting the BCCH does not hop

Frequency hopping can be accomplished in two manners, either baseband or synthesizer
hopping. Transmitters operate on a fixed frequency during baseband hopping; however,
the calls are routed from the serving voice channel to the various transmitters associated
with the frequency hopping sequence. Synthesizer hopping is accomplished by having
the voice channel data routed to a single transmitter, and the transmitter tunes to different
frequencies at each burst.

There are advantages and disadvantages to either method of frequency hopping.
Baseband hopping requires the use of narrow-band combiners with up to 16 inputs (see
Figure 33). Therefore, many frequencies can be used in a set of hopping channels. The
drawback is that the number of frequencies is limited to the number of transmitters at the
base station.

Controller
Controller
Controller
Transmitter
Transmitter
Transmitter
Filter Combiner
TRX1
TRX2
TRX3
bus for routing of bursts

Figure 33: Baseband Hopping

Synthesizer hopping allows a larger set of hopping channels because it is not dependent
on the number of transmitters (see ). Since the transmitter retunes to different channels
for consecutive bursts, the range of frequencies available for hopping is expanded.
Obviously, the disadvantage is in combining the transmitters before coupling to the
antennas system, where the use of a wide band synthesizer requires that a wide band
combiner be used. Typically, a large insertion loss is associated with a wide band
combiner, making it unrealistic to cascade combiners.

GSM Based Networks
52
Controller
Controller
Controller
Transmitter
Transmitter
Transmitter
Hybrid Combiner
TRX1
TRX2
TRX3
Controller Transmitter TRX4
Hybrid Combiner
Hybrid Combiner

Figure 34: Synthesizer Hopping
3.7 MAHO
In a GSM network, the mobile station aids the handoff process by reporting the RSSI and
BER of the local environment. This process, known as Mobile Assisted Handoff
(MAHO) is a function of the mobile station where the RF channels received signal
strength (RXLEV) and quality information (RXQUAL) is supplied to the base station.
The switch uses this information in order to determine the best serving base station and
possible channel reassignment.

The following three sections describe the handoff message types, the flow of messaging
between the mobile and the base station, and a detailed explanation of the process the
mobile undergoes in assisting with the handoff in a GSM network.

TX RX M TX RX M TX

M
F
A
BTS A BTS C
BTS B
MS F
B
F
C
TX - Transmitt Interval
RX - Receive Interval
M - Measurement Interval

Figure 35: Illustration of the MAHO Measurement Process
3.7.1 Signal Strength Measurement Technique
The mobile continuously scans the BCCH of up to 32 neighboring cells, and reports the
relative signal strength of the six strongest to the switch. Neighboring cell information is
passed to the phone via system information messaging on the downlink SACCH.
Likewise, the signal strength measurements are passed back to the BTS via the uplink
SACCH.

GSM Based Networks
53
The signal strength measurements and neighbor cell BSIC are made during idle periods
where the phone is neither transmitting nor receiving. Since the measurement report
requires four consecutive SACCH bursts to complete, and there is one SACCH burst per
26 TDMA frames (1 multi-frame), the mobile can make at least 100 measurements. The
number of samples per BCCH is dependent on the number of neighbors.

Neighboring sites are distinguished by their BSIC assignment in order to ensure that the
correct BCCH is being measured. The identification of the BSIC, contained within the
SCH logical channel, is made during the idle frame.

The reported signal strength ranges from 48 to 110 dBm, and is reported to the BTS in
discreet increments of RXLEV. The relative accuracy in estimated RSSI is 3 dB in the
range of 85 to 105 dBm.
Table 9: Signal Strength / RXLEV Mapping
RXLEV dBm
0 Less than 110
1 -110 to 109
2 -109 to -108

62 -49 to 48
63 Above -48
3.7.2 BER Measurement Technique
In conjunction with the RSSI measurements the mobile station will make an estimate of
BER information by monitoring the accuracy of the data stream at the input to the
channel decoder. BER percentages are reported to the BTS as discreet increments of
RXQUAL. The estimation of BER and its corresponding accuracy are reported in Table
10.

Table 10: BER /RXQUAL Mapping
RXQUAL BER Reporting
Accuracy
0 Less than 0.1 90%
1 0.26 to 0.30 75%
2 0.51 to 0.64 85%
3 1.0 to 1.3 90%
4 1.9 to 2.7 90%
5 3.8 to 5.4 95%
6 7.6 to 11.0 95%
7 Above 15 95%

GSM Based Networks
54
3.8 Power Control
The regulation of transmitter power is accomplished on both the uplink and the downlink
of a GSM network. Downlink power control is used to statistically reduce the total
interference in a network, and reduce the probability of a receiver from becoming
saturated. Uplink power control provides the same utility, and also can increase the life
of a mobile stations battery.

Power control is performed in 2 dB steps, with 15 discreet increments (see Figure 36).
This allows a 30 dB dynamic range for which power control can be implemented. The
mobile station is capable of power control eight times per SACCH period, or every
thirteenth TDMA frame, thereby providing a maximum adjustment of 16 dB per SACCH
period. The base station is capable of power control on a time slot basis and has the
same dynamic range as the mobile station. All traffic channels can be power controlled
on the downlink; however, since the BCCH is used for mobile assisted handover, it is not
power controlled.

Regulation
Area
distance
Minimum
power level
Maximum
power level
output
power

Figure 36: Regulation of MS Power Control

There are two modes of power control regulation. Initial regulation is accomplished at
immediate assignment and at handover. Stationary regulation occurs during the normal
mode of phone operation. During initial regulation, the phone may transmit at high power
levels and therefore it must respond to power control quickly in order to prevent the
possibility of interference. Stationary regulation does not require a quick adjustment of
power control to control interference, and is used exclusively for the normal mode of
operation.

The process of power control follows the following methodology:

- Measurement preparation
- Filtering of measurements
- Calculation of power order

GSM Based Networks
55
The switch records neighboring cell signal strength measurements every SACCH period,
or 480 ms. The use of discontinuous transmissions is evaluated along with the signal
strength measurements. The RXLEV sub measurements are used for a measurement
report that was recorded during the DTX off state. Conversely, RXLEV full is used for
a measurement report that was recorded during the DTX on state.

Missing measurement reports are estimated according to the previous and subsequent
measurement reports. The missing signal strength value is estimated to be the lowest
signal strength value of the two. The maximum number of missing measurement reports
can be set during optimization, (generally set at three).

Filtering of measurements is accomplished according to the type and duration of desired
filtering. The type and duration of the filter are translatable parameters set to provide a
stable power measurement. Although the default values may differ between GSM
equipment providers, the duration of filtering may be modified to enhance performance
issues. Filtering duration may be decreased in an area where a fast handover is desired
(i.e. the serving signal fades too quickly, and the phone call would otherwise drop).
Conversely, the filtering may be increased in an area where a slow handover is desired
(i.e. the serving and target cells have an area of overlap where handovers between the
cells occur at an undesirable rate).

Table 11: Power Control Levels
Power Class Power
Level
Peak Power
(dBm)
1 0 43 2
1 1 41 3
12 2 39 3
123 3 37 3
123 4 35 3
1234 5 33 3
1234 6 31 3
12345 7 29 3
12345 8 27 3
12345 9 25 3
12345 10 23 3
12345 11 21 3
12345 12 19 3
12345 13 17 3
12345 14 15 3
12345 15 13 3
GSM Based Networks
56
3.9 Time Delay Estimation
In a GSM system, the ability of mobile stations to be synchronized in time is critically
important to control interference with adjacent time slot users. Since the distance from
the base station to mobile can vary among multiple users, the various RF propagation
delays can impact the probability of inter-symbol interference. Inter-symbol interference
can be defined as an overlap in time between two signals, where an error occurs in both
signals.

A method of adjusting the time of transmissions must be used to ensure that the integrity
of each individual users time slot is maintained. Timing advance is the process used to
control the mobile stations time of transmission. As an example, a mobile station
located far from a base station should start transmitting earlier than a mobile located close
to the base station. The regulation of timing advance is accomplished by offsetting the
occurrence of its RF energy burst. This allows the transmission to arrive at the base
station at the correct time relative to other time slots.

BTS
SLOT 1 SLOT 2 SLOT 3 SLOT 4 SLOT 5 SLOT 6
MS
2
MS
1
d
2
, Slots 2 &5
d
1
, Slots 1 &5
d
1
> d
2
MS
2
MS
1
T
1
T
1
T
2
T
2
Collision
T
1
- Delay of MS
1
Signal
T
2
- Delay of MS
2
Signal

Figure 37: TDMA MS transmission Time Alignment

The maximum allowable time adjustment is 63 bit periods, and can be adjusted in one-bit
increments. Since each bit is 3.692 microseconds in length the maximum round distance
a mobile can be away from a base station is calculated by:

Maximum round distance = 300,000m x 63 bits x 3.692 x 10
-6
bit period

= 69.7788 km

GSM Based Networks
57

or 34.89 kilometers away from the base station.

Time alignment is controlled in various phases of call processing including initial channel
designation and handoff. The following two sections describe in detail the time
alignment process at call origination and handoff.
GSM Based Networks
58
3.10 Discontinuous Transmission
Discontinuous transmission (DTX) is a feature of GSM that allows the mobile to switch
between two power levels based solely on voice activity. When there is no voice activity,
the transmission of RF ceases. In the presence of voice activity the mobile transmits RF
energy at the power level according to the most recent mobile power order. This feature
benefits the GSM network in two manners, it statistically reduces the level of interference
on both uplink and downlink, and it can increase the battery life of the mobile station.

DTX functionality requires the following functions:

- A Voice Activity Detector on the mobiles transmit side,

- Evaluation of the background acoustic noise on the transmit side, in order to
transmit characteristic parameters to the receive side,

- Generation on the receive side of a similar noise, called comfort noise, during
periods where the radio transmission is cut.

DTX is implemented by the use of a Voice Activity Detector (VAD). The voice activity
detector senses the presence of speech, and controls the transmission of RF based on its
measurement in 20 mS intervals. The performance of the voice activity detector may be
impacted due to background noise.

The typical performance of a VAD is illustrated in Table 12. All the values given
represent the percentage of time the radio channel is active. The activity figures
represent a typical voice conversation, where consideration is given to the characteristics
of different talkers, noise attributes and user locations. Obviously, the level of voice
activity is independent of the environment relative to a specific conversation; however
the averages reflect variations in the properties of a speakers voice and the level
dependency of the VAD. As mentioned above, a decreased speech input level increases
the risk of objectionable speech clipping.

Table 12: Analysis of Voice Activity Factors
Mobile Station Environment Typical Voice Activity
Factor
Handset Quiet Location 55%
Handset Moderate Office Noise with
Voice Interference
60%
Handset Strong Voice Interference
(i.e. airport/railway station)
65-70%
Hands-free / Handset Variable Vehicle Noise 60%

GSM Based Networks
59
A conversation in a noisy environment (as depicted in Table 12) could be distracting to
the other party of a call if the VAD continuously turned-on and shut-off RF power.
Therefore, part of the voice activity detectors functionality is to compare the users voice
against the background noises. The comfort noise evaluation algorithm uses parameters
to estimate the level and spectrum of background noise. The parameters evaluated by the
comfort noise algorithm are sent to the mobile via the Silence Descriptor (SID) frame.

The SID initiates the generation of artificial background noise at the mobile, so that the
perception of background noise levels remains constant. A SID frame is always sent at
the end of a speech burst, before the radio transmission is cut. The level of noise when
DTX shuts off RF power matches the background level of noise that is present when
DTX allows the mobile station to transmit at full power.
3.11 Mobile Station
Subscribers communicate through the wireless network via the mobile station. There are
three types of mobile stations, including:

- Vehicle mounted
- Transportable
- Handheld
Each of these mobiles has a different output power associated with the specific
classification. The common classifications of mobiles and their corresponding output
power vary according to type of GSM network. The mobile class and output power for
various GSM network applications are included in Table 13, Table 14 and Table 15.

Table 13: PCS-1900 Mobile Class and Power
Class Peak Output Power (W)
1 2
2 1
3 .5
Table 14: DCS-1800 Mobile Class and Power
1 1
2 .25
Table 15: GSM-900 Mobile Class and Power
1 20
2 8
3 5
4 2
5 .8

GSM Based Networks
60
Each phone must have a Subscriber Identity Module (SIM). The SIM is a plastic card
with a magnetic strip containing subscriber information that is inserted in the phone. The
information stored on the SIM include:

- International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) Number
- Mobile Station ISDN Number (MSISDN)
- Personal Identity Number (PIN)
- Personal Unlocking Key (PUK)
- Serial number of the SIM
- Ciphering Key (K
c
)
- Authentication Key (K
i
)
- Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI)
- SIM service table (indicates which optional services are available)
- Barred PLMNs
- Language Preference
- Additional subscriber related information

Of primary importance are the IMSI and PIN numbers. Mobile stations cannot access a
network, except for emergency calls, without a valid International Mobile Subscriber
Identity (IMSI) number. The IMSI number, stored in the SIM identifies each mobile
within a network.

The Personal Identity Number (PIN) is a four to eight digit number that allows a
subscriber to lock or unlock his phone to prevent unauthorized use. If the incorrect PIN
is entered three consecutive times the SIM is locked.

As part of the standardization of GSM mobiles there are certain required features
including:

- Display of Called Number
- Call Progress Indication
- Country/PLMN Indication
- Subscription Identity Management
- Invalid PIN Indicator
- IMSI
- Service Indicator

Manufacturers have the opportunity to enhance features in future editions of mobiles as
long as the features do not interfere with the network or other mobiles.

GSM

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