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Abstract
Established in September of 1997, the Aerospace Physiology Laboratory in the School of Kinesiology at Simon Fraser
University (Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada) is equipped for a wide range of human physiological testing. It contains
equipment for measurement of non-invasive blood pressure, electrocardiograms, breath-by-breath respiratory gas
exchange, blood gases, and Doppler ultrasound blood flow. The laboratory is also equipped with a respiratory feedback
control system, computer-controlled tilt table and cycle ergometer. The Aerospace Physiology Laboratory is integrated
via computer (audio, video, and data) with the existing Environmental Physiology Unit (EPU) at Simon Fraser University.
The main feature of the EPU is: a dive / altitude chamber complex with an altitude capability of 33.5 km (110,000 ft,
equivalent to Mars atmospheric pressure). The dive / altitude chamber has living quarters for four with life support and
communications systems for eight. The integration of the Aerospace Physiology Laboratory and the EPU provides a
unique facility for Mars related research. Mars hardware, extra-vehicular activity (EVA) and life support systems as well
as human physiology and performance can be studied in a controlled simulated Mars environment.
We have embarked on an ambitious program to build a state-of-the-art aerospace physiology laboratory and to reshape
the Environmental Physiology Unit to meet the demands of the next century. This combined Environmental and
Aerospace Physiology Laboratory is the only university research facility in Canada with the capability to research
physiological issues associated with diving, aviation, and space environments. The facility extends Canadian science
capabilities into research related to astronaut health and life support, decompression sickness, and EVA life support
technology development. In addition to physiological research and testing, the Environmental and Aerospace Physiology
Laboratory provides a world-class scientific and technical training facility for both academic and industrial partners.
Introduction
The Environmental Physiology Unit (EPU) was installed in the School of Kinesiology at Simon Fraser University in
1981. The main features of the EPU (Figure 1), are a dive / altitude chamber complex (a life support and environmental
control system with an original operating range of 305 meters sea water dive depth to 12,000 meters altitude. We have
upgraded the altitude capabilities to 33,530 meters.), a climatic chamber capable of simulating temperatures of -30ºC to
50ºC, and hot and cold immersion tanks ranging from 5ºC to 50ºC. Now in its fifteenth year of operation, the EPU is
undergoing a technological overhaul to upgrade the facility to allow it to meet the demands of innovative research in the
new millennium.
The author’s Aerospace Physiology Laboratory contains equipment for measurement of non-invasive blood pressure (BP),
electrocardiograms (ECG), breath-by-breath respiratory gas exchange, blood gases, and Doppler ultrasound blood flow.
The laboratory also contains a respiratory feedback control system, computer-controlled tilt table and cycle ergometer.
These devices are fully integrated to function within the climate and dive / altitude chambers in the EPU. The
Environmental and Aerospace Physiology Laboratory allows for innovative research related to human physiological
responses and adaptations to both terrestrial (including aquatic) and space environments
This “Environmental and Aerospace Physiology Laboratory” at SFU provides a unique research and teaching facility for the
study of human physiology and performance (such as the effects of diving, altitude, temperature, humidity and environmental
gases) in extreme environments. I will focus on the altitude capabilities and research possibilities of this facility.
Andrew P. Blaber, Ph.D.; Assistant Professor, Co-director of the Environmental Physiology Unit. School of Kinesiology, Faculty of Applied
Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, B.C. V5A 1S6; Tel: (604) 291-3276; Fax (604) 291-3040; email: ablaber@sfu.ca
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Mars Environment Simulator, Environmental And Aerospace Physiology Laboratory, Simon Fraser University
The Facility
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Mars Environment Simulator, Environmental And Aerospace Physiology Laboratory, Simon Fraser University
We have expanded the altitude capabilities of the chamber so that we can achieve an atmospheric pressure equivalent to
that on Mars (~5 mm Hg: 33,530 meters or ~110,000 ft Earth altitude).
A custom computer controlled hydraulic breathing machine is also available. This device is capable of simulating
human ventilatory function over a wide range of pressures.11 A range of tidal volumes, respiratory frequencies and
gases can be programmed into the device to test a wide variety of commercial and experimental breathing apparatus.
For hardware testing, the bunks and other non-essential items can be removed from the chamber to provide a larger
volume for the test hardware. Single components must be less than 0.76 m (30”) in diameter and assembled systems
must be less than 2.0 m (78”) in diameter (See Table 1 for specs). Through the treatment gas console various gas
mixtures can be introduced into the chamber and continuously monitored, allowing for the simulation of both Mars
pressure and atmospheric gas conditions.
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Mars Environment Simulator, Environmental And Aerospace Physiology Laboratory, Simon Fraser University
Transcranial Doppler (TCD) Ultrasound: TCD provides mean flow velocity (MFV) of the red blood cells. This
technique has been used extensively in studies of astronauts, bed rest subjects, and healthy or patient populations to
measure MFV in the middle cerebral artery. The MultiFlow Doppler unit (DWL Elektronische Systeme GmbH,
Germany) has the ability to collect two ultrasound signals simultaneously with analog data input and output ports for
multi-signal data collection (A similar device was used on Neurolab, STS-90).
Non-invasive Arterial Blood Pressure: The NIBP 7000™ (Colin Medical, San Antonio, TX) using the oscillometric
method (Semiconductor pressure sensor over the radial artery) can be used to collect continuous non-invasive blood
pressure and provide beat-to-beat estimates of arterial blood pressure. If required, gravitational correction can be
applied for estimates of heart or brain level arterial pressure. As well, the modular construction of this device makes it
ideal for blood pressure monitoring in the hyper / hypobaric chamber (see integration below).
Heart-rate monitor: The ECG wave form can be recorded from the analog output of a LifePak-8 Cardiac Monitor (Physio-Control,
Redmond WA). This can be used to determine heart rates and RR-intervals (commonly used in cardiovascular research).
Ventilation and Gas Exchange: A breath-by-breath gas analysis system has been established by Dr. R. L. Hughson
(University of Waterloo) for precise measurement of ventilation and gas exchange and has been the basis for
development of software by Marquette Electronics Inc. (Milwaukee, WI) as part of the current GASMAP project for
NASA. This software is being used in this research laboratory. The small, versatile RAMS M-100 Laboratory Gas
Analyzer is used because of its size and compatibility with existing hardware and software. This system is also used by
NASA for Mir, the Space Shuttles, and will be used on the International Space Station. This allows for smooth transfer
of experimental design from ground-based to space-based projects.
Respiratory feedback control system: Gas mixtures will be regulated and monitored using a computerized gas mixing
system.14 Respiratory gases will be monitored from the RAMS unit and air of various concentrations of CO2, O2 and
N2 can be mechanically mixed to produce specified gas concentrations. In the situation where expiratory values are
being regulated by inspiratory gas mixtures expired gas concentrations will be monitored and inspired gas mixtures
modified using a computer algorithm.8
Blood Gas and Haemoglobin analysis: Blood gas and hemoglobin analyzers (AVL Scientific Corporation, Roswell, GA)
with microsamplers are available. Research projects involving an integration of cerebral, cardiovascular and respiratory
physiology often require the ability to obtain reliable blood gas and haemoglobin content values.
Computer-controlled cycle ergometer: The breath-by-breath system can also control the work rate on the cycle
ergometer. Many research protocols for testing human exercise capacity and performance require computer control of
work rate on a cycle ergometer. This is essential for any program involving human cardiorespiratory assessment.
Computer-controlled tilt table: A major component of the research by the author involves the investigation and
assessment of orthostatic intolerance. Clinical tests of orthostatic intolerance involve the use of a tilt table. The research
in this lab will involve investigations of transitions between head-down and head-up tilt (negative and positive “G,” with
the direction of gravity to or away from the head). The time spent in each position and the rate of transition may have
important implications for orthostatic intolerance. A custom, computer-controlled, tilt table that can be used in the lab
and in the altitude chamber has been designed to obtain the necessary range and rate of motion; ~90° (head down tilt)
to +90° (head up tilt) (±70° in the chamber) at 45°s-1 maximum rotation.
Lower body negative pressure (LBNP): LBNP is also used as a cardiovascular challenge and has been used extensively
to determine the effects of cardiovascular deconditioning (seen with space flight). Tilt tests are not always conducive
to many of the measurements that are needed to test research hypotheses. LBNP can be applied at low levels to
primarily stimulate the cardiopulmonary baroreceptors or at higher levels to also include the arterial baroreceptors. As
well LBNP can be applied in conjunction with tilt to increase orthostatic loading in the head-up tilt position.
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Mars Environment Simulator, Environmental And Aerospace Physiology Laboratory, Simon Fraser University
Data collection apparatus: The analog signals from these devices are recorded simultaneously on a PC using a
Metrabyte™ compatible A/D board and a sixteen-channel computer strip chart recorder (RUN Technologies, Laguna
Hills, CA). Beat-by-beat analysis of these data is performed off-line. All analog signals are transmitted to the A/D
board via standard BNC connector cables and may be connected to any device that is compatible.
At present, the majority of monitoring devices cannot withstand exposure to the temperatures and pressures that may
exist in the EPU. Furthermore, for safety reasons, only low current, low voltage devices may be used in the dive /
altitude chamber. Monitoring devices, and computer hardware necessary for conducting research in the EPU, have to
be outside with their sensors (e.g., Doppler ultrasound probes, blood pressure sensors) located inside. The dive / altitude
chamber has been fitted with specialized data access ports (Table 1) in both the entry lock and the main chamber to link
outside data collection devices with their respective sensors inside the hyper / hypobaric chamber. Along with
specialized connections for specific equipment residing in the facility, data ports contain wiring with internal and
external BNC connectors for generic use. Some of these are being used to connect ECG and EEG electrodes to their
respective monitoring devices.
A computer keyboard, flat screen monitor and pointing device (mouse) are being modified or protected to withstand the
environments within the chamber; the remainder of the computer will remain outside the chamber. This will allow
researchers inside the facility access to data display as well as full network access. These can also be used in studies
involving human computer interactions.
At present we are working with Stephen Braham, also at Simon Fraser University (member M.A.R.S. experiment,
Haughton Crater, Devon Island, Canada) to have the research devices in the facility accessible for on-line remote
observation and interaction with network / internet access. The facility has video monitors and voice communication
devices that will be integrated into the computer network system so that two-way communication with video, voice and
data will be possible via the Internet, as well as the usual e-mail and text communication. In long duration studies (e.g.,
involving extended stays in the chamber6) the computer components will allow subjects greater access to and from the
outside world.
My interests cover the full range of environmental and aerospace physiology. I have interests in cardiovascular and
cerebrovascular modeling1,2,4,5 with specific interest in orthostatic intolerance3 and space flight deconditioning.7 My
lab is currently investigating orthostatic cerebrovascular dysautoregulation (OCD). This condition may cause syncope
during orthostatic stress. Persons with this condition have decreases in cerebral blood flow with orthostatic stress
without apparent decrease in systemic blood pressure. This condition is thought to be due to an inappropriate cerebral
blood flow autoregulation response to orthostatic stress.
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Mars Environment Simulator, Environmental And Aerospace Physiology Laboratory, Simon Fraser University
Several other faculty members work in areas related to this facility. These areas include: the interface of human and
mechanical systems in areas such as underwater work and industrial ergonomics12,13 (Dr. J Morrison); human motor
control, grasping and remote manipulation in human-computer interaction (Dr. C MacKenzie); the effects of prolonged
exposure to altitude on brain stem function using EEG (Dr. H Weinberg); the relationship and markers of genetic
abnormalities in heart proteins and cardiovascular responses to tilting and environmental stress (Dr. E Accili); and, nitrogen
gas kinetics during compression and decompression, specifically investigating nitrogen absorption, transport, saturation
and elimination in real time9,10 (G Morariu, Adjunct Professor and Senior Research Engineer, Aerospace Physiology
Laboratory; Dr. M Lepawsky, Adjunct Professor SFU, and Head, Hyperbaric Medicine, Vancouver General Hospital).
More information on the School of Kinesiology and its faculty can be found at “http://fas.sfu.ca/kin/”.
Summary
This laboratory is the first Canadian University research facility that allows for a full range of aerospace physiology
testing. Not only does the integration of the Aerospace Physiology Laboratory and the Environmental Physiology Unit
at SFU provide a unique research and teaching facility for the study of human physiology and performance, but it also
provides a state-of-the-art scientific and technical training facility for both academic and industrial partners.
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Mars Environment Simulator, Environmental And Aerospace Physiology Laboratory, Simon Fraser University
The main component is the dive / altitude chamber (Figure 3). This chamber is unique in Canada and most probably
one of a few chambers world wide with both diving and altitude capabilities. In the areas of space related research we
are able to investigate the physiological effects related to astronaut EVA (30,000-ft altitude pressure, pure oxygen),
including decompression sickness research, and human-machine interface. As well we can assess hardware under Mars
conditions including Mars EVA equipment.
As a completely enclosed environmental system the hypo / hyperbaric chamber complex also provides a facility where
real simulations of a Mars Habitat can be run. The participants are isolated and communicate via an audio, video and
data link (over which realistic time delays and signal problems can be simulated). Through computer control of the
onboard systems, various scenarios such as air pressure leaks and EVA’s can be performed with continuous monitoring
of hardware and astronaut physiology.
Current research projects include: the investigation of the effects of altitude and orthostatic cerebrovascular
dysautoregulation on orthostatic intolerance (BCHRF); human eye tear film bubble nitrogen kinetics in hyperbaric
environments (BCHRF); and effect of chronic elevations in environmental CO2 on cerebral autoregulation (NSERC /
CSA). We also provide, on a service contract basis High Altitude Indoctrination (Physiologic Training) for private and
professional pilots, and flight training schools.
These are only a few of the activities that are possible or presently underway in this facility. Any person, group, or
company interested in using the facility is asked to contact the author.
Abbreviations:
BCHRF – British Columbia Health Research Foundation
NSERC – Natural Science and Engineering Research Council (Canada)
CSA – Canadian Space Agency.
References
1. Blaber AP, Bondar R, Stein F, Dunphy PT, Moradshahi P, Kassam M and Freeman R (1997) Complexity of middle cerebral artery blood flow
velocity: effects of tilt and autonomic failure. Am.J.Physiol. 273:H2209-H2216.
2. Blaber AP, Bondar RL, Stein F, Dunphy PT, Moradshahi P, Kassam M and Freeman R (1997) Transfer function analysis of cerebral
autoregulation dynamics in autonomic failure patients. Stroke 28(9): 1686-1692.
3. Blaber AP, Bondar RL, Moradshahi P, Dunphy PT, Serrador JM, and Hughson RL (1997) Inspiratory CO2 increases time to presyncope during
repeated 90 head-up tilt. Aviat. Space Environ. Med., 68:A266.
4. Blaber AP, Bondar RL, and Freeman R (1996) Coarse grained spectral analysis of HR and BP variability in patients with autonomic failure.
Am.J.Physiol. 271:H1555-H1564.
5. Blaber AP and Hughson RL (1996) Cardiorespiratory interactions during fixed pace resistive breathing. J.Appl.Physiol. 80:1618-1626.
6. Goldberg SV, Schoene RB, Haynor D, Trimble B, Swenson ER, Morrison JB, Banister EJ. (1992) Brain tissue pH and ventilatory
acclimatization to high altitude. J. Appl. Physiol. 72:58-63
7. Hughson RL, Yamamoto Y, Blaber AP, Maillet A, Fortrat JO, Pavy-LeTroan A, Marine JF, Güell A, and Gharib C (1994) Effect of 28 day
continuous head down bedrest with countermeasures on heart rate variability during LBNP. Aviat. Space Environ. Med., 65:293-300.
8. Modarreszadeh M, Kump KS, Chizeck JH, Hudgel DW, & Bruce EG: (1993) Adaptive buffering of breath-by-breath variations of end-tidal
CO2 of humans. J.Appl. Physiol. 75:2003-2012.
9. Morariu GI, Strath RA, Lepawsky M, Dobrescu RF (1998) A quantitative study of post-decompression tear film bubble formation. Proceedings
of the European Underwater Biological Society. August 1998, Stockholm Sweden, Proceedings XXIVth Ann. Meeting EUBS: 212-215.
10. Morariu GI, Strath RA, Lepawsky M, Longely CR. (1996) Exercise induced post - decompression ocular bubble development. Proceedings of
the International Joint Meeting on Hyperbaric & Underwater Medicine. Milano, Italy. Pp 509 - 512. 4 - 8.
11. Morariu GI (1992) A volumetric-pump type respiratory simulator. Proceedings at the 5th International Conference on Environmental
Ergonomics. Nov. 2-7, Maastricht, Netherlands. Pp. 196-197.
12. Morrison JB,. Taylor NAS and Voogt SL. (1992). The effect of hydrostatic imbalance on respiratory mechanics of the diver. In: Lung
physiology and diver’s breathing apparatus. Ed. V. Flook, A. Brubakk, Aberdeen University Press, Aberdeen, U.K. p 101-124.
13. Morrison JB, Taylor NAS. (1990). Measurement of static and dynamic pulmonary work during pressure breathing. Undersea Biomed. Res.:
17(5) 453-467.
14. Robbins PA, Micco AJ, Swanson GD, & Schubert WP. (1982) A fast gas mixing system for breath-to-breath respiratory control studies. J.
Appl. Physiol. 52: 1358-1362.
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Dry Reforming: A Unique Flowsheet for Fuel Production on Mars
Brian M. Frankie
[2001]
ABSTRACT
A new conceptual flowsheet is presented for Martian in situ fuel production. The dry reforming flowsheet incorporates
the well-known Sabatier-Electrolysis process with a carbon dioxide / methane reforming step to consume some of the
Sabatier methane. By varying the ratio of effluent to reformed methane, any desired methane / oxygen ratio can be
produced by the dry reforming process. Such a machine will enable utilization of all imported hydrogen into an optimal
methane / oxygen fuel mixture, with copious quantities of surplus oxygen produced for crew consumables.
The reforming process is highly endothermic and requires temperatures above 650 centigrade on precious metal
catalysts. Appropriate feed / effluent heat exchange reduces the reformer power requirements, but an increased oxygen
/ methane ratio increases the power requirements. In addition, the complexity introduced by the reformer and its
interactions with the Sabatier system make the system relatively difficult to automate or control remotely. The energy
usage and complexity imply that a dry reforming process will not be useful in the early stages of Mars exploration.
However, the increased material usage efficiency and oxygen generation capability of the dry reforming technique will
make it an attractive technology to consider for second generation ISRU systems. In addition, the potential ease of
retrofitting Sabatier / Electrolysis units with a dry reformer provide an important advantage for early adoption of the
technology. Minor preinvestment in the Sabatier system – essentially just provision for interconnections – will allow
the addition of a reformer, thus extending the useful lifetime of the Sabatier system, instead of replacing early Sabatier
systems with entirely new second generation systems. Thus, dry reforming will be an important technology to allow
cost effective expansion of early Martian exploration and base building efforts.
Introduction
The concept of in situ resource utilization (ISRU) has been advocated as a means to reduce the amount of mass launched
from Earth for Mars missions. Primary resources on Mars include the components of the atmosphere, especially the
majority constituent, carbon dioxide. Primary near term utility for this resource includes oxygen for life support and
rocket fuel oxidizer, and carbon for hydrocarbon or oxygenated hydrocarbon fuels.
The advantages of an ISRU application are often described by its “mass leverage.” The mass leverage is the ratio of the
mass of usable product produced on Mars to the mass of required feedstock and equipment that needs to be flown to
Mars. For example, if 5 kg of equipment and feedstock can produce 100 kg of Mars product, then the mass leverage
would be 20. First order calculations of the mass leverage can ratio the product to hydrogen feedstock masses only
(hydrogen is typically the only feedstock brought from Earth), but more detailed calculations require including all
knock-on masses, such as required power systems, refrigeration and storage units, chemical reactors, etc. In turn, the
mass required for the complete ISRU system needs to be compared to completed designs of alternative systems that
would accomplish the same mission. Such alternative systems should include a “traditional” type mission architecture
(i.e., a mission using storable propellants and tankage launched from Earth), as well as suitable alternative ISRU
concepts. The comparison also needs to account for various secondary properties of the ISRU products, such as specific
impulse or energy density.
The SEDR concept is closely related to the Sabatier / Electrolysis (S/E) ISRU concept, but extends the concept to allow
production of any desired fuel / oxygen ratio. This is done by introducing a carbon dioxide reformer, or “dry” reformer,
which reforms methane produced by the Sabatier reactor into carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Carbon monoxide can
be vented while the hydrogen is recovered to the Sabatier system, thus potentially creating a closed hydrogen loop.
Since hydrogen is the feedstock material brought from Earth, this concept allows a significant improvement of the mass
leverage of the S/E ISRU system, from a value of 12, to a value of 20 or more. In addition, the SEDR provides a
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Dry Reforming: A Unique Flowsheet for Fuel Production on Mars
responsive and flexible product distribution for variable crew demands. This improvement can be accomplished with
negligible preinvestment in the S/E system, and only modest marginal cost for the dry reforming system.
Methane from the Sabatier water condenser is also sent to liquefaction and storage. However, a slipstream from the
methane product, and methane boil-off from storage (and any unreacted hydrogen from the Sabatier reactor), can be sent
to the reformer with a portion of the carbon dioxide feed gas. Feed gas to the reformer passes through a feed / reformer
exchanger to recover heat from the reactor and reduce the heating requirements of the highly endothermic reactor. The
feed CO2 reacts with the methane over an appropriate catalyst to form carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Cooled effluent
gas from the reformer has water removed and sent to electrolysis, and then is compressed and separated in a highly
selective polymer membrane. Permeable gases, including hydrogen, any produced water, and unreacted carbon dioxide,
flow through the membrane and back to the Sabatier reactor, where they can be captured in useful products.
Impermeable gases, primarily carbon monoxide, are vented from the system. Such polymer membranes are used in
industrial gas separations, and have been demonstrated in Mars ISRU systems built by Pioneer Astronautics.
The methane slipstream ratio to the reformer is a primary control variable for the system operation. When the slipstream
to the reformer is set to zero, the system is simply a standard Sabatier / Electrolysis system, producing a LOX / LCH4
bipropellant combination in a 1:1 molar ratio, which gives a mass ratio of 12 (first order calculation based on H2 import).
When the slipstream to the reformer is set to 0.5 of the methane flow, the system recovers half the hydrogen in methane
product, allowing a 2:1 molar ratio LOX / LCH4 bipropellant, or a mass ratio of 4, which is the ideal stoichiometric
ratio. This provides a net system mass leverage of 20. If all of the methane product from the Sabatier reactor is sent to
the reformer, oxygen will be the only net system product and there will be no net consumption of hydrogen, thus giving
a infinite ideal mass leverage.
CO2 (g) + CH4 (g) —> 2 CO (g) + 2 H2 (g) DH = + 59.1 kcal/mole CH4
Since the reaction does not involve water, it is known as dry reforming, and reactor design is simplified by keeping water
out to the extent possible. Nevertheless, with three of the four constituents of the water-gas shift reaction present, the
system is susceptible to water formation via that reaction pathway. In addition, the reaction is highly endothermic –
significantly more so than a standard steam reforming reaction – which means that elevated temperatures are desirable
for reasonable equilibrium conversions. However, the elevated temperatures open the possibility of various coking
reactions, most predominately the methane dehydrogenation, the Beggs, and the Boudouard reactions. The various
competing reactions make dry reforming a complex reactor design problem, and catalyst selection and operating
parameters become absolutely critical. A summary of the previously mentioned primary competing side reactions
includes:
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Dry Reforming: A Unique Flowsheet for Fuel Production on Mars
Water formed from the gas shift will also promote the steam reforming reaction. This will be a secondary reaction since
water content of the reactor is fairly low, and will also help convert feed methane to product. The equation for steam
methane reforming is:
H2O (g) + CH4 (g) —> CO (g) + 3 H2 (g) DH = +49.3 kcal/mole CH4
It’s clear that the desired reaction system is very complex, which makes it difficult to design a reactor that achieves high
and selective yields. Fortunately, we have a long history of Earthly industrial dry reforming practice and research to
draw upon to help design a functional reactor, and to narrow the possible desirable operating regimes. In fact, several
vendors offer commercial dry reformers for direct iron reduction industrial application. One of the leading vendors for
this process is Midrex, a subsidiary of Kobe Steel Co., which produces dry reformers of up to 500 tons/day capacity.
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Dry Reforming: A Unique Flowsheet for Fuel Production on Mars
These reformers use 510 tubes, each 250 mm diameter x 8 m length, filled with sulfur-passivated nickel-based
heterogeneous catalyst. At tube temperatures in excess of 1,020ºC (1,293ºK), low pressure, and in the presence of the
catalyst, the feed gases are reformed into hydrogen and carbon monoxide. These reducing gases are then sent to the
shaft furnace for the reduction of the iron ore. A picture of the entire direct reduced iron process is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Direct Reduced Iron Process from the Midrex web site. The SEDR process can use a reformer based on that
used in the Midrex process. The Midrex reformer is direct fired, which is not appropriate for the Mars ISRU system,
but since the thermal energy in the ISRU reformer outlet is not required for iron reduction (as is the case in the Midrex
process), this energy can be recaptured in the feed, allowing electrical heaters to supply the modest trim heating duty.
Nickel Catalysts
The use of nickel catalyst is widespread for methane reforming reactions in industry, where the relatively low cost of
the catalyst is a prime concern. However, nickel is very susceptible to coking reactions at modest temperatures.
Typically, a small amount of sulfur is allowed to poison the nickel catalysts, which reduces the coking reactions
substantially, while not interfering significantly with the reforming reactions. Nickel is also active for the water-gas shift
reaction, so this reaction can be assumed to be at equilibrium. Midrex notes that there are two separate mechanisms for
carbon deposition – thermal cracking of hydrocarbons (methane dehydrogenation) and dissociation of adsorbed carbon
monoxide (the Boudouard and Beggs reactions). These two mechanisms have very different characteristics. Thermal
cracking reactions are very endothermic and slow. They are favored by high temperature, long residence times of the
base hydrocarbons at the elevated temperature, and acidic catalyst supports, such as alumina. Coke from these reactions
tends to form along the wall of the tubes in fired reformers, where the temperature is highest. In contrast, the carbon
monoxide deposition reactions are exothermic, tend to occur quickly in low temperature regions near the center of the
tubes, and are inhibited by acidic catalyst supports. A chart of the equilibrium constants for the coking reactions over
the typical reactor operating temperature range, along with the constants for the reforming and water gas shift reactions,
is shown in Figure 3.
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Dry Reforming: A Unique Flowsheet for Fuel Production on Mars
Figure 3. The equilibrium constants for reactions expected to impact the reformer design. Clearly this is a complex
reaction system, with all six reaction equilibria of the same order at ~900ºK. The two different types of potential coking
reactions are also apparent, with the exothermic Beggs and Boudouard reactions quickly falling to insignificance above
900ºK, while the endothermic dehydrogenation reaction competes with the desired reforming reactions. The water gas
shift is only a weak function of temperature, barely varying over the temperature range of interest.
The characteristics of the reactions give strategies for eliminating the formation of coke in the reactor more than can be
accomplished with simple sulfur passivation. To eliminate the dehydrogenation reaction, the catalyst should be
maintained active so that hydrocarbons are reformed quickly and the production of cracked products is
thermodynamically impossible. To eliminate the formation of carbon monoxide deposition products, the reactor
temperature should be maintained high enough to make the thermodynamics unfavorable whenever there is carbon
monoxide present.
In Midrex’ commercial reactors, elimination of carbon deposition is accomplished by two reaction stages in the tubes.
The inlet of the reactor tubes heats up the feed gas very quickly over a low activity catalyst on a magnesia (basic)
substrate. Thus, the region where carbon monoxide dissociation can occur is traversed very quickly over a catalyst that
is not active enough for these reactions, and where there is a very low partial pressure of CO, since the reactants have not
had time to reform. When the reactants reach a temperature high enough for hydrocarbon cracking to occur, the basic
substrate inhibits this reaction, and the low activity nickel catalyst produces enough reforming reaction products quickly
enough that cracking reactions become thermodynamically unfavorable – i.e., the partial pressure of methane falls and
hydrogen increases, inhibiting this reaction pathway. However, the low catalyst activity prevents the endothermic
reforming reactions from occurring fast enough to cool the reactor back into the CO deposition temperature range.
The second stage of the Midrex bed uses a high activity nickel-on-alumina catalyst. This allows the reforming reactions to
proceed arbitrarily close to equilibrium, but there isn’t enough reactant left at the start of this zone for the reactions to cool
into the CO deposition temperature range. In addition, the acidic substrate inhibits carbon deposition from CO dissociation.
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Dry Reforming: A Unique Flowsheet for Fuel Production on Mars
Midrex’ methodology, in effect, allows a near constant reaction rate through the length of the reactor tube, balancing the
reforming reactions in a narrow temperature and reaction rate region between the exothermic CO deposition and
endothermic cracking reactions. One of the disadvantages of this technique is that very fast heating is required in the
inlet zone of the reactor tubes. Midrex accomplishes this with a direct fired heater, which is obviously impractical for
a Mars apparatus. Solutions for a Mars reformer using nickel catalyst would be an enhanced heat transfer feed / effluent
exchanger, such as the microchannel devices being developed at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. However, the
1000+ degree C temperature required in the reformer makes the design of a microchannel exchanger a difficult technical
challenge. A rigorous R&D effort would be required to solve the material concerns and verify that coking is prevented
using the designed reaction profile over a nickel catalyst.
The issue of expense is significant; the precious metal catalysts are much more expensive than the nickel catalyst.
However, since relatively small volumes will be required for even a massive Mars exploration effort, and since high
transportation and development costs dominate the overall mission cost anyway, the catalyst cost may well be a secondary
consideration. The lower temperatures from the precious metal catalysts will also benefit the Mars system, reducing
maintenance and increasing the lifetime of reformer tubes, electrical heaters, and instrumentation in the furnace.
Thus, the question of whether carbon dioxide / methane reforming is a practical solution for a Mars ISRU mission
architecture seems to have a positive answer. It is clear that there are techniques on Earth that allow this reforming
reaction to be used in industrial applications with standard nickel catalyst. In theory, these techniques can be adapted
to Mars ISRU applications. There are also experimental results that show promise for noble metal catalysts. A R&D
effort is required to develop an optimal reactor design for a Mars ISRU application. At this time, it does not appear that
any of the technical obstacles to a CO2 / methane reformer for Mars will be intractable.
Membrane
A separation of the reformer products is required to allow produced carbon monoxide to exit the system. Numerous
separation technologies are available, but the one that is likely to be most suitable for a Mars ISRU is a polymeric
membrane. In previous work done at Pioneer Astronautics and Kennedy Space Center, polymer membranes provided
efficient separation of CO from more permeable gases including CO2 and hydrogen. The relative permeabilities (?) of
these gases in commercially available polyimide membranes are order of 10 for CO2 / CO and better than 25 for H2 / CO.
When the feed stream is compressed to a sufficient pressure to allow permeation, the desired species will preferentially
–6–
Dry Reforming: A Unique Flowsheet for Fuel Production on Mars
pass through the membrane to the low pressure permeate side. The residual stream (retentate) will be almost entirely
carbon monoxide. Multiple membranes can be used in series to increase the purification of the permeate or retentate.
Note that methane typically also has a very low permeability in polymeric membranes, so any unreformed methane in
the reactor effluent will be likely to vent with the carbon monoxide. As methane is an extremely valuable product, this
makes it desirable to boost the reformer conversion as high as possible. A small amount of excess CO2 in the reformer
feed should effectively scavenge any methane in the reformer outlet, as well as reducing any tendency to coke.
Compression / Expansion
Compression work is required to increase the reformer effluent to a pressure that will allow permeation of desirable
products at a pressure high enough to return to the Sabatier system. However, the residual stream from the membrane
will still be at high pressure. The available energy in the membrane retentate can be recovered in an expansion turbine
and used to power the compression of the reformer effluent. Since the membrane retentate is being released at Martian
atmospheric pressure (approximately 10 mbar), there is plenty of expansion work available, which can provide all the
power necessary for the compression, with some excess generated power. This will reduce the amount of power
required for the system, at the cost of increasing the complexity and number of moving parts. In addition, the easiest
way to achieve the combined compression / expansion is with a centrifugal machine, which may not be appropriate at
low ISRU flow rates.
The approximate power required to compress 1 kg/hr of reformer effluent is 69 Watts. To achieve the same power via
an expansion turbine, about 0.937 kg/hr of carbon monoxide would be expanded to an outlet pressure of 0.17 bar. Both
numbers assume 75% polytropic efficiency.
Energy Balance
The SEDR system is a relatively modest consumer of power. The major portion of power is consumed in the water
electrolysis and product liquefaction steps. The dry reformer is an endothermic reactor and requires some heat input,
but only consumes a fraction of the power of the Sabatier system. For a system that produces 1 kg/hr of stoichiometric
LOX / LCH4 output (i.e., 4:1 mass ratio), the power required will be:
CO2 Acquisition:
The CO2 acquisition system is difficult to estimate because there are many different techniques for acquiring CO2, which have
widely varying energy requirements. Nevertheless, assuming some sort of carbon dioxide freezer is used, approximately 350
W will be used to collect 1.65 kg/hr of CO2, which will be used to manufacture 1.0 kg/hr of net LOX / LCH4 product.
Sabatier:
The Sabatier will have some startup heating requirements, but since the Sabatier reaction is exothermic, there will be
net thermal energy production at 670ºK from this unit. This thermal energy can be utilized elsewhere in the process, or
can be used to generate power via thermoelectric generators. The Sabatier reactor will produce a total of 1.13 kW per
kg of net LOX / LCH4 product.
Electrolysis:
Assuming 85% efficiency, the electrolyzer requires 6.58 kW electrical power per kg/hr of liquid oxygen production, or
about 5.26 kW per kg/hr of net LOX / LCH4 product.
Reformer:
The reformer is an endothermic reactor that requires thermal energy at more than 920ºK. Assuming this is provided
with resistive heaters with near 100% efficiency, the reformer needs 1.14 kW electric power per kg/hr processed through
the reformer. Since the reformer only needs to process 0.75 kg per kg of net LOX / LCH4 production at a 4:1 LOX /
LCH4 mass ratio, only 0.85 kW electric power are required per kg/hr of net LOX / LCH4 product.
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Dry Reforming: A Unique Flowsheet for Fuel Production on Mars
Compression:
As mentioned in the previous section, the compression power is about 69 Watts per kg/hr processed in the reformer. For the
desired mass ratio, this means about 52 Watts of shaft work per kg/hr of net LOX / LCH4 product. However, this amount
of power will be recovered in the expansion turbine, leaving no net power consumption by the reformer compressor.
Refrigeration:
A Stirling cycle refrigerator is used for both the LOX and LCH4 liquefaction, and the Stirling can achieve 20% of Carnot
efficiency at the condensing temperatures of these two components. Assuming negligible heat leak, the power consumption
of the refrigeration system will be 0.95 kW of power per kg/hr LOX production and 1.30 kW of power per kg/hr of LCH4
production. The overall net power consumption for one kg/hr of LOX / LCH4 in a 4:1 mass ratio is 1.02 kW.
Table 1. Power consumption of SEDR subsystems operating at 4:1 LOX / LCH4 mass ratio
But is it possible to scale the system down? Large industrial units generally operate much less effectively at extremely
small scales. However, the case is probably not as extreme as that suggested above for the robotic scale ISRU systems.
It’s likely that the additional complexity of the SEDR system, relative to the S/E, will require human attention, at least
on occasion. Thus, the dry reformer will probably only be of use for the first ISRU systems that support a human
presence on the Red Planet – second generation systems. The human support ISRU systems should produce on order
of 10’s of kg per hour, or 100 times the scale of the robotic precursor ISRU systems. This will be a perfectly suitable
scale for the dry reformer system, particularly as one dry reformer might process the output of several Sabatier systems.
–8–
Dry Reforming: A Unique Flowsheet for Fuel Production on Mars
The task of retrofitting a S/E unit with a dry reformer can accomplished with minimal preinvestment. Only five physical
tie ins are required:
1) The CO2 feed from the acquisition unit to the reformer
2) The methane slipstream from the S/E condenser to the reformer
3) The methane overpressure from LCH4 storage to the reformer
4) The recycle stream returning CO2 and H2 to the Sabatier unit
5) Water from the reformer system condenser to the electrolyzer
The control systems for the Sabatier unit will require a small amount of prework to prepare for a reformer extension
unit. Extra connections on the S/E control system bus will allow the reformer to be tied in with minimal fuss. And the
control software should be written to allow operation of the fully integrated SEDR system from the start of operation.
The software will still operate normally before the SEDR system is added, as this will simply be the special case of zero
flow to the methane slipstream.
A slight physical oversizing is desirable for the Sabatier / Electrolysis unit, relative to the base case without
preinvestment for the dry reformer. Such an oversizing of the electrolyzer and Sabatier reactor will allow the SEDR
system to operate at the same overall mass throughput as the S/E system, despite the fact that the product slate is
switched to a higher LOX / LCH4 ratio. If the electrolyzer (in particular) is not oversized, then it will be the overall
process bottleneck, and the addition of the dry reformer will merely decrease the methane production rate while
maintaining constant LOX production. Note that the refrigerator does not have to be oversized, as the overall production
of the SEDR is approximately the same as the S/E system. However, some of the refrigeration duty will be switched
from the LCH4 to the LOX.
Process Extensions
The dry reformer is a logical extension to add to the base Sabatier / Electrolysis unit. However, it is not the final say in
process extensions. The SEDR system allows extraction of oxygen from CO2, with venting of the resulting CO. But
CO will be a valuable product on Mars in the future. With an additional source of hydrogen, it can be used to produce
Fischer-Tropsch hydrocarbons or alcohols. It can also be used as a reducing agent for the direct reduction of iron. These
types of units can be added to the SEDR system in a modular fashion as Mars base requirements and resources expand.
These process additions will allow a SEDR system to be a flexible ISRU option far into the future.
The fundamental difference in the dry reformer is that it allows mission planners to start thinking of an integrated series
of Mars missions, rather than a series of standalone Mars missions. This is enabled by thinking of ISRU units on the
Martian surface as valuable, extendible assets, rather than as use-and-abandon hardware. With appropriate preplanning,
these assets can be utilized far into the future, tremendously increasing the cost effectiveness of Mars exploration and
base building programs.
Conclusion
The SEDR provides a technology for application to second generation (first human support capacity) Martian ISRU fuel
production systems based on the Sabatier reaction. The advantages of the dry reformer added to the Sabatier reactor are many,
including increased mass leverage and the ability to vary the product slate on the fly to produce excess quantities of oxygen.
The dry reformer has a complex set of reactions occurring in it, including a troubling set of carbon deposition reactions.
However, there is a well-proven heritage of reformer operation on Earth that provides an excellent basis for design of
the reactor. Existing reactors utilize nickel based catalysts with numerous design features to reduce carbon deposition.
These features include sulfur passivation, and division into different reaction zones to control the concentration of
reactants and the rate of reaction. In addition to the standard nickel-based industrial catalysts, a considerable amount of
academic work has been performed on noble metal catalysts. Although too expensive for terrestrial use, a modest size
Martian ISRU unit would be able to afford these catalysts, which are active for reforming at modest temperatures while
providing excellent resistance to coking.
–9–
Dry Reforming: A Unique Flowsheet for Fuel Production on Mars
Integration of the reformer into an existing Sabatier unit will be quite easy with minimal preinvestment. A number of
physical tie ins and control system modifications will be required, but the total effort will be a small percentage of the
complete Sabatier design. In addition, the reformer will prove to be easily scalable, and further process units can extend
its usefulness.
Planning to incorporate a dry reformer into a Sabatier system should take place immediately. Provision for retrofitting
the Sabatier unit used in NASA’s Mars Design Reference Mission with a reformer would be a minor engineering effort
and would provide significant returns. The engineering effort would involve revision of existing Sabatier unit drawings
and a change in the control software. A further R&D effort to determine the proper design of the reformer should be
implemented. With this modest effort, the usefulness of the Sabatier ISRU concept would be tremendously extended,
and ISRU could finally start to realize its promise to open the Martian frontier.
Technical Appendix
Thermodynamic properties of reformer reactions.
– 10 –
Dry Reforming: A Unique Flowsheet for Fuel Production on Mars
References
1. Bissett, L. 1977. “Equilibrium Constants for Shift Reactions.” Chemical Engineering, 84 (23):155
2. Dubois, J. -L., Sayama, K., Arakawa, H. 1992. “CO2 Hydrogenation over Carbide Catalysts.” Chem. Lett., 5-8.
3. Kelley, Bruce. “Natural Gas and Reformer Catalyst.” 2000. 6 part document published by Midrex Direct Reduction Corporation, Charlotte,
NC, US. Available on the corporate website at http://www.midrex.com/info/resource_making.asp
4. Kitayama, Y., Watanabe, Y., Muramatsu, K., Kodama, T. 1997. “Catalytic Reduction of Carbon Dioxide on Ni-Cu Alloys.” Energy, 22, 177-
182.
5. Meyer, T. and C. McKay, “The Atmosphere of Mars - Resources for the Exploration and Settlement of Mars,” Proceedings of The Case for
Mars Conference, Boulder, CO 1981.
6. Nagaoka, K., Seshan, K., Lercher, J. A., and Aika, K. 2001. “Mechanism of Carbon Deposit/Removal in Methane Dry Reforming on
Supported Metal Catalysts.” From: Iglesia, et. al., Proceedings of the Natural Gas Conversion VI Conference, June, 2001, Anchorage, AK,
US, 129 – 134.
7. Nozaki, F., Sodesawa, T., Satoh, S., Kimura, K. 1987. “Hydrogenation of Carbon Dioxide into Light Hydrocarbons at Atmospheric Pressure
over Rh/Nb2O5 or Cu/SiO2- Rh/Nb2O5 Catalyst.” J. Catal., 104, 339-346.
8. Pena, M. A., Gomez, J. P., and Fierro, J. L. G. 1996. “New Catalytic Routes for Syngas and Hydrogen Production.” App. Catal. A: General,
144, 7 - 57.
9. Perera, J. S. H. Q., Couves, J. W., Sankar, G., and Thomas, J. M. Catal. Lett., 11 (1991), 219.
10. Richardson, J. T., Jain-Kai Hung, and Zhao, J. “CO2-CH4 Reforming with Pt-Re/?-Al2O3 Catalysts.” From: Iglesia, et. al., Proceedings of
the Natural Gas Conversion VI Conference, June, 2001, Anchorage, AK, US, 203 - 208.
11. Tonkovich, A. L. Y., Call, C. J., Jimenez, D. M., Wegeng, R. S., and Drost, M. K. 1996. “Microchannel Heat Exchangers for Chemical
Reactors.” AIChE Symposium Series, Heat Transfer, Houston, No. 310, 92, 119 – 125.
12. Tonkovich, A. L. Y., Roberts, G. L., Call, C. J., Wegeng, R. S., and Wang, Y. 1999. “Active Microchannel Heat Exchanger.” International
Patent # WO 99/00186 assigned to Battelle Memorial Institute.
13. R. Zubrin, B. Frankie, Tony Muscatello, and T. Kito-Borsa, “Progress in the Development of Mars in situ Propellant Production Systems,”
AIAA-99-0855, 37th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting, Reno, NV, January 11 - 14, 1999.
14. R. Zubrin, B. Frankie, and T. Kito, “Report on the Construction and Operation of a Mars in situ Propellant Production Unit Utilizing the
Reverse Water Gas Shift,” AIAA-98-3303, 34th AIAA/ASME Joint Propulsion Conference, Cleveland, OH, July 13 - 15, 1998.
15. Zubrin, R., B. Frankie, and T. Kito. “Final Report for Mars Methanol in situ Propellant Production SBIR Phase 1 Study,” NASA Contract
Number NAS9-97082, Pioneer Astronautics, September 15, 1997.
– 11 –
The Case for Mars Funding – Making Exploration Pay
Abstract
The estimated cost of a sustainable, long term human Mars exploration / settlement initiative is $50 billion. Raising
such sums in 10-30 years’ time is unlikely within the framework of “traditional” venture funding. Moreover, against
competitive, more experienced special interest groups, and in an unpredictable political climate, it is unlikely that we
will be able to win sufficient long-term government funding, either.
In response to this challenge, the authors propose establishing a new venture capital funding entity, offering 30-year
“bond-shares” for sale at mass-market unit prices, in a public global appeal to individuals, corporations and
governments. The fund would be a new class of investment vehicle, sharing characteristics with mutual funds, IPOs,
junk bonds and limited partnerships. The low minimum investment would make the Fund “venture capital for the
masses,” easily available to countless individuals and investment groups. The Fund’s managers would select a project
management firm to be Prime Contractor for Mars missions, through which direct capital outlays would be made.
Capital not immediately allocated for Mars-specific purposes would be placed in more traditional short to medium-term
investments. But the concept’s uniqueness comes from large corporations’ ability to invest in the fund by supplying
goods and services required by the Fund’s Prime Contractor. The fund would issue a form of “bearer bond” to such
corporate suppliers, redeemable by said contractor.
As a first step, capable of testing / proving the concept for both the engineering and the economic side, the authors
additionally propose a “mini Mars Direct” project. This is an unmanned sample-return mission involving the ISPP
concept developed for the Mars Direct plan, funded via the funding / marketing mechanisms outlined below, at a
projected cost of $150-175 million. Publicity and financial returns from this project’s success would provide a positive
track record and speed the capital funding process for manned missions.
Building upon the success of “Mini Mars Direct,” and meeting the initial capital goal of $10 billion, the Fund could then
mount the first human expeditions and begin reaping immediate returns. To the Fund would belong exclusively all data,
samples, media coverage, and post-mission “tie-ins” – the marketing of which would more than cover the entire cost of
the first human mission. Furthermore, any new mission hardware or infrastructure would become the joint property of
the Contractor and the Fund.
Thomas Andrew Olson, Cyberjox, Ltd. Consulting Services, email: techmac@earthlink.net / Paul Contursi: pcon@pipeline.com /
Beverly Woessner, R.N.; rusnblu@earthlink.net / Kevin Beary; evinBeary@aol.com
–1–
The Case for Mars Funding – Making Exploration Pay
In the spirit of the fundamental engineering paradigm shift represented by the “Mars Direct” concept, we wish to create
a concomitant economic paradigm shift to open the Martian frontier.
Introduction
To date, the Mars Society, in terms of its function and stated goals, is right on track. Like that of its model, The Cousteau
Society, the Mars Society’s mission of raising people’s consciousness about the promise of Mars has been very
successful. To this end, soliciting corporate sponsorships is a worthy and necessary endeavor; selling informational or
logo-centric items at public events is also desirable – increasing membership rolls will be necessary to secure a core
cadre of involved people to help handle colonization issues when it begins to grow to unmanageable size. My only
criticism of the organization (if it can really be called a criticism) is that of thinking too small . . .
A long-term sustainable Mars exploration and colonization effort has been estimated by Zubrin et al. to cost around $50
billion. We’re not going to raise that in any realistic time frame utilizing traditional fund-raising methods. In fact, the
funding structure this paper describes is undoubtedly beyond the scope of the Mars Society’s charter, and will be better
handled by an independent organization (which I also propose to create). Nevertheless, I offer the concept here before
the Mars Society’s membership, because to make it succeed will require the membership’s support and enthusiasm.
To date, the only large-scale ($5+ Billion) funding idea proposed either within the Mars Society or elsewhere is what I
call the “Government Funding As Usual” model (GFAU – “guffaw”); namely, elbowing our way into the public trough
and siphoning away tax dollars for Mars before they can be siphoned off by another special interest group. The only
promise of “payback” offered for this generous public largesse would be the technological spin-offs promised, in due
course, to filter their way back down into the economy, ideally creating new jobs and an improved tax base. The reputed
long term improvements to our standard of living may be debatable; but even granting that argument, if we use the
Apollo-moon experience as an historical perspective, this trickle-down approach can be such a convoluted and clouded
process that the average citizen often misses the connection between them.
This method of doing things was a great sell to Cold War America in the early 60’s, but after July 20th, 1969, when we
officially “won” the Space Race, the public, inundated daily with media reports of domestic unrest, political corruption and
the Vietnam body counts, rapidly lost interest. Funding was dropped for political expediency, and six more Americans who
should have walked on the moon1 never got the chance, never mind mentioning the additional loss to science.
Today we have a generation growing up who has never known a Cold War, and we as a nation no longer perceive any
other single nation as being a genuine threat to our way of life. This effectively removes the “national security / national
pride” impetus for public funding of manned interplanetary exploration and/or settlement.
Another downside of GFAU is that it is “non-inclusive”; GFAU perpetuates two very powerful myths: (1) the NASA-
promoted myth of space as being the exclusive playground of a small cadre of highly trained techno-elitists with
government backing, and (2) the myth that only governments can “afford” to go to space. These are myths that I feel
we need to publicly discredit and rid ourselves of once and for all, if we are serious about doing space for real and truly
making it available to all who wish to commit themselves to its exploration and economic development.
The biggest problem with GFAU, though, is that in seeking government funding we end up doing battle with all the
other agenda-laden special interest groups who have a lot more experience at fighting those public trough battles than
we do. Let’s face facts: most Mars Society members are professional people in the sciences, engineering, computing,
–2–
The Case for Mars Funding – Making Exploration Pay
or the arts, and are, effectively, “babes in the woods” when it comes to political wrangling. Compared to the entrenched,
experienced social-agenda special interests, the pro-space activist constituency is relatively small, and to date, not very
vocal. All our opposition (and there is lots of it) need do to overwhelm our call for a renewal of a 60’s-era “New
Frontier” is to trot out statistics on falling U.S. education standards, photos of hungry kids and homeless people, and a
decaying infrastructure. Combine this with a liberal dose of the word “deficit,” and it’s all over. The opposition gets
the funding . . . Mars does not. If events surrounding current space appropriations bills are any indication, the political
will to make Mars happen won’t be forthcoming either from this, or any future Congress in this generation. There are
many senators and congressmen who would NEVER appropriate a dime for a manned Mars mission, so long as there is
a single hungry child (or potential swing vote) in their respective districts. To have even half a chance at the “D.C.
game,” we would need to expend a significant amount of our valuable resources on lobbyists, PR firms, and other
consultants – with no real predictable results to show for the expense.
“Special interests take care of the politicians who take care of them.
There’s one problem: most special interests thrive at the expense of taxpayers or the competitors that
they’re protected from. Most special interests don’t want a level playing field. They want to fix the
game so they always win.”
— Jo Jorgensen
So What Do We Do Instead?
As was true for Mars Direct for the engineering side, I contend that Mars funding also requires “a blank sheet of paper”;
a different approach to effectively bypass the Washington, D.C. process, an approach in which those involved in making
Mars happen are answerable directly and solely to investors, many of whom may themselves be directly involved in the
effort. The only need we may have for politicians and bureaucrats would be to create a regulatory framework allowing
independent, private, market-driven efforts to flourish.
For a privately held long-term investment fund to succeed, it must publicly state its purpose (other than overall profits
for the investors, which is the goal of any investment vehicle). In this case, I think any investor prospectus written
should state the following goals:
• To provide investment / venture funding for the express purpose of establishing a permanent, and economically self-
sustaining human community on Mars, developing and exporting Martian resources for Earth’s benefit,
• To invest in developing technologies that support those efforts, and
• Provide careful management and due-diligence to ensure that said items provide the expected long-term return for
the Fund’s investors.
In any business funding proposal, the primary focus is generally on detailed business plans, organization, marketing,
timelines / milestones, and, of course, the bottom-line (profit margins). These things DO matter greatly, but for now,
for purposes of discussion, let’s put those issues aside temporarily and talk “high concept,” to borrow a Hollywood
expression.
The biggest argument critics will have against what I’m about to propose is that “venture capitalists,” in their opinion,
are concerned only with the above-mentioned economic issues. Well, yes and no. The people those critics are referring
to are NOT really venture capitalists at all, but rather investment bankers, whose needs are far different, and whose
outlook tends to be more conservative and near-term. Real venture capitalists are in it for the long haul, because they
know that for something outrageously visionary to succeed, it’s going to take time, hard work, and a lot of guts. And
they understand full well that in the venture-capital business, you win some and you lose some – but the wins are usually
pretty big, and make it all worth the occasional bust. The entire history of Silicon Valley was underwritten by the very
sort of “financial cowboys” Mars colonization will require – a rare breed these days, but they’re still out there, ever
looking for the next “insanely great” idea.
–3–
The Case for Mars Funding – Making Exploration Pay
By even suggesting that we go to Mars on our own, on a shoestring, and “living off the land” when we arrive, the Mars
Society has bitten off a great deal. Robert Zubrin’s The Case for Mars successfully challenged the old big-government
“Battlestar Galactica” philosophy for reaching Mars. As stated previously, we now also need a fundamental shift in
thinking on the economic side, providing a solid challenge to the GFAU model.
In an age of ever-increasing regulation and scrutiny in the financial markets, starting a venture capital fund remains a
relatively straightforward procedure – the legal and regulatory processes are really not all that cumbersome or
expensive, as opposed to a bank or brokerage firm. Once the essential framework is in place, all that remains is to
convince people with dollars and dreams to invest in your particular formula.
We craft and promote a unique, new funding concept, one with global appeal (as getting to Mars and staying there is
truly a global effort). This concept, with proper marketing, offers what we think of as “the power of inclusion” for the
greatest number, worldwide...and here it is:
We organize a “populist” venture capital funding entity, “The Colony Fund,” selling “bond-shares,”
at $1,000 per . . . a mass, global appeal for investment capital . . . at an affordable price . . . literally
“Venture capital for the masses.”
To raise the necessary $50 billion for long-term Mars exploration leading to productive colonization (the real payback),
we would need to sell 50 million bond-shares of this venture-cap-bond-fund over approximately the next decade, at
$1000 per share. Sounds like a daunting prospect on the surface, if one still thinks traditionally. What I propose (to
borrow from Apple Computer’s motto) is to “Think Different.”
We are not offering here just a lofty dream, but a stake in the future for our children and grandchildren. We’re offering
the average citizen of the planet Earth an opportunity to have a personal stake in this adventure, something that has never
been offered before, and something that they and their posterity will literally profit from. This populist approach appeals
to anyone with a serious interest in the future of space and/or our species. Granny might buy a couple of shares for her
grandkids to inherit. 10 people of more modest means could form an “investment club” and kick in $100 each for a
share. OR one Bill Gates, Steve Jobs, Ted Turner, Larry Ellison, or Donald Trump can buy – well, as many shares as
their hearts fancy. And if we do things right, they’ll fancy a lot.
Participation in the Colony Fund doesn’t necessarily have to involve cash, however. There may be other opportunities
to leverage investor shares, specifically with entities such as large corporations.
Should a major aerospace firm, for example, wish to “invest” a $ billion worth of booster rocketry and logistics support
. . . that could be their pathway to a million shares. The same would apply to any other technology company that wishes
to provide some of what they do best directly, in exchange for a piece of the long-term “action.” The Fund would issue
“corporate bearer-bonds” with a certain share-value, redeemable by the contracting company the Fund bankrolls (“the
Contractor”), at the supplier / shareholder’s in a sort of circular relationship. Once the bearer-bond is redeemed, the
supplier has met its in-kind obligation and is entitled to full value for its shares, like any pure cash investor.
By this method, governments around the world could also play a more appropriate role, by becoming equal venture
partners with private sector companies and individuals. Whether it’s the U.S., Europe, Japan, or the Sultan of Brunei,
governments invest in market-based growth funds every day – some may want to invest and buy shares in this Fund,
either in cash or in-kind. In the case of financially strapped Russia, “in kind” could be VERY helpful for both parties
(remember Energia?). It would be a mass global funding appeal at all levels.
–4–
The Case for Mars Funding – Making Exploration Pay
This is the only funding concept offered to date that is as voluntary as one can make it, allows the entire global economy
to participate, and even hints there will be a concrete, long-term payback. It’s like buying a 30-year bond. We want to
make SURE investors understand that they are committed for the long term. And, as in any other investment vehicle, there
are risks – but those risks are manageable. They’ve already been laid out and dealt with in detail in The Case for Mars.
This proposal can’t be pigeonholed into a specific slot. It’s not a pure bond fund, venture capital fund, mutual fund,
limited partnership, IPO or Junk Bond, but it has elements of all those things. It will be riskier than, say a US Savings
Bond, but not too much so, and marketed with the same sort of mass appeal. It is a “populist hybrid” investment vehicle.
We’ll be asking the world to put their faith – and their dollars – into an incredible dream. To make it fly, we proactively
market it (“sell the sizzle”), get every major corporate and government player we can to come on board with us, and we
keep thumping the “Zubrin bible” and showing the world the hard numbers. We inundate the media, both traditional,
and the “new media” of the Internet. New Media, properly done, is like a direct line into public consciousness, and if
anyone is capable of taking full advantage of it, it’s people like Mars Society members . . . technically savvy, energetic,
and committed. It’s the one area where we truly have a distinct advantage over the forces of stasis.
Pathfinder’s web site got 800 million hits in 2 months! . . . you tap 1% of that at a $1000 per share, and you have your
first manned mission plus a nice hedge . . .
The ideal candidate for such an interim goal would be an unmanned Mars sample return mission designed around the
use of In-Situ Propellant Production (ISPP) technology. R. Zubrin and S. Price of Lockheed Martin proposed such a
mission to NASA in March of 1995. This design is essentially a technical dress rehearsal for Dr. Zubrin’s Mars Direct
human mission architecture.
This “Mini Mars Direct” mission begins when a single booster is launched on a direct trajectory to Mars. The lander,
rover and Earth Return Vehicle (ERV), containing a propellant plant, would have a total mass at liftoff of only about 540
kilograms. This modest payload could be launched on a commercially available booster, such as the Boeing Delta 2.
After using a heat shield and a parachute to land on Mars, the rover is deployed to retrieve samples. Meanwhile, the
chemical plant aboard the ERV pumps in carbon dioxide from the Martian atmosphere. The plant could produce
methane / oxygen or carbon monoxide / oxygen propellant. Both types of systems have already been successfully
demonstrated in laboratory tests. By the time the launch window for the flight to Earth opens, the ERV’s tanks will be
full. The ERV lifts off and flies directly back to Earth. After reentry, the ERV and its precious cargo of samples are
recovered via parachute.
As in the original Mars Direct mission architecture, it is the manufacture of propellant on the Martian surface that keeps
the scale (and cost) of Mini Mars Direct manageable. For example, since the ERV will be launched from Earth with its
tanks essentially empty, it will only weigh about 70 kilograms on the pad. Only one launch is required and there is no
need for complex rendezvous and docking in Mars orbit. The original cost estimate for the mission was $302 million.
However, in light of the same assumptions used in our human mission estimates, the actual cost might be reduced to as
little as 50-60% of that figure.
The lead time required for the development of the spacecraft would be relatively short, since almost all the systems
required, with the exception of a flight-ready ISPP system, are already available. Using the new NASA “Faster, Better,
–5–
The Case for Mars Funding – Making Exploration Pay
Cheaper” management strategy as a guide, it should be possible to launch this mission about three years after
development begins.
From the perspective of commercial exploration, Mini Mars Direct has a great deal to offer. Virtually all of the profit
potential of a human mission would be available in a shorter time frame at a modest cost, albeit on a smaller scale. As
an added bonus, the mission would serve as a dramatic “all-up” demonstration of the Mars Direct strategy without any
risk to human life.
Other aspects of Mini Mars Direct offer unprecedented public relations opportunities that will be instrumental in
attracting more investors. NASA is currently planning a joint sample return mission in concert with the French Space
Agency. NASA during the 2003 and 2005 windows will launch several rover-equipped landers. Each rover will collect
samples and load them aboard a Mars Ascent Vehicle (MAV) which will launch the samples into a low orbit about Mars.
The French will launch a Mars orbiter aboard their new Ariane V booster in the 2007 window. The orbiter will
rendezvous and dock with the various MAVs, take on the samples and bring them back to Earth. Many details of the
joint mission have yet to be defined. At this time, for example, it is not clear whether ISPP technology will play any
role in the design. In any case, automated rendezvous, docking and sample transfer in Mars orbit will represent a series
of significant engineering challenges and costly development tasks. Even if all these technological risks can be managed
successfully, the price tag of the joint mission will be very high due to the sheer number of launches and vehicles
required. With so many mission elements yet to be defined, cost estimates are nebulous but even the most optimistic
guesses point to a price tag of at least $800 million. Less optimistic estimates put the cost of the mission in the billions
of dollars.
Against the backdrop of the cost, complexity and lengthy time horizon of the NASA / French project, the profitable
completion of the first Mini Mars Direct mission would serve as incontrovertible evidence for the advantages of
commercial Mars exploration that potential investors in human missions could not ignore.
Should Mini-Mars-Direct successfully prove the concept, our $10 billion initial funding goal may be accomplished more
readily, and our first manned mission will become a reality sooner than anticipated. As that mission, in turn, is being
successfully achieved, the mass appeal for investment funds will be made again . . . and selling the other $40 billion-
worth will be much easier . . . and mostly for cash. At that point . . . we stop. Having the restraint to stop selling shares
when we reach our ultimate sales goal is not just worthwhile on its face, it will help leverage greater per-share returns
down the road. One we’ve reached the our market-cap goal of $50 billion, there will be no need to ask for more.
American-style marketing techniques are second to none worldwide, judging from the plethora of highly visible,
branded products and services available in the marketplace.
By utilizing similar marketing wizardry, and tapping the incredible creative talents of Madison Ave. in ways never used
before in the financial world, we stand to gain a new world.
The first $5-10 Billion will probably be a heavy mix of corporate entity in-kind offerings (as much as 30%), some
private / federal grants or loan guarantees, plus a small percentage of individual investors worldwide. Once we’ve done
–6–
The Case for Mars Funding – Making Exploration Pay
it, however, we’ll probably raise the rest of it, again, in a fraction of the time, and mostly cash! At that point, our own
government and NASA will want to get into the act, if only to stop their own PR-bleed at being shown up on what
they’ve always believed to be their private turf.
If we accept Zubrin’s “$5 billion/per” estimate for one manned mission, we will have enough for two manned missions
– missions that can begin paying for themselves immediately.
1. Media
a. Media sales
b. Documentaries
c. 3rd party licensing
2. Data
a. Helmet VR data
b. Resource data
c. Hard science
d. Engineering
3. Post-mission
a. Videos
b. CD-ROMS
c. Resource ‘datapaks’
d. VR “arcade”
e. Soil packets
Media
The first manned mission to the Red Planet will be the first huge media event of the new century. And if it’s going to
be privately financed, then the investors can (and should) dictate what media access is going to cost! This event is not
“free”! For exclusive coverage of the launch alone we can charge a staggering amount of money. And don’t feel sorry
for the network with the “exclusive.” They in turn will be charging their advertisers sums that will rival those charged
during the Super Bowl . . . if not a lot more. We can also host subscriber pay-per-view exclusive event coverage of both
the launches and the landings and first footprints. Ten to twenty million subscribers worldwide could net a hefty sum,
in the range of $500-$750 million. We offer inside views that the networks won’t have access to. This is an issue that
would have to be negotiated carefully between the Fund, the network, the Pay-per-view organization and the Contractor
–7–
The Case for Mars Funding – Making Exploration Pay
to ensure the greatest good for the greatest number and that all parties are satisfied, but it is definitely something that
can be worked out.
We can offer some free web sites containing information on the mission, but most importantly, exclusive subscription-
only sites for live updates, streaming media and non-proprietary data downloads all during the mission. With proper
advance marketing, we could conceivably reach ten to twenty million subscribers, perhaps more (remember
Pathfinder?). If we only charged $100/ea for the service, the mission’s nearly half paid for.
Have you ever seen a NASCAR race? Look closely at the cars – they have ‘sponsor stickers’ all over them. Our boosters
will look the same way. An Ares-class booster has roughly the same general configuration as the current Shuttle, as it
is comprised of many of the same components. The combined surface area of two solid boosters and the external tank
alone is approximately 25,000 sq. ft. At $5,000/sq. ft, that adds up to $125 million in one-time ad revenue.
There will be a great number of science / engineering / human-interest stories taking place in the time leading up to the
launch. We’ll need to line up TV time in advance to promote the Colony Fund during commercial breaks. CNN does
this all the time. Its “News from Medicine” segment is sponsored by a pharmaceutical company, for example. In fact,
TV ads should be very aggressive. Every sci-fi movie on the major networks should carry Colony Fund commercials,
particularly if Red Mars (the popular novel dealing with the colonization of Mars) truly does become a miniseries,
courtesy of Mars Society member James Cameron.
On-line trading: The Fund manager will have on-line trading capability, and Fund shares will be able to be sold directly
to individual and institutional investors. Internet marketing is going to do nothing but grow in huge proportions as the
new century dawns, and is something that will pay us immense dividends to take advantage of.
3rd party licensing: Sales of aftermarket “Mars Direct” products could be a nice lucrative sideline. We either take in
the licensing fees on all “official” products, allowing 3rd parties to produce and market them, or form a side-company
with Fund venture dollars, produce t-shirts, hats, etc. on our own – and distribute them wholesale. Every single profit
opportunity pays dividends to the Colony Fund.
The first manned vehicle to return from the Red Planet becomes an instant touring attraction, and we can charge
whatever the traffic will bear for entry, at least as much as that charged by your major theme parks. Ernest Shackleton
paid off his debts between Antarctic expeditions by selling tickets to guided tours of his ship.
Data
Open-Source utopian dreams simply don’t apply here. If we’re spending $5-10 billion to go to another planet, all data
retrieved becomes VERY precious, and in fact has market value! It must have market value; else the initial investment
to obtain it can’t be justified. This is not an obstacle in any way: data from any / all unmanned probes we send belongs
to us, exclusively.
When the first human explorers arrive on Mars, I propose that their helmets be mounted with 3-D-effect digital stereo
cameras. Every move they make, everything they say (while on duty) will be digitally recorded and uploaded daily.
Just another aspect of the total mission plan. Back in Silicon Valley, our exclusive VR arcade programming mavens are
using that data to create the ultimate arcade experience, which we can charge a bundle for! Japanese businessmen pay
as much as $1000 a pop for greens fees, of all things. How much would you pay to spend an hour on Utopia Planitia,
as though you were really there? We would own the rights to that as well, and that alone would be a real moneymaker
for the fund.
Keep in mind the long-term goal of all this isn’t just short-term feel-good glory. We are attempting to open up a world
to colonization – and colonies must pay their way. That’s how / why this country was colonized. The hard-science data
we find – specifically resource data, underground water sources, etc. – will be very valuable to the 3rd party
–8–
The Case for Mars Funding – Making Exploration Pay
organizations, largely mining combines and global science consortiums, who will want to develop those resources. Now
it becomes fun – for when we discover a particularly rich lode of a specifically desired resource, we in turn enter into a
fee-arrangement with the developer (better yet, take bids from several!). The developer is on his own after that, but long
term, as profits from development come in, the fund gets a “commission,” perhaps for 30 years or more. Again, paying
the bills from the get-go (this all also applies to medical data collected).
By that point, a legal structure for the sale of land / mineral rights will by necessity be in place. And again, the
Contractor, and by extension, Colony Fund bond-share holders, will get a cut of the deal – by virtue of the fact that we
got there first with the best. We’ll get paid either way, because future developers will need the hardware, facilities,
boosters, landers, rovers, etc., and our venture partners are going to sell them!
Other things we can market, via independent companies we fund and/or license to sell these products:
Survey “datapaks” – High profit potential, as we would be selling valuable resource-imaging-survey data both from the
unmanned probes, and the manned missions;
CD-ROMs – “low-end” version, based on the arcade (but then again, who can predict where such technologies will be
in 10 years??? They may end up one and the same thing);
Soil – This is a new one recently brainstormed, and will probably only work for the first manned mission, but this alone
could make the mission pay for itself. In a 1999 special issue on space produced by Scientific American, the article
“Making Money in Space” mentioned the efforts of the firm Applied Space Resources to fund its lunar probe by
bringing back 10 kg of soil from an area no probe has ever been. The firm would give half of it away to researchers,
and sell the other half to the public at $6,000 per gram. This is a neat trick, as (1) it sets a high market value for
extraterrestrial soils, (2) raises $30 million gross, and, just as important, (3) allows for an equal $30 million charge-off
on the books for tax purposes.
Now if that can be accomplished in circumlunar space, what might the return be for Martian soil from the first manned
mission? If we do the same thing, perhaps charging as much as $10,000 per gram, then a single metric ton of Martian
soil would literally pay for the entire cost of the mission, all by itself! Everything we do in addition is pure profit!
A space market summary conducted in 1997 by the Commercial Space Industry of NASA projected the future in 17
orbital marketing categories. Significant increase in payload demand was noted in communications (satellite launch
–9–
The Case for Mars Funding – Making Exploration Pay
services), remote sensing, outer space burial, entertainment, and advertising. No market projections were listed for 9
categories; Movies, Novelties, Tourism, Settlements, Waste Disposal, Mining, Earth Transport or Utilities and, no
change was projected in; Military, Science / Technology and Manufacturing. The study maintained that viable private
commercial adventures would require an internal rate of return 15-25% within the first 10 years of operation and was
based on a hypothetical $5 billion investment.
Revenues from each flight were determined upon the payload capability and the price per flight, balanced against the
recurring cost charged to that flight, repayment of the investment debt incurred in constructing the system, and return
to the commercial investors. The final analysis concentrated on developing a bounding set of parametric conditions with
regard to the financial feasibility of any commercial system. Such offers gross baseline, albeit conservative, payload
fee guidelines to entrepreneurial space companies. Considering the restriction of a 10-year investment return and low
projected development in the other 9 major potential markets, it is not surprising the study concluded that government
assistance would be required for commercial space development.2
Conversely, the Colony Fund plan does not depend on the traditional guarantee of a 25% 10-year investment return
based solely on commercialized space missions, nor does the initial “Mini Mars Direct” mission demand a minimum $5
billion investment. Ironically, however, the Colony Fund model of funding, investment and IRR fall well within the
government projected economic viability criteria!
The entrepreneurial space community is undisputedly growing, in spite of governmental, legislative and legal obstacles.
For example, the Houston Space Society that is known to support private non-government supported commercialized
efforts follows the activities of over 43 smaller technologically skilled U.S. space oriented companies (some of whom
are presenters at the Mars Society Convention). The Society also keeps tabs on the entry of new space oriented
companies continuously entering the stock market. NASA generously provides on-line access to the listing to 151 U.S.
privately owned “prime contractors” as well as a PDF index (also available in CD ROM) of over 7,000 equipment and
materials suppliers.
[At publication time, research on European / Asian efforts, international dollars and the associated tech companies
chasing those dollars was not complete, and hence could not be included in this portion of the study; nor were hard
numbers pertaining to international space legal issues. However initial work suggests that those additions in future
issues will only help to bolster our “case for Mars funding”]
In summary, estimates of international market dollar exchange for direct space related products range from $127-850
billion to over a trillion plus when support supplies, materials and ancillary services are included. In short there is
presently no shortage of global “dollars” being spent on space related technologies, even prior to the development of
future potential markets such as celestial mining, space entertainment, commercial space travel markets, etc. There does
there appear to be a lack of competent, experienced space technology contractors, legal consultants and potential
partners, all of whom are most likely ready to supply goods and services necessary to meet mission specifications. The
Colony Fund need only provide a focus point to funnel these existing resources.
Capitalization entity: “The Colony Fund,” which will raise $10-50 billion ($10BB short-term, $50BB long-term) by
selling bond-shares either via actual cash ($1000/share) or via “cash-value bearer-bonds” from corporate entities (e.g.,
an aerospace firm makes a “promissory note” for $1 BB worth of product and support in exchange for 1 MM shares).
CF Board of Directors, including 3rd party Fund Manager, oversees short-term investment of cash in “conventional”
manner, as well as effective usage of corporate bearer-bonds offered to Prime Contractor.
– 10 –
The Case for Mars Funding – Making Exploration Pay
Project Management / Engineering Prime Contractor: The people who actually “do” Mars. Contractor will be primarily
funded by the Colony Fund, and will be the only organization allowed by the fund’s managers to cash in the corporate
bearer-bonds. The Contractor is comprised of the Project Management group responsible for the overall effecting of the
actual Mars missions, the people that “bring home the gold.” However, all data retrieved is owned by the investors –
namely the Board of Directors of the Colony Fund, and by extension, all its shareholders.
There will also be many other side-business ventures, independently operated, and started up with Colony Fund money,
the profits of which roll back into the Fund.
All media / new media access and products will be marketed towards the goal of maximum return for the shareholders.
Official licensing of consumer products and technological spin-offs, the sale / lease of mineral rights, etc., will all help
to “grow” the fund. As it grows, and colonization gets started, the Fund can begin to make direct investments in colonial
efforts on a case-by-case basis.
• If the Colony Fund were a more traditional, pure-cash operation, the Colony Fund and the Contractor could be one
and the same. Keep in mind that the Colony Fund is taking in more than just cash – they’re also accepting “as value”
the equivalent of used cars, chickens, corn whiskey, and Queen Isabella’s jewels.
• The fund, accountable to the shareholders to increase fund value, may wish to make some traditional investments as
a short-term hedge, or even make riskier venture investments in non-Contractor-related endeavors. It needs the
freedom to do that while also serving the long-term goal.
• Given that the Contractor is accepting a combination of both cash and corporate-bearer-bonds in lieu of pure capital
from the Colony Fund, the bearer-bonds redeemer may also become a strategic partner with the Contractor
– 11 –
The Case for Mars Funding – Making Exploration Pay
• If the Contractor wishes to make other strategic alliances with companies unwilling to invest in the Colony Fund or
make supplemental finance arrangements with other financial institutions or even with the U.S. government, as an
independent entity it has the freedom to do that, so long as its obligations to the Fund are met.
• The Contractor will actually be developing (or subcontracting development, for a fee, of) mission hardware and
infrastructure, using Colony Fund capital. Once developed, that hardware and any patents become joint property of
the Colony Fund and said Contractor – property they can then in turn jointly market to both repay Fund obligations
and increase the Contractor’s market cap. Within 30 years the Contractor could earn enough on its own to become
a fully economically independent operation – perhaps even “going public,” the old fashioned way, at which point the
Colony Fund and the Contractor could opt to go their separate ways.
Results? If we put $50BB in a pot over the next decade and manage it in this manner, 30 years from inception, that pot
could easily grow to $500BB+, making each original share now worth $10,000 or more! Your “30-year bond” just grew
to 10 times its value.
Someone who buys 30 shares today may find that, 30 years from now, his investment has grown such that, if cashed in,
he could grubstake 4 of his grandkids to one of the colonies on Mars – transportation included.
At that point, the original investors would have a choice: to cash-in their shares, or roll them over into a new, but more
traditional financial instrument, as the Fund evolves into the first true Martian industrial-development-banking entity –
behaving in a far more “traditional” fashion, but hopefully never forgetting its roots. At that point it might get into the
direct loan business for individual colonists and their families. No doubt, the early Martian colonies will have their own
non-traditional ideas about local banking regulations. The Fund could become the first true banking institution on the
Red Planet.
As this is the first time we’ve ever created such a financial instrument, we appreciated the need to determine in concrete
terms what shape the single investment unit will be. Is it a true “bond,” “convertible security,” or more of a “long-term
accrual security”? Is it a “sector fund,” “bond fund,” “bond trust,” “unit trust”? What we have described above seems,
at first, to defy conventional description, but 30 years ago, who knew what a “junk bond” was? We need to clearly
define, presumably with assistance from the pros who may manage this fund for us, what exactly this thing is, before
we can mass market it.
In fact, there may be more than one unit of investment . . . there may be 10-year and 20-year units in addition to the 30-
year, but different rules may apply, to encourage the longer-term commitment.
Can this unit of investment, this $1000/per Mars investment-venture-30-year-bond-share of ours, be tax-deferred? Can
this unit be a welcome addition to individual IRA and 401k portfolios? Legal research remains to be done in this area,
which will no doubt necessitate bringing a lawyer onboard who’s experienced at writing prospecti the SEC will approve.
Also, we’ll need to research further, with any fund manager we select, a way to structure the ‘barter implications’ of the
hardware-for-shares aspect to allow it equal value with straight-up cash investors, in a manner regulatory bodies will approve.
– 12 –
The Case for Mars Funding – Making Exploration Pay
While the scope of this paper has its prime focus on Mars venture capital funding, it is entirely possible that, with some
early successes behind us, there may be people out there who would actually wish to include Mars colonial efforts in
their estates, charitable trusts, etc. If for some reason, the Mars Society itself did not become the direct beneficiary of
such philanthropy, a “sister” organization could easily be formed to handle it, “The Colony Fund Foundation.” It would
serve a great purpose by helping to endow small Mars / space advocacy groups who would not qualify for Colony Fund
money. It could also offer scholarships, “genius grants,” etc. More research will have to be done, of course, but the
results of such endeavors could benefit the long-term goal in ways we can’t predict on these pages.
To start with, the Colony Fund will have to incorporate somewhere as a legal entity. Forms will have to be filed with
the SEC, a Board of Directors will have to be formed, and seed and working capital will have to be raised. The Board
will be responsible for managing the Fund’s business affairs, using all due-diligence, under the terms of the proposed
overall relationship structure, and the Fund’s general charter. They will also select the Fund’s co-manager, the Prime
Contractor, and the Marketing / Advertising firm. Strategically, initial funding will probably be limited to more
traditional investment vehicles until a certain minimum balance is attained ($300 MM, if we go with the “Mini-Mars
Direct” model) then it can be split between a conventional fund and the Contractor.
This is a first-draft version of concepts that have evolved over the last year. I suspect that, over the next few months,
interested readers of this proposal will bring to my attention concepts I haven’t considered, as well as any fundamental
flaws herein (hopefully few) that need addressing.
This is meant to inspire, to get the creative juices flowing, and to help us THINK BIG – for getting to Mars in our
lifetimes requires that. Let us rise to the challenge.
We can do this. We can sell the bond-shares. We can sell the Congress into creating the regulatory climate that allows
this to flourish. Our suppliers can build the machinery. So what are we waiting for?
There is no reason we cannot go out and create as many more such constructs as we deem necessary in order to fulfill
our future needs.
– 13 –
The Case for Mars Funding – Making Exploration Pay
Two bicycle mechanics from Dayton, Ohio succeeded in heavier-than-air flight against all the conventional wisdom of
the era – perhaps precisely because they were not beset with trainloads of well-meaning “experts” constantly yammering
at them that it couldn’t be done.
Napoleon once summed up his military strategy very neatly: “If you want to take Vienna, take Vienna.”
Indeed. And if we want to take Mars, then we take Mars. Nothing else will do.
References
1. Apollo 18, 19 and 20 were canceled in 1970. Originally Harrison Schmidt was to have been LM pilot on 18, but was bumped to 17 out of
NASA’s desire to have the last lunar crew include a geologist.
2. Until now these markets have never been explored by NASA. Commercial civilian space travel alone was estimated to have a potential Gross
Revenue value per year of over $12 billion US in 1994.
– 14 –
Mars Habitat: Putting The Pieces Together
Tom Hill
[2000]
Abstract
Arguably, the most critical vehicles for any Mars mission are those which support the crew for long periods of time.
Typically, in the design of such complex systems, only the very highest of functions (mission, etc.) are considered from
the top down. Systems and sub-systems are split up in the race to produce the product. This method does not take
advantage of some system interconnectedness, which in the end can save complexity and mass. A habitat design is
discussed, emphasizing its co-dependent systems and how they augment each other. In the process, one possible layout
for the craft is presented, along with useful references for anyone interested in the field.
Abbreviations
LCH4 – Liquid Methane
LOX – Liquid Oxygen
CO2 – Carbon Dioxide
H2 – Hydrogen
Introduction
There are many issues which must be addressed before a serious Mars habitat design can start. History shows, however,
that detailed discussions about the method to reach a goal start early, even before such a goal is officially mandated.1
Analysis of various design options now will create a basis from which to carry on further design, and prevent a start at
“square zero.”
No vehicle has been built, or even taken past the early design phase, which has the requirements facing a Mars habitat.
The system will have to function for up to 220 days, providing everything for its crew with only their knowledge and
skills, along with the spare parts and materials already aboard to sustain operations. At that point, depending on the
mission scenario chosen, it is possible that another biosphere could take over for the habitat in a catastrophic situation.
No matter which of the current options are chosen, a maximum of three support systems (using Mars Direct terms: the
habitat, the Earth return vehicle, and the backup ERV) will support the crew for almost 1000 days.
While the current attention is focused on whether or not making a mission cheap causes it to fail, other research indicates
that a mission’s complexity is the greatest factor2 in predicting success or failure. The complexity of a crewed mission
compared to a robot mission can not be understated, but any steps that can simplify the crew’s support system while
maintaining or increasing margins should be carefully considered.
This paper assumes a Mars Direct / NASA reference mission-type approach to sending the first humans to Mars. The
designs are based on a four-member crew, although other sizes are considered. Calculations worked from a 220 day trip
to Mars with a methane/oxygen propulsion system for a short final landing maneuver after a parachute descent.
“Interdependency”
There are many examples of interdependency in current and past space flight. The fuels cells on board the space shuttle
and the Apollo Command Module are one case. Hydrogen and oxygen are brought together, forming electricity and
water. The electricity is funneled off to power the ship, while the water is potable, and stored for crew consumption.
Without this interdependency, two separate systems would be required for power generation and water storage. The
mass savings for this particular example are debatable. Solar panels could have been used, thus only requiring a supply
of water equal to the mass of hydrogen and oxygen brought aboard to run the fuels cell. In the case of the space shuttle,
solar panels are not really an option due to the need to retract them before atmospheric reentry.
–1–
Mars Habitat: Putting The Pieces Together
This solution combined 2 systems to provide necessary services while saving mass. Because of technical advancements,
it is possible to combine more systems on a Mars habitat, creating a greater savings in mass.
Long duration space missions cannot afford the luxury of disposing between four and seven kilograms of material from
their biosphere daily. This precious compound must be drawn out of the atmosphere and used within the system. Not
doing so is a waste of launch mass.
The fact is that on-board fuel generation can save mission mass at a critical time . . . liftoff. The less mass required for
fuel, the more mass can be devoted to other endeavors.
Thermodynamics and safety requirements dictate that propellants should be stored as far away from the crew as
practicable. This allows cryogens to be stored at a vacuum, the best condition for passive storage. Simple shading cuts
the ambient temperature to approximately -150°C, not including heat radiating from the ship’s structure itself.
–2–
Mars Habitat: Putting The Pieces Together
For this particular design, the tanks are placed above the habitat module, describing ‘above’ as the direction opposite
the gravitational field the craft is exposed to in almost all conditions. A centered hydrogen tank surrounded by 5 others
(2 LOX and 3 LCH4) cuts the amount of piping required to flow between them.
Boiloff from the hydrogen tank is channeled through cooling coils, first within the oxygen tanks, then within the
methane tanks. This stepping process slowly raises the temperature of the hydrogen, while at the same time drawing
heat out of the LOX and LCH4 tanks.
Next the hydrogen is routed into the habitat module. While this poses some threat due to leakage, there are no valves
in this system. While hydrogen is a notoriously difficult gas to contain, the lack of any moving parts within its piping
will be a tremendous aid.
Within the habitat, the hydrogen, now warmed to at least the boiling point of methane (112K or -161°C) is routed around
the deep freezer. This freezer is primarily intended to store foodstuffs for the crew, although the temperature should be
low enough to store just about anything requiring freezing. A deep freezer will allow the crew to enjoy a wide
assortment of foods throughout their trip, and food variety is important for a group facing long-term solitude. The only
requirement for this system to maintain an extremely low temperature is insulation from the rest of the habitat. The deep
freezer is designed to stay closed most of the time, as constant opening and closing of the door will pull water out of the
atmosphere and cause frost. The mission design would have a crew member enter the deep freezer occasionally on a
supply run, pulling foods out for the next period of time. A sub-chamber within or near this deep freezer will be set
aside for common use. Stocked with supplies from the larger unit, it will allow easy access to the current foods.
The next loop for the ever-warming hydrogen is the refrigerator, which has an obvious use for leftover food and storage
of recently thawed supplies.
While the hydrogen cools ship’s systems, the on-board carbon dioxide scrubber gathers the crew’s waste gases. As the
gas is gathered, it is stored for a short time, then fed into the Sabatier chamber.
After passing through the cooling systems, the hydrogen is funneled to the same reaction chamber as the carbon dioxide.
As described in The Case for Mars,5 the Sabatier reaction combines hydrogen and carbon dioxide in the presence of a
catalyst to form water and methane.
This mechanism, when given 1 kg of carbon dioxide and mixed with .182 kg of hydrogen, produces .364 kg of methane
and .818 kg of potable water.
Assuming a 220 day trip to Mars, at 1 kg of CO2 production per crew member, the numbers look like this:
Table 1. Masses required and produced using the Sabatier reaction with varying crew sizes.
(amounts in kg)
This reaction takes place at approximately 400°C, and is exothermic, producing its own heat. As long as the chamber
is properly insulated, the reaction can sustain itself. The byproduct is water vapor and methane, which can be bubbled
–3–
Mars Habitat: Putting The Pieces Together
through an existing water supply (separate from the crew’s water supply in use, to allow sampling before mixing). This
process condenses the water out of the mixture and allows the methane to move on to its cryogenic storage tank.
Mass Savings
It is easy to look at Table 1, and believe this system, applied with a crew of six, will save over 1500 kg in launch mass
for the habitat, but the picture is more complicated. Water recycling will be a way of life on board a Mars habitat, and
the current percent recycling rate for potable water is 80-99%.6 This means that for every 1 kg of water used by the
crew, .8-.99 kg is returned to the system.
Assuming that the water is recycled at 90% efficiency, and over the course of the journey to Mars water is recycled 10
times, the picture changes. For analysis, this system’s water contributions were split into 10 parts, spaced evenly across
the mission. This fact yields the following numbers for useful water for the crew (units are kilograms):
Table 2. The effect of recycling on launch masses and water production systems’ numbers.
Launch mass calculations are based on the amount of water required at launch to provide as much water as the system
throughout the cruise to Mars. The launch mass requirements are lower than the system production numbers because
all of the water is cycled ten times.
The fuel mass savings are as straightforward as Table 1 indicates. The crew needs to bring 320 kg less fuel with them
using this system than they would without it.
This passive cooling system removes the requirements for refrigeration systems on board the spacecraft for as long as
there is hydrogen on board. A design decision will be required as to whether or not the habitat would continue to use
–4–
Mars Habitat: Putting The Pieces Together
an on-board hydrogen supply to cool the crew’s freezer and refrigerator on the surface of Mars. Without the “warming”
provided by the methane and liquid oxygen (no longer necessary after landing) the hydrogen may be too cold for
common-use freezing. Although on the surface, carbon dioxide is a common element, the additional water that this
system provides will always be welcome.
Control Systems
In order to maintain the simplicity of the system, valves and other control mechanisms should be kept out. One simple
method to allow this is to over-insulate all cold components, and place heaters outside of the reactants, yet within the
insulation. This applies control with a minimum weight penalty. For example, if for some reason the crew is producing
too much CO2, and the hydrogen is not boiling off fast enough to meet the demands of the Sabatier reactor, heaters near
the hydrogen tank can be switched on, which will increase the flow of the reactant. Similar measures will be possible
within the freezer and refrigerator in case of over-cooling.
Tradeoffs
While the simplicity and elegance of this solution are marks in its favor, its usefulness on a future Mars mission will be
based on many factors.
Safety is one issue. Hydrogen is a difficult gas to contain, and there will always be a concern with storing it near a crew.
By keeping the system as simple as possible, this risk is minimized.
Technical tradeoffs are a factor as well. For this analysis, and methane / oxygen landing system was assumed. Another
propellant which proves marginally better mass-wise is hydrogen/oxygen. A habitat with a dry mass of 25,200 kg that
needs to create a 200 m/sec velocity change requires 1,210 kg of hydrogen and oxygen propellants (assuming specific
impulse of 435). The same mass lander using methane and oxygen requires 1429 kg of propellants. The H2/O2 system
is marginally better when considered alone, but when the savings of using this water and fuel system are factored in, the
balance tilts in favor of methane and oxygen.
External Configuration
Figure 2 is a representational diagram of the spacecraft enroute to Mars. This incarnation uses its spent upper stage to
generate artificial gravity, and keeps the tether and upper stage “dead,” in that the habitat does not use them beyond their
counterbalance properties.
In this design, the rover and other items not required for the trip out are stored between the habitat and the aeroshell.
After atmospheric entry and drifting to the landing site under canopy, the habitat separates from the shell and its cargo.
The habitat proceeds to a precision landing under its own power, while the aeroshell and its cargo drop under their own
parachute to the surface. When this unit approaches the ground, a small rocket fires to slow their decent the final meters.
This design gives the crew more useful space within their habitat.
The propellants and hydrogen reactant are stored on top of the habitat. Solar panels cover one side of the vehicle, and
extend above the pressurized envelope to shade the tanks from the sun. This provides a lower ambient temperature for
the cryogens. The solar panels were not included in this diagram for clarity.
–5–
Mars Habitat: Putting The Pieces Together
Internal Configuration
Cross Section:
The habitat is split into two levels, with equipment bays above the 2nd floor ceiling and below the 1st level floor. The
structure’s diameter is 8 meters. An airlock runs through the center of the craft, with a hatch (not illustrated) at the
bottom. While the maximum diameter of the airlock is small, using its height to an advantage makes up for the
difference. The environmental suits are stored in the upper portion of the airlock, and are brought down as needed. This
configuration is pictured in Figure 3.
Level 1:
Refer to Figure 4 for a diagram of this floor. Habitat level 1 is designed for common use by the crew. They are provided
with a galley, common area, laboratory and a latrine/shower facility on this floor. A single ladder leads up to level 2.
Although the plan is acknowledged as a violation of normal building fire codes, by this author’s estimation, a fire in this
facility will lead to so many other problems that every effort must be made to prevent it from happening. If absolutely
necessary, a trap door from one of the wardrooms on level 2 would allow access to level 1.
The water storage tank partially surrounding the airlock contains all the mission’s water (save that which is being
generated through the system described in this paper). Potable and cleaning water are stored next to each other,
separated by a baffle within the tank. This tank provides a protective ‘shadow’ for the crew in case of a solar storm,
and that shadow includes the latrine, for use in case of a long episode. The galley can be found just outside of this
protection, allowing a member to occasionally grab supplies for the crew during a long event.
The galley is designed allowing a cook to do their best with the supplies
at hand. While its location is away from the long-term refrigeration and
freezing compartments, this was necessary to properly place the latrine.
It was thought that the inconvenience of having to change levels to get
cooking supplies would be better than the convenience of being
disturbed through crew rest cycles and not having the latrine facilities Figure 3. Hab Cross Section
available during a solar storm.
The hatches are provided to allow future expansion. Without them, an additional habitat will provide more living space,
but not a sense of community that may become critical on Mars. In this image, the feature near the top hatch is a
collapsed, inflatable garage for the rover that the crew deploys after landing.
The solar cells (thick black lines to the left of the hab structure in this representation) indicate the position of the sun
relative to the habitat. While the craft will rotate around its common center of mass with its upper stage, the panels must
always face the sun for power. This same fact removes the need for a water shield the entire way around the vehicle.
–6–
Mars Habitat: Putting The Pieces Together
Level 2:
Pictured in Figure 5, this level is largely devoted to storage and personnel quarters. The layout chosen gives the option
of adding more staterooms in the same habitat design, should propulsive technology change and allow a larger crew to
make the trip. If this option were taken, the storage seen in this diagram would largely be moved outside and crew
supply runs to the storage space between the hab and aeroshell would become an occasional necessity.
Each crew member has their own stateroom. Effort should be made to make the staterooms as soundproof as possible.
Each crew member has room to stand up and change, along with a small work area and bunk. It is recommended that
the rooms be reconfigurable, either on the ground before flight or during a mission, so that each crew member can
arrange and decorate the room to his/her tastes. In a pre-launch reconfiguration, it should be feasible to remove the wall
between two rooms, allowing married crew members to share one larger cabin.
OTHER SYSTEMS
The following are short topics on other systems within the habitat. Most require more research to be considered
seriously for a mission.
Communications:
Figure 2 shows the communications antennae on top of the habitat. While there has been much discussion about using
a despun platform, or an actively tracking antennae for the habitat en route to Mars, a simpler method involves placing
a number of fixed parabolic antennae on the habitat, covering a portion of its rotational arc. By including an
omnidirectional or “whip” antenna, the habitat can be in communications with Earth throughout its rotational period.
Once the period is established, ground antennae can communicate at low rates, for use by the whip antenna, until
calculations show the parabolic dishes coming around. When the dishes have line-of-sight with Earth, the data rate can
be increased dramatically. Between the two methods of communications, a high average data rate can be achieved.
Spares:
In order to minimize the number of spares required, it is recommended to use common parts where possible. For
example, any circulating pump, be it for air, water, or waste, can be driven by the same type of motor. The only
requirement is that the motor be geared differently for different uses. Using this philosophy, bringing one or two spare
motors will provide replacements for any system that happens to fail.
For a second layer of spares, critical parts (brushes and bearings in the example of the motor) should be brought along
on the mission, as those parts are the most likely to fail.
Clothes Washing:
The proposed system for washing clothing on board uses liquid carbon dioxide. While more research is required on this
topic, the chemical is known to have cleaning properties. Once a laundry cycle is complete, the washer need only pull
the carbon dioxide out of the chamber. The clothes will then be dry immediately.
All water should be heated (or chilled) to a preferred temperature before use. This method prevents the waste of water
running down the drain while awaiting cool down or warm up. In the case of the shower, a measured amount of water
can be stored just above the stall, then heated to the user’s temperature preference.
–7–
Mars Habitat: Putting The Pieces Together
Conclusion
While many argue Mars Mission design is premature at this point, the fact remains that it was just such work which
brought about the recent shift in thinking to in-situ propellant generation and living off the land. Continuing this effort
and refining methods, missions to the red planet become more feasible.
The system presented here makes use of an existing resource (crew carbon dioxide) and converts it into usable water
and fuel for the mission. At the same time, the system passively cools propellants and foodstuffs for the crew.
–8–
Mars Habitat: Putting The Pieces Together
References
1. Baker, David The History of Manned Space flight, chapter 6. ©1981, New Cavendish Books
2. Complexity-Based Risk Assessment of Low-Cost Interplanetary Missions: When is a Mission too Fast and Cheap? David A. Bearden, The
Aerospace Corporation Fourth IAA International Conference on Low-Cost Planetary Missions, JHU/APL, Laurel, MD, May 2-5, 2000
3. Stuster, Jack Bold Endeavors, chapter 10. ©1996 Naval Institute Press
4. Eckart, Peter Spacecraft Life Support and Biospherics, p. 92. ©1996, Microcosm Press
5. Zubrin, Robert and Wagner, Richard The Case for Mars: The Plan to Settle the Red Planet and Why we Must, p. 150. ©1996 The Free Press
6. Eckart, 226-233
–9–
Mars Kites for Human Habitation
Project
A study to determine the possibilities of melting the ice and snow at mars polar regions to create an atmosphere for
human habituation. Utilizing parabolic reflectors to re-direct (concentrate) the sun’s energy to create warmth at the Mars
north pole to melt the snow and ice for Earth-like features.
Methodology
Utilizing the most recent advances in communications (Parabolic Reflectors) and space explorations (Mars Odyssey) it
is conceivable to conclude that the feasibility of this concept can become a reality. The reality of Earthlings on Mars is
now a very distinct possibility within our foreseeable future. This concept is easily proven with college math (separate
publication) and the dissertation is presented to familiarize the scientific (& political) communities to the feasibility of
this concept and give credence for its implementation. This concept utilizes a well know paradigm (Man on Mars)…
but which had no practicality except to send someone there in a clumsy space suit. This abstract, utilizing modern day
accomplishments, illustrates a different methodology.
William Byron (Joe) Poston, Ph.D.; Phone / Fax: 727-343-3488; joeposton@ij.net; www.ij.net/personalized; P.O. Box 48974, St. Pete,
Florida 33743
–1–
Mars Kites for Human Habitation
–2–
Mars Kites for Human Habitation
This data is shown to provide a comparison of existing and future study of the parameters.
The Basic premise is to have the kites redirect the Sun’s rays (energy) onto the surface of the Mars planet at the north
pole region. The Kites can meander around Mars planet with the rays re-directing over a large area, or be stationary and
let planet revolve under the kites rays to heat a specific spot such as the explorers habitat.
As these areas are melted into streams of water, the evaporation process will be stimulated and an atmosphere will be
created. The solar winds will push the atmosphere on the back-side of the planet as it rotates daily and the cloudy
atmosphere will exists in the solar winds eddy currents.
–3–
Mars Kites for Human Habitation
As shown in the examples, the Sun’s rays (energy) are converged (1-km diameters) or (10 / 20-km diameters) directly
onto the surface of the Mars planet 24-hours daily, 7-days per week. As the polar ice caps begin to melt the water will
flow into the existing rivers and basins for the Mars explorers at their (placed) Mars Habitats.
Yes! The Mars habitat is the most significant aspect of life on Mars. Without it Mars will never be explored, or later
populated. Also, without melted water there is no hope of Mars explorations.
This plane is flat – yes! flat. But as shown below, it is really at 45°, thus no shadows are placed onto the Mars planet.
Heating occurs 24-hours daily, 7-days per week.
–4–
Mars Kites for Human Habitation
The knowledge and wisdom that visualized this concept for Mars habitation is what’s required for future explorations
on the Mars planet.
However, the Mars planet must be made suitable for humans to live without very bulky space suits, which limits their
ability to explore.
–5–
Mars Libration Point Mission Simulations
Abstract
The equilibrium points of the Sun-Mars system bring some unique characteristics to the discussion of future inner solar
system exploration missions, particularly an expedition to Mars itself. Existing research has identified potential utility
for Sun-Mars libration point missions, particularly for satellites orbiting each of the co-linear, near-Mars, Sun-Mars
libration points (the L1 and L2 points) serving as Earth-Mars communication relays. Regarding these Lissajous orbits,
we address questions of “Why go there?” “How to get there?” and “How to stay there?” Namely, we address utility and
usefulness, transfer and injection, and station-keeping. The restricted 3-body problem involving a spacecraft in that
system is reviewed; and past and present research and proposals involving the use of these orbits are summarized and
discussed. We use commercial, desktop tools (Satellite Tool Kit (STK) / Astrogator) for simulation and analysis of
Earth-Mars transfers, Lissajous orbit insertions, and station-keeping trajectories. On-going, successful collaboration
between military and industry researchers in a virtual environment is demonstrated. Much of this study focuses on 2016
Earth-Mars transfers to these mission orbits with their trajectory characteristics and sensitivities. This includes analysis
of using a mid-course correction as well as a braking maneuver at close approach to Mars to control Lissajous orbit
insertion and the critical parameter of the phasing of the two-vehicle relay system. Station-keeping sensitivities are
investigated via a Monte Carlo technique. The resulting data provides confirmation and insight for existing research
and proposals, as well as new information on Mars transfer and Lissajous orbit insertion strategies, communications
coverage, and station-keeping sensitivities. The data provides new information on these trajectories to future
researchers and mission planners
Introduction
“NASA’s vision is to . . . focus more of our energy on going to Mars and beyond.”
— Dan Goldin, AWST, January 2001
“All the questions we have about Mars could now be answered . . . if we could just walk around on the
planet for a few days.”
— Michael Malin, Malin Space Science Systems, National Geographic, February 2001
“NASA is seeking innovation to attack the diversity of Mars . . . to change the vantage point from which
we explore . . .”
— CNN, June 2001
As NASA and the space community renew their focus on Mars exploration, student researchers find several topics
awaiting further study. From our work that originated in an advanced astrodynamics course at the US Naval
Postgraduate School, we became interested in Mars, various aspects of the three-body problem, and the Lagrange or
libration points, and we were eager to team with industry to conduct mission simulations and analysis. We examined
several documented research efforts dealing with diverse aspects of these topics.6,9,11,14,19,20,24,25 The concept of using
communication relay vehicles in orbit about colinear Lagrange points to support exploration of the secondary body is
not entirely new, being first conceptualized in the case of the Earth-Moon system by R. Farquhar.24,25 An innovative
approach on the concept that caught our interest was that introduced by H. Pernicka, et al, for a 2-satellite
communications relay with one spacecraft in orbit about each of the co-linear, near Mars, Sun-Mars libration points, L1
and L2.6 Further work by graduate researchers (Kok-Fai Tai and Danehy) refined this proposal and conducted
investigations into the technical and fiscal aspects of such a mission, including trade studies on communication relay
constellation options.15,16 This analysis resulted in some favorable conclusions and rationale for a Mars communication
relay system that utilizes 2-spacecraft in large amplitude Lissajous orbits, including system cost and performance
measures comparable to a 3-spacecraft aerosynchronous system.
Jon D. Strizzi, Joshua M. Kutrieb & Paul E. Damphousse; Department of Aeronautics & Astronautics, US Naval Postgraduate School,
Monterey, CA <jdstrizz@nps.navy.mil / John P. Carrico; Senior Astrodynamics Specialist, Analytical Graphics, Inc., Malvern, Pennsylvania
–1–
Mars Libration Point Mission Simulations
A primary purpose of this work, then, was to re-examine the 2-vehicle system orbiting the Sun-Mars co-linear libration
points, including transfer orbits and station-keeping, through desktop computer simulation using full-force models and
the interplanetary propagation / targeting techniques of the STK / Astrogator module. Essentially, we wished to see how
past studies and data using simplified models compared to our new full-force model targeting and propagation, and to
generate innovative scenarios and data for future missions.
An additional purpose of the project was to demonstrate successful collaboration between military graduate researchers
and industry professionals. Timely, affordable results from specific research can be obtained when diverse groups such
as these can work, virtually and collaboratively, on pieces of a complex problem. These ideas flow into another purpose
of the study: to show how commercial desktop computing can be used to easily create and analyze these types of
missions and problems, again leading to faster and cheaper studies by more researchers. As far as we could determine,
this area of study for Mars missions has not been investigated previously in this manner.
As output for this study, we expand upon discussions of the usefulness of these orbits for Mars missions as well as re-
examine the 2003 Earth-Mars transfers and L1 libration orbit insertions presented in the original Pernicka study and the
follow-on work. We then expand that simulation and analysis to include the planning horizon of a 2016 transfer and
mission orbit insertion, considering an L2 orbit insertion as well. We investigate the effects of orbit amplitude on insertion
∆V requirements and show some innovative mission orbit insertion techniques that results in ∆V savings, namely using
a Mars swingby and braking maneuver to assist in the insertion. We also investigate trajectory design methods to achieve
the necessary two-vehicle phasing for effective mission operations. We present figures of merit to assess the
communications relay coverage and analyze station-keeping ∆V requirements via Monte Carlo simulation and analysis.
Please note that this report consolidates and expands upon some results presented at American Institute of Aeronautics
and Astronautics and American Astronautical Society conferences,22,23 along with additional explanatory material. All
of the simulation and analysis presented here represents a first effort of utilizing full force models and current desktop
computing tools to generate some useful data on the Sun-Mars libration point transfer and communication relay
problem. The data does not represent optimized numerical solutions or proposed detailed mission designs, but rather
information and baseline data for follow-on researchers and mission planners.
To consider trajectories to and orbits about the libration points, one must address the “three body problem,” which
involves two primary masses and a much smaller third mass (the spacecraft). There is some history behind the search
–2–
Mars Libration Point Mission Simulations
for analytic solutions to this problem involving some rather well known figures. Newton tackled some aspects of this
problem when he computed the orbit of the moon to within 8% in 1687. Euler developed his problem of “two fixed
force centers” in 1760 and the rotating / synodic coordinate system in 1772. Jacobi created his integral solutions from
the Euler “restricted” three-body system in 1772. That same year, Lagrange identified the “equilibrium” points of a
restricted three-body system. These points (there are five in all) have since been labeled “Lagrange points” and are also
known as “libration points.” Orbits about these points in space are termed “libration orbits” or “Lissajous orbits.” A
specific type of Lissajous orbit is often called a “halo orbit.”
The five libration points are defined in a rotating coordinate frame in which 2 large primary bodies rotate about their
common center of mass. Looking “down” upon the plane of rotation of these two bodies, these points can be labeled
as in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Geometry of the Lagrange Points of Two Primary Masses P1 and P27
The resulting motion and force balancing in this synodic frame produces the five equilibrium points, where a third body
of small relative mass would theoretically remain once placed there. The points numbered 1, 2, and 3 are termed the
colinear points since they lie on the line connecting the two primary bodies, and are unstable in the sense that an object
place there will eventually depart due to the unstable nature and disturbance forces. Points 4 and 5 are the triangular
points since lines connecting them to the primaries form equilateral triangles, and are stable. A way to envision this
system of points is that of energy balancing, where the colinear points represents balancing on the top of a “peak” and
the triangular points represent balancing in the trough of a “valley.” Fairly stable use of the colinear points can be
achieved by placing an object in orbit about the points. It is also interesting to note that the existence of these
equilibrium points, as predicted by Lagrange in 1772, were finally confirmed 134 years later by the discovery of the so-
called “Trojan” asteroids, which are objects that have collected near the Sun-Jupiter triangular points.
The first true mission into one of these obits was the International Sun-Earth Explorer-3 (ISEE-3), launched in 1978 for
operations about the Sun-Earth L1 point. Its trajectories are represented in Figure 3 and are indicative of some of the
complex dynamics involved in these types of missions.
–3–
Mars Libration Point Mission Simulations
Another successful mission of note was the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) launched in 1995, which provided
an unobstructed view of the Sun from its orbit about the Sun-Earth L1 point. The schematic is shown in Figure 4.
–4–
Mars Libration Point Mission Simulations
There have of course been other missions since these times, but these represent some of the first successes and have
paved the way for expanding upon the use of these types of orbits. There have been no missions associated with the
Sun-Mars libration points to date.
Some of these problems can be solved by the use of a communication network around Mars that takes advantage of the
geometry provided by placement at the Sun-Mars Lagrange points. A minimum of two satellites located at the Sun-
Mars L1 and L2 points could provide near continuous coverage for multiple vehicles on the surface and in orbit.6 These
points are termed the co-linear, near-Mars, Sun-Mars Libration points and are defined as above in a three-body orbital
system where the two primaries are the Sun and Mars and the much smaller body is the orbiting communication relay.
Note also that the Lagrange points remain at the same relative locations as the two primary bodies rotate about their
center of mass. The communication satellites would be inserted into large amplitude orbits about the L1 and L2 points,
circling their respective Lagrange points and the Sun-Mars line. These satellites could communicate with landers
anywhere on the Martian surface, with any spacecraft in Martian orbit, and provide the critical communications link
between the Earth and Mars.6
Other constellations could be used for a Mars communications network, but each has disadvantages that outweigh the
advantages.16 A group (four to six) of low to medium orbiting relay satellites would ensure that every satellite would
cover the entire planet at some point, but the cost and risk of inserting so many satellites and the limited instantaneous
field of view the satellites can offer do not make it an attractive option. Four satellites in common-period, inclined
orbits, or a Draim constellation, could cover the entire surface of Mars, but again require twice as many satellites as the
Lissajous orbit concept, as well as the added complexity of a ground station continuously switching from one satellite
to another. An aerosynchronous constellation (like Earth geosynchronous but at Mars, approximately 20,462 km
altitude) requires three or four satellites, and works well with ground stations that can simply point to one spot in the
sky. However, in addition to the fact more than two satellites are required, there is virtually no polar coverage. Another
proposal places communication landers on the Martian moons of Phobos and/or Deimos, but this constellation has the
same inefficiencies as the aerosynchronous satellites with large gaps of polar coverage.
The L1 and L2 orbit constellation requires only two satellites for a fully operational constellation (each spacecraft sees
almost half of Mars at all times), thus making it the most attractive option. The Sun is always visible to both satellites,
greatly simplifying power requirements for that spacecraft. Lander pointing requirements are simple, given the
spacecraft is always the same relative distance from the Sun-Mars line, and the spacecraft station-keeping budget is
relatively small. Disadvantages are overcoming the approximate one million kilometer distance from the Lagrange
points to the Martian surface. This distance likely requires a large, high frequency antenna, which could complicate
solar panel design to minimize antenna shadow and may require a more complex lander communication system to
interact with the high frequency signals. Interference from constant solar radiation along the Sun-Mars line and for a
particular Earth viewing geometry may also have to be considered, and the loss of one satellite means half the planet
loses communications coverage for approximately 12 hours.
Please note that this study does not attempt to address any issues related to communication link specifications or
performance, but does focus on the trajectory designs to place communication relay vehicles into their mission orbits.
–5–
Mars Libration Point Mission Simulations
The design of the halo orbit communication network around Mars is a simple but elegant one, as depicted in Figure 5.6
In order to prevent an unneeded overlap of coverage, the orbits of each satellite at L1 and L2 would be opposed by 180
degrees but moving in the same orbital direction. Herein lies a minor problem with this configuration: because L1 and
L2 are at finite distances from Mars (1x106 km), the actual view of Mars is slightly less than hemispherical. Despite
this geometry, the original study predicted that the network would be able to view 99.81% of the planet at all times. The
“down time” in this scenario would be minimal: a vehicle caught in this band would have to wait a mere 1.5 minutes
before coverage would be switched over and reestablished with the other satellite.
In designing the proper orbits in which to place the two satellites, the most important consideration is that they permit
efficient maintenance of the 180 degree offset.6 An additional consideration is that of avoiding having the satellite cross
what is known as the “solar exclusion zone,” the line between Mars and the Sun. Passing through this zone,
communications would be disrupted due to intense solar interference. To avoid this problem the orbit must be large
enough to avoid this crossing; an orbit of period greater than 0.9 years should suffice. Another obvious consideration
is the choice of geometry and size of the orbit that reduces the required insertion maneuvers, and thus cost, from Earth.
As an aside, one might wonder if the L4 and L5 points could play some role in the design of a communication network
around Mars. The L4 and L5 Lagrange points lead and trail Mars by 60 degrees in its orbit, thus forming equilateral
triangles with Mars and the Sun (see Figure 2). The distance from Mars to either of these two Lagrange points is the
same as the distance from Mars to the Sun (227.9 x 106 km). To communicate over these distances, current
interplanetary missions use very large dishes, such as the Goldstone Deep Space Network (DSN) facility in California,
in order to eliminate the need for large, powerful transceivers on the spacecraft itself. Links over this 230 million
kilometer range would require space borne communications elements whose size, weight, and power would be on the
order of a DSN ground station. The size and power of the needed equipment for these distances make the L4 and L5
unrealistic as locations for the network.8
There is one other interesting aspect of the L4 and L5 points worth mentioning here. While their stability can be
exploited for use in missions that require minimal station-keeping, this same stability also attracts a multitude of
interplanetary bodies that populate this region of the solar system. These special bodies are known as “Trojans” because
the first few such objects discovered were named for several heroes from the Trojan War. By convention established by
the International Astronomical Union, all similar objects must be named after Trojan War heroes, Greeks ahead of the
planet and Trojans trailing the planet. Two of the larger Martian Trojans (in the 1-2 km range), 5261 Eureka and 1998
VF31, represent what could be thousands of other bodies that reside at the L4 and L5 points making these fairly
dangerous places indeed. Consideration must be made as to whether the benefits of the inherent stability of the L4 and
L5 points outweigh the risks of residing there.8
–6–
Mars Libration Point Mission Simulations
The vehicles circling the Sun-Mars L1 and L2 points will orbit the Sun-Mars line with periods on the order of 1 year.
The long period dynamics of such orbits may make them attractive for interplanetary missions with significant
communication time delays. Perhaps even more significantly, on a given day (or series of days) the relay vehicle will
appear motionless and remain in a fixed position relative to the sun (or local midnight vector, for the L2 relay). Thus,
a communication relay tracking system for explorers on the surface could be simplified and automated for tracking of
this position in the sky. From the surface, there would be only one switch between relay vehicles each day, a distinct
advantage over Draim or low orbiting concepts. The Sun-line geometry may also allow for simplified and robust safe-
modes for the vehicles based on the sun vector. Since both spacecraft orbit about the Sun-Mars line in large amplitude
Lissajous orbits and avoid eclipsing, the relays would always have access to the sun for their solar cells, thus allowing
reduced battery sizes.
An additional benefit of the unique geometry offered by Lissajous orbit missions is a secondary mission for these
communications relay vehicles as observation platforms. The L1 satellite is able to perform continuous solar activity
monitoring via a secondary payload on the vehicle, and thus provide advance warning of activity to Mars surface
missions. This could be done using low power, simple instruments for simple early warning of solar storms / flares,
perhaps derived from legacy missions. Regular monitoring of the sun is thus possible, and can additionally be compared
to solar data from sensors closer to the sun. This secondary mission for solar activity monitoring increases in importance
when the Earth is on the opposite side of the solar system from Mars. Another observation mission for both spacecraft
could include Martian weather sensing and relay to Mars expeditions and Earth. The L2 vehicle offers the opportunity
of a secondary payload for asteroid and outer solar system observations.
One of the fundamental advantages of Lissajous orbit is, of course, the relatively small ∆V maneuvers required for
station-keeping, when compared to other mission orbits. Annual ∆Vs for each vehicle could to be on the order of 2
m/s14 and studies have produced data showing annual vehicle station-keeping estimates of 50 m/s for low orbits, almost
200 m/s for aerosynchronous, and 30 m/s for the inclined common period missions.15 We provide more discussion of
station-keeping in a later section of this report.
On a historical note, Astrogator has its roots in a tool called Swingby, which was developed by Computer Sciences
Corporation (CSC) in 1989 for NASA Goddard Spaceflight Center (GSFS). This was commercialized as Navigator by
CSC in 1994. In turn, the Navigator tool was purchased by Analytical Graphics, Inc. (AGI), the developers of STK. In
response to GSFS requests for COTS products, Astrogator was developed in 1997 using some heritage algorithms from
Swingby and Navigator.
For designing libration orbit missions, there are some specific tools within the Astrogator module which are employed.
One of these is the rotating libration point (RLP) coordinate system. This is defined for a system of primary and less-
massive secondary gravitating bodies as shown in Figure 6.
–7–
Mars Libration Point Mission Simulations
The origin is placed at the libration point of interest. The x-axis defines the line from the primary to the secondary body
(in this specific case, from the Sun to Mars). The y-axis is orthogonal to the x-axis in the plane and direction of the
secondary body’s motion about the primary. The z-axis completes the orthogonal set to x and y.
For velocity change (∆V) computations, the velocity-normal-conormal (VNC) frame is used (see Figure 7). In this
frame, the x-axis is along the velocity vector of the spacecraft, the y-axis is along the orbit normal (radius cross velocity),
and the z-axis completes the orthogonal triad.
The real computational strength within Astrogator lies in the targeting sequence, which allows the definition of maneuvers
in terms of goals to achieve. The basic targeting problem is: given a set of orbital goals, how can the control parameters
be perturbed (and solved) to meet them? Astrogator uses a differential corrector process to iterate to a solution.
Determining libration orbit insertion trajectories often requires multiple phased targeting segments where the goals define
the intended orbits and the control parameters are the velocity change components and other transfer orbit characteristics.
–8–
Mars Libration Point Mission Simulations
The differences in C3 energy and ∆V are most likely due to the differences in the model parameters of the studies. This
study used full force models, non-circular and non-coplaner transfers, and direct computation of the orbit insertion ∆V.
Based on inspection of the Mars arrival trajectories, use of actual non-coplaner, eccentric planetary orbits seems to be a
major factor. The data trends are still evident, however: the 200 day TOF case provides the minimum C3 energy and
orbit insertion values (for the cases studied) and the longer and shorter duration flights require more energy and velocity
change. Thus, for a 2003 mission (a baseline comparison year to be compatible with the original study) we provide this
refined transfer data from our simulations with full-force models and non-coplaner, eccentric orbits. With these mission
scenarios developed, more extensive simulation and analysis for various transfer parameters could be undertaken.
–9–
Mars Libration Point Mission Simulations
The braking maneuver resulted in a ∆V savings of 1.465 km/sec, which would lead to fuel mass savings and/or increase
in payload capacity. This type of maneuver seems promising as a ∆V conserving technique, and so we adopted it for
the other mission simulations that follow. However, there is plainly room for future investigations into the applicability
of this trajectory for various mission profiles.
Table 3 shows that a shorter TOF to Mars can be achieved with a lower C3 energy value, but that trajectory requires a
larger braking maneuver than the longer transfer, to achieve the same mission orbit. This indicates that with these types
of missions the lower energy transfer may not yield a lower braking and insertion ∆V specification.
Table 4 shows how two vehicles could start on the same transfer trajectory initially (as with a simultaneous launch) and
the L2 vehicle targeted for it’s close approach via a small mid-course correction. The simulation method is explained
further in the next section. The total TOF to Lissajous orbit insertion is different for each vehicle, which would assist in
the phasing of the vehicles that is required for the communications relay system to maintain adequate coverage of Mars.
– 10 –
Mars Libration Point Mission Simulations
The data from Table 5 demonstrate a correlation of the geometry of periapsis with the Z-amplitude. As a measure of
the geometry, the elevation angle of the periapsis measured with respect to Mars’ orbit plane was used. Very slight
changes in the elevation angle caused dramatic changes in the Z amplitude. (It was also noticed that the class of the
Lissajous orbit could be changed by large variation of elevation angle, however this was not thoroughly investigated for
this study.) As shown in the table, the mid-course correction ∆V to change the elevation angle at periapsis is
insignificant. Additionally, there is no significant change in the braking maneuver, leading to the conclusion that a wide
range of Z amplitudes can be achieved with no fuel penalty.
– 11 –
Mars Libration Point Mission Simulations
Of course, each vehicle could be launched separately to achieve the proper phasing, but with very constrained launch
windows. The redundant launch costs may also make that approach cost-prohibitive. This paper focuses on scenarios
where both spacecraft are launched on the same launch vehicle. As a result, the relative phasing of the spacecraft in
their Lissajous orbits is controlled by their onboard propulsion to affect LOI insertion time. Three possible methods
were investigated: using a midcourse maneuver (as above), adjustment of TOF from periapsis Mars to LOI, and the use
of a Martian phasing loop. All are discussed in the next section.
The baseline scenario in Figure 10 shows that the trajectories arriving at Mars are not symmetric with respect to the Sun-
Mars rotating coordinate system; the incoming trajectories arrive from the L1 side of Mars. A consequence of this is
that the L1 spacecraft inserts before the L2 spacecraft reaches its insertion point. A first step in getting both spacecraft
to arrive at their LOI points simultaneously was to adjust the L2 spacecraft trajectory so that it would arrive at the
periapsis Mars point earlier then the L1 spacecraft. To do this, however, required a very large midcourse maneuver. In
addition, the decreased time of flight caused the incoming velocity at Mars to increase, and changed the direction of the
incoming asymptote, as shown in Figure 12 below. In that figure, the dashed line is the original baseline and the solid
represents an earlier arrival at periapsis Mars.
Figure 12. Mid-Course Maneuver Allows Earlier Periapsis Mars (solid line)
The change in the asymptote angle in turn caused the time of flight from periapsis Mars to LOI to increase, and the epoch
of the LOI point did not vary the same as the change in periapsis Mars epoch. In fact, for the case examined, an earlier
periapsis epoch resulted in a two day delay in LOI. In addition, the retrograde braking maneuver and the LOI ∆V costs
increased, again because of the change of the transfer trajectories. Table 6 shows the comparison data and the increase
in ∆V. This method proved unfeasible because of the large ∆V cost associated with moving the epoch of LOI even a
few days, and the direction of that movement for this case.
Table 6. Using MCC to Change Periapsis Date and Effect LOI Epoch
– 12 –
Mars Libration Point Mission Simulations
The second method investigated to control phasing was to vary the time of flight of both vehicles from periapsis Mars
to LOI. The time of flight is correlated with the amplitude, which is controlled by targeted B-dot-R value.22 Thus, this
TOF must be controlled to cause the L1 vehicle to insert later and have the L2 vehicle insert earlier so that their LOI
times coincide. Our investigation results, detailed in the figures and Table 7 below, show that varying this TOF results
in very large (and most likely unwanted) Lissajous orbit amplitudes (over 500,000 km) without achieving the
synchronicity of the LOI required for the system phasing. However, there may be some applicability of this method to
affect small changes in phasing if needed during operations.
The third method to control phasing is the use of a phasing loop orbit about Mars prior to LOI. With this approach, the
L2 vehicle performs its LOI maneuver after Mars swingby as in the baseline case and establishes the LOI time and
phasing that the L1 vehicle must match. Using a retrograde capture maneuver at Mars periapsis, the L1 vehicle enters
a phasing orbit about Mars. After one revolution in this orbit, a subsequent maneuver at periapsis transfers the vehicle
out to the LOI point. The period of this phasing orbit summed with the time of flight of the transfer to LOI must be
such that the desired epoch at LOI is achieved.
One might think that the phasing orbit period would be equal to the difference between LOI times for the L1 and L2
vehicles in the baseline configuration (56 days). However, since the phasing orbit periapsis point rotates in the Sun-
Mars rotating frame, the transfer to LOI is longer than in the baseline scenario. Thus, to obtain the correct total TOF
the phasing orbit period is shorter than expected. In fact, using a two-body orbit period calculation right after the capture
maneuver set equal to the 56 day time difference actually causes a time delay far in excess of that required. The data
– 13 –
Mars Libration Point Mission Simulations
and figures below show these results. The use of a phasing orbit also introduces some flexibility into the execution of
the entire mission. The result is that the 180 degree phasing of the two vehicles can be obtained. The results are below.
Table 7. Z-axis amplitude and LOI date as a function of Time of Flight (TOF)
– 14 –
Mars Libration Point Mission Simulations
Two metrics were used to quantify the quality of coverage: “Maximum Revisit Time” and “Number of Gaps.” Gaps are
the times on the surface of Mars that are not within line-of-sight of either satellite. Maximum Revisit Time is defined
as the maximum duration of the gap in coverage over the entire coverage interval, which starts at LOI and goes for 674
Earth days (over one Martian year). “Number of Gaps” are the number of times in this same interval that contact cannot
be made with at least one of the satellites. This was measured along one longitude line at 10 degree intervals of latitude.
This analysis approach takes into account the rotation of Mars and its tilt, using fully integrated trajectories phased via
the method in the proceeding section. Table 9 shows tabular results for one particular epoch. For the mid-latitude
regions, the gaps in coverage are about a half an hour, with one to two gaps per day. As a special note, the south polar
region had the longest revisit times (6 days), which occurred 4 times during the year. By inspection, it seems that there
may be a seasonal variation that should be investigated because of the effect near the poles. A complete investigation
would include LOI epochs at various times of the Martian year and consider all locations on the planet.
For this study, the epoch was chosen to match previous work, the true
anomaly was set to zero, the velocity azimuth set to 90 degrees, and the radius
of periapsis set to 6678.0 km. This represents a satellite near the Earth at
perigee. The remaining parameters, C3 energy and the direction of the
trajectory (RA and Dec of the asymptote) were used as control parameters.
Two methods of insertion into Lagrange orbits were utilized and are discussed
separately below.
– 15 –
Mars Libration Point Mission Simulations
Once the desired time and position was achieved, the three components of the Lagrange-orbit insertion maneuver (LOI)
was targeted as an impulsive ∆V maneuver in four steps. First, LOI was targeted to achieve somewhat ideal velocity
components for the Lissajous orbit at this point. Velocity in the X and Z rotating libration point directions were targeted
to zero. Velocity in the Y direction was targeted to -0.16 km/sec (a representative value from previous analysis).
Second, the LOI maneuver was corrected so that after propagating the trajectory a half revolution to the first ZX plane
crossing, the X component of velocity (Vx) would be zero (this represents a perpendicular plane crossing when
projected into the XY plane, and is the same energy balancing technique mentioned by Dunham and Roberts14). After
achieving the first ZX plane crossing, the third and fourth steps were to correct the LOI maneuver to achieve Vx of zero
at the second, and then the third ZX plane crossings. The figure below illustrates this process.
The second step refined this to the desired close approach conditions. Using the same control parameters, the radius of
close approach was used instead of B-dot-T, and was targeted to a radius of 3,600 km (about 200 kilometers altitude).
After the constraints at periapsis were met, the magnitude of a retrograde braking maneuver (anti-velocity direction) was
used at periapsis to shape the trajectory until the trajectory crossed the XZ plane at the desired X distance in the Sun-
Mars rotating libration-point coordinate system (XRLP). After the retrograde maneuver was calculated, the LOI
maneuver was planned using the same 4-step method previously described for the direct transfer.
The transfer to the L2 Lagrange orbit was planned in a similar manner, except that the trajectory must pass on the Sun-
ward side of Mars at the close approach. This was done using a mid-course correction (MCC) maneuver as a control
– 16 –
Mars Libration Point Mission Simulations
parameter, which also allowed the initial transfer parameters to be the same for both the L1 and L2 vehicles. Some
additional graphic explanation of B-plane targeting is shown in the figures below, and further detail can be found on the
STK web site.26
– 17 –
Mars Libration Point Mission Simulations
The initial targeting is the same B-Plane targeting described above: first B-dot-T and B-dot-R, and then B-dot-R and
Radius of periapsis. The initial target vector parameters were not used at this step because the corrections to the
parameters were too small, being on the order of a double precision number. Instead, a MCC maneuver was used 30
days after Earth departure.
After the epoch, B-plane, and radius of periapsis constraints were achieved, the retrograde braking maneuver was
targeted to achieve as described above. Then the Z distance (amplitude) was checked, and if it was significantly far
from the desired value, the previous step was repeated with a different B-dot-R value. (B-dot-R is directly related to the
elevation of periapsis with respect to the Mars’ orbit plane.)
The next stage involved targeting the four constraints that must be simultaneously met: the epoch at periapsis, the radius
of periapsis (to prevent the trajectory from hitting Mars), the X position at LOI, and the Z amplitude. In addition to the
three components of the MCC maneuver, the magnitude of the braking maneuver was also used as a control.
Once this step converged, the LOI maneuver was targeted using the same 4-step method described above for the direct insertion.
– 18 –
Mars Libration Point Mission Simulations
Station-keeping
Due to the precarious nature of the Lissajous orbit, precise and continuous station-keeping (SK) techniques must be
employed. Additionally, the precision required for certain missions located around the Sun-Mars Lagrange points
requires the fidelity of such SK maneuvers to be extremely high. Historical data and studies indicate that SK ∆Vs as
little as 1 mm/sec could be required.
Station-keeping techniques fall into two major categories.14 The first, referred to as a “tight” control technique, attempts
to target the vehicle back to a nominal three-dimensional path. The second is the “loose” control technique that uses a
simpler “orbital energy balancing” strategy to closely mirror a Lissajous orbit. The two control techniques differ only
in the number of ∆V components that are varied. The loose technique will simply vary one component of ∆V while the
tight technique varies two or more to achieve a nominal Lissajous orbit.
History14,18
The third International Sun-Earth Explorer (ISEE-3) flown to the Sun-Earth L1 point in 1978 used the tight control
technique in an attempt to maintain its trajectory as close to a nominal halo orbit as possible. This mission, being the
first to orbit a Sun-Earth libration point, had the luxury of a large supply of fuel to allow for uncertainties in the insertion
to and maintenance of the new orbit. The relatively small errors encountered during insertion into the halo orbit left a
large amount of fuel that could be used specifically for station-keeping. Over the four years that ISEE-3 was established
at the L1 point, 15 SK maneuvers were performed totaling 30.06 m/sec at an average of 2.00 m/sec per maneuver. The
time between the maneuvers averaged 82 days.
While the large amount of fuel planned for the ISEE-3 mission allowed for very tight control of its halo orbit, a more
optimal SK method was planned for the Solar Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO). Prior to its establishment at the Sun-
Earth L1 point in 1996, SOHO mission planners sought ways in which to decrease its SK costs. If the complexity of
SK maneuvers for SOHO could be dramatically reduced, or “loosely” controlled, the fuel load, and therefore costs,
could be also be reduced. In the “orbital energy balancing” technique that evolved, only one component of ∆V, in this
case the x-component, would be varied. The result of this simplification achieved a threefold reduction in SK costs from
roughly 7.5 m/sec per year for ISEE-3 to less than 2.3 m/sec per year for SOHO.
The major drawback with the loosely controlled technique used on SOHO was that it did not maintain a periodic halo
orbit precisely. The resultant orbit was, however, a Lissajous path that mirrored the nominal halo orbit so closely that
for all practical purposes it could be considered equivalent. The loose control technique was therefore proven as an
effective means of achieving lower SK costs when precise orbit mapping was not necessary.
– 19 –
Mars Libration Point Mission Simulations
In our example of a communication system in orbits about the tions system example, the timing of SK burns is critical
so as to prevent unexpected and inconvenient losses in communications coverage to the users on the Martian surface.
One solution to such a problem is to overlap the SK maneuvers with the spacecraft’s preplanned attitude and momentum
adjustments. This allows the attitude control, momentum management, and SK maneuvers to complement one another
and minimizes the down time of the system. Dunham and Roberts have shown that for any ∆V error, the SK that follows
is also minimized. If, however, the insertion ∆V error is greater than that expected the magnitude of the SK maneuvers
will increase and the SK costs will rise.
The second factor in SK frequency determination is the effect that subsequent SK burns have on the overall orbit error.
This can be further broken down to the actual magnitude of the orbit error at the end of the last burn, the time since that
burn, and the accuracy of the burn itself as executed. Obviously, this orbit error will increase with time and the larger the
error, the sooner a subsequent burn will need to be performed. The key here is to minimize the magnitudes of the burns.14
Once the frequency and magnitude of the required SK maneuvers are determined, the optimal timing of such maneuvers
will need to be considered. For the communications system example, the timing of SK burns is critical so as to prevent
unexpected and inconvenient losses in communications coverage to the users on the Martian surface. One solution to
such a problem is to overlap the SK maneuvers with the spacecraft’s preplanned attitude and momentum adjustments.
This allows the attitude control, momentum management, and SK maneuvers to complement one another and minimizes
the down time of the system.
Dunham and Roberts have shown that small ∆V errors on order of 0.1 mm/sec for the Sun-Earth / Moon system cause
noticeable deviation from the nominal after about three revolutions in the Lissajous orbit.14 In our study, the same error
was applied to the Sun-Mars L1 Lissajous orbit as shown in Figure 21. This error caused noticeable deviations after
only one and a half revolutions. However, because the period of the Mars Lissajous is about twice that of the Earth
Lissajous, the deviations occur approximately after the same duration in time. This is an indicator that the station-
keeping requirements for the Mars Lissajous will be on the same order as seen for the Earth missions, in terms of fuel
used per year. Of course, a thorough error analysis study could be made later to prove this, accounting for the errors
and uncertainties.
Further research for this study explored the station-keeping sensitivities of spacecraft in these orbits via Monte Carlo
analysis. The uncertainties included those due to the orbit determination process, possible change in the effective area of the
spacecraft affecting the Solar radiation pressure acceleration, and possible errors in the station-keeping maneuver execution.
– 20 –
Mars Libration Point Mission Simulations
The results of the Monte Carlo simulation with 100 runs yielded an average station-keeping ∆V magnitude of 0.044 m/s
(with standard deviation of 0.003). The same simulation was run for a large amplitude L2 orbit in the earth system (for
comparison) and the average ∆V was 0.45 m/s and standard deviation of 0.03. Since the period of the Earth is
approximately half that of Mars, a second Earth-centered L2 Monte Carlo run was made where the station-keeping
maneuver was done after only 45 days of propagation. The average ∆V was 0.43 m/s with the same standard deviation.
These results seem to indicate that the Martian Lissajous orbits require an order of magnitude less station-keeping ∆V than
those in the Earth system. One possibility for this that was considered is Lunar effects; but the examination of a Lissajous
about L2 of the Sun-Earth system with the moon removed from the model yielded no significant difference in results.
There are several other possibilities to be explored, including the different distances from the Sun and planet sizes.
Conclusions22,23
This research began by re-examining a 2-vehicle communication relay system orbiting the Sun-Mars libration points,
including transfer orbits, injection strategies, and station-keeping, to see how past studies and data compared to that from
current desktop computing techniques using full-force model targeting and propagation (namely, the Satellite Tool Kit
(STK) / Astrogator module). Earth-Mars transfers and Lissajous orbit injections for a 2016 mission were analyzed. It
was found that trajectory trends from the previous studies were still valid when using full force models, however the
actual magnitudes of the maneuvers could increase. This work also highlights the fact that the minimum departure C3
energy does not always correspond to the minimum LOI maneuver. Also revealed was that using a braking maneuver
at a low altitude (200 km) Mars periapsis prior to LOI saves significant spacecraft on-board fuel, for certain approach
trajectories. One can take advantage of the geometry of this close approach to control the Z amplitude and class of the
Lissajous orbit as well. It was also determined that the loose control technique for station-keeping could be appropriate
for the L1 and L2 communication relay concept. The stability of these orbits are on the same order as the Sun-Earth
orbits in terms of deviations from nominal as a function of time.
Three methods were explored to achieve the 180 degree relative phasing of the spacecraft in their respective Lissajous
orbits:
1. Adjusting the time of arrival at Mars periapsis using a midcourse correction;
2. Adjusting the time of flight from periapsis Mars to LOI by altering the amplitude of the Lissajous orbit; and
3. The addition of a phasing loop before the transfer to L1.
The first method proved too costly in terms of ∆V. The second method did not move the LOI epochs close enough
together. The third method was successful, and the targeting algorithm was described.
The quality of coverage was investigated using the fully numerically integrated trajectories and the actual motion of
Mars’ polar axis. For most latitudes, the maximum gap was found to be about a half an hour, which is slightly longer
than previous papers suggested, but still within the scope of the missions described. The poles behave somewhat
differently, with longer gaps, but far fewer. Future work could include investigation of the effect on coverage of orbit
phasing with the Martian seasons.
An estimate of the station keeping cost for a Mars L2 orbit was calculated using a Monte Carlo technique, varying the
initial orbit state, area, and maneuver execution errors. This was compared with a similar Earth L2 orbit, and the Mars
– 21 –
Mars Libration Point Mission Simulations
orbit requires about an order of magnitude less ∆V for the maneuver. The reasons behind this are not fully understood,
and could be pursued in future work.
Overall, the study has provided useful initial data on the trajectory designs to place vehicles in Lissajous orbits about
the Sun-Mars L1 and L2 points, while showing that the innovative use of the two-satellite communication system is a
practical concept for Mars exploration.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank Hank Pernicka and Chauncey Uphoff for their invaluable assistance with portions of this
study. We also thank Bob Farquhar and Dave Dunham of the Applied Physics Laboratory at Johns Hopkins University
for their correspondence and discussions on the topic. Thanks go as well to Professor Don Danielson and the Space
Systems Academic Group at the US Naval Postgraduate School. Roger Martinez of AGI provided key support for the
Mars Society presentation. We especially recognize Dean Rudy Panholzer at the US Naval Postgraduate School for his
support of all the conference presentation efforts.
References
1. J. Carrico et al., “Rapid Design of Gravity Assist Trajectories,” Proceedings of the ESA Symposium on Spacecraft Flight Dynamics held in
Darmstadt, Germany, 30 September - 4 October 1991 (ESA SP-326, December 1991).
2. C.D. Brown, “Spacecraft Mission Design,” AIAA Education Series, 1992, pp. 96-98.
3. V.G. Szebehely, “Adventures in Celestial Mechanics,” University of Texas Press, Austin Texas 1989.
4. D.A. Vallado, “Fundamentals of Astrodynamics and Applications,” McGraw-Hill, New York, 1997.
5. D. Halliday, R. Resnick, J. Walker, “Fundamentals of Physics, Extended,” John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1997.
6. H. Pernicka, D. Henry, M Chan, “Use of Halo Orbits to Provide a Communication Link Between Earth and Mars,” AIAA Paper 92-4584, 1992.
7. V.G. Szebehely, “Theory of Orbits: The Restricted Problem of Three Bodies,” Academic Press, New York and London, 1967.
8. Website: www.users.skynet.be, “The Guide to the Universe.”
9. K.C. Howell, “Families of Orbits in the Vicinity of the Colinear Libration Points,” AIAA Astrodynamics Specialist Conference, Paper 98-
4465, August 1998.
10. Website: www.map.gsfc.nasa.gov, “Microwave Anisotropy Probe.”
11. G. Gomez, K.C. Howell, J. Masdemont, C. Simo, “Station-Keeping Strategies for Translunar Libration Point Orbits,” AIAA Spaceflight
Mechanics Meeting, Paper 98-168, 1998.
12. P. Keaton, “A Moon Base/Mars Base Transportation Depot,” Los Alamos National Laboratory, LA-10552-MS, UC-34B, September 1985.
13. E. Belbruno and J. Carrico, “Calculation of Weak Stability Boundary Ballistic Lunar Transfer Trajectories,” AIAA/AAS Astrodynamics
Specialist Conference, AIAA Paper 2000-4142, 14-17 August 2000.
14. D. Dunham and C. Roberts, “Stationkeeping Techniques For Libration-Point Satellites,” AIAA/AAS Astrodynamics Specialist Conference,
AIAA Paper 98-4466, 10-12 August 1998.
15. W. Kok-Fai Tai, “Mars Communication Network Design Trade Study,” Master of Science Thesis, San Jose State University, 1998
16. M. Danehy, “Martian Communications Network Design Trade Study,” Master of Science Thesis, San Jose State University, December, 1997.
17. S. Matousec and A. Sergeyevsky, “Feasible Ballistic Earth to Mars Trajectories from 2002 to 2020,” chart for Mars Surveyor Program
Advanced Missions Studies Office, March, 1998.
18. R. Farquhar, “The Flight of ISEE-3/ICE: Origins, Mission History, and a Legacy,” AIAA Paper 98-4464, August 1998.
19. R. Farquhar, “Stationkeeping in the Vicinity of Collinear Libration Points with an Application to a Lunar Communications Problem,” AAS
Science and Technology Series: Space Flight Mechanics Specialist Symposium, Vol. 11, pp. 519-535 (Presented in Denver, CO, July 1966).
20. R. Farquhar, et al, “Trajectories and Orbital Maneuvers for the First Libration-Point Satellite,” Journal of Guidance and Control, Vol. 3, No.
6, Nov-Dec, 1980, pp. 549-554.
21. P. Sharer, J. Zsoldos, and D. Folta, “Control of Libration Point Orbits Using Lunar Gravity-Assisted Transfer,” AAS-93-295, Spaceflight
Dynamics 1993, Vol. 84, Part 1: Advances in the Astronautical Sciences, Proceedings of AAS/NASA symposium, April, 1993.
22. J. Strizzi, J. Kutrieb, P. Damphousse, and J. Carrico, “Sun-Mars Libration Points and Mars Mission Simulations,” AAS-01-159, February 2001.
23. J. Carrico, J. Strizzi, J. Kutrieb, and P. Damphousse, “Trajectory Sensitivities for Sun-Mars Libration Point Missions,” AAS-01-327, July 2001.
24. R. Farquhar, “Future Missions for Libration-point Satellites,” Astronautics and Aeronautics, May 1969.
25. R. Farquhar, “Lunar Communications with Libration-Point Satellites,” Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets, 1967.
26. Website: www.stk.com
27. NASA, “Mission Analysis and Design Tool (Swingby): Mathematical Principles,” Rev 1, Sept 1995 (Draft), Sect 4.4.1.
Various on-line resources for some figure art.
– 22 –
Martian Emergency Medical Crisis Management
C. Marsh Cuttino, MD
[1999]
Introduction
Accidents and injuries happen. Frequently.
Despite superior training and caution, despite careful preparation, injuries and accidents occur which have significant
impact upon our lives. In the everyday world, when an accident happens, people are taken to the emergency department
for treatment, usually by an ambulance with trained emergency responders. This combination of emergency medical
technicians, paramedics, emergency medicine physicians and trauma surgeons provide highly skilled medical care to
victims of accidents and injuries.
Distance and time separate people in space from prompt medical care. When the first manned crew goes to Mars they
will be the most isolated people in history. Prompt emergency medical care from outside sources will be impossible to
obtain. The crew will have to be self-sufficient and provide for their medical care.
Medical Emergencies
NASA and other sources estimates that in a prolonged mission such as the projected Mars missions there will be almost
certainly an injury, severe enough to require a visit to an emergency department if it had occurred on Earth.1 Therefore the
question should not be “How do we manage a medical emergency IF it occurs on a Mars mission,” but “How do we manage
a medical emergency WHEN it occurs on a Mars mission?” There are several different methods and models to choose.
Should the problem be handled from Earth by telemedicine, or should the crew manage the crisis, with later assistance
from Earth.2 Should a physician be a member of the crew, or could the crew be trained adequately in emergency medical
treatment and use checklists.
The technique most often cited is the use of telemedicine to provide expert medical care in space.3 This is the method
of choice for the International Space Station and Earth orbit operations.4 This allows specialists on Earth to examine
and direct medical care to a remote location, while allowing the participants on site to have a lower level of training.5
The technology is rapidly expanding in this field, including remote sensing, haptic force feedback technology, and
telepresent surgical techniques.6 The primary limitation is time delay for transmissions between the subject and
operator. This becomes a major factor on a Mars mission as the round trip transmission time from Mars to the Earth
and back is about forty minutes. There is a two month period where transmission between Earth and Mars is not possible
when they are on opposite sides of the Sun, but this could be avoided by placing a satellite relay system to bounce signals
around the Sun.7
For the majority of medical tasks, such as routine health surveillance, data collection, and minor medical care, this time
delay is acceptable. The time delay will only be a factor in an acute medical emergency. Emergency medical problems
must be handled in a prompt manner. Emergency Medicine and Trauma Surgery recognize that there is a “Golden Hour”
in which treatment and patient stabilization must be performed to ensure patient survival. Delaying emergent medical
treatment past an hour will often prove fatal. This time limit requires a high degree of autonomy by the astronaut crew.
They must be self sufficient to the extreme, and must have a high degree of training.
C. Marsh Cuttino, MD; Assistant Professor, Medical College of Virginia – Virginia Commonwealth University,
Department of Emergency Medicine, Main Hospital, G-503, 401 North 12th Street, P.O. Box 980401, Richmond, VA 23298-0401;
Email: Marshcuttino@mindspring.com; Web site: www.EmergencyMedOnline.com
–1–
loss of the function of a crew member would severely affect the crew’s ability to complete their mission functions, and
could affect the survival of the entire crew.
It is possible to invent multiple scenarios where the entire crew is injured or killed. Some opponents to having a crew
member as a physician cite this as a reason to not have a physician on board. “If anything happens” it is said, “the entire
crew will perish, why bother wasting a crew spot on a physician if they will not be able to help?” This is a fallacy. It
is more likely that an injury will occur to an individual. Accidents that happen to the entire crew may occur, but this
does not mean that there should not be a physician to treat and minimize injuries on the crew.
The loss of a single crew member would mean the loss of research and exploration time and capabilities. Loss of the
pilot could complicate or prevent safe return of the entire crew. A severely injured crew member would require that the
other members of the crew spend additional time from their schedules in direct medical care of that crewman, thus
removing a second or even a third crew member from a large portion of their daily activities. This would have a major
negative impact upon mission capabilities. The public relations fallout from a preventable death would be enormous,
and could hurt further missions.
Cross Training
Physicians often have varied scientific backgrounds prior to their training in medical school. In the United States
physicians must have completed an undergraduate degree prior to matriculation to medical school. Many physicians
have backgrounds in rigorous scientific fields such as chemistry, physics, biology and engineering. Degrees in these
fields are required to be competitive for admission to medical school. It would be simpler to take a physician with such
a background and provide them with the necessary training to be a field scientist then it would be to take a field scientist
and make them a physician.
It takes a minimum of seven years to become a general physician, and training in surgical specialties may take up to
twelve years. By choosing a physician who has an undergraduate degree in science, field training will be shortened to
an acceptable level in preparation for a Mars exploration mission. This means that the doctor on board will not be an
extraneous “Ship’s Doctor” waiting around for an emergency to happen, but will instead be a productive, fully
functioning member of the crew.
Types of Emergencies
There are three basic types of accidents with injuries:
1. Those that will kill you no matter what you do
2. Those that will get better no matter what you do
3. Those that will get better only with prompt treatment
In any given situation the type of injury is essentially random. For serious injuries, some will kill the person
immediately, some will not be life threatening, but will require treatment, and some will go either way. The third set is
where emergency training can have the greatest benefit, but emergency training can also reduce the severity of injury
and shorten recovery time in the second set as well. Therefore in the majority of injuries the presence of a physician
will make a significant difference in the acute management of the patient, and can make a life or death difference.
The actual types of injuries that could be expected on a manned mission to Mars include a litany too long to be explored
in detail in this paper. They include traumatic injuries such as falls, blunt trauma, fires, electrical injuries,
decompression injuries and injuries from equipment failure. Psychological factors and inattention can contribute to
errors and accidents.8 There are unknown environmental injuries, such as the effects of accidental exposure to the
Martian atmosphere. This could result in hypothermia, toxic side effects, and pulmonary damage from particulate
inhalation, and hypobaric injuries. There are numerous dangerous toxins and explosive items carried onboard the
spacecraft.9 There are inherent medical problems involved with long-term space flight and microgravity that have
detrimental consequences such as calcium bone loss, autonomic instability, and muscle atrophy10 which could increase
–2–
the risk of accidents and increase the severity.11 Prolonged microgravity may increase the risk of dangerous cardiac
arrhythmias12 and kidney stones.13 There are risks from infectious disease organisms on board the spacecraft14 and the
dangers of the crew’s weakening immune systems. There are numerous difficulties inherent in predicting what type of
accidents will occur, because if you could predict them then you would be able to prevent them.15 Therefore the best
response is to be prepared for the worst possible event that can happen. By taking care of the downside, the upside will
take care of itself.
The Emergency Medicine specialist may provide more of an advantage on the expedition. The emergency medicine
physician specializes in resuscitation and management of all types of emergencies. The emergency physician works in a
chaotic and unpredictable environment in the emergency department. Trauma surgeons focus on the surgical management
of blunt and penetrating injuries. This is a more focused approach then the generalist approach of the emergency
physician. The emergency physician may be better equipped to treat injuries that do not require emergent surgery.
Patients who have injuries severe enough to require emergent surgery have a much higher morbidity and mortality rate.
Even with proper treatment and intervention there is a high risk of death. In the final risk / benefit analysis it may seem
that if the patient is sick enough to need a trauma surgeon their survivability is so low it may not be worth having the
physician on board. For the severely injured but not immediately fatal patient, an emergency physician trained in a
broader range of emergencies would seem to be a more appropriate choice to provide “more bang for the buck.”
Prompt recognition and treatment of emergency conditions allows for improved treatment. Operational experience in
handling emergencies provides a background that would be difficult to obtain during the heavy training schedule
required for a Mars crew.
To demonstrate the possible impact of varying levels of training to an emergency situation an experiment was performed
using the human patient simulator.
Three groups were utilized. The first group consisted of Emergency Medicine Attendants. These individuals have
completed all specialty training and are Board Certified by the national specialty boards. This is the highest level of
medical training available. The second group consisted of Paramedics and Emergency Medical technicians. These are
individuals who daily handle the initial care of all types of emergency problems. The final group consisted of third year
medical students. These students have completed two years of classroom training, and are involved in the clinical aspect
of their medical training, which is an additional two years.
–3–
Three standardized emergencies deemed likely to occur during a manned mission to Mars were created and implemented
using the Eagle patient simulator. This is a complex, sophisticated mannequin that very accurately represents human
response to injury. All encounters were videotaped and graded on a standardized system such as is used for Advanced
Trauma Life Support Training and Emergency Medicine oral examinations.
The three scenarios chosen involved a single astronaut and three crew responders. The crew was informed that they
could ask “Mission Control” for any information or suggestions, but all responses would be delayed by 20 minutes. The
crew received a short 5-minute briefing of the scenario and then was sent to the room containing the simulator.
The first scenario involved a trauma scenario in which the astronaut develops a pneumothorax and internal bleeding
leading to shock (see appendix for further information). The second scenario involved a rapid decompression with
embolism, hypothermia and neurologic deficit. The third scenario was an exposure to hydrazine resulting in respiratory
distress, stridor and hypoxia.
All settings, key actions, and results were determined prior to crew testing. The results were tallied based on analysis
of the videotape. Scoring was based on completion of critical actions and time to complete the scenario. Delay due to
contacting mission control for guidance was noted.
Results
As expected the attending physicians performed at a significantly superior level. All critical actions were rapidly
performed, there were no adverse events, and mission control was not contacted prior to disposition.
The paramedics and EMT’s performed at an intermediate level. All critical actions were performed, but not as
efficiently as for the attending physicians. Time to diagnosis and treatment was about 33% longer than that of the
attending physicians. Mission control was contacted for guidance once. There were no adverse events.
The medical students were significantly poorer in performance. Their time to diagnosis was up to 75% longer than that
of the attending physicians. Mission control was contacted in each case, and this was responsible for the majority of
the delay. There was a death due to unrecognized esophageal intubation with the endotracheal tube, and failure to
oxygenate in the third scenario.
Conclusion
Crews on a mission to Mars will encounter emergency medical crisis situations. In order to handle these situations
efficiently and provide the greatest margin of safety for the crew, physicians trained in Emergency Medicine and Trauma
Surgery should be incorporated into the crew. The higher level of training provided by these physicians and the skills
they possess would be difficult for non-physicians to obtain. These skills can be crucial in determining the difference
between life and death for an injured crew member. Therefore it is imperative that an attending level physician who is
appropriately trained be included in a manned mission to Mars.
Acknowledgment
I would like to thank Mimi Hotchkiss, RN, CRNA and the Medical College of Virginia Human Simulation Center for
donating their time and resources to this project.
–4–
• IV access available
Props:
• storage shelves in area stacked with empty, closed boxes
• Thomas Pack (located in back, far wall under control room window) includes:
• Airway equipment(scope / blades / ETT / mask / NC / OA / NA)
• IV setup
• stethoscope
• LR
• Oxygen tank placed on side, against wall with app. Valve
• Ambu bag
• Pulse oximeter machine
• ETCO2 detector
• Silver rewarming blankets
• Drugs:
• Albuterol
• Aminophylline
• Corticosteroids
• (5) of each: epinephrine, atropine, lidocaine, morphine
• LifePak 12
• LifePak 12 simulator attached; remote in control room
Patient Profile:
Age: 35 years old
Gender: Male
PMH: None
PSH: Appendectomy 20 years ago without complications. Cholecystectomy 2 years ago without complications.
MEDS: None
Allergies: None
Operator Notes
Decompression Scenario (Hypothermia, Air Embolism +/- Pneumothorax, Neuro deficit):
Site: Mars Hab Module
Situation:
Four astronauts have been on the Mars Hab Module for the last six months. (This allows time for the body to equilibrate
to gravity changes.) An astronaut develops a leak in his space suit and quickly returns to the air lock. During the re-
pressurization process he looses consciousness and drops to the floor. When the other astronauts arrive, they find their
colleague in and out of consciousness. Initial VS are BP in the 90’s, HR about 110. Patient quickly decompensated
over the next 5 minutes. VS changes are BP in 70-80’s, HR 130-150 and SaO2 falls to 80-90’s.
Role:
First responder astronaut (Captain) [participant placed on wireless microphone and remote headset with microphone
located on top of head and out of contact]
Objectives:
1. Identify signs and symptoms of hypothermia.
2. Identify signs and symptoms of air embolism.
3. Identify signs and symptoms of pneumothorax.
4. Perform appropriate medical interventions for the above conditions:
–5–
• Airway management
• IV access
• Rhythm recognition
• Vital signs assessment
• Pharmacological intervention
• rewarming
• neuro exam
• recognize need for re-pressurization
Situation:
Four astronauts have been on the Mars Hab Module for the last six months. (This allows time for the body to equilibrate
to gravity changes.) An astronaut is coming in through the airlock and performs inadequate decontamination procedures
after removing his space suit. He immediately begins to experience SOB. He calls on the intercom system to notify his
–6–
colleagues that he is in distress. When the other astronauts arrive, they find their colleague on the floor experiencing
difficulty in breathing. Initial VS are BP in the 120’s, HR about 110. Patient quickly decompensated over the next 5
minutes. VS changes are BP in 100’s, HR 120-130 and SaO2 falls to 70-80’s.
Objectives:
5. Identify signs and symptoms of hydrazine exposure.
6. Identify signs and symptoms of pulmonary edema.
7. Identify signs and symptoms of hypoxia.
8. Perform appropriate medical interventions for the above conditions:
• Begin decontamination procedures
• Airway management
• IV access
• Rhythm recognition
• Vital signs assessment
• Pharmacological intervention
–7–
Multi-Trauma Scenario (Hypovolemia / shock, Pneumothorax, Pelvic Fracture and Concussion)
Site: Mars Hab Module
Situation:
Four astronauts have been on the Mars Hab Module for the last six months. (This allows time for the body to equilibrate
to gravity changes.) An astronaut is in the storage area and attempting to remove boxes from the top of the shelves. As
the astronaut is removing a large box, he suddenly falls and knocks several heavy boxes down on top of him. Other
astronauts hear the loud crash and come rushing into the storage area. When the other astronauts arrive, they find their
colleague awake but in severe pain. Initial VS are BP in the 90’s, HR about 110. Patient quickly decompensates over
the next 5 minutes. VS changes are BP in 60 – 70’s, HR 130-140 and SaO2 falls to 70’s.
Objectives:
9. Identify signs and symptoms of hypovolemia / shock.
10. Identify signs and symptoms of pneumothorax.
11. Identify signs and symptoms of pelvic fracture.
12. Perform appropriate medical interventions for the above conditions:
• Airway management
• IV access
• Stabilization of pelvis
• Rhythm recognition
• Vital signs assessment
• Pharmacological intervention
• Pain management
• Evaluation of blood loss for possible transfusion
–8–
References
1. “Human Exploration of Mars: The Reference Mission of the NASA Mars Exploration Study Team,” NASA SP-6017, Stephen J. Hoffman and
David I. Kaplan, editors, Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas, July 1997.
2. Holland D. Some virtual reality and telemedicine applications useful for long duration spaceflight from a systems engineering perspective.
Stud Health Technol Inform. 1999; 62: 141-7.
3. Dorn CR. Applications of telemedicine in the United States space program. Telemed J. 1998 Spring; 4(1): 19-30.
4. Grigoriev AI. Medical monitoring in long-term space missions. Adv Space Biol Med. 1997; 6: 167-91.
5. Crump WJ. An application of telemedicine technology for otorhinolaryngology diagnosis. Laryngoscope. 1996 May; 106(5 Pt 1): 595-8.
6. Campbell MR. Surgical care in space. Tex Med. 1998 Feb; 94(2): 69-74.
7. Davis JR. Medical issues for a mission to Mars. Tex Med. 1998 Feb; 94(2): 47-55.
8. Manzey D. Mental performance in extreme environments: results from a performance monitoring study during a 438-day spaceflight.
Ergonomics. 1998 Apr; 41(4): 537-59.
9. James JT. Carcinogens in spacecraft air. Radiat Res. 1997 Nov; 148(5 Suppl): S11-6.
10. Vernikos J. Human physiology in space. Bioessays. 1996 Dec; 18(12): 1029-37.
11. Buckley JC Jr. Preparing for Mars: the physiologic and medical challenges. Eur J Med Res. 9-Sep-1999; 4(9): 353-6
12. Rossum AC. Evaluation of cardiac rhythm disturbances during extravehicular activity. Am J Cardiol. 1997 Apr 15; 79(8): 1153-5
13. Whitson PA. Renal stone risk assessment during Space Shuttle flights. J Urol. 1997 Dec; 158(6) 2305-10.
14. Viktorov AN. Residential colonization of orbital complex “Mir” environment by penicillium chrysogenum and problem of ecological safety
in long-term space flight (abstract). Aviakosm Ekolog Med. 1998; 32(5): 57-62.
15. Billica RD. Perception of the medical risk of spaceflight. Avait Space Environ Med. 1996 May; 67(5): 467-73.
16. Gonzalez MA. An integrated logistics support system for training crew medical officers in advanced cardiac life support management. Comput
Methods Programs Biomed. 1999 May; 59(2): 115-29.
–9–
Manned Missions To Mars: Use Of Diagnostic Sonography
List of Abbreviations:
AG = Artificial Gravity
DRM = Design Reference Mission
ISS = International Space Station
EVA = Extravehicular Activity
SMS = Space Motion Sickness
TCD = Transcranial Doppler
Introduction
It has been said that all the “hardware” for a manned mission to Mars is currently available or can be readily modified
from available technology.1 However, the major limitations in accomplishing such a mission primarily involve
uncertainties involving human factors.
Thee are major unknowns involving the effect of long-duration (greater than the longest Mir mission of 14 months)
exposure to microgravity with intervening episodes of up to 29 forces expected on entry to and exit from Mars as well
as during Earth re-entry. This web site provides an overview of the potential perils of such a mission and proposes
possible countermeasures to these. It is divided into discussions of the predictable perils during transit to and from Mars
(the Journey) and those that may occur while the space crew is on the surface of Mars (Habitation and Exploration).
The potential uses of diagnostic sonography during such a mission are also addressed.
A few of the important questions that come to mind regarding this mission are:
1. Will the astronauts “weather” the relatively long trip to Mars and be physically and mentally able to complete their
tasks when they arrive?
2. Will they be able to cope with long duration (minimum 30 months) space flight and mission and the ride “home”?
3. Will they be able to cope with acute and chronic medical problems that can occur in transit or while on Mars?
4. What are the predictable perils (both physical, such as meteor collision, as well as mental) and possible
countermeasures to these potential problems?
5. How can diagnostic sonography be used during this and other long duration missions?
Some of the predictable perils of a manned Mars mission have been formulated in the Design Reference Mission (DRM)
described by Dr. Charles.2 It is proposed to test some of these when the Mars Habitat is attached to ISS. Several other
important points made in his presentation include:
Arthur C. Fleischer, M.D.; Chief, Diagnostic Sonography; Vanderbilt Center for Space Physiology and Medicine, 21st Avenue S. and Garland
St., Nashville, Tennessee USA 37232-2675; Phone: (615) 322-3274; Fax: (615) 343-2512; E-mail: arthur.fleischer@mcmail.vanderbilt.edu;
–1–
Manned Missions To Mars: Use Of Diagnostic Sonography
1. A Mars mission would require a minimum duration of 30 months. The length alone of such a mission is a major
factor considering the longest duration experienced by a spacecrew member in Earth’s orbit up to now is as part of
a Mir spacecrew. The proposed duration of stay on the International Space Station (ISS) for the space crew is only
3-6 months. There is no data on effects of long (greater than several months) duration spaceflight.
2. The number and severity of episodes of hypergravity and G transitions will be greater than Earth missions with 1.5-
2.0g for Earth aerobreaking compared to 3-5g x 2 for Earth and Mars aerobraking. There will be a doubling of G
transitions for a Mars mission (Earth = 2, Mars = 4).
3. There will be frequent extravehicular activities (EVA’s) on a Mars mission versus infrequent for Earth orbit
missions.
4. One has to consider extraterrestrial toxins on Mars as opposed to only spacecraft and terrestrial toxins for Earth
related missions.
Dr. Charles’ excellent overview serves as a guide to formulate countermeasures to predictable perils.2 Other issues such
as development and implementation of bioregenerative systems needed for a long duration mission and special
requirements of a proposed mission deploying an Earth return vehicle and fuel generation plant to Mars’ surface before
a manned mission is launched also need to be addressed. Some of what follows is based on this work.
Delays in communication between the spacecrew and Earth centers will vary from 3-20 minutes depending on the
distance the space crew are from the Earth. This necessitates handling of some decisions without real-time
communication from controllers on Earth. It also mandates the ability of the spacecraft to alter course immediately if
there is a perceived danger of unexpected collision with meteors or space debris.
It should be pointed out that these predictable physiologic changes are based on our experience with relatively short
duration missions, however. Prior to the actual Mars mission, it is proposed that the Mars Habitat Module should be
tested while attached to the International Space Station in low Earth orbit. The “livability” of the module may be tested
during 3-6 month mission of ISS before being optimized for the Mars mission.
Changes in gravity receptors have extensive effects including effects on vestibular apparatus in the inner ear. The
neurovestibular appropriates detection of normal orientation of the body in space as well as acceleration / deceleration
forces. Some have advocated the use of cushioned shoes to better simulate gravity’s effect while in space. In space,
touch and pressure receptors no longer signal the “down” direction. These problems contribute to visual-orientation
illusions and feelings of self-inversion, such as feeling that the body or the spacecraft is spontaneously reorienting.
Space motion sickness (SMS) will affect some astronauts, more the rookies than the pros, during the first few days of
the mission. This is why major tasks are typically not planned in the first few days of a mission. Conceivably, SMS
may also affect space crew that returns from Mars missions after an extended stay on the planet. The symptoms of SMS
–2–
Manned Missions To Mars: Use Of Diagnostic Sonography
include headache, impaired concentration, loss of appetite, stomach “awareness,” and vomiting. Although typically
experienced in the first few days of spaceflight, some cosmonauts have reported SMS toward the end of long missions.3
Another major effect of weightlessness involves fluid shifts within the body. Within minutes of arriving in a
microgravity environment, the astronaut’s neck veins (internal jugular veins) bulge and the face becomes puffy. As the
process of fluid migration to the chest and head continues, sinus and nasal congestion results – altering taste and smell.
These fluid shifts occur because the body fluids no longer have appreciable weight in microgravity. It is important to
realize that about 60% of a person’s weight is water which is contained either in the cells of the body (intracellular), in
arteries or veins (plasma volume), or in the spaces between blood vessels and cells (interstitial spaces). Average loss of
plasma volume while in space is 9%. When a person stands up, gravity contributes to physiologic changes, termed
hydrostatic changes, in these three compartments. In feet, both arterial and venous pressure can increase by 100 mm
Hg, double the normal arterial pressure and many times the normal venous pressure.
In space, hydrostatic pressure does not play an important role in fluid distribution. Direct measurements of weight
volume have shown that each leg loses approximately 1 liter of fluid (almost 1/10th of the total volume) in the first day.
This contributes to the development of “chicken legs” and is associated with a plasma volume diminution of
approximately 20% accompanied by an increase in the frequency and volume of urination. These changes initiate a
cascade of renal, hormonal, and electrolyte ones which include an approximate 20% increase in kidney filtration rate,
and a relative anemia due to decreased production of red blood cells (erythrocytes) due to the body’s perceived
overabundance of erythrocytes.
To counteract this effect, daily and vigorous treadmill exercising while using “vacuum pants” or a “skirt” while the
astronaut is tethered to the machine can be used to encourage fluid into the legs. In addition, the exposure of the
astronauts to artificial gravity by rotation of the space habitat may reduce these effects.
Artificial gravity (AG) may be used to pre-adapt the space crew to Mars gravity (outbound) and re-adapt to Earth gravity
(inbound). For a Mars mission, it could provide extended physiologic protection from 1g, ease transition throughout
1/3g exposure, and provide 1g outbound and inbound. However, as of now, there is no consensus regarding the AG
levels needed for an exploratory mission. According to the DRM, a research program should be initiated to determine
optimal characteristics for intermittent AG, identification of threshold values needed to optimize human performance,
and to determine optimal AG characteristics.2
Another major effect of space flight that will affect space crew in a Mars mission relates to changes in muscle and bone
mass. Because the force of gravity is removed in space, the spine straightens and people actually grow 2” or so. In
addition, lungs, heart, and other organs expand. As one shuttle physician / astronaut (Dr. F. Andrew Gaffney) stated,
“You feel your guts floating up. I found myself tightening my abdomen, pushing things back.”3
Because skeletal muscle, which evolved to allow an upright position in gravity, atrophies in microgravity, changes in the
physiologic function are altered in space. The muscle groups used with the space environment, namely for fast contractile
fibers differ significantly from those needed on Earth. Exercise is vital to maintain adequate muscle and bone density.
Changes in bone density can also be predicted as a result of the change in osteoclasts vs. osteoblasts (construction vs.
destruction of bone elements). The process also changes calcium concentrations and distribution. Joint Russian and
American studies have shown that cosmonauts lose bone from the lower lumbar vertebrae, hips, and upper femur at the
rate of 1% per month.3 This would compute to up to 36% loss for a 3 year mission which is very substantial! Increased
calcium turnover could also contribute to formation to renal calculi.
This problem with bone loss can be compared to the problem of decreased bone density in post-menopausal women.
The major countermeasure to this is for astronauts to perform vigorous onboard exercise which increases blood flow to
muscle and provides a stimulus to maintain bone density.
–3–
Manned Missions To Mars: Use Of Diagnostic Sonography
Other predictable changes include changes in the immune system, human factors involving poor quality sleep,
psychological irritation of close living quarters and radiation effects. Immune system changes may contribute to a
relative immunodeficiency.4 Changes in day/night cycles can contribute to adverse effects on circadian rhythms, which
negatively impact on proper and sufficient sleep patterns. And we all know what poor sleep does to our interaction with
our fellow human beings!
The radiation affects, both predictable and unpredictable, will be an important field on a Mars mission. According to
the DRM, a Mars mission should involve 26-30 months exposure to both galactic cosmic radiation and solar particle
events. In addition, there would be significant exposure risk if a nuclear power reactor were used for the spaceship. An
astronaut spending 1-year in Earth orbit would receive a radiation dose ten times that of ground inhabitants.1 It is
predicted that a one-year stay on the Moon would result in a dose seven times higher and a flight to Mars would be even
worse. Sudden outflows of particles from the sun, like that that occurred in August of 1972, can deliver a dose of more
than one thousand times annual ground dose in less than 1 day.1 Fortunately, such events are rare and spacecraft will
contain areas of special shielding in which the astronauts can temporarily shelter from such a threat. The long-term
effects of radiation, namely the risk of potentiating cancer, cannot be definitively assessed since it is impossible to
completely replicate the radiation dose that an astronaut would receive on a long duration mission.
For short-term missions, returning to Earth affords spontaneous and complete reversal of the previously mentioned
effects of space travel. However, the actual effects of space flight can only be clearly appreciated by the astronaut and
ground based observers. For example, space crew find it difficult to stand up for more than 10 minutes without feeling
faint immediately after landing. This phenomenon is termed orthostatic intolerance and can be observed in bedridden
and some elderly people on Earth. Other effects of long-term duration flight that have Earth-related counterparts involve
wobbliness created by space travel and tendency of the elderly to fall, bone and muscle loss experienced in space and
osteoporosis, immunodeficiency, poor sleep patterns with associated decrease in motor coordination. Analysis of the
data derived from the return of Astronaut / Senator Glenn may help clarify some of these issues as they relate to space
travel as well their counterparts involved in aging processes in Earth-bound folk.
Experience coping with Mir and ISS missions will be vital to better understand and deal with issues involving long
duration spaceflight. In addition, the optimal uses and integration of such low Earth orbit space stations for future
launch, control, or other activities for support of long duration space flight might be determined.
Probably, the most important crew member on a long duration mission is the “mechanic,” followed by a physician who
could tend to the medical and emotional needs of the crew as discussed by Dr. Zubrin on Destination Mars, 1997.1
Multicultural differences need to be taken into account, as well as the ability of the crew to respond and communicate
with one another and act as a team.
–4–
Manned Missions To Mars: Use Of Diagnostic Sonography
between Earth and Mars can be traced to a lack of an atmosphere to contain vital gases. The thin (less than 1% of Earth’s)
atmosphere consists primarily of carbon dioxide. Water on Mars is concentrated at the polar ice caps and deep within the
crust. Mars has approximately one tenth of the water present on Earth. Its gravity is approximately one third of Earth’s.
The temperature extremes on the surface of Mars are formidable, from -120ºC at the poles in “winter” to +25ºC at the
equator in “summer.”9 The average temperature on the surface of Mars is -50ºC. There is no atmosphere to block
ultraviolet rays from reaching Mars surface. These factors must be considered while organizing a manned Mars mission.
As of now, it is proposed that the habitat and fuel generation facility be operational prior to launching the astronauts.2
A Mars “day” is nearly that of Earth’s (24 hrs 37 minutes) but its orbit around the sun takes about 2 Earth years. The
Mars habitat must contain a radiation shelter for contingent use during a solar flare. The space suits used should be
shielded as well. The space suit used on a Mars mission needs to be maximally flexible as well as protective in order
to provide safety with flexibility during excursions on the surface of Mars.
Other predictable perils to humans while on Mars include violent wind and sand storms (with winds up to 80 mph) and
unpredictable episodes of massive cosmic radiation.1 Thus the space crew can not venture too far (less than 1 mile)
from the habitat or have some means of surface transport that can get them back to home base as soon as possible if
either of these occur.
Table 2 lists some of the important parameters pertinent to planning of a Mars mission. While there are some similarities
between Earth and Mars, i.e., the length of its “day” and surface temperature extremes, many other parameters are quite
dissimilar and need to be considered in planning a manned mission to Mars.
Accordingly, it is highly recommended that those planning a Mars mission to have diagnostic sonography available both
during transit and within the Mars habitat. Each of these potential applications will be addressed. A more in-depth
discussion can be found elsewhere.6
–5–
Manned Missions To Mars: Use Of Diagnostic Sonography
Maintenance of bone density and muscle turgor will require that the astronauts exercise a minimum of two hours while
in transit. As with any form of vigorous exercise, the possibility for acute injury exists. Diagnostic sonography provides
a means to diagnose a variety of these, including rotator cuff tear, carpal tunnel syndrome, Achilles tendon rupture, renal
/ liver / pancreatic trauma, testicular or adnexal torsions, to name a few.
Ultrasound can also be used to monitor an astronaut’s bone density by determining the speed of sound (SOS), bone
attenuation (B. A. in dB/cm) and a mathematically derived value of “bone stiffness” (T-score), which is related to
trabecular structure. It is possible that bone sonometery will be used weekly to monitor and detect early significant bone
density loss. It will also be a means to monitor changes in bone density with various therapeutic regimens.
3-D color Doppler sonography may also be used to depict changes in blood flow to muscle before and after exercise
(Figures 3A, 3B, 3C). This information may be useful in monitoring muscle health and early detection of atrophy.
Some of these changes can be assessed using echocardiography. They should be correlated with changes in
hemodynamics that have been described through the use of continuous central venous pressure monitoring.7 This brings
to mind a few more questions:
These questions need to be addressed on ground-based studies as well as ones done on ISS. There is extensive literature
on the cardiovascular effects of space travel but does it apply to long duration missions? How is intracerebral blood
flow affected by cardiovascular changes? Transcranial Doppler US may help. This technique is difficult even in the
most experienced hands on Earth let alone in space! (Figure 4)
Radiation effects:
Excessive radiation can result in a variety of disorders including death of any rapidly growing cell. This may lead to a
variety of symptoms arising from radiation sickness, ranging from acute diarrhea to chronic potentiation of cancers.
Abdominal sonography may be used to distinguish other causes of abdominal pain (i.e., pancreatitis, cholecystitis) from
those symptoms of acute radiation sickness.
Radiation hazards may arise for unpredictable sources and there needs to be an “early warning system” to detect them.
This would allow the space crew to seek shelter and protection as soon as possible.
Acute trauma:
The rigors of space travel and work (exercise, EVAs) may be associated with acute trauma, be it musculoskeletal or other
organ system disorders (Figure 5). Diagnostic sonography can be used to diagnose and assess the extent and response
to treatment of the disorders such as pancreatitis secondary to blunt abdominal trauma.5
–6–
Manned Missions To Mars: Use Of Diagnostic Sonography
Other:
Another peril to the space crew is possible collision with meteorites and/or space junk. An ever-vigilant warning system
is needed for this problem. Can the astronauts deal with sudden terror? The “cool” demeanor of astronaut / cosmonaut
Jerry Lenninger allowed him to survive a life threatening series of mishaps on Mir.5 If a rescue mission was required,
could the equipment stand the rigors of the trip? The recent attempt to airlift medical supplies and equipment to the
Antarctic exemplified this!
Summary
Full and proper consideration of human element issues is the most complex and vital part of a manned Mars Mission.
Manned Mars missions will pose significant physiologic and psychological challenges to the spacecrew. Some of the
potential perils can be simulated with ground based experiments while others will only become apparent during the mission.
This work provides an overview of the predictable perils proposed countermeasures involved in manned Mars missions.
Table 1 lists the predictable perils and possible countermeasures to these. I believe it is wise to “expect the unexpected.”
I also believe having a trained physician on board will be vital to the success of such missions.
Table 2 compares some of the Earth and Martian parameters that are important for factoring into a manned Mars
mission. Although much of the Martian surface can be considered a “rusty desert” there are high volcanoes and deep
canyons to be reckoned with.
A unified and inspired effort is needed to realize the goal of safe journey and habitation of Mars in the near (next 15
years) future. Diagnostic sonography provides an important part of ensuring the health and safety of Mars space
travelers. Table 3 summarizes some of the sonographic techniques that may be useful in a manned Mars Mission. As
sonographic techniques improve, additional technology will and should be added to that already in space or awaiting
delivery into space.
Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank ATL / Phillips, Inc. for their financial support of this project. Specifically I would like
to acknowledge Mr. Bob Dockendorf, Vice President of Sales, for his support of this and other research projects. Braden
and Lynn Fleischer are thanked for their review and help creating this web page. Lorene Walter and Janet Staley are
recognized for their editorial assistance. The helpful comments of David Martin, RDMS of Wiley Labs, John Charles,
Ph.D. of NASA Johnson Space Center and Rhea Seddon, M.D., F. Andrew Gaffney, M.D., and David Robertson, M.D.,
Ph.D., of Vanderbilt University Center for Space Physiology and Medicine are also appreciated.
References
Destination Mars. Discovery Series Videotape, 1997. Charles, John Human Health and Performance Aspects of the Mars Design Reference
Mission.
1. Charles, John Design Reference Mission (DRM) Human Space Life Sciences Program Office (HSLSPO) NASA – Johnson Space Center,
Houston TX, 1997.
2. White, R. Weightlessness and the Human Body Scientific American. Sept. 1998 p51-63.
3. Jensen, W Notes from SpSt 410, University of N. Dakota, Olegard School of Aerospace Studies.
4. Terror in Space. Nova, 1997 (WGBH PBS Boston).
5. Fleischer AC: The use of diagnostic sonography on long duration spaceflight. Paper for SpSt 410. University of North Dakota Olegard School
of Aerospace Science. May 3, 1999.
6. Buckey, J. Gaffney, F, et al. Central venous pressure in space: letter to editor NEJM 328(25):1853-1854, 1993.
7. Raeburn, P Uncovering the secrets of the Red Planet, N.Y., Nat. Geographic, 1998.
8. Couper H, Henbest N. The Space Atlas - A Pictoral Atlas of our Universe. London: D. Kindersly Pub 1992 p. 28-29.
9. Zubrin, R. The Case for Mars - The Plan to Settle the Red Planet and Why We Must. N.Y.: Simon and Schuster 1996 p.3.
–7–
Manned Missions To Mars: Use Of Diagnostic Sonography
Tables
–8–
Manned Missions To Mars: Use Of Diagnostic Sonography
* from Ref. 9
–9–
Manned Missions To Mars: Use Of Diagnostic Sonography
Figures
Figure 3B
– 10 –
Manned Missions To Mars: Use Of Diagnostic Sonography
– 11 –
Manned Missions To Mars: Use Of Diagnostic Sonography
Figure 5D Sonogram showing torn Achilles tendon in long axis. (Courtesy ATL / Phillips)
– 12 –
Preliminary Design Considerations For The M.A.R.S. Wastewater Treatment System:
Physico-Chemical Or Living Machine?
Abstract
The Mars Society has been preparing designs for a terrestrial-based analog human habitat for Mars. The Mars Arctic
Research Station (M.A.R.S.), currently in the design phase, is slated for construction beginning in July of 2000 in
Haughton Crater on Devon Island in northern Canada. An important component of the M.A.R.S. will be the waste
treatment system. Housing four to six people, the M.A.R.S. will produce both gray water and domestic sewage that
requires treatment. The external environment of the M.A.R.S. imposes unique design constraints, affecting size, cost,
reliability, and other critical features of the waste treatment system. The focus of this paper is on the treatment of the
wastewater, but the ultimate design for the M.A.R.S. – and for Mars missions in general – will need to be multipurpose
with considerations of water recycling, nutrient recycling, and food production. To begin the design process, it is
important to review alternative treatment systems that are available. The literature on alternatives is reviewed, including
conventional physico-chemical treatment, microbial reactors, algal turf scrubbers, and treatment wetlands. An analysis
is made of the relative qualities of these systems to assist in the choice of designs for the M.A.R.S. Some systems, such
as some conventional physico-chemical systems, may serve only the purpose of waste treatment, while other systems
(especially biologically based systems) have regenerative potential. Two of these systems – algal turf scrubbers and
treatment wetlands – are selected for more in-depth engineering analysis, with preliminary calculations for scaling to a
six-man crew. Ultimately, the selected design will probably be a modular system with treatment unit processes hooked
up in series for progressive stepwise treatment. Finally, consideration is given to adapting Arctic species to treatment
systems to enhance performance in a colder, low-light environment.
Introduction
Any manned Mars mission will require a certain degree of self-sufficiency in food production and waste recycling. The
Mars Society’s Mars Arctic Research Station (M.A.R.S.) planned for Haughton Crater in Devon Island will be an
opportunity to test some strategies and technologies for achieving the goal of closure and self-sufficiency. Designing a
closed life-support system for a mission to Mars presents a variety of challenges, such as low temperatures, low water
availability, high ultraviolet light exposure, and low availability of nutrients. Many of these same challenges will be
faced in the planning of the Devon Island experiment. To overcome these challenges, resource-recovery waste treatment
processes must be incorporated into the mission that are multipurpose and multifunctional. The purpose of this paper
is to begin the analysis of a wastewater treatment system for the Devon Island station within the context of multiple
objectives and optimal choice of alternatives.
There is a large literature base on the design of life support systems for manned space travel that is relevant to the design
of the Devon Island station and ultimately to a manned Mars station. The kinds of technologies that have been
considered can be classified along a gradient of resource re-utilization, ranging from non-renewable to renewable /
regenerative. At the non-renewable end, the mission strategy is to carry from the mission’s start all the resources (water,
oxygen, food, etc.) required for the entire mission as storage, and wastes are discharged as they are produced or stored
for later disposal. At the other end of this gradient are regenerative technologies, which emphasize the production of
consumables from the recycling of waste materials. The literature includes designs for life support systems developed
for spacecraft, space stations, and extra-terrestrial settlements.
One of the continuing areas of discussion and investigation is the degree to which life support systems are mechanically
based versus biologically based. Physico-chemical life support alternatives have been well developed through the past
few decades (Eckart, 1996). While they have proven successful for the short-term or proximate Earth-orbital manned
missions of the past, these technologies exhibit few characteristics required for regenerative life support design.
David M. Blersch; University of Maryland, Department of Biological Resources Engineering; 1426 Animal Science / Ag. Engineering Bldg.,
College Park, Maryland 20742-5711 USA; Phone (301) 405-1183; Fax (301) 314-9023; email: dblersch@wam.umd.edu, dblersch@aol.com
–1–
Preliminary Design Considerations For The M.A.R.S. Wastewater Treatment System: Physico-Chemical Or Living Machine?
Research continues on developing viable biologically based regenerative “closed” life support systems in which some or
all wastes generated by a human crew are recycled into usable consumables. Examples of these technologies include the
NASA Advanced Life Support (ALS) development program, the Soviet / Russian experiments in BIOS-3, the Biosphere-
2 effort in Arizona, and a variety of interesting but lesser known experiments since the 1950’s (Taub, 1974; Eckart, 1996).
Table 1 summarizes some of the criteria evaluated qualitatively to choose between alternatives. The first four rows in
Table 1 are examples of physico-chemical treatment technologies that have been or are currently being studied in space
programs (Wieland, 1994; Eckart, 1995). A detailed explanation of the physico-chemical processes will not be
presented here; refer to Eckart (1995) for a discussion of these technologies. The last two rows represent examples of
“living machines” – a series of biologically based treatment processes utilizing controlled ecological design. The
criteria selected for analysis in Table 1 include some of the traditional tradeoff considerations, such as relative mass and
power consumption, along with considerations related to regenerative capacity and multifunctional potentials.
All of the systems considered in Table 1 have positive and negative aspects. Biological systems are usually more easily
integrated into regenerative life support systems with food production. They can efficiently recapture valuable nutrients
while providing a number of secondary services such as O2 production and CO2 absorption, and water purification
through plant transpiration. These systems, however, almost invariably require high mass investment to maintain
adequate growth conditions for the ecosystems utilized. High-energy inputs might also be required in the form of light
or heat, but these can be easily augmented by direct solar energy. Some physico-chemical systems offer some
regenerative characteristics comparable to biological systems, often recycling wastes into usable atmospheric
constituents. While these systems are generally more compact and of less mass than biologically-based systems, most
require a high concentrated energy input for the process to function. Nutrient recapture by these systems is generally
minimal, and they are thus more difficult to integrate into a food-production mission scenario. All these aspects must
be considered further and quantified in the context of specific mission design to determine which is appropriate for the
Devon Island station.
–2–
Preliminary Design Considerations For The M.A.R.S. Wastewater Treatment System: Physico-Chemical Or Living Machine?
Table 1. Preliminary review of wastewater treatment alternatives for the Mars Arctic Research Station (M.A.R.S.)
–3–
Preliminary Design Considerations For The M.A.R.S. Wastewater Treatment System: Physico-Chemical Or Living Machine?
represent the treatment unit processes, and the arrows represent the flow either of total organic carbon (reported as
chemical oxygen demand or COD) or of total nitrogen (TN) through the processes. Each system begins with a holding
tank, intended to provide flow capacitance to ensure an even flow rate to subsequent components. The tank is followed
first by an upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor (UASB) and then by an aerobic trickling filter (ATF). These
components are primarily responsible for the breakdown and digestion of the complex organic compounds in the waste,
the reduction of the COD to acceptable levels, and the nitrification of the nitrogen compounds. The UASB provides a
high-rate digestion process that is efficient at removing the high concentrations of COD with low sludge production (van
Haandel & Lettinga, 1994). The ATF efficiently completes the breakdown of the organic compounds and nitrification
of ammonia (Metcalf and Eddy, 1991).
Figure 1a. Wastewater treatment unit processes for a six-person food production mission scenario
Figure 1b. Wastewater treatment unit processes for a six-person food storage mission scenario
–4–
Preliminary Design Considerations For The M.A.R.S. Wastewater Treatment System: Physico-Chemical Or Living Machine?
At the end of each of the treatment systems, two photosynthetic controlled-ecology units, designed for the primary
function of reducing total nitrogen levels in the wastewater, are contrasted. The algal turf scrubber uses a complex,
stable community of attached filamentous algae as the basis for the nitrogen uptake (Adey, et al. 1993). In conventional
terrestrial wastewater treatment systems, algal turf scrubbers have exhibited a high rate of nutrient uptake in waters of
various nutrient concentrations (Craggs, et al. 1996). Optimizing the light and heat available to the algae community
maximizes primary productivity of the algae, and thus the nutrient uptake rate. Because they are complex communities,
algal turf scrubbers do not show the sensitivities and instabilities often found with monocultures of algae (Adey, et al.,
1993). Optimal operation of the algae system requires periodic harvesting of the algae biomass to remove metabolites
and grazer organisms. This stimulates increased productivity through regeneration of the algal thallus (Craggs, et al.
1996). For the calculations here, a primary productivity rate of 60.9 g•m-2•day-1 of algae biomass is assumed, with a
5% by mass nitrogen content (Adey, et al., 1993).
In contrast to the algal turf scrubbers, treatment wetlands consist of communities of higher emergent plants, usually
cattails, reeds, and bulrushes in standard terrestrial applications. Wetland cells may be designed where the water
undergoing treatment is maintained at a level below the top of a basin of gravel in which the plants grow. It is thought
that the biological reactions responsible for waste treatment are performed primarily by attached growth biofilm
organisms (Reed, et al., 1995). Thus, because of the high surface area for biofilm growth provided by the gravel
substrate and the plant roots, subsurface flow wetlands exhibit relatively high treatment efficiencies per unit of square
area of wetland. The gravel bed also provides a measure of thermal insulation, a positive consideration for designing
wetlands for colder climates (Reed, et al. 1995). Design of a wetland system for nitrogen removal is performed using
standard equations from the literature relating the flow rate, influent and desired effluent concentrations, and a reaction
coefficient dependent on temperature, here assumed to be 20°C (Reed, et al. 1995).
One of the fundamental differences between these two systems is the ultimate fate of nitrogen, important in
considerations of nutrient recycling in a closed life support system. In the algal turf scrubber, most of the nitrogen is
captured in the algae biomass. Thus, the biomass accumulated through the regular and periodic harvesting regime can
be used directly for fertilization of crops or for feeding of animals. In the treatment wetlands, however, nitrogen is lost
to the atmosphere as N2 gas through biological denitrification (Reed, et al., 1995). While this nitrogen might remain
captured by a tightly closed life support system, its recycling as a nutrient for crop growth would require additional mass
and energy investment in a process or processes for nitrogen fixation.
For the analysis presented here, the contrasting controlled-ecology unit processes are scaled to reduce the total nitrogen
loads to a level of 5 mg•L-1. Previous research has shown that most pathogens can be removed by these systems sized
for nutrient and COD removal, although post-processing (disinfection and filtration) would be desirable for potable
water generation (Metcalf and Eddy, 1991). Figure 1 summarizes the results of all calculations, showing the required
sizes for waste treatment for a six-person crew. Because of the greater waste volume in the food production scenario
(Figure 1a), these treatment unit processes are necessarily larger than for the food storage scenario (Figure 1b). The
preliminary unit processes were calculated to be relatively small and compact. Based upon the respective volumetric
flow rates for the waste stream, the holding tank was sized for each scenario to contain two days worth of wastewater
volume. The required anaerobic reactor, sized for 80 per cent removal efficiency of COD, was determined to be 0.093
m3 for the food production scenario and 0.035 m3 for the food storage scenario. The aerobic trickling filter, scaled for
85 per cent removal efficiency of COD, was sized at 0.082 m3 for the food production scenario and 0.031 m3 for the
food storage scenario.
A large size difference is seen between the two contrasting photosynthetic unit processes intended for nutrient recapture.
For each scenario, the algal turf scrubber was considerably larger than the contrasting treatment wetland – between 8
and 14 times larger on an area basis, and between 1½ and 3 times larger on a volume basis. These differences are based
on the fundamentally different ecosystem processes. Because its efficiency relies on maximization of primary
productivity, an algal turf scrubber is designed as a long, shallow raceway. Surface area is maximized to provide
maximum light availability to algae cells, and agitation of the thin film of water in the raceway maximizes nutrient
–5–
Preliminary Design Considerations For The M.A.R.S. Wastewater Treatment System: Physico-Chemical Or Living Machine?
mixing and delivery to the cells. Treatment wetlands, however, rely upon the extensive surface area of the gravel
substrate and of the plant root zone biomass to support the complex denitrifying bacterial community. Hence, they do
not require as much total square greenhouse area or growth basin volume for efficient treatment. It may be hypothesized
that these differences in size extrapolate directly to different energy requirements. The algal turf scrubbers naturally
demand a greater light intensity than do treatment wetlands for maximum treatment efficiency. Thus, for the algal
systems, the available solar light may have to be augmented by artificially produced light. Also, the higher surface area
of the algal turf scrubbers results in a greater rate of heat loss, demanding a more carefully controlled and larger, warmer
growth climate than the wetland cells.
Conclusions
Choosing between wastewater treatment alternatives will not be a simple decision for a Mars mission. A variety of
alternatives are available, and there are many criteria that need to be balanced and weighed in choosing between them,
as evidenced in Table 1. Will wastewater treatment be approached as an isolated system in the station design, serving
as a sink for the many waste compounds produced? Or does the treatment system need to be multifunctional and
accomplish resource recovery to integrate with other systems such as food production or atmospheric management? If
a Mars mission is to include provisions for food production, then issues such as nutrient recycling for food production
become a necessary consideration. If, however, food will be stored or supplied by regular shipment from Earth, nutrient
recapture may not be so much of a concern. Thus the details of the particular mission scenario need to be defined to
tailor the design to the specific requirements. It will be best to address these issues at the Devon Island station.
The ecologically engineered alternatives examined in more detail here require significant areas of controlled
temperature and light regimes for optimal performance. This will require significant investment in mass and energy for
a greenhouse or growth-chamber. At first, this requirement might seem to negate the viability of these options.
However, the benefit of these options over some physical-chemical systems is the ready production of O2 and
consumption of CO2, and the capture of critical nutrients in usable form for food production. Creativity in design might
offset some of the large area requirements of these systems. For example, algal scrubber raceways might be stacked one
on top of another so long as the proper environmental requirements (light, temperature, and water turbulence) were
provided. Additionally, these large area requirements might be advantageous in the context of food production: a
greenhouse designed to house a large algal scrubber raceway would necessarily have excellent conditions for crop
growth. Indeed, even larger areas of complex ecosystems have been advocated for remote life support. For example,
H. T. Odum (1963) predicted that as much as 2.5 acres (10,000 m2) of ecosystem per person would be required to
provide adequate functions of waste treatment, food production, and atmospheric regeneration. Large ecosystem areas
are thought to buffer the closed system environment and provide reliability for life support through the inherent and
redundant self-organizational and regenerative capabilities of complex biological systems.
The analysis here is certainly preliminary, and a number of refinements can be proposed. The qualitative assessments
in Table 1 can be quantified, particularly for the biological systems presented. A detailed design of a system would
include cost analysis, performance, mass analysis and power consumption, and materials and peripheral control and
support equipment requirements. Also, Table 1 presents only a sampling of the waste treatment technologies, both
physico-chemical and biological, that exist. Other options might be evaluated, either alone or in different combinations
with other unit processes. Some of the alternatives are better understood than others; for example, the algal turf
scrubbers, while exhibiting some attractive regenerative characteristics, are relatively early in their development stages.
Additional research and modeling of promising technologies, both biological and physico-chemical, are required before
sound engineering choices can be made. In the analysis presented here, the dynamics of critical atmospheric
constituents – particularly oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen – have not been addressed for all the biological unit
processes. This will be an important consideration that needs to be examined for determining the final design in a closed
system, as each process will potentially act as a source or a sink. Finally, the ecologically engineered designs presented
here assume temperate climate conditions, based upon the data available in the literature. Research into utilizing
biological systems of algae and plant communities pre-adapted to colder or low light environments may yield smaller,
more optimized designs ideal for the M.A.R.S. and eventually for Mars.
–6–
Preliminary Design Considerations For The M.A.R.S. Wastewater Treatment System: Physico-Chemical Or Living Machine?
References
1. Adey, W., Luckett, C., Jensen, K. 1993. Phosphorus removal from natural waters using controlled algal production. Restoration Ecology
March, 1993, 29-39.
2. Craggs, R.J., Adey, W.H., Jessup, B.K., Oswald, W.J. 1996. A controlled stream mesocosm for tertiary treatment of sewage. Ecological
Engineering 6: 149-169.
3. Eckart, P. 1996. Spaceflight Life Support and Biospherics. Torrance, CA: Microcosm Press.
4. Hall, J.B., Brewer, D.A. 1986. Supercritical water oxidation: concept analysis for evolutionary space station application. In: Aerospace
Environmental Systems: Proceedings of the Sixteenth ICES Conference P-177. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers.
5. Metcalf and Eddy, Inc. 1991. Wastewater Engineering: Treatment Disposal Reuse. New York: McGraw-Hill.
6. Odum, H.T. 1963. Limits of remote ecosystems containing man. Am. Biol. Teach. 25: 429-43.
7. Reed, S.C., Crites, R.W., Middlebrooks, E.J. 1995. Natural Systems for Waste Management and Treatment. New York: McGraw-Hill.
8. Taub, F. B. 1974. Closed ecological systems. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 5:139-160.
9. Van Haandel, A.C., Lettinga, G. 1994. Anaerobic Sewage Treatment. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
10. Wieland, P.O. 1994. Designing for human presence in space: An introduction of environmental control and life support systems. NASA RP-
1324.
–7–
Design and Resource Requirements for Successful Wind Energy Production on Mars
Abstract
Manned Mars missions (and some unmanned precursor missions) are expected to be long duration expeditions that rely
on the utilization of in-situ resources to the maximum extent possible. Traditionally, nuclear energy has been suggested
as the power supply of choice for such missions. However, in the event that nuclear power is unavailable, solar energy
is the only alternative power source that has received significant study to date. Unfortunately, the periodic and long
duration dust storms on Mars drive the need for extensive solar arrays to provide energy needs. This work considers
the possibility that wind energy may provide a secondary power source in an all-solar mission.
Previous studies have shown that a viable Martian wind energy system must be ultra-lightweight, deployable, and
robust. In this study, the possibility of meeting these criteria with buoyant wind energy conversion structures is studied.
Conceptual designs have been assessed in terms of mass, volume, and power production. Based on current estimates of
solar energy production efficiency during dust storm conditions, the design constraints on a complimentary wind energy
system are determined. Using system mass per kW-hour as a figure of merit, the feasible wind speeds for three Martian
buoyant wind energy conversion systems (a Savonius, a Darrieus, and a spherical) were determined and compared to
previous rigid designs. The large sizes required for buoyant systems resulted in large turbines producing 10 to 30 kW
in 25 m/s winds. The efficient inclusion of the buoyant chambers into the structure was found to be critical, as the mass
of the balloon is significant. As a result the spherical system was seen to provide the best design. Although it is
aerodynamically inefficient and untested, it was found to be feasible in a 29 m/s wind based on an estimated mass of
429 kg and 19 kW estimated power.
Wind energy represents an alternative power source that can offset the size of the solar arrays by reducing dust storm
interference (i.e., due to the increased scattering of incident light and dust deposition), and nighttime losses (James et.
al., 1999). There are two primary lines of query that are needed in order to determine the feasibility of wind power
production on Mars. First, in-situ measurements, global monitoring / prospecting, and analytical model development
are needed to effectively characterize the Martian wind as a potentially extractable energy resource. Second, novel
designs (and design tools) specifically suited to Martian environmental conditions are required to establish wind energy
production systems.
Wind energy generation has several niches in Mars mission planning and implementation:
George James; ETM, Inc / Gregory Chamitoff; NASA Johnson Space Center / Donald Barker; Barrios Technology
–1–
Design and Resource Requirements for Successful Wind Energy Production on Mars
1. a tertiary power supply in a primarily nuclear mission to emphasize safety, reliability and mission success;
2. a secondary power supply in an all-solar mission to reduce the effects due to dust-storm power reductions and day
/ night cycles;
3. a primary power supply in an early Martian settlement with an emphasis on rudimentary in-situ construction capabilities;
4. a mobile power supply option to enhance and/or enable long-distance rover operations;
5. a cooperative power supply to expand the potential and duration of non-nuclear unmanned precursor missions; and
6. a stand-alone power source for the development of portable in-situ fuel and life support resource production
facilities (i.e., methane, oxygen and water).
The work detailed herein is focused on determining resource needs and developing design tools and criteria chiefly to
explore application number two above. However, the results are applicable to each of the scenarios listed.
The current estimates of energy needs for an all-solar mission call for an energy budget of 17 kW continuous energy
during clear day conditions and 9 kW continuous energy during the night (Hemmet et. al., 1999). This includes 1 kW
continuous energy during the day for rover operations. During dust storm conditions, the daytime utilization needs drop
to 16 kW continuous, as rover operations will be curtailed. Hence, the baseline energy needs for an initial outpost are
assumed to be 16 + 9 = 25 kW continuous during daylight hours (assuming no energy storage losses). Hence, if a
Martian day is assumed to be 12 hrs per day, the daily energy needs are 25 x 12 = 300 kW-hr. However, due to losses
during dust storms (solar radiation reaching the array may drop to 15% of clear condition values), an all-solar mission
must utilize a solar array eight times larger than needed for the baseline requirements during clear conditions. Hence,
the daily solar power produced during clear conditions is 8 x 300 = 2400 kW-hr (James et. al., 1999).
Therefore, for 600 Martian days, total baseline energy requirement is 600 x 300 / 1000 = 180 MW-hr. Additionally,
daily rover operation requirements during a clear 12 hour day equals 12 kW-hr or 5 MW-hr for 450 clear days of the
mission. Also, (Zubrin et. al. 1991) propose that return propellant can be produced on Mars at a cost of 370 MW-hr
over the 600-day mission. Hence total energy needs for the entire 600 day mission is 180 + 5 + 370 = 555 MW-hr.
Assuming a worst case scenario in which a planet encircling dust storm occurs for 150 Martian days (i.e., the entire
length of the storm season), the total energy production over 600 Martian days with such a production system would be:
(450 x 2400 + 150 x 300) / 1000 = 1,125 MW-hr. Therefore, the excess energy production capability is 1,125 – 555 =
570 MW-hr. The utility of wind energy production systems in an all-solar mission would be to allow the reduction of
mass (and therefore cost) of the solar arrays needed to meet dust storm conditions.
To date, the most direct observations of wind speed on Mars are limited to the Viking landers and from Pathfinder (as
of the production of this paper). Wind speeds at these locations were observed to average about 5 m/s, with a peak of
25 to 30 m/s recorded at the Viking Lander 1 site (measured 1.6 meters above the surface). As observed from orbit, a
–2–
Design and Resource Requirements for Successful Wind Energy Production on Mars
local dust storm over Chryse Planitia accompanied these peak readings (Greeley, 1982). The Viking landing sites,
however, were selected on the basis of mission safety, which precluded the exploration of the more complex or steep
terrain that is more likely to harbor the high winds of interest. Other contributors to wind production, variation and
localization include boundary layer turbulence, surface roughness, local topography and the traveling planetary waves
that are responsible for short-period fluctuations in the daily averaged surface pressures and temperatures (Keiffer et.
al., 1992). Computer models of the Martian atmosphere based on remote sensing data and extrapolations from the wind
blown sand streaks on Mars have predicted significantly larger values for surface wind speeds (Haslach, 1989). It has
been estimated that a well-chosen site could harbor sustained speeds approaching 14 m s-1. Possible sites include the
horseshoe vortices around raised rim craters (as seen by dark streaks), and natural wind channels due to the topography
of hills and valleys (such sites have been used successfully on Earth). Also, regions such as Hellas basin (the lowest
region on Mars) have up to a 44% denser atmosphere (and hence a 44% increase in power). These regions would be
favorable sites if high local wind speeds can be identified. Long low angle slopes (as seen on the shield volcanoes or
slopes of large basins or plateaus) may produce winds of 25 to 33 m s-1 at approximately 25 meters above the surface.
It should be noted that the wind patterns at the Viking 1 landing site were believed to be dominated by this type of slope
wind pattern (Zurek, 1992). Recent measurements made at the nearby Pathfinder landing site further support this
conjecture (Schofield, 1997). Additionally, these winds are expected to operate at pre-dawn and during dust storms
(times when solar energy is reduced or ineffective).
Our emphasis here is to develop the cursory design and analytical techniques used to support wind energy production
for a manned mission in light of differential production levels between clear and dusty conditions. The effects of dust
(solid, dark, µm diameter particles) and seasonal dust storms directly relate to the work at hand in that they affect both
the performances of solar collecting devices as well as alter atmospheric structure and circulation patterns. Current
theories (positive feedback models) show that increased levels of suspended dust may cyclically amplify the diabatic
drive for wind production (Keiffer et. al., 1992). Dust storms of various size, distribution and place of origin have been
recorded in observations since the late 1800’s. Planet-Encircling dust storms have the propensity to directly affect
surface solar energy production for up to several months at a time, and current data show that the storm season may be
as long as 1/3 of a Martian year. Providing a solar alternative energy source that work within the boundaries of the
aforementioned environment conditions and takes advantage of in-situ resources should prove to be more effective,
efficient and cost effective.
Wind turbines can be further classified into horizontal axis and vertical axis machines. The horizontal axis or propeller
type turbines are more abundant and this technology is highly developed. A Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT)
typically has blades that can pitch to extract energy over a broad range of wind speeds. However, the blades are
cantilevered from the hub, which is at a significant height. Likewise the generator and critical rotating components are
at height. HAWT’s must be slewed into the wind unless the resource is relatively unidirectional. Our previous work
considered an 18-meter diameter Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT) that would produce 2.5 kW in a wind speed
of 13 m/s. Alternatively, a 30-meter diameter turbine in a 25 m/s wind would produce 28 kW. This design effort
suggested that wind turbines with sizes approaching large utility scale terrestrial wind turbines would be required.
However, the chord lengths would be three times the values for similar turbines on Earth. Likewise, the thickness to
chord ratio could be expected to be 1.5 times that of terrestrial turbines. Also, the power output (and imposed torque
values) would be 1/10 the values seen on terrestrial turbines of a similar size. This work utilized a modified code
–3–
Design and Resource Requirements for Successful Wind Energy Production on Mars
developed for terrestrial turbine design. Therefore, the airfoils and blade twist parameters were all optimized for
terrestrial not Martian conditions (Ferrell, et. al., 1998).
A Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT) can accept winds from any direction. Also the primary generator and bearing
components are located at ground level. A VAWT with straight lift type blades is called a giromill. Although a straight
blade is more susceptible to rotational fatigue stresses, such a devise can change blade pitch to capture low speed winds.
Haslach (1989) introduced a concept that called for a 17.25-meter tall giromill turbine situated atop a 21.5 meter landing
vehicle with an estimated weight of 175 kg. Using an efficiency value of C = 0.47, as is common on terrestrial turbines,
such a 200 m2 turbine could produce 2 kW in a 14 m/s wind and 12 kW in a 25 m/s wind. The authors’ previous work
produced a Darrieus style VAWT with troposkien-shaped blades that was 30 meters tall and produced 14 kW in a 25
m/s wind. The turbine was designed using a modified terrestrial wind turbine analysis code. In addition, this work
developed a strategy to assess feasibility and subsequently showed that a feasible Martian wind turbine would need to
be of an ultra-lightweight design. Assuming lightweight blades, the mass of such a system was estimated at 944 kg
(Hemmet et. al., 1999, James et. al., 2000). The work presented herein is a further extension of the work that explores
a VAWT design specific for Mars utilizing a buoyant configuration.
The mass of the balloon skin is calculated using a small thickness approximation:
(3)
–4–
Design and Resource Requirements for Successful Wind Energy Production on Mars
The mass that can be lifted by the balloon is then given by the following:
(4)
Using the appropriate values for Mars, a hydrogen filled interior, a balloon density of 1250 kg/m3 and a thickness of
0.00005 meters, a series of calculations were performed to estimate the lift potential (Figure 1).
It can be seen from Figure 1 that there is a radius below which the balloon cannot even lift itself. For the parameters chosen
above this occurs at a radius of around 12 meters and a corresponding mass of 60 kg. However, reducing the thickness,
reducing the material density, or heating the inflation gas can improve this situation. Above this threshold, the mass of the
balloon is roughly equivalent to the lift capability over the range of radii shown above. Hence, a buoyant system must
either be able to tolerate the addition of such a mass or integrate the buoyant chamber into the primary structure.
–5–
Design and Resource Requirements for Successful Wind Energy Production on Mars
spherical chamber on the top. The rings also support vertical members that form attachments for the blades. The
construction of the blades and the straight vertical members consist of fabric stretched over semicircular frames. Forces
are transferred from the blades to the turbine body via cables attached to the ring stiffeners and the skin of the turbine
body. The torque is transferred from the lower ring to a smaller diameter torque tube / tether via a woven and inflated
frustum. The hollow or foam filled torque transfer mechanism is assumed to transfer torque but not bending forces. It is
also intended to operate under tension due to buoyancy of the main body. A generator / gearbox is situated on the ground.
An optimization code was written which maximized an objective function based on the power to mass ratio and the
buoyancy. The code was able to modify the radius and length of the cylindrical body, the diameter of the blades, the
length and thickness of the torque transfer cable, and the height of an attachment frustum. The radius of the buoyant
chamber was constrained to be equal to the radius of the cylinder plus the diameter of a blade. Skin thickness and
support radii were generally allowed to vary to assure stresses remained allowable. However, upper and lower bounds
were provided which typically constrained these parameters. The number of blades was variable.
The best results were obtained with two blades. These were half cylinders 7.2 m in diameter attached to the spherical
chamber and running the entire length of the 25-meter cylindrical body. This body was 15 meters in radius. The frustum
was 1 meter high which gave it the aspect ratio of a plate. All of these components were assumed to have a skin
thickness of 0.0001 meters. An aramid material of density 970 kg/m3 was assumed. The cable was 25 meters long with
an outer radius of 1.533 cm and a thickness of 7.633 mm. These torque transfer structure dimensions were chosen based
on the ability to handle the applied torque only. No other stability criteria were used in the estimation of the cable
dimensions at this time. The spherical chamber was assumed to have a density of 1250 kg/m3, a thickness of 0.00005
meters, and a radius of 22.2 meters. The total system mass was 997 kg including 48 kg of hydrogen inflation gas. The
system had a low efficiency (in terms of power per kg) but produced 29 kW in a 25 m/s wind. Figure 2 shows the
dimensions of the structure from the front and Figure 3 shows the dimensions from the bottom.
This example showed that the buoyant turbine structures would, by necessity, be a large system, and would produce power
in the 10 to 30 kW range. It should be noted that the optimization process was free to produce a turbine of power output
ranging from 0.5 to 30 kW in a 25 m/s wind. However, the buoyancy requirement drove the system to the large size.
This study replaces the guy wires with a buoyant support chamber (a balloon) attached to the top of the turbine. The
current study assumes that the blades and torque tube are pressure-stabilized although the tools to analyze the stiffening
effects have not been produced nor included in the design process. The blade sections were thinned from the previous
design from 0.0005 to 0.0001 meters. Using an aramid fiber, these blades were still found to support the rotational
stresses. The structural area of the blade section was approximated by the following formula:
(5)
–6–
Design and Resource Requirements for Successful Wind Energy Production on Mars
–7–
Design and Resource Requirements for Successful Wind Energy Production on Mars
This formula was provided in (Sullivan, 1979) for a similarly shaped blade. The length of the each blade was originally
estimated at 48 meters (the circumference of a 30.5 meter circle). This was an overly conservative approach and was
corrected in this work by assuming that each blade was 40 meters (slightly more than the average circumference of a
30.5 and a 19 meter circle). The total structural mass of the blades was estimated at 50 kg using the largest chord of 3.2
meters. It was found that the performance / mass ratio was not greatly affected by changing the blade thickness from
0.0005 to 0.0001 meters (blade mass reduced from 250 kg to 50 kg).
The torque tube from the previous design was chosen to carry the torque and carry the appropriate buckling loads.
Therefore, the dimensions were retained and the material was assumed to be an aramid material of 970 kg/m3. An
additional 15 meters of tube was added to eliminate potential ground interference. The resulting component weighed
205 kg and produced a lifted mass of 255 kg. Equations (2-4) were used to estimate the turbine size needed to lift this
mass (plus 50 kg of additional mass as a safety margin). The resulting 0.00005 meter thick chamber was 367 kg.
Assuming an additional 150 kg of ground support material and 36 kg of hydrogen gas, the total mass was 808 kg. This
compares to the 944 kg of the original design. Figure 5 shows the resulting system with the 21.6-meter radius buoyancy
chamber and 15-meter torque tube extension.
Figure 4. Shape and Dimensions of the Baseline Vertical Axis Wind Turbine.
–8–
Design and Resource Requirements for Successful Wind Energy Production on Mars
of netted cables that were eventually tied into the torque-bearing tether. The flaps were assumed to create pockets that
caught the wind on the downwind side and closed on the upwind side. The same tether design as was used in the
Savonius design was assumed: 25 meters long, 1.53 cm radius, .77 cm thickness, and 13.43 kg. Assuming the same
material as the buoyant chambers in the other design problems, the required sphere was 17.76 meters in radius and
247.72 kg. This size was selected to provide 50 kg of extra lift mass. The total mass was 428 kg including 150 kg of
ground equipment and 17.75 kg of inflation gas. Since this is a drag-type turbine it can be expected to have a low
efficiency. Also the spherical shape is not often used for large-scale wind turbines. Therefore, a turbine efficiency of
0.15 was assumed. Hence, the turbine produced 19 kW in a 25 m/s wind. Figure 6 shows an artist’s rendering of such
a turbine in use on Mars.
–9–
Design and Resource Requirements for Successful Wind Energy Production on Mars
The energy produced by the wind turbine was estimated using equation (1) as the integrated value of power produced
over a Martian day. However, a typical approximation is to define this energy based on the maximum wind speed the
turbine sees for at least one hour in a given Martian day. A design is feasible if the above inequality holds for a given
wind speed. Equation (6) is solved for the wind speed in terms of the other quantities
Table 1 provides a comparison of the turbine designs listed in this work. The information in this table points out the
fact that wind speeds in the mid to lower 20 m/s range will be needed for at least one hour per day during dust storm
season to efficiently (kW/kg) offset solar energy production losses using wind energy.
Ongoing Work
Design Improvements
The designs provided herein represent work in progress and are not final products. In fact these designs were generally
produced with only mass, power, and buoyancy in mind (structural stress was considered in a limited number of
components). Critical issues such as robustness, fatigue, elastic stability, structural response, dynamic response,
pressure stabilization, partial buoyancy, and gas loss must eventually be considered in the design process. Issues such
as airfoil design are needed to produce Mars-specific systems.
– 10 –
Design and Resource Requirements for Successful Wind Energy Production on Mars
Conclusions
This project has explored the feasibility of wind power generation on Mars. Three designs using completely buoyant
structures were used. This was an attempt to produce ultra-light, and potentially mobile, systems for Mars. It was found
however, that there is a significant mass offset that a buoyant system must overcome. Hence, buoyant systems will tend
to be large systems in the 10 to 30 kW range. Rigid or semi-buoyant systems will be required for smaller power stations.
The Savonius and Darrieus examples required such large systems that they may not be useful. These designs required
daily winds of 28 m/s or better for a least one hour to be feasible. The spherical system was the most efficient in its
inclusion of the buoyant chamber. Although it suffers from a low efficiency and a lack of operational experience, it was
seen to be feasible with a 26 m/s or better wind. Such on going research into a solar alternative / complementary energy
source that takes advantage of in-situ resources should prove to be more practical, efficient and cost effective for the
establishment of a permanent human presence on the planet Mars.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank the following people: L. Michelle Matanic and Mark Fischer, The Texas Space Grant
Consortium; Michael Duke, Center for Advanced Space Studies; Jeff George; NASA Johnson Space Center; Paul Veers,
Dale Berg, and Thomas Ashwill, Sandia National Laboratories; and Jason Ferrell, Sherie Hensley, Jesse Le Blanc, John
Roach, Emir Hemmet, Chi Ngyuen, Kier Wylie, and Bharat Singh, University of Houston.
References
1. Beer, F., and Johnston, E., Mechanics of Materials, McGraw-Hill, N.Y., NY, 1981.
2. Berg, D. and Rumsey, M., “SLICEIT Input Data Field Definitions,” Sandia National Laboratories internal memo, Department 6225, August 22, 1991.
3. Berg, D., “Changes to SLICEIT Input Data Field Definitions,” Sandia National Laboratories internal memo, Department 6225, June 4, 1992.
4. Eggers, A., Ashley, H., and Dihumarthi, R., “Considerations of Gravity Effects on VAWT Rotor Configurations Which Minimize Flatwise
Moments and Stresses,” 10th ASME Wind Energy Symposium, Palo Alto, CA, pp. 99-110, 1991.
5. Ferrell, J., S. Hensley, J. LeBlanc, and J. Roach, “Conceptual Design and Feasibility of a Martian Power Generation System Utilizing Solar
and Wind Energy,” final report for MECE 4334 Applications from Engineering, Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Houston,
Houston, TX, December 1998.
6. Haberle, R. M., C. P. McKay, J. B. Pollack, O. E. Gwynne, D. H. Atkinson, J. Appelbaum, G. A.
7. Landis, and D. J. Flood, “Atmospheric Effects on the Utility of Solar Power on Mars,” in Resources of Near-Earth Space, edited by J. Lewis,
M. S. Matthews, and M. L. Guerrieri, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 1993.
8. Haslach, H. W. Jr., “Wind Energy: A Resource for a Human Mission to Mars,” Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 42, No. 4,
April 1989, pp. 171-178.
9. Hemmat, A., Nguyen, C., Singh, B., and Wylie, K., “Conceptual Design of a Martian Power Generating System Utilizing Solar and Wind
Energy,” final report for MECE 4334 Applications from Engineering, Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Houston, Houston,
TX, May 1999.
10. Keiffer, H. H., Jakosky, B. M., Snyder, C. W. and Matthews, M. S., Mars, University of Arizona Press, Tuscon, 1992.
11. James, G., Chamitoff, G., and Barker, D., “Surviving on Mars without Nuclear Energy,” proceedings of the Founding Convention of the Mars
Society, Boulder, CO, August 13-16, 1998.
12. James, G., G. Chamitoff, and D. Barker, “Feasibility of the Utilization of Wind Energy on Mars,” to be presented at the 1999 AIAA - Houston
Chapter Annual Technical Symposium, Houston, TX, May 28, 1999.
13. James, G., B. Singh, E. Hemmet, C. Nguyen, and G. Chamitoff, “Design of a Wind Turbine for Martian Power Generation,” to appear in the
Proceedings of the ASCE Space 2000: 7th International Conference / Exposition on Engineering, Construction, Operations, and Business in
Space, Albuquerque, NM, February 29 – March 2, 2000.
– 11 –
Design and Resource Requirements for Successful Wind Energy Production on Mars
14. Landis, G. A., “Mars Dust Removal Technology,” NASA / IECEC 97-97340, NASA, August 1997.
15. Magalhaes, J. and Gierasch, P., “A Model of Martian Slope Winds: Implications for Eolian Transport,” Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol.
87, No. B12, Nov. 1982, pp. 9975-9984.
16. Paraschivoiu, I., “Aerodynamic Loads and Performance of the Darrieus Rotor,” 2nd AIAA Energy Systems Conference, Vol. 6, pp. 406-412,
Colorado Springs, CO, Dec. 1982.
17. Spera, D. A., “Introduction to Modern Wind Turbines,” Wind Turbine Technology: Fundamental Concepts of Wind Turbine Engineering,
ASME Press, NY, NY, 1994.
18. Sullivan, W. N., “Economic Analysis of Darrieus Vertical Axis Wind Turbine Systems for the Generation of Utility Grid Electrical Power,”
Volume II - The Economic Optimization Model, Sandia Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM Sand78-0962 1979.
19. Walker, J.F., and Jenkins, N., Wind Energy Technology, John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY, 1997.
20. Zubrin, R. M., D. A. Baker, and G. Owen, “Mars Direct: A Simple, Robust and Cost Effective Architecture for the Space Exploration
Initiative,” 29th Aerospace Sciences Meeting, AIAA 91-0329, January 1991.
– 12 –
The “Martian Farmer” – Mining Water from the Martian Regolith
Daniel D. Slosberg
[2000]
Abstract
Mars’ atmosphere is saturated with water. On Mars, saturated means a partial pressure of about 0.1 Pa (compared with
about 600 Pa on Earth (Moran & Shapiro, 2000)). That represents only 1 mg of water in every cubic meter of Martian
air. In contrast, every kilogram of Martian regolith (soil) contains up to 40 grams of water (Zent & Quinn, 1997). A
sabatier reactor big enough to fuel an Earth Return Vehicle such as that used in Mars Direct requires 9.7 grams of
hydrogen per hour (Zubrin et al., 1997), which can be produced from 88.1 g of water, or as much water as is contained
in a little over 2 kg of soil. This paper discusses several methods for extracting water from atmosphere enhanced with
water from the regolith. Methods include the WAVAR system previously discussed by Grover & Bruckner in the 1998
Mars Society Conference; freezing water out with a thermoelectric conveyor belt; and using a compression /
refrigeration unit to first compress the bulk atmosphere and then freeze out the water. In all cases it is seen that the
Martian Farmer is an enabling technology.
The sun heats the air and regolith under each dome, releasing water from the regolith into the atmosphere. Between the
domes and under the solar panels would be a system for extracting water from the moist Martian air. Air is drawn from
under the four domes and through the extraction system. The water is removed and stored on board. Periodically the
on board water stores are pumped or taken to a central storage facility.
According to my calculations (available upon request from salinay@umich.edu, but beyond the scope of this paper), the
area covered by each dome has 50 g of water available for release. The solar energy available, however, is enough to
release 49 g of water from under each dome every hour (see calculations in the WAVAR section). Please note that warm,
wet air leaking out from under the dome will frost out around the dome edges as it comes in contact with the colder
outside air. For this reason, it may be advantageous to have the rear domes slightly (1-2 cm) larger than the forward
domes so that they can sublimate this frost ring.
The energy requirements for the WAVAR device are determined by the amount of water available in the airflow. “The
available water is cut roughly in half for every 5ºK drop in the frost point temperature. Comparing how much water is
available at the Viking Lander 1 site (based on average frost point) with the optimistic assumed value, there is 20 times
more water available at 213ºK than at 193ºK. The available water quickly becomes minuscule if the frost point
Daniel D. Slosberg; Martian Water Research, 3010 Applelane Avenue, Kalamazoo, MI 49008-2183, USA; E-mail: salinay@umich.edu
–1–
The “Martian Farmer” – Mining Water from the Martian Regolith
temperature begins dropping below 200ºK, and correspondingly, the energy requirements for extraction become
unacceptably high.”6 WAVAR draws 8000 cubic meters of Martian air every hour.6 This much atmosphere contains
only 8 grams of water.
Under nominal Martian conditions, each dome can release 49 grams of water per hour. (Given the amount of water in
the regolith, the Martian Farmer needs to move 4 meters per hour to release this amount of water.) This much water
raises the frost point of the air reaching the WAVAR from 195ºK to 220ºK, raising the water content from 1 mg/m3 to
25.5 mg/m3. The greenhouse makes WAVAR a much more feasible water extraction technology. While studies show
more of the available water can be extracted at higher wattage, only the 100 watt WAVAR fits in the Martian Farmer’s
150 watt energy budget. By increasing the available water by an order of magnitude, however, even the low energy
WAVAR could capture copious water for storage and later use. Operating for 8 hours per sol, the WAVAR can generate
1.6 kg of water, more than half the 2.2 kg/sol needed for a manned Mars mission.4
As you can see, WAVAR is well suited to the Martian Farmer: water available to the WAVAR is increased by an order
of magnitude; and the power requirements of the WAVAR are well within the Martian Farmer’s energy budget.
The major constraint on the thermoelectric conveyor belt is that the water frozen onto the belt must be thick enough to
generate usable sheets of ice during each sol. The speed of the conveyor belt can control how thick a sheet of ice could
theoretically get, but there must also be enough water available to reach that theoretical capacity of the sheet.
Thermoelectric couples with a temperature difference of over 80ºK are available.8 Splitting this difference keeps the
cold side of the thermoelectric refrigerator 40ºK below the ambient temperature, allowing us to potentially extract 99.7%
of the water from any atmosphere coming in contact with the refrigeration unit.6 If the conveyor belt is 1 meter long
by 10 cm wide, then 1 gram of water evenly distributed on its surface will produce a film 10 micrometers thick. If we
force as much air over the conveyor as we do through the WAVAR, from the ambient Martian air we can remove 8 grams
of water per hour, producing a sheet 0.64 mm thick after an 8 hour sol. Not only is this sheet unacceptably thin, but I
have serious doubts as to the ability of a thermoelectric refrigerator to remove the water from 8,000 cubic meters every
hour. That is a lot of air to process!
How do things change when we add the greenhouse domes? First of all, the air going over the conveyor belt will be
heated, so there will be a larger temperature difference. This can only help the device. Secondly, up to 200 grams of
water will be available each hour at half the flow rate of the WAVAR, and the airflow rate can be further reduced without
significantly reducing the available water. 200 grams of water is enough for an ice sheet 2 mm thick to be produced
every hour, or 1.6 kg of ice each sol if it is in operation 8 hours/sol. The speed of the belt can be adjusted to optimize
ice sheet thickness, but typical values are 0.5-2.0 cm.a,8
As can be seen, the thermoelectric conveyor belt is a technology that is enabled by the Martian Farmer’s greenhouse
dome. Rough calculations show that the Martian Farmer can supply 1/3 the energy the refrigerator would need to extract
this amount of water.
–2–
The “Martian Farmer” – Mining Water from the Martian Regolith
Even with the Martian Farmer’s greenhouse domes, the frost point of so much air can only be raised to 205 from 195ºK,
or 210 from 205ºK.6 Using the 210ºK frost point, 4.4 kg of water are available, of which the compression, refrigeration
cycle recovers just under 20%. This yields 770 grams of water per sol, more than enough for a small sample return
mission,10 but only one third as much as would be needed for a manned mission. Unfortunately the Martian Farmer
cannot supply the enormous amounts of power this method requires.
This technology may be enabled by the Martian Farmer, but it does not show as much promise as the other two methods.
By reducing the flow rate, and extracting a larger percentage of the available water, more water may be extractable.
Some external source of power is required, however.
Conclusion
All three methods of extracting water from the Martian atmosphere benefit by additional water extracted from the
regolith. The WAVAR moves from a borderline possibility an enabling technology. The thermoelectric conveyor belt,
something that cannot function in ambient Martian conditions, can function if feed atmosphere from under a greenhouse
dome. The compression and refrigeration device comes much closer to the design assumption if it draws enriched air
from the domes. The Martian Farmer can supply not only moist air, but also power for the extraction devices. However,
the WAVAR is the only device that can be entirely supplied by the rover’s modest energy budget.
I feel further research into all enabling technologies is warranted, and I would be glad to share my calculations and
efforts with anyone working on these technologies. Please contact me by email.
Notes
a. In the original discussion, the refrigerator on a Volvo was cited as an example of a thermoelectric refrigeration system, and the concept was
therefore referred to as the “Volvo Device.”
b. The equation of thickness, including derivation, is available upon request (salinay@umich.edu).
References
1. Moran, M. J. and Shapiro H. N., Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics, 4th ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York, 2000.
2. Zent, A. P. and Quinn, R. C., “Measurement of H2O adsorption under Mars-like conditions: Effects of adsorbent heterogeneity,” Journal of
Geophysical Research, Vol. 102, 1997, pp. 9085-9095.
3. Zubrin, R. M., Frankie, B. and Kito, T., “Mars In Situ Resource Utilization Based on the Reverse Water Gas Shift,” 1997.
4. Grover, M. R., Hilstad, M. O., Elias, L. M., Carpenter, K. G., Schneider, M. A., Hoffman, C. S., Adan-Plaza, S. and Bruckner, A. P., “Extraction
of Atmospheric Water on Mars in Support of the Mars Reference Mission,” MAR 98-062, Proceedings of the Founding Convention of the
Mars Society: Part II, ed. R. M. Zubrin and M. Zubrin, Boulder, CO, August 13-16, 1998, pp. 659-679.
5. Williams, J. D., Coons, S. C. and Bruckner, A. P., “Design of a Water Vapor Adsorption Reactor for Martian In Situ Resource Utilization,”
From Imagination to Reality: Mars Exploration Studies of the Journal of the British Interplanetary Society (Part I: Precursors and Early
Piloted Exploration Missions), ed. R. M. Zubrin, Vol. 91, AAS Science and Technology Series, 1997, pp. 59-73.
6. Coons, S. C., Williams, J. D. and Bruckner, A. P., “Feasibility Study of Water Vapor Adsorption on Mars for In Situ Resource Utilization,”
AIAA 97-2765, 33rd AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference, Seattle, WA, July 6-9, 1997.
7. “Thermoelectric Cooling,” 1977 Fundamentals Handbook, 1977, pp. 1.24-1.32.
8. Incropera, F. P. and DeWitt, D. P., Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1996.
9. Clapp, W. M., “Water Supply for a Manned Mars Base,” AAS 84-181, The Case for Mars II, ed. C. P. McKay, Boulder, CO, July 10-14, 1984,
Vol. 62, AAS Science and Technology Series, 1985, pp. 557-566.
10. Clark, D. L., “In Situ Propellant Production on Mars,” 1997.
11. Ash, R. L., Assorted Notes on the Properties of Water, 1998.
–3–
The “Martian Farmer” – Mining Water from the Martian Regolith
12. Belahcene, K., “Martian Atmospheric Modeling,” Graduate Seminar of the Atmospheric, Oceanic, and Space Sciences Department, University
of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, June 23, 2000.
13. Halliday, D., Resnick, R. and Krane K., Physics, Vol. 1-2, 4th ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1992.
14. Sittig, J., Tour of Kalamazoo Greenhouses, June 30, 2000.
–4–
Modified Martian Lava Tubes Revisited
R. D. “Gus” Frederick
[1999]
Abstract
One of the key elements for successful long-term human occupation of Mars is a viable habitation scheme. Countless
ideas have been proposed along these lines from converted landers to inflatable domes. The advantages of most
schemes thus far are that they are location independent, to an extent. The lander lands and the habitation is set up. In
other words, bring the habitat to Mars.
But what if ready-made habitats were available – select locations on the planet which, with minor modifications, would
easily serve as a semi-permanent base of operations? These locations could well be lava tubes.
Lava tubes are caves formed by flows of highly fluid lava – a “river” of molten rock flowing from an eruption source,
either volcano or fissure. Often as the flow progresses, the tops and sides solidify. If the flow source stops, the
remaining lava may pour out, leaving a hollow “tube” of rock. Not all lava flows produce tubes. Sometimes the flow
sides form large “levees” as the sides harden, and the top remains liquid.
On the Earth, the author has personally visited lava tubes on the flanks of Mount St. Helens, in Washington State,
Central Oregon, and the Big Island of Hawaii, as well as tubes formed by fissure eruptions in Iceland. Many of the lava
flows identified on the planet Mars feature the same characteristics as terrestrial flows, including lava tubes and levees.
The main difference is a matter of scale: The Martian features dramatically dwarf their Earth-based counterparts.
This paper offers some speculations on the utilization of these landforms for the construction of viable human habitats.
With examples from many lava tube-related features here on Earth, I will demonstrate how their much larger Martian
versions could provide a quick, easy and inexpensive way to provide long-term human outposts on the Red Planet.
Disclaimer
One point to keep in mind during the reading of this paper is that I am not trained as a geologist, and that this paper is
purely an exercise in speculation.
Volcanic Backgrounds
Growing up in the Pacific Northwest guaranteed a strong exposure to volcanic terrain. My family stressed an
appreciation for the great outdoors, so every summer weekend found us bivouacked in any number of remote
campgrounds in the High Cascades of Oregon and Southern Washington. A favorite family get-away was the Mount
Fuji of North America, Mount St. Helens.
I recall my siblings and I standing at the bottom of steep piles of very fresh-looking pumice overlooking the dark blue
waters of Spirit Lake. My dad related how he had read somewhere that a couple of geologists had suggested that Mount
St. Helens would erupt in the next twenty years.9 Imagine the glee my pre-teen brothers and I expressed as we replied
that we hoped it would happen when we were around!
We got our wish in 1980. The very location of that conversation is now occupied by a gaping hole and view of majestic
Loowitt’s guts. Spirit Lake, while still visible, is radically changed. A reminder of Mother Nature’s periodic “rent
collections.”
Another favorite Frederick family destination was located on the other side of Mount St. Helens along the south slopes.
Here, some two thousand years earlier, massive fluid flows of pahoehoe lava spilled from the flanks of this Cascade
R. D. “Gus” Frederick; 401 Silver Street, Silverton, Oregon 97381; 503-873-6216; E-Mail: rfrederi@teleport.com
–1–
cone. It is within these flows that the longest and best-preserved lava tube systems in the U.S. are located.
Liquid basalt, heated to more than 1200 degrees C, issued from fissures along the sides of Mount St. Helens. Flowing
like a river down hill, it followed the path of least resistance, and like wax from a candle, began to freeze along the sides
of the flow. The farther from the vent, the cooler the flow became. A crust soon developed over the top of the flow,
which tended to insulate the liquid within as it continued downhill.
When the source of magma was exhausted, the remaining liquid lava drained out of the flow, leaving a series of hollow
rock tubes to mark its path. Where the crust was too thin, the top of the tube collapsed creating skylight sinkholes.
These would provide the future entrances for later human visitation.
The youth of these tubes is the reason that they are so well preserved, as many terrestrial tubes succumb to erosion,
earthquakes and sedimentation. Ape Cave, the longest and most famous of the St. Helens lava tubes, traverses a total
of 3,904 meters, (12,810 ft.). In many places within the tube, the ceiling is over 7 m tall, and the cave resembles a
subway tunnel in places with its smooth, symmetrical meanderings.
Years later while serving in the U.S. Navy, I found myself in Iceland, stationed at the Naval Station in Keflavic. During
a tour of the countryside, I was introduced to the Icelandic lava tubes. Many of these were much larger than the St.
Helens flows. In fact, one, “Surtshellir,” was used in the 17th century as a hideout for a band of marauding bandits.
These tubes were the result of floods of basalt that erupted from fissures, or cracks in the Earth’s crust.
Types of Tubes
On the Earth, there are five basic types of lava tubes. While a tube’s structure is dependent upon many factors, there
are two key variables: the surrounding terrain and length of flow.5
Interior Tube:
This is probably the most basic lava tube. These are like blood vessels in flesh, conveying the fresh lava to the flow
front. These occur mainly in flood basalts and seldom, if ever, become “caves” since they do not “drain out.” The fluid
lava simply stops flowing and hardens like concrete poured into a pipe.
Surface Tubes:
Small, individual lava streams sometimes crust over, and then drain to form lava tubes on the surface of the surrounding
ground. These can sometimes be identified as ridges radiating from known eruptive centers. On Earth, these types of
tubes tend to be small in size. Their Martian counterparts could well be much larger.
Semitrenches:
A Semitrench tube results from lava overflowing a channel, which in turn builds up walls or “levees.” If the flow
continues long enough, a roof forms over the flow completing the tube.
True Trenches:
These kinds of lava tubes form from a continuous flow that “eats into” the surface, eroding it down like hot water
flowing over ice. The walls of these tubes are composed of the surrounding native rock with a veneer of fresh lava as
a glaze.
Rift Tubes:
These lava tubes offer the most variety in shape and size, due to the fact that they are dependent upon forces other than
just the flowing lava. Rift Tubes form as lava flows down an existing rift. As a result, the tubes take on attributes of
the rift itself. Many times, subsequent flows can pile up on top of one another resulting in multi-level lava tubes.
–2–
After Mount St. Helens came back to life, and the data from Mars started to accumulate, I was drawn to the vast volcanic
areas of the Red Planet. The orbital views showed many of the same igneous landforms found here on Earth, with the
difference being a matter of scale. The Martian features were much larger, and this included the lava flows and
presumably the lava tubes as well.
The tubes are there, many being identified from the “skylights” of their collapsed ceilings. These tubes are considerably
bigger than their terrestrial counterparts. Since we have yet to explore the tubes of Mars, we can only assume that their
internal structure would be similar to their Earth cousins.
The West flank of Olympus-Mons for example exhibits many landforms that look like collapsed tube skylights.
Along the Southeast flank of Arsia Mons, a series of well-defined tubes and channels are also visible, as well as the
sides of the Northern shield Alba Patera.
The relative elevation may eventually be a factor in locating the tube systems for future habitation. These range from
the “low” 1 km of the Northern Alba Patera area upwards to 10 km and greater on the Tharsis shields. An elevation of
“0 km” was defined as that elevation where mean atmospheric pressure at the surface is equivalent to the triple-point
pressure of water, or 6.1 mbars.1 By comparison, my barometer here in Silverton, Oregon is at this moment reading
29.78 mbars. Silverton is at about 200 feet above sea level.
Logic dictates that many of the common features of terrestrial lava tubes would also be present in larger versions on
Mars. What we would have would be long tubes of solid rock. It would be a relatively simple matter to build a colony
in one of these tubes. It would be air-tight and would offer superior shielding against the raw environment of the
Martian surface – its thin atmosphere and resulting exposure to the elements – solar flares, radiation, cosmic rays and
the like.
In the second volume of his trilogy of the colonization of Mars, “Green Mars,”11 Kim Stanley Robinson located one of
his rebel colonist groups within a hypothetical modified lava tube situated in the Martian Southern hemisphere,
approximately 64S, 290W, in the Northern Dorsa Brevia region. In his scenario, the colonists blocked off sections of
the huge tube with bulkheads of a pliable, airtight fabric.
A small dome was erected over one of the skylights to admit light, and the tube was partially flooded, creating a
landscape of underground forests, fields, lakes and islands within this enclosed world. Expansion of the colony was
achieved simply by moving deeper into the tube system. He sized his tubes using a 2-to-1 ratio created by the
gravitational and other uniquely Martian conditions. NASA observations put the ratio at 10-to-1.13
His tube was wider than its Earth kin by a factor of several hundred, and was 40 km long. This scheme closed off 12
km of the lava tube, divided into 1 km segments.
Robinson’s tube system was apparently of a single flow. It featured only one main (albeit large) single tube. On Earth,
and presumably on Mars too, multiple lava flows over-lap each other,12 sometimes creating lava tubes on top of older
lava tubes.
In Ape Cave, this phenomenon is present. In fact, one such area is like a large “bubble” located above the main tunnel.
By clambering up a side channel, and crawling through a narrow half meter-high opening for about 3 meters, one enters
into a large domed chamber about 7 m in diameter and some 5 m high. (The last time I visited this amazing place thirty-
some years ago, it had been vandalized by juvenile spray painters. A trade-off for making such exotic places easily
accessible to the masses.)
–3–
The Cascade volcanoes including St. Helens are composite cones that alternately erupt silica-rich rhyolites as ash and
flows of fluid basalt.
“There is no doubt that this cave has been inhabited, not by giants but by vagabonds, who escaped to
avoid punishment for their crimes, which is probable both from its situation and the following anecdote.
In two of the ancient histories it is stated that in the tenth century, a body of thieves took refuge here
and found a safe retreat, because, from superstition, no person would approach the cave. When they
went out to commit their depredations, they had on one side a number of farms, and on the other the
land of Arnarvatn, which was always covered with sheep and oxen at pasture. Several other tales are
told of different bands of robbers, who have successively resided in this cavern, which have made such
an impression on the minds of the people, that none of them will attempt to enter it.
“The entrance to the cavern of Surtshellir is gloomy, and runs from N. W. to S. E. but preserves its
height, which is from thirty to thirty-six feet, while its width is from fifty to fifty-four. Its soil or bottom
is uneven, sometimes rising, and at others falling; its partitions are the same, only that there is an equal
distance between them. On advancing, it is perceived that the cavern turns to the south, and afterwards
to the S. W. and W. in proportion as it diminishes in width.
“. . . At the end of this declivity, our travelers found a lake of fresh water, the bottom of which was
frozen. They passed it with the water up to their knees, and at every step they had additional proof that
the whole of these caves had been formed by the melting or dissolution of stones. The great channel
being at length blocked up for some time, and the fire not being to able to find a vent, acted upon the
sides, and melted the more dissoluble earth and stones; but before the fiery matter could thus find an
outlet, the great canal had forced its way, and had ceased to have any action on the caverns.”
This last paragraph reveals another aspect of the Earth tubes: They tend to collect water. In fact, most of the lava tubes
I have explored on Mount St. Helens have small pools of water at their ends. One tube is named “Lake Cave” for it’s
large “lake” that fills the end of it. Another, “Little Red River Cave,” has a little stream running through its length. Of
course, one also finds fine sandy floors of volcanic ash in places from the various “lahar” or mud flows that have spilled
down the mountain over the years.
In Central Oregon, this is even more pronounced. Many of the lava tube caves there have such names as “Arnolds Ice
Cave,” “Surveyors Ice Cave,” and “South Ice Cave.” These caves are not “ice caves” but rather common lava tubes
with seasonal, and sometimes permanent ice deposits.7 What occurs in these caves is that during the winter months,
cold, sub-freezing air sinks into the cave’s depths. Owing to the surrounding basalt’s superior insulating properties, the
air remains below 0ºC. When the spring thaw occurs, meltwater trickling into the depths of the caves encounters this
cold winter air and freezes out – many times as spectacular formations of stalactites and stalagmites of transparent ice.
Arnolds Ice Cave in fact was regularly “mined” for its ice, which was sold in near by Bend, Oregon during the warm
summer months. These mining operations opened up the cave for the first time in many years, and allowed for its
thorough exploration. After the advent of electric refrigeration, the ice miners were out of work, and the cave slowly
started to refill with ice. Today, it is totally inaccessible, with only the top of the stairway built in the 1960s poking out
–4–
of the top of the ice.
On Mars, we may also find water, frozen at the end of the tubes. These may in fact be huge natural cisterns. The tubes
may well prove to be a good place to look for water. But where to look for the lava tubes? Robinson’s Tube Colony
was located in the ancient Southern flows. But examination of the Viking orbiter images, as well as those from the
current Mars Global Surveyor, show lava tubes and features relating to lava tubes in a host of areas around the planet.6
Building in the proximity of a skylight would allow for the “piping” of sunlight into the tube chamber. Robinson’s
Inflatable bulkheads could be created to block off large sections. An easier approach may be inflating a single, very
large balloon within the hollow. This would be like blowing up a toy balloon within a cup. It would conform to the
shape of the space, and provide a quick and easy habitable area.
Hornito Habitat
Another feature of lava tubes on this planet are “hornitos.” These are breaches in the solid roofs of an active lava flow,
which results in lava spattering out of the holes. The lava soon builds up a “spatter cone” around the opening, and can
result in a “chimney” to the inner tube after the flow stops. And unlike a traditional skylight sinkhole, these openings
do not have large rubble piles under them. Skylight Cave in Central Oregon has three hornitos in its ceiling, which allow
for outside light to illuminate the interior.
A hornito habitat could provide a sheltered habitat complete with a natural light source and minimal excavation.
A Procedure for setting up Hornito Habitat might involve the following steps:
1. Identify likely candidate lava tubes from orbit. Look for a series of skylight pits and spatter cones arranged in a
linear pattern along lava flows.
2. Establish ground contact, and do a preliminary evaluation of candidate tubes.
3. Prepare the site. This may involve clearing some minor debris from the skylight cave-in.
4. Install the deflated balloon. It would be constructed of a tough, insulated material. The portion where the skylight
fits would be clear or translucent to allow for light transmission.
5. Setup the balloon for inflation. This could be done either from supplied compressed air, or by the Martian
atmosphere, with a “slow pump” sucking in Martian air over an extended period of time. (Plants could be
introduced at a point to start converting the carbon dioxide into oxygen.)
6. Once inflated, we move in! Establish an airlock; setup inner walls, partitions, etc.
7. Communications antenna and solar power units would be setup outside, with the cables running down into the tube.
With a hornito habitat, the domed-over hornito open would provide a light channel for illumination.
Advantages
• A large protected habitable space could be setup in a very short period of time; maybe within 24 hours if one used
supplied compressed air.
• The surrounding rock would provide an excellent radiation shield.
• The lava tubes might contain frozen water deposits.
• By deflating and moving on to other lava tubes, the colony could be semi-portable.
Disadvantages
• Location-specific. The scheme would rely on the location of large lava tubes. This would exclude the majority of
the surface.
• Lighting might be a problem. Locating directly under a skylight would help, but usually these areas (in terrestrial
tubes) contain huge mounds of debris from the cave-ins that created the skylights. A better solution would be to
locate caves with hornito openings.
• No Martian lava tubes have been explored, so we can only guess at this point as to their viability as shelters. I think
–5–
it would be a good guess!
The idea of making use of lava tubes has been explored by many others. The largest body of research I have encountered
comes from the Oregon L5 Society. This Portland-based space advocacy group is the Oregon chapter of the National
Space Society, has been actively involved in this concept for over a decade, only focusing on lunar lava tubes rather than
Martian ones. Between 1987 and 1988, a series of experimental bases were constructed by the group in Central
Oregon2.
In conjunction with the Oregon Museum of Science and Industry, (OMSI) and the Oregon Young Astronauts, Oregon
L5 contacted the City of Bend, Oregon and received permission for the use of Youngs Cave, a small lava tube within
the city limits of Bend. They setup a temporary base inside the cave using inflatable structural beams.
The work of the Oregon L5 Moon Base team lead to several conclusions:
• Successful educational simulations of lunar lava tube bases can be run in lava tubes of central Oregon
• A lunar base simulation can be performed with personnel of minor age
• A permanent site would allow better simulations through use of an evolving base infrastructure on site;
• A full-time staff would improve organization, scheduling of activities, and data analysis
• Using a lava tube saves money, time, labor, and material.
Since then, the group has been involved with various methods for identifying lunar tubes, both from existing data,
notably the Clementine data set making use of the JPL pattern recognition software “JARTool.” Another method
proposed my members makes use of a “Radar Flash Bulb” that would send out a short-lived yet powerful burst of ground
penetrating radar to identify subsurface cavities. Most of the published papers of Oregon L5 are available via the
group’s Web site listed below.
There you have my flight of fancy. As I said at the onset, I do not pretend to fully understand all the intricacies of setting
up a viable habitat on another world. But then again, you never know when some crazy half-baked idea might prove
useful some distant day!
References
1. Batson, R.M., Bridges, P.M. and Inge, J.L., 1979. “Atlas of Mars.” NASA SP-438, Appendix C: Contour Mapping by Sherman S.C. Wu, 131.
2. Billings, T. L., Dabrowski, J. and Walden, B. 1988. Evolving Lunar Lava Tube Base Simulations with Integral Instructional Capabilities.
Oregon L5 Society
3. Carr, M.H. & Greeley, R. 1980. Volcanic Features of Hawaii: A Basis for Comparison with Mars. NASA SP-403
4. Francis, P. 1976. Volcanoes. Penguin Books, London
5. Harter, R. & J.W. 1979. Geology of Lava Tubes from NSSAC Geology & Biology Field Trip Guidebook. National Speleoogical Society,
Huntsville, Alabama
6. Hoges, C. & Moore, H. 1994. Atlas of Volcanic Landforms of Mars. USGS Professional Paper 1534
7. Larson, C. & J. 1987. Central Oregon Caves. ABC Publishing, Vancouver, Washington
8. Macdonald, G.A. & A.T. Abbott, 1970. Volcanoes in the Sea: Geology of Hawaii, University of Hawaii Press.
9. Mullineaux, Donald R. and Crandell, Donald R., 1962. “Recent lahars from Mount St. Helens, Washington.” Geological Society of America
Bulletin 73, 855-869.
10. Olafsson, E. & Palsson, B. 1760. Description of the Cavern Surtshellirs. Revised English version published by Bokaut gafan Orn Orlygur
Copenhagen 1975.
11. Robinson, Kim Stanley, 1994 “Green Mars,” Trade Edition, Bantam Books. Part 6 - Tariqat, 282-284
12. Williams, Howel and McBirney, Alexander R., 1979. “Volcanology,” Freeman, Cooper & Co. Chapter 5, 106-109
13. Various. 1976. Mars as Viewed by Mariner 9. NASA SP-329.
14. Oregon L5 Society Web Site: http://www.teleport.com/~rfrederi/L5
All illustrations and photos by Gus Frederick, except for Surtshel Icecave graphic from reference number 10 above.
–6–
Biography
Oregon native Gus Frederick, (DOB 10/4/54) lives in Silverton, Oregon with his 14 year-old daughter Genevieve. He works as an Instructional
Technologist for the Oregon Public Education Network, and has been a longtime Mars enthusiast and amateur caver.
–7–
The Martian Time Poll: One Martian Year Of Data
Abstract
The design of a Martian time-keeping system must be as much a social construct as an astronomical one if it is to gain
wide acceptance within the Martian community. Not only must such a system accurately mark the passage of the
Martian diurnal and annual cycles; it must also incorporate features that satisfy human social needs. What kind of a
clock and calendar do Martians want? The Martian Time Web Site began conducting an on-line poll in September 1998.
The Martian Time Poll consists of 25 questions on the basic elements of Martian time-keeping. The results of the first
Martian year of data are reported and discussed.
Introduction
As we humans establish ourselves as a multiplanetary species, spreading throughout the Solar System during this new
century, we will leave behind the 24-hour day and the 365-day year. These are cycles that are peculiar to Earth, and as
a product of billions of years of evolution on this planet, we are designed to operate by them. Humans will have no use
for diurnal periods that are hundreds of hours long. Similarly, years of 12 or 29 times the duration of the terrestrial year
(the orbital periods of Jupiter and Saturn, respectively) will be of no practical use in human affairs. We define a standard
unit, the second, in as abstract a way as possible for the physical sciences, but time is a social measurement, first and
foremost. We awaken, we work, we eat, and we sleep. We gather to transact business and recreate. We are born, we
mature, and we die. How will we measure ourselves, our biological and social needs, according to the passage of time
on alien worlds? What social measurements of time will we bring with us from Earth to make our new homes less alien?
To what physical cycles of these new worlds will we adapt ourselves and our new societies?
The study of extraterrestrial social measurements of time has been confined almost entirely to Mars, although systems
have recently been proposed for the Galilean satellites of Jupiter (Gangale 1998). There are a number of reasons why
Mars dominated the subject. Mars in one of the nearest planets to Earth, and therefore one on which humans are likely
to establish themselves in advance to voyages to other worlds. Furthermore, in the past half-century, while we have
come to know both Venus and Mars as being less hospitable environments than pre-spacefaring civilization had hoped,
Mars has clearly emerged as the best prospect for humanity’s second home. Finally, the cycles of Mars are Earthlike
enough that humans living there will find it terribly inconvenient to ignore them. Living and working by Earth’s 24-
hour day, humans would find themselves rising 40 minutes earlier each Martian sol. The Gregorian calendar will be
useless for marking the regular passage of the Martian dust storm season and other annual weather phenomena, much
which has yet to be discovered. Martian society will require a Martian clock and calendar for its own specific, localized
purposes, and will refer to Earth’s Universal Time only as its off-world interests require.
History Of Ideas:
The first ideas on Martian time-keeping arose 120 years ago as novelists began to speculate on the possibility of a
Martian society. The earliest tales envisioned humans encountering indigenous Martian civilizations. Later, as our
increasing scientific knowledge of Mars reduced the prospect of advanced forms of Martian life, the trend was toward
stories about humans establishing their own cultures on Mars. As incidental minutiae in a fictional narrative, the subject
often received superficial treatment, lacking the detail to be a complete and useful system (Heinlein 1949, Clarke 1951,
Piper 1957). Occasionally, such ideas were based on a faulty knowledge of astronomy (Burroughs 1913, Compton 1966,
Lovelock and Allaby 1984). Even when complete systems were described that fairly accurately accounted for the orbital
factors of Mars, they did not take into account all the time-keeping needs of a human society (Greg 1880).
The first complete Martian calendar was developed by an astronomer who was active in the calendar reform movement
in the 1930s (Aitken 1936). Another astronomer invented a complete time-keeping system in the 1950s, going so far as
Thomas Gangale; 430 Pinewood Drive, San Rafael, CA 94903 USA; Email: marcus@martiana.org
Marilyn Dudley-Rowley; OPS-Alaska, c/o 1030 Carl Shealy Road, Irmo, SC 29063 USA; Email: leona@martiana.org
–1–
The Martian Time Poll: One Martian Year Of Data
to have a functioning Earth-Mars clock-calendar constructed (Levitt 1954). Not only did these systems accurately reflect
the astronomical phenomena of Mars, but they also took into account many of the sociological aspects of time-keeping.
More ideas on Martian time-keeping have been generated as interest in sending humans to Mars has increased. The Case
for Mars series of conferences included two presentations on Martian time (Mackenzie 1989, Gangale 1997). In the 1990s,
roughly 20 authors wrote on the subject. The first commercially printed Martian calendar is available for the current Martian
year (Graham and Elliott 1999). A number of real-time Martian clocks are currently posted on the World Wide Web. Links
to several dozen on-line Martian time-keeping topics are available on the Martian Time Web Site at www.martiana.org, along
with an in-depth discussion of the systems that are known to the primary author of this presentation.
We take our familiarity with the dimensions of Nature for granted. However, the historical study of measurement has
revealed that not only are the familiar units of mass, distance, and time socially constructed, but the physical dimensions
themselves are social constructs and have not always been conceived of in the same way throughout history (p. 14).
There has been an evolution toward greater abstraction and standardization, but the fact remains that Nature does not
dictate the duration of a second or an hour. The hour has not had a fixed duration over human history (p. 15). The
duration of a second, until recent history, was not agreed upon. Until 1967, “time was bound up with the classical
mechanics of Newton; today it is defined in terms of quantum mechanics, and it is not certain that the two are the same
(Danloux-Dumesnils 1969, p. 64).” It is the quest for ever greater precision in measures that led to the discovery of their
illusory character (Langevin 1961). In trying to tie the metric system to Nature, its creators discovered that the system
was not so natural and immutable. The International Meter is 0.2 mm shorter than the Metre des Archives, based now
on a different standard than a fraction of the arc of meridian (Duncan 1984, p. 22). By 1928, the distinguished physicist
P. W. Bridgman wondered whether, “from a strict operationist standpoint, physics was justified in treating as one and
the same concept the notion of length pertaining to ultramicroscopic dimensions, the tactual concept suited to everyday
life, and the optical concept, which is required for astronomical measures of length (p. 15).”
The truth of the matter is that there is an “idealization of the measurement process” which our scientific method is so
dependent upon (pp. 120-121). Much of the philosophy of science is a neat ex post facto rationalization (p. 120). Our
definitions of physical measurements and our conceptualizations of the architecture of the Cosmos are only as solid as
our experience of everyday life. As we move outward into the Cosmos, the new challenges we face as a people redefine
our experiences. In seeking to accommodate this process, we will enhance our vision of the universe and invent new
instrumentation to measure it. Time measurement, as any other of our measurements, illustrates how social needs and
processes influence the framework and conventions of physical measurement. Timing, sequence, tempo, and duration are
fundamental features of social events (Duncan 1984, p. 30, citing Zerubavel 1982). It is logical to expect that so long as
those features remain tied to the everyday experiences of current terrestrial life, they will not change much. However,
when the everyday experiences of humans ranges farther afield, those features will change. They may even begin to
change as humans start to consider new data from possible human ecological niches elsewhere in the solar system.
–2–
The Martian Time Poll: One Martian Year Of Data
So, it was no mere idle exercise in creativity to gauge the attitudes and opinions of those interested in timing, sequence,
tempo, and duration on Mars, even though no actual Martian respondents exist. We do stand on the verge of the
acquisition of the Red Planet, with new data being deposited periodically into the human collective consciousness
regarding conditions there. We are becoming Martian. What would those “becoming Martian” have to say about
temporal measurement on Mars?
Methods
The history of time-keeping on Earth suggests that people resist change, even small and prudent ones. An example of
this is the reform of the Julian calendar that was promulgated by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582, which deleted one leap
day every 400 years. The Gregorian calendar did not completely replace the Julian calendar for civil purposes until the
20th century, and even today the Julian calendar continues to be observed as a religious calendar by Orthodox Christians,
despite the fact that it is now off by 14 days. History is replete with examples of more radical reforms that failed. Thus
the authors surmised that the proposed design features in Martian time-keeping that most closely mimicked terrestrial
time-keeping conventions would be the ones best received. As Niccolo Machiavelli observed, “It must be remembered
that there is nothing more difficult to plan, more doubtful of success, nor more dangerous to manage than the creation
of a new system . . . The hesitation . . . arises . . . in part from the general skepticism of mankind which does not really
believe in an innovation until experience proves its value.”
At the same time, the authors were mindful of the possibility that the demographic that was likely to respond to the
Martian Time Poll, i.e., the Internet community in general and Mars enthusiasts in particular, both representing
pioneering populations, would be to some degree more sophisticated and more open to innovation than society as a
whole. But to what degree? In this respect, the Martian Time Poll was an exploratory study – polling for responses in
order to frame testable hypotheses and to later be able to ask cogent research questions.
The Martian Time Web Site began conducting an on-line poll on 20 September 1998. The Martian Time Poll consists
of 25 questions on the basic elements of Martian time-keeping. The questions break down into two categories. The first
of these deals with the structural details of time-keeping: how many hours should there be to a Martian sol, how many
months to a Martian year, et cetera? The second set of questions pertains to the nomenclature of Martian time: should
we devise new names for the Martian units of time, and how should we name the sols of the week and the months of
the year? This presentation reports only the results of the questions that address the preferred structure of a Martian clock
and calendar. While preferences regarding the shape of a Martian time-keeping system are certainly influenced by
culture, it must be noted that most of human society has become familiar with the 24-hour, 60-minute, 60-second clock
and the structure of the Gregorian calendar to varying extents. That which we call Universal Time becomes more truly
universal every day. On the other hand, the names that we apply to these common elements of time are heavily
influenced by history, language, and culture. Since the Martian Time Poll is entirely in English, the results of the
questions addressing the nomenclature of Martian time will, to some degree, be culturally biased.
Another possible bias in the poll was that some respondents might not understand all the questions. A Frequently Asked
Questions page is available on the web site, which they may or may not have seen.
The data reported in this presentation were recorded on 29 July 2000. At that time, the poll had been open for 708 days,
21 days longer than a Martian year. The results are presented in tabular form in the Appendix. For each question, there
was a drop-down list of options from which the respondent could choose. As noted in the Appendix, some questions
were added to the poll at later dates, as were response options to individual questions in some cases.
Results
For each of the 14 structural questions, the total number of respondents is reported, then the number and percentage of
respondents to the highest ranked responses. The lowest ranked responses are reported as a group. Finally, there is a
discussion of the data.
–3–
The Martian Time Poll: One Martian Year Of Data
Figure 3.1
This is a dramatic example of taking what works on Earth and stretching it to make it work on Mars. A recurring theme
in the data is that if the proposition is straightforward enough, people choose the most conservative option every time.
The Martian sol is only 2.7% longer than the Earth day, and simply stretching the familiar units of time by this small
amount would be insensible to most people.
But as physicist Robert L. Forward once insisted in a letter to the primary author, “A second is a second is a second!”
Yes, there must always be a universally accepted standard technical unit of time, but it is the society that owns time, not
the scientists and engineers. The Martian unit of time that mimics the standard second might one day be called by a
more distinctive name, but that is a subject for a future presentation.
It is instructive to note here that in the late 18th century, the idea of dividing the day by powers of ten was proposed as
part of the metric system, and was discarded early on. Ideas on “metric time” for Mars appear destined to a similar fate.
In a sense, the Martian clock is already a fait accompli, since the stretched 24-60-60 clock was used routinely at the Jet
Propulsion Laboratory during the operation of the Viking 1, Viking 2, and Pathfinder landers on the surface of Mars.
2. Should Martian months always begin on the same sol of the week?
Of 109 respondents, 50 (45.87%) chose “No” and 36 (33.03%) chose “Yes.” The next popular choice was “No opinion”
with 16 respondents making up 14.68% of the response to this question. The two other selections had a range of
response of 3 to 4 respondents.
–4–
The Martian Time Poll: One Martian Year Of Data
Figure 3.2
Once again, the data can be interpreted as being a conservative response. On the Gregorian calendar, the day of the
week beginning a calendar month varies not only from one month to the next, but from year to year for any given month.
This chaotic system has been in place since the seven-day week was incorporated into the calendar during the reign of
the Roman emperor Constantine I. Several attempts at reform in the late 19th and early 20th centuries sought to
regularize the calendar and make it “perpetual,” i.e., make each calendar year identical. One proposal, championed by
George Eastman of Kodak (Eastman 1926), would have had each month begin on Sunday, and while the International
Fixed calendar never gained acceptance as a civil calendar, some major corporations continued to use it for accounting
purposes toward the end of the 20th century. Another proposal, the World calendar, would have had months begin on
various days of the week in a regular pattern that repeated every three months (McCarty). The failure of these reforms
on Earth suggests that the current system is not a great inconvenience to most people. The response to Question 2 of
the Martian Time Poll shows that the idea of regularizing each month of the calendar year is so unfamiliar as to outweigh
whatever advantages it might have. However, in the response to Question 14, we will see that there is support for some
sort of a perpetual calendar for Mars.
3. How many major divisions of the Martian year should there be?
Of 109 respondents, 62 (56.88%) opted for four major divisions of approximately 167 sols each. This choice was the
most popular choice. The next popular choice was “No opinion” with 21 respondents (19.27%). The third-most popular
choice was eight major divisions with approximately 84 sols each with 18 respondents representing 16.51% of the
response to this question. The other two choices received 3 and 5 responses.
–5–
The Martian Time Poll: One Martian Year Of Data
Figure 3.3
Much of Earth’s population lives in temperate zones, where the passage of the year through spring, summer, autumn,
and winter are obvious, and the response to Question 3 reflects the desire to retain these seasonal concepts on Mars.
However, it should be noted that in Earth’s tropical climates, the year tends to be viewed in terms of wet and dry seasons.
The human experience of the Martian climate may be similarly bifurcated, as tropical populations may be more affected
by the passage of the dust storm season, or of aphelion and perihelion, while the four seasons marked by the equinoxes
and solstices may have a more pronounced effect on the temperate zones.
Figure 3.4
–6–
The Martian Time Poll: One Martian Year Of Data
The leap week is a device used on some perpetual calendars to keep the months and weeks in synchronization. In the
case of the seven-sol week, which was overwhelmingly preferred by respondents (see the responses for Question 7),
such calendars vary the length of the Martian year between 95 and 96 weeks, i.e., either 665 or 672 sols. On the other
hand, perpetual calendars that use leap sols must either include sols that do not count as part of a week if 95 weeks are
counted, or periodically shorten weeks to only six sols if 96 weeks are counted, since the Martian year contains
approximately 668.6 sols. There is no example of a leap week calendar in practice on Earth, so respondents preferred
the traditional leap year calendar.
5. Should Martian months be of equal duration, or should they span equal arcs in Mars’ orbit?
Of the 109 respondents, 74 (67.89%) selected months of equal duration, a nearly 3 to 1 advantage over months spanning
equal arcs, an option chosen by 25 respondents (22.94%). The responses to the three other options ranged from 2 to 5,
with “No opinion” leading the pack.
Figure 3.5
Nearly all Earth calendars divide the year into approximately equal segments of time, based either on the 29.53-day
lunar cycle or on divisions of the solar year. While it is true that on the Gregorian calendar, February is two days shorter
than any other month, most people do not consider this arrangement to be inconveniently lopsided. The unattractiveness
of the equal-arc type of calendar for Mars may chiefly lie in the fact that it results in months containing highly variable
numbers of sols because of the ellipticity of the Martian orbit. For example, in the best-known equal-arc calendar
(Zubrin 1993), the 12 months vary from 46 to 66 sols. Moreover, there are only two months that have the same number
of sols, requiring a mnemonic rhyme to be much more than a simple ditty. The difficulties that Martian accountants
would face in dealing with such calendars can scarcely be imagined.
6. How many sols should there usually be in a Martian month? (Equal duration months)
Of the 109 respondents, 49 (44.95%) favored a calendar of 24 months containing 28 sols each. This was more than twice
the number of selections for the second-most popular choice, a calendar of 12 month containing 56 sols each, which was
favored by 22 respondents (20.18%). Other options, which ranged from 0 to 7 choices, ranked no higher than “No opinion.”
–7–
The Martian Time Poll: One Martian Year Of Data
Figure 3.6
Nearly two-thirds of the respondents preferred a year that is divisible either by 12 or 24. The advantage of these two
numbers is that they have a lot of other numbers as factors. For a variety of sociological purposes, the 12-month year
can be divided by 2, 3, 4, and 6. The 24-month year can be further divided by 8, and since eighths of a Martian year
are analogous to quarters of an Earth year, a standard accounting period, it is possible that the eighth would be a useful
period of time for reporting Martian finances. Surely Martian investors will want to count their money about as often
as their Terran counterparts, and as was remarked early in the Space Age, “No bucks, no Buck Rogers.” Another
advantage of calendars comprising 24 months of 28 sols each is that such systems accommodate a fundamental human
biological cycle. The statistical average of the menstrual cycle is about 28 sols. Since the purpose of a calendar is to
mark the passage of time in human terms, the more human factors that are designed into a calendar, the better.
As mentioned in the discussion of Question 1, the application of powers of ten to units of time was originally envisioned
in the metric system. Revolutionary France enacted a calendar (Weisstein 1996) comprising 10-day weeks, however it
was widely ignored and was eventually discarded by Napoleon Bonaparte. The Soviet Union made several short-lived
attempts to deviate from the 7-day week. It is clear from the responses to Question 7 that calendars that retain this
ancient scheme are far more likely to gain acceptance.
–8–
The Martian Time Poll: One Martian Year Of Data
Figure 3.7
Figure 3.8
There was a consensus in favor of marking the beginning of the Martian calendar year with some annual astronomical
event. There were 73 (66.97%) responses in this general category. This is one of three examples of the respondents
deviating significantly from the Gregorian calendar (Questions 13 and 14 being the other two). However, it should be
pointed out that the Roman calendar originally began on the vernal equinox, and that most of the other calendars of Earth
were tied to a specific astronomical event. Also, it has been standard astronomical practice for centuries to reference
the longitudinal position of celestial objects from the point of the vernal equinox.
–9–
The Martian Time Poll: One Martian Year Of Data
Figure 3.9
Of the 14 structural questions in the Martian Time Poll, this one produced by far the lowest ranking first choice. The
weak consensus expressed by the respondents was to begin counting the Martian calendar year with an event that has
yet to occur.
This is the one question in the Martian Time Poll that failed to produce a consensus. We humans are rather schizoid
when it comes to counting. There was no year 0 in the Gregorian calendar, nor do the months begin with a zero day.
These social measurements date from an ancient time when the concept of zero was largely unknown outside the world
of mathematicians. Yet in the modern world it has become common practice to begin each day with the 24-hour clock
reading 00:00:00.
11. What would be an acceptable leap year scheme for a Martian calendar?
Of the 67 respondents, 34 (50.75%) preferred leap years to occur in odd-numbered years and years divisible by 10. This
is a 3 to 1 advantage over the nearest competitor, the idea of having some scheme that produces three leap years every
– 10 –
The Martian Time Poll: One Martian Year Of Data
five years, which received 11 (16.42%) choices. A close third was the concept of having no predefined scheme at all,
but rather inserting leap years as astronomical observations pointed out the need for them. The “By observation” option
received 9 (13.43%) responses, barely ahead of “No opinion,” which received 8 (11.94%) responses. The two other
choices received 2 and 4 responses
Figure 3.10
Figure 3.11
This was a rather complex question, and it is surprising that it produced such a clear result. The preferred algorithm
produces six leap years every 10 years, which is necessary since the Martian year contains approximately 668.6 sols. A
pattern that is repeatable every five years would be a bit more accurate; however, the most popular scheme is the
simplest to remember, while other patterns require more of an explanation.
– 11 –
The Martian Time Poll: One Martian Year Of Data
Figure 3.12
Again, people chose the simplest and smoothest solution. Other choices either required calendar years of three different
lengths rather than only two, or required the length of the years to vary by more than one sol. In contrast, the calendar
years on Earth are either 365 or 366 days; there are only two types of calendar years and they vary by only a day.
Unsurprisingly, the preferred solution for Mars embodies the same principles.
The response to this question marked a significant departure from Earth’s Gregorian calendar, in which the leap day
occurs at the end of the second month (February). Only two (3.64%) respondents opted for this scheme on a 12-month
Martian calendar, and in the case of a 24-month Martian calendar, only three (5.45%) people chose to have the leap sol
at the end of the fourth month. Certainly most people are unaware of the fact that the Roman year originally began with
March and that February was once the last month of the year, where it made sense to put the leap day.
14. Should the calendar be perpetual (each year occurring on the same sol of the week)?
Of the 55 respondents, 28 (50.91%) preferred a perpetual calendar, while 19 (34.55%) chose to have a non-perpetual
calendar. The two other choices received 3 to 5 choices.
– 12 –
The Martian Time Poll: One Martian Year Of Data
Figure 3.13
Figure 3.13
Figure 3.14
Again, we see here a response that deviated from current practice on Earth. Ideas on regularizing the calendar in terms
of reconciling the months and the 7-day week in a repeatable pattern go back at least as far back as 18th century
Maryland, when a colonist writing under the pen name of Hirossa Ap-Iccim dedicated a perpetual calendar to George
II (Ap-Iccim 1745). As discussed earlier, the cause of calendar reform experienced a golden age on Earth in the late
19th and early 20th centuries, then lost momentum. And so, decade after decade and century after century, none of us
knows on what day of the week the 12th of next month will fall without referring to a printed calendar. We seem all but
resigned to this inconvenience here on Earth, but the response to Question 14 indicates support for a perpetual calendar
for Mars. Some proposals establish a repeatable pattern over a period of a year or two, while others have every month
invariably begin with the first day of the week.
– 13 –
The Martian Time Poll: One Martian Year Of Data
The results also demonstrate clearly that respondents preferred an Earth-like, modern Western calendar for Mars,
consisting of:
• Four seasons.
• A seven-sol week.
• A leap sol versus a leap week.
• Common years comprising 668 sols and leap years totaling 669 sols.
• Equal duration months of approximately 28 sols each.
The leap year scheme preferred by respondents was the simplest one to express: odd-numbered years plus decennial years.
The three notable exceptions to the Gregorian calendar were the desire to:
While starting the new year on or near the vernal equinox is not a feature of the most modern Western calendar, it was
a feature of past Western calendars and non-Western ones extant on Earth today. All of these latter calendars were
informed by the view that the arrival of spring was the beginning of the new year and the end of winter, appealing to
both the hunter-gatherer and the agriculturist. It is interesting that post-industrial respondents want to import this artifact
from the Old World to the new.
Placing the leap sol at end of year rather than somewhere else inside the year is a logical idea, but not a new one. This
was once a feature of the Roman calendar that is the basis of the Gregorian calendar. What we see here is a popular desire
to return to a basic concept that got lost during several thousands of years of priests and politicians tinkering with time.
The quest for a perpetual calendar, one in which all common years and all leap years are identical in relation to the days
of the week, is over 250 years old. The most momentous innovation in time-keeping in the Western world occurred
more than 2000 years ago, when Gaius Julius Caesar, wielding absolute power, took Rome from a lunar calendar to a
solar one designed by a Hellenistic Egyptian astronomer. The reform instituted by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582 was an
extremely modest one that merely eliminated one leap day every 400 years, a reform that was required for the calendar
to keep in step with the seasons. Even so, Protestant and Orthodox Europe ignored this prudent reform for centuries.
Social inertia may doom further attempts at calendar reform on Earth, but on Mars we will have a new society, possibly
more disposed to judge ideas on their merits rather than on their history. For the most part, the Martian Time Poll has
shown that the proto-Martian community is firmly wedded to the time-keeping traditions that have served humanity well
on Earth; it remains to be seen how Martian society will evolve new social measurements suited to its otherworldly
environment.
There is no consensus whatsoever regarding whether to begin counting the Martian years with 0 or 1. There are a
number of social measurements that start from 0, while many others begin with the number 1. We speak of “the eleventh
– 14 –
The Martian Time Poll: One Martian Year Of Data
hour” as a metaphor for time running out, but if 11 p.m. begins that last hour of the day, why don’t we then speak of the
beginning of the day as “the zeroth hour?” If the Martian calendar began with the year 0, calculating the intervening
years between a date before the epoch and after it would be a simple matter. If one was born in the year -22 and died
in the year 11, that person lived to be 33 Martian years old, more or less. Starting with a year 0 would also mean that
the next century would begin with the year 100. This makes intuitive sense, whereas on Earth many people are
confounded by the fact that the new millennium won’t really arrive until 2001. However, if Mars were to have a year
0, would we then speak of the years 0 through 99 as “the zeroth century?”
The weak consensus expressed by the respondents was to begin counting the Martian calendar year with an event that
has yet to occur. This presents a problem to those who would like to begin using a Martian calendar as soon as possible,
for without an epoch, we cannot possibly know what year it is! On the other hand, to those who believe that the adoption
of a calendar should be a decision left to future Martians, this is not an issue.
The Martian Time Poll will continue to collect data. Old questions may be reconsidered. New questions may be posed.
The educational value of the Martian Time Web Site will be enhanced to better ensure that respondents are well
informed on the issues. In particular, as consensus develops regarding the structure of Martian time, the questions of
nomenclature will become more relevant, and a carefully considered questionnaire will need to be designed to avoid
cultural biases as much as possible on these issues.
Who speaks for Mars? Who has the power to decide the shape of Martian time? The decision is not one to be rendered
by Caesar, nor is it conceivable that the Roman Catholic Church will play as important a role as it did in the 16th century.
Neither the League of Nations nor the United Nations acted decisively on calendar reform in the 20th century. Does the
promulgation of a system of time for another world fall within the purview of NASA? JPL? The IAU?
We believe that it is the people who are “becoming Martian,” those who somehow have a vested interest in Mars and
its acquisition, who will develop the social measurements of Mars. A question that the proto-Martian community must
ask itself is whether a clock and calendar could be important symbols of the emerging Martian culture on Earth, whether
the early adoption of such a system of social measurement could be a factor in the coalescing of a cultural identity, which
in turn could serve to hasten the date of the first human landing. We must ask ourselves whether we who are
Earthbound, yet whose hearts are bound to Mars, are Martian enough to take a hand in designing tomorrow.
Acknowledgments
Thanks are in order to Bill Woods, Lance Latham, and Alan Hensel for contributing many of the questions for the
Martian Time Poll.
References
1. Ap-Iccim, Hirossa. 1745. “An essay on the British computation of time, coin, weights, and measures.” The Gentleman’s Magazine, (London,
July). http://personal.ecu.edu/mccartyr/hirossa.html.
2. Aitken, Robert G. 1936. “Time Measures on Mars.” Journal of Calendar Reform 6, 65. http://www.martiana.org/mars/other/aitken.htm.
3. Burroughs, Edgar Rice. 1913. The Gods of Mars. New York: Random House, Inc.
4. Clarke, Arthur C. 1951. The Sands of Mars. London: Sidgwick & Jackson, Ltd.
5. Compton, D. G. 1966. Farewell Earth’s Bliss. Hodder & Stoughton, Ltd.
6. Danloux-Dumesnils, Maurice. 1969. The Metric System: A Critical Study of Its Principles and Practice. London: Athlone Press
7. Duncan, Otis Dudley. 1984. Notes on Social Measurement: Historical and Critical. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
8. Eastman, George. 1926. “The Importance of Calendar Reform to the Business World.” Nation’s Business (May).
http://personal.ecu.edu/mccartyr/eastman.html.
9. Gangale, Thomas. 1998. “The Calendars of Jupiter.” http://www.martiana.org/mars/mst/jupifrm.htm.
10. Gangale, Thomas. 1997. “Mare Chronium: A Brief History of Martian Time.” Pp. 381-393 in The Case for Mars IV: The International
Exploration of Mars, edited by Thomas R. Meyer. San Diego. Univelt, Inc. http://www.martiana.org/mars/chronium/chronfrm.htm.
11. Graham, James M., and Elliott, Kandis. 1999. “The Millennium Mars Calendar.” Pp. 1031-1033 in Proceedings of the Founding Convention
of the Mars Society, edited by R. M. Zubrin and M. Zubrin. San Diego. Univelt, Inc. http://www.martiana.org/mars/other/millenn.htm.
12. Greg, Percy. 1880. Across the Zodiac: The Story of a Wrecked Record.
13. Heinlein, Robert A. 1949. Red Planet. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.
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The Martian Time Poll: One Martian Year Of Data
14. Langevin, Luce. 1961. “The Introduction of the Metric System.” Impact of Science on Society 11 (August): 77-95.
15. Levitt, I. M. 1954. “Mars Clock and Calendar.” Sky & Telescope (May). http://www.martiana.org/mars/other/levitt.htm.
16. Lovelock, James; and Allaby, Michael. 1984. The Greening of Mars. New York: Warner Books, Inc.
17. Mackenzie, Bruce A. 1989. “Metric Time for Mars.” Pp. 539-543 in The Case for Mars III: Strategies for Exploration, edited by Carol Stoker.
San Diego. Univelt, Inc. http://www.martiana.org/mars/other/mcknzfrm.htm.
18. McCarty, Rick. “The World Calendar.” http://personal.ecu.edu/mccartyr/world-calendar.html.
19. Piper, H. Beam 1957. “Omnilingual.” Astounding.
20. Sydenham, P.H. 1979. Measuring Instruments: Tools of Knowledge and Control. Stevenage, UK: Peter Peregrinus.
21. Weisstein, Eric W. 1996. “French Revolutionary Calendar.” http://www.treasure-troves.com/astro/FrenchRevolutionaryCalendar.html.
22. Zerubavel, Eviatar. 1882. “The Standardization of Time: A Sociohistorical Perspective.” American Journal of Sociology 88 (July): 1-23.
23. Zubrin, Robert. 1993. “A Calendar for Mars.” Ad Astra (November/December). http://www.drfast.net/mars/Zubrin.html.
– 16 –
A Master Plan for Mars: From Transporting the First Colonists
to Total Terraformation of the Red Planet
Tanya Harrison
[2000]
Introduction
This paper was done as a part of NASA’s Mars Millennium Project, a project to design a colony for one hundred people
on Mars in the year 2030. The project began in the spring of 1999 and was made for teams of students in kindergarten
through 12th grade. I became involved with the project when a commercial aired for it during Star Trek: Voyager one
night.
The point of the project was to create a community for the first hundred colonists on Mars, but I have expanded my
project from just the colony to designing a ship with state of the art propulsion systems to cut down on transit time, and
terraforming Mars. This is entitled the Emissary Project, as these 100 intrepid voyagers will be our ambassadors to the
Red Planet. Emissary is also the name of the ship transporting the crew to Mars. It will be launched in July 2030 to
arrive at Mars, avoiding dust storms and catching Mars at its closest point in its orbit to Earth.
–1–
A Master Plan for Mars: From Transporting the First Colonists to Total Terraformation of the Red Planet
The ship has two main components: the fuselage and the rings. The fuselage contains the crew quarters and all of the
ship’s control functions. The rings rotate with the ship at 4 rpm, which generates close to Martian gravity (0.38 g). The
rings have an approximate diameter of 115 meters and encircle the entire ship except for a small section in the aft that
contains the fuel tanks and is the location of the exhaust nozzles.
On Mars, the fuselage of the ship would house crew members until the colony structure had been completed. The rings
would be used for material with which to construct the colony, as well as material from the ship, materials sent to Mars
beforehand, and materials mined on Mars (such as magnesium, alloyed to create metal).
Instead of using a chemical reaction, such as the combustion of hydrogen with oxygen, these engines ionize atoms of
xenon gas and then, with a strong electric field, expel these ions at high speed. Ion engines have a very high efficiency
when compared to chemical propulsion methods, but the drawback is that the levels of thrust produced by these systems
tend to be several orders of magnitude lower than those produced by chemical methods. This means that to achieve the
same overall change in momentum the engine must operate for longer and must therefore be more reliable than its
chemical counterparts.
Nuclear Core
–2–
A Master Plan for Mars: From Transporting the First Colonists to Total Terraformation of the Red Planet
Pulsed plasma thrusters are used for orbit and precision positioning. The pulsed plasma thruster system is composed of
power and control electronics, a high-energy capacitor, electrodes, and chlorofluorocarbon-based fuel bars. The use of
solid, non-toxic propellant bars eliminates fluid propellant systems and the complex ground handling used in traditional
propulsion methods. The fuel is ablated, ionized, and accelerated electromagnetically from the pulsed plasma thruster
during a high-voltage capacitor discharge across the face of the fuel bar. The pulsed plasma thruster system offers a
simple, lightweight, microthrust propulsion capability with minimal spacecraft interface requirements for spacecraft
attitude control, orbit-raising and translation, and precision positioning.
Emissary uses a holographic data storage system. A hologram is a photographic record of the spatial interference pattern
formed by the mixing of two coherent laser beams. One beam carries the spatial information, called the “object” beam;
the other is distinguished by its particular direction of travel, called the “reference” beam.
Holographic data storage promises fast access times, because holograms encode a large block of data as a single entity
in a single write operation, and reading the hologram retrieves the entire block simultaneously.
The HDS system can hold an incredible amount of data when compared to other methods of data storage. For example,
the new hard drives that just came out are 10-gigabyte drives. A holographic cube the size of a sugar cube can hold 10
gigabytes per cubic centimeter. A block of optical media the size of a deck of cards would hold a terabyte of data.
Fortunately, there are many advantages to holographic data storage. Reading out of images instead of single hits serially
provides a huge improvement in bandwidth. Also, the ability for light to be launched through space and easily deflected
will eliminate the need for rotation of the medium. HDS is a convenient way to address a storage medium in three
dimensions while only scanning beams in two.
HDS also uses a relatively small amount of components to run, minimizing the space they take up. The main
components are:
–3–
A Master Plan for Mars: From Transporting the First Colonists to Total Terraformation of the Red Planet
• Detector array to convert the reconstructed data output object data into an electronic bit stream
• Electronics to control the entire process and condition the input / output electronic information
• Sufficiently powerful laser to overcome the optical losses of the system
Holography records information from a three-dimensional object in such a way that a three-dimensional image may
subsequently be constructed. Holographic memory uses lasers for both reading and writing the data blocks into the
photosensitive material. Recording the interference pattern between a carefully modulated coherent wave front and a
reference beam on a photosensitive material forms a digital hologram.
Iron doped lithium niobate is currently the medium used for holographic storage. Unfortunately, it has two main
failings: a destructive readout of the data and a relatively low sensitivity. Currently, it is the only material that has the
optical quality that is critical for a system application. Hopefully by 2030, we will have found a better medium for
holographic storage. Superfluid helium (4He) is beginning to look promising for this type of data storage, and its use is
still being tested.
The computer core contains 10,000 holographic data storage disks. Each of the disks is 9 x 6 x 1 centimeters and has
a volume of 54 cm3. Each disk can hold a terabyte of data, which gives the computer a maximum storage capacity of
10,000 terabytes. To break that down: the computer has a capacity of 18,518,518,519 bytes per cubic centimeter, or
18.518518519 gigabytes. With 54 cm3 in a disk, each disk holds one trillion bytes, or a terabyte. This means that the
total storage capacity of the computer is 1016 (ten quadrillion) bytes! This is equivalent to the amount of data that can
be held on ~71,429 floppy disks. The core can process approximately one trillion calculations per microsecond. To
overcome the problem of computer error, computer redundancy is used in the ship’s computers. The computers must
reach consensus before they can issue a command.
Emissary has two-dimensional graphical interfaces and voiceprint technology. The verbal controls are multi-lingual and
work with English, Russian, Japanese and French. Either of these methods can be used to access the ship’s library,
which contains all the data we have on Mars, including photographs, videos, maps, and writings. Even H. G. Wells’
The War of the Worlds is stored in the library. Also stored are all of the crew profiles and mission data. Profiles include
biographical information, educational record (degrees, etc.), department aboard the ship, and closest living relatives in
case of emergency.
Security systems on board have two purposes: to protect the computer files and to keep crew members where they
belong. Sections of the ship that are restricted access areas are protected by iris scanners, as are encrypted / restricted
files. Also, no one can open your letters from home except for you (and the commanding officer, if need be).
Iris scanning has many advantages over fingerprints and voiceprints. The iris has 266 measurable characteristics, while
the fingerprint only has about 35. No two people have the same irises; even your right and left irises are different.
Fingerprints can be manipulated (and even removed), and voices can be imitated, whereas irises cannot. Iris scanning
works with glasses and contacts, with an identification time of two seconds. Currently, this kind of scanning requires
512 bytes per eye for storage. Fingerprints require over one thousand bytes per print. For the entire crew, it would only
take up 102.4 gigabytes of the 10,000 terabytes in the ship’s computer (if data were stored for both eyes).
The computer also has an advanced encryption standard from IBM called MARS. MARS is a shared-key block cipher,
with a block size of 128 bits and a variable key size, ranging from 128 to over 400 bits. It is a resilient system, because
all of the known cryptanalytical attacks (including linear and differential cryptanalysis) require more data than is
available (2128), making these attacks would be impossible against MARS. MARS is also more secure than other
systems because it was designed using a mixed structure, where the top and bottom rounds were designed differently
than the middle rounds. This was done because different parts in a cipher play different roles in assuring security. Top
and bottom rounds usually have a different role than the middle rounds in protecting against cryptanalytical attacks.
–4–
A Master Plan for Mars: From Transporting the First Colonists to Total Terraformation of the Red Planet
The computer has a Facial Action Encoding System on it. This is a system that analyses the facial muscles to deduce
the emotion of the user, and reacts with a series of pre-programmed actions. For example, if the computer senses you
are nervous or impatient, it speeds up its response time. FACS (pronounced “faces”) deals with what is clearly visible
in the face and ignores “invisible” changes or visible changes too subtle for distinction. FACS does not include skin
coloration, facial sweating, tears, rashes, pimples, and permanent facial characteristics in its analysis. Specific actions
are described: the movements of the skin, the temporary changes in the shape and location of the features, and the
gathering, pouching and wrinkling of the skin. FACS has action units (which are numbers) that have assigned names
to them and the muscular basis of these actions, as seen here:
The table indicates where they have collapsed more than one muscle into a single Action Unit from a single muscle.
(Source: http://www.cs.wpi.edu/~matt/courses/cs563/talks/face_anim/ekman.html)
As an example, FACS would detect the action units 6 (cheek raiser), 12 (lip corner puller), 14 (dimpler), 20 (lip
stretcher), and possibly 44 (squint) and deduce from these that the user is smiling.
–5–
A Master Plan for Mars: From Transporting the First Colonists to Total Terraformation of the Red Planet
Emissary’s computer has a sort of artificial intelligence: it can answer questions (i.e., “Are the deuterium injectors
performing within tolerable parameters?”) and process commands (i.e., “Access the internal sensors.”). The computer
uses the bottom-up approach. Bottom-up is the top-down approach (a heuristic IF-THEN method, which uses decision
trees) plus induction and many of the subtle nuances of human thought. It codes known human behaviors and thought
patterns into the computer as symbols and instructions. It learns from what it does, devises its own rules, and creates
its own data and conclusions. The computer adapts and grows in knowledge based on the network environment in which
it lives.
The flight plan includes a Venus swing-by, which involves a Hohmann transfer to a specific point in space near Venus
so that the trajectory of the ship is redirected toward Mars. The main problem with this is that the ship will come toward
Mars at a high velocity, which could require a large amount of fuel to slow down the ship at Mars. The way out of this
problem is to bring along a heat shield and use the upper atmosphere of Mars as friction to slow down to a gradual stop
–6–
A Master Plan for Mars: From Transporting the First Colonists to Total Terraformation of the Red Planet
as opposed to using up propellant (Emissary has an inflatable heat shield, stored in the front of the ship). Emissary will
also slow down to a calculated speed before encountering Venus so that the velocity of the ship after encountering Venus
is the same as it was before the encounter.
The Emissary has a somewhat complicated landing procedure. When the ship reaches Mars, it uses the pulsed plasma
thrusters to insert itself into a parking orbit. The clasps that connect the rotating rings to the ship are released, and the
rings are jettisoned down to the planet near the landing spot at Utopia Planitia. This leaves the crew in microgravity for
the descent. The ship angles itself so as not to burn up in the atmosphere, coming in at a slow speed. Four large landing
braces, two at the fore and two at the aft, are deployed. Since there are obviously no runways on Mars and most of the
landscape is rock-strewn, traditional wheel landing gear would not be appropriate for landing on Mars. As the ship
levels out horizontally, retrorockets on the bottom of the braces are activated to slow the descent even further. The final
landing is a bit rough, so the crew is instructed to hold onto something. After landing, ramps are lowered from the
airlocks on the bottom deck (the same place that the landing braces are stored during the trip) so the crew can get out
of the ship and set foot on Mars.
V. Complications
Now, there are a few problems with this ship. First of all, it has an exhaust velocity of 26,400 km/s, which is 95,040,000
km/hr. With speeds this high, gravitational forces would crush the crew long before reaching Mars (don’t forget, ships
usually travel twice as fast as their exhaust velocity). Also, it would take awhile to accelerate, and if one were cruising
along at 95,040,000 km/hr in a place with no friction, deceleration would take an incredibly long time. So, one could
not accelerate all the way for a trip as short as to Mars. And if one wanted to go at top speed, they’d need to get a hold
of Captain Picard and the Enterprise and ask how those inertial dampers work.
As you go faster, your length begins to shorten. The Emissary is 400 meters long, but travels at ~6.8% the speed of
light. Since the ship would shrink by a factor of gamma, which is:
(1.1)
where v is the velocity of the object and c is the speed of light, the ship’s gamma equals 1.003900073. Take the original
length of the ship and divide by gamma. Emissary would end up being 398.4460314 meters long. Everyone and
everything aboard would also shrink by the same gamma, but it is not always the same amount. The Emissary shrinks
by about two centimeters, but when I put in my height:
150 cm/γ = 149.4173 (1.2)
I only shrink by less than a centimeter. And the trip to Mars shrinks by 304,577.85 kilometers. This means that if the
ship were going at 26,400 km/s, it would take approximately 50 minutes to reach Mars.
When one goes faster, time slows down as well. Going at 6.8% the speed of light would cause a small time dilation.
The equation for time dilation is:
(1.3)
where ∆t is the observer’s time (the time on Earth) and ∆t1 is the time on the moving system (the time aboard the ship).
Using this equation, we find that the time dilation if the ship were going at top speed the entire trip would only be 11.47
seconds.
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A Master Plan for Mars: From Transporting the First Colonists to Total Terraformation of the Red Planet
The Colony
I. Construction and Schematics
The colony structure, built at Utopia Planitia, is circular in shape with a diameter of approximately one kilometer. The
inner section holds all of the colony’s control functions and duty stations; the outer ring holds crew quarters and
recreational facilities, such as the gymnasium. It is composed of aluminum, titanium, and magnesium alloys, and a few
various carbon compounds to protect against the sun’s deadly UV rays. The colony will be constructed underground to
help protect the crew from radiation as well. Mirrors are used to reflect sunlight down to the base’s greenhouse to allow
for photosynthesis, as well as a place for the crew to walk around in “natural” light somewhat safely.
The base has safeguard systems in case of emergency. If a containment breach occurs, alarms go off and the computer
shows the location of the breach. All crew members put on environmental suits and wait for the breach to be repaired.
If a quarantine situation were to occur, everyone would change into environmental suits and evacuate the structure. The
station is then flooded with ozone to clean it.
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A Master Plan for Mars: From Transporting the First Colonists to Total Terraformation of the Red Planet
to regenerate enough power for the 100 colonists. Since Mars will not be exactly hospitable to the colonists when they
first arrive, there are aspects requiring a technological solution:
Radiation protection
The radiation that reaches the Martian surface is approximately 2,000 times that of Earth! The materials the station is
composed of give radiation protection, as well as the location on the planet (Utopia Planitia is located in what appears
to be an ancient ocean bed, giving it a low elevation, and the colony is underground there).
Temperature regulation
Temperature regulation systems must be installed due to the lack of natural weather to keep circulating fresh air.
Hydrological cycle
An artificial hydrological cycle must be created due to the inability to form clouds and rain inside of an enclosed habitat.
After transpiration by plants, water is condensed from the air and piped back into the greenhouse sprinklers and the
colony’s “watershed.” Aquifers will be placed near the colony to reach Mars’ ground water (if there is any), and
machines will be placed outside to create water from elements in the Martian atmosphere. Water is recycled / conserved
as much as possible; the colony has employed sonic showers, which would be more sanitary and require only electricity
(to generate the sound waves) to run.
Management of horticulture
The hydroponics bay will house the agricultural department’s food and plant species. Most will grow under blue or red
lights, since experiments have shown that blue and red lights promote larger crops with less of the wasted, inedible parts
of the plants. In fact, radishes, potatoes, and wheat grown very well in NASA’s simulated Martian soil. When the
colony (and eventually colonies) becomes larger, biodomes will be built. The biodomes are composed of H2O and
silicon. More plant life can be grown in these biodomes to support more humans on Mars. Recycled water (from human
waste) would be used as rain inside these domes.
Artificial atmosphere maintenance and air revitalisation (Equations: Fogg, Martyn J. Terraforming: Engineering
Planetary Environments. 1995 by SAE International, Warrendale, PA, pgs. 44-46, 51)
CO2 scrubbers will be in place like on nuclear submarines, to keep the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere at a
safe level. The CO2 scrubbers run by precipitating calcium carbonate in two steps:
CO2 + 2NaOH —> Na2CO3 + H2O (2.2)
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A Master Plan for Mars: From Transporting the First Colonists to Total Terraformation of the Red Planet
After removal from the air, CO2 is reduced by using the Sabatier process, converting the CO2 to methane at 370°C in
the presence of a catalyst:
Combining respiration, electrolysis, and the Sabatier process, the overall reaction is:
Food and water are consumed, producing oxygen and excess waste methane. When combining the Sabatier process with
a hydrazine-based nitrogen generation subsystem for maintenance of cabin pressure in the base:
N2H4 —> N2 + H2 (2.6)
Hydrogen is provided for CO2 reduction, conserving water. The dispensable atoms from this are carbon and hydrogen.
The advantages of using the Sabatier process (over the option of the Bosch process, which is used in some systems to
minimize the loss of hydrogen) are that the machinery employed is lightweight and the reduction of CO2 occurs at a
highly efficient rate.
Fans circulate the air inside of the base. There is also an emergency oxygen injection system in case of breaches in
containment. The oxygen generators run by using hydrogen, brought to Mars from Earth (and eventually mined from
the asteroid belt), and mixing it with carbon dioxide from the Martian atmosphere to create oxygen (and methane rocket
propellant, according to Zubrin’s Mars Direct plan).
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A Master Plan for Mars: From Transporting the First Colonists to Total Terraformation of the Red Planet
idea of NIMFs was invented by Robert Zubrin. NIMFs use raw carbon dioxide from the Martian atmosphere as a
propellant. The carbon dioxide is heated by an onboard nuclear thermal rocket, or an NTR, creating a hot rocket
exhaust. NTRs don’t convert their heat into electricity, allowing the NIMFs to be both lightweight and small. Since the
propellant is raw carbon dioxide, chemical synthesis gear is also eliminated. NIMFs have total global range because
they make their own fuel After more colonies has been established on Mars, NIMFs could be used for cargo transport,
and for transporting people from city to city.
NIMFs could also be used to transport crew members to various spots on Mars to set up weather monitoring stations to
keep track of the infamous dust storms. Mars Global Surveyor (or the newer version of it in 2030) would also assist by
transmitting data to the base.
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A Master Plan for Mars: From Transporting the First Colonists to Total Terraformation of the Red Planet
Also outside is the space elevator, which goes up to an asteroid with a space station constructed on it where the yearly
supply shuttle docks. The elevator car travels up an areosynchronous elevator rail, which is held in place by an
areosynchronous counterbalance. A carbonaceous asteroid a couple of kilometers in diameter, brought to Mars to serve
as a tether anchor, could provide all of the carbon 60 required to construct an orbital tether (a buckytube). The tether
could be created by automated machines on the surface of the asteroid and slowly spun down to the surface.
The tether would need to be approximately 34,000 kilometers long to have the elevator car reach the (asteroid) docking
port in areosynchronous orbit. It extends down from the asteroid and is attached to a 30-kilometer-tall tower that is
constructed on the surface above the base. The rover bay is to one side of the tower and the NIMF bay and launch site
is to the other side. At the base of the tower is a high-power laser that propels the elevator car, which is a lightcraft.
Lightcrafts work by using a high-power laser to heat up the air behind the craft until it explodes behind it, propelling it
up the tether. These cars are lightweight and relatively fast; the car would take about five hours to reach the asteroid.
Terraforming Mars
I. Planet Shifting
The Emissary’s crew’s biggest undertaking will be to move Mars from a position 228,000,000 kilometers away from
the sun to a position 211,054,200 kilometers away from the sun. This will be done to heat up the surface, melt some of
the permafrost to give Mars some of its water back, and to assist in the release of volatiles trapped in the Martian
regolith. They will use a multi-swingby technique to move the planet.
Perhaps the least daunting of planet shifting techniques, since it involves a process that has already been experimented
with on a small scale is what Oberg called the “multi-swingby” technique. When two bodies in space pass close enough
for significant gravitational interaction, an exchange of momentum occurs. An example of this is when the Voyager
probes encountered Jupiter to accelerate and deflect their trajectory toward Uranus and Neptune. But since the mass
ratio between Jupiter and the probes is so minute (~10-25), the planet experiences no discernible deflection at all.
However, close gravitational encounters with larger bodies similar in mass to the planet itself would have a large effect
on the planet’s orbit.
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A Master Plan for Mars: From Transporting the First Colonists to Total Terraformation of the Red Planet
Oberg conceived of the possibility of engineering repeated encounters with a succession of ~100-km-wide objects, which
he called “cue balls,” each one giving the planet a small and harmless nudge in the desired direction. Although the “cue
balls” are now more manageable in size, the scheme becomes extremely complex. You would have to have more than
1000 cue balls that encountered the planet every three hours or so for about 100 years, and the mass of all of the cue balls
would be enough to amount to a moon-sized planet on their own – not a readily accessible source (most likely from the
asteroid belt). Another difficulty is that as each mass gives the planet a small shove, it receives, in relative terms, a
powerful kick in return. The planet would scatter the cue balls far and wide, further complicating the problem.
The multi-swingby idea does have a number of points in its favor, though. For a start, it is a highly efficient way of
transferring both momentum and kinetic energy; the only energy dissipating is a tiny amount converted to heat in the
tidal bulges raised during the encounter. A possible way to remedy the scattering problem is to have the cue balls
encounter another much larger object, such as Jupiter, which will then send them back into the inner Solar System.
Thus, the vast reservoir of angular momentum and energy embodied in the orbit of Jupiter could be tapped. Setting the
whole process in motion might be done easily if we conceive a hierarchical approach, where small objects deflect larger
ones, which deflect still larger ones, and so on.
Obviously, the moving of Mars would not be completed soon after the colonists arrive, but they could be the ones to set
it in motion.
Mars has a thin atmosphere, but not nearly a breathable or protective one. The current Martian atmosphere is dominated
by carbon dioxide and nitrogen, together making up over 98% of the atmosphere. Oxygen is only .07%, and ozone is
the scarcest, with a mere 0.04 to 0.2 ppm.
These are the levels of oxygen currently on Mars. It shows the volume percent of oxygen compared to the atmospheric
pressure. As you can see, anyone walking around on Mars without a pressure suit would suffer from nearly immediate
hypoxia. There are scarce amounts of oxygen in the air, and hardly any ozone. Four massive ozone generators will be
employed on Mars. Since ozone molecules bond with each other, the generators could assist in the creation of an ozone
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A Master Plan for Mars: From Transporting the First Colonists to Total Terraformation of the Red Planet
layer to increase the planet’s insolation and reduce the levels of surface UV flux. Solettas will also be placed in orbit
to enhance insolation, with multiple solettas at the poles and higher latitudes to melt permafrost. Enhancing Mars’
atmosphere will cause permafrost to melt, giving it back some of its water and releasing volatiles from the regolith, as
I said before. This will help thicken the atmosphere, making Mars easier to live on, and perhaps eventually will make
it so that you could walk on Mars without a pressure suit. You’d still need your handy pack of compressed oxygen,
though, until total terraformation had been completed.
Mars’ mean global temperature is ~-56ºC. Equatorial temperatures range from 20ºC in the afternoon to -90ºC before
dawn. Winter poles are usually below -130ºC. With temperatures like this, water remains ice, and humans can’t survive
in temperatures this cold. In a way, a solution to this could kill two birds with one stone. With Mars’ lack of atmosphere
and a protective ozone layer, hardly any of the sun’s heat is trapped to warm the surface. To create a thicker atmosphere,
we’d need to put more greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, which could be done by particle generators (placed at 45
spots around the planet) and other planetary engineering techniques.
In Carl Sagan’s schematic for the runaway greenhouse scenario, various planetary engineering techniques are used to
warm regions of Mars that are rich in volatiles. Carbon dioxide in the polar caps and the regolith then begins to
vaporize. The thicker atmosphere warms the surface, causing a further release of gases. If positive feedback is strong
enough, self-sustaining outgassing may occur as a result of a comparatively trivial forcing.
(Source: McKay, C.P., Toon, O.B. and Kasting, J.F. “Making Mars Habitable.” Nature, 352, 489-496, 1991.)
This graph shoes the thermal balance of a model 1-bar Earth-like atmosphere on Mars with 10 mbar of CO2 in
equilibrium with water.5 The surface temperature is set at 15ºC and is shown as the upper dotted curve; the temperature
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A Master Plan for Mars: From Transporting the First Colonists to Total Terraformation of the Red Planet
at which the planet should radiate to space is shown as the lower dotted curve. The solid line is the actual infrared
radiation emitted at the top of the atmosphere showing that the surface is far too hot to be in equilibrium.
Now, this shows the effect of adding trace gases to the Earth-like Martian atmosphere from the preceding graph (the solid
lines) and to the present-day atmosphere of Mars (dotted lines). Carbon, hydrogen, and fluorine are added to the
atmosphere, which are “super-greenhouse” gases. All of these are already on Mars. We would not generate chlorine or
bromine, which are destructive to ozone, even though they are major greenhouse gases. Chlorine and bromine break the
properties of the ideal greenhouse gas mixture. Trace gas absorption in the window region gives maximum warming
increments of ~40ºC and ~30ºC, respectively. A uniform gray absorber, however, a hypothetical mixture of gases that is
active over the entire infrared spectrum, can warm Mars above freezing. This would make living on Mars a bit more
hospitable to humans, though temperatures would resemble those of Northern Canada, Alaska, and parts of Eastern Russia.
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A Master Plan for Mars: From Transporting the First Colonists to Total Terraformation of the Red Planet
(Source: Fogg, Martyn J. Terraforming: Engineering Planetary Environments. 1995 by SAE International, Warrendale, PA.)
A simplified cross-section of the Martian regolith from the North Pole to the South Pole shows that ground ice is stable
poleward of about 40º latitude where the temperature is permanently below freezing. Ice at lower latitudes must be
isolated from the atmosphere by a diffusive barrier.
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A Master Plan for Mars: From Transporting the First Colonists to Total Terraformation of the Red Planet
How does this differ from the actual time? Refer to the chart below:
If you use the leap day system (subtracting one ‘leap day’ every 494 sols to make up for rounding up 3 minutes a
sol), the length of your year in reality is no longer 669 sols (though it is on the calendar, which I will explain next),
but 668.6457489 sols, almost the same length as the actual Martian year (this is factoring in the .4 days you gain in
rounding up to 669 from 668.6)!
Now, the calendar consists of 22 months with nine months having 31 days and 13 having 30, giving you 669 days in the
year. I managed to keep the seven-day week with 96 weeks in a year. The months are named after features on Mars
(Tharsis, Elysium, Hesperia, etc.), but names of the days of the week were left the same, since I was more concerned
with numbers than names.
I also made a calendar for Mars after its shifting had been completed (if humans decided to go that route). The new
calendar has 615 sols in a year, adding a leap day every third year to even things out. This year has 20 months with
fifteen months having 31 days and five having 30 days.
Where did those numbers come from? Put the number of days in an Earth year over its average distance from the sun,
and a variable “x” over Mars’ new distance from the sun:
365 / 149,000,000 = x / 211,054,200 (3.1)
Take your cross products to find the value of x, which comes out to be ~631.334. This number is the number of Earth
days in the new Martian year. Then, place the current number of Earth days in a Martian year over the number of sols
in the current Martian year, and the number 631.334 over x.
687 / 668.6 = 631.334 / x (3.2)
Using cross products again, you discover that x equals ~615.344. This is the number of sols in the new Martian year.
Round this off to 615, and you end up the calendar I explained before. If you round off the decimal to .3, then every
third year, you’d add a leap day to make up for your rounding down. This is only off by approximately .1 days.
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A Master Plan for Mars: From Transporting the First Colonists to Total Terraformation of the Red Planet
Conclusion
“Humans will go forth to Mars. Of this we may be as sure as we can be of anything. In the next two
or three decades perhaps, in the twenty-first century almost certainly, astronauts will make the long
journey . . . For Mars is not only a destination; it can be the beginning of the irreversible expansion of
humans into the cosmos.”
— John Noble Wilford, Mars Beckons
This is my view of humanity’s future on Mars. And we will go to Mars, because it is in the nature of humanity to
explore. We’ve gone to the limits on Earth, and must now turn our views to the skies. There is an endless amount of
exploration to do out there, and I plan to be one of the ones doing the exploring. It’s the future, and we’ve got to check
it out.
Acknowledgments
The majority of this research was done at home using books obtained from the library, books I owned, and the Internet.
I worked on the project alone, but I do owe a few acknowledgments to some very important people. All of the pictures
and graphs in this paper were either hand drawn and scanned into the computer or drawn with Paint© by the author
unless otherwise noted. The figures in the terraforming section came from the noted sources, but were drawn on the
computer by the author in Paint.©
First of all, I would like to thank all of the members of the Mars Society Puget Sound Chapter, who made me a member,
helped me find places to present my project, and let me help out on raising public awareness of getting humans to Mars.
The National Space Society is also owed a thank you, since they let me present for them at Boeing’s Museum of Flight
in April of 2000, the first time I really presented my first research.
I also owe thanks to Don Scott (NASA educator), Michael Okuda (Star Trek technical director), Daniel Slosberg
(college student and fellow Mars Society member), and Thomas Gangale (head of Martiana). The picture of the
terraformed Mars on the cover page was done by Michael Carroll, so I also owe him thanks for doing this beautiful
painting.
A dedication goes out to the Great Bird of the Galaxy himself, Gene Roddenberry, for creating Star Trek, which sparked
my interests in astronomy. He will always be remembered by his fans.
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A Master Plan for Mars: From Transporting the First Colonists to Total Terraformation of the Red Planet
Appendices
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A Master Plan for Mars: From Transporting the First Colonists to Total Terraformation of the Red Planet
• Early and Middle Noachian: More than 4.4 billion years ago. Primitive ancient crust; early bombardment.
• Late Noachian: 4.4 billion to 3.8 billion years ago. Intercrater plains; lava flows; sinuous channels.
• Hesperian: 3.8 to 3.6 billion years ago. Lava flows; complex ridged plains.
• Early Amazonian: 3.6 to 2.3 billion years ago. Smooth plains such as Acidalia; extensive volcanism.
• Middle Amazonian: 2.3 billion years ago to 700 million years ago. Continued volcanism.
• Late Amazonian: 700 million years ago to the present time. Major volcanic activity in Tharsis and elsewhere dying
out at a relatively late stage; disappearance of surface water.
* Mg = 25 kilos/m3 of regolith
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A Master Plan for Mars: From Transporting the First Colonists to Total Terraformation of the Red Planet
Planetary Code
ARTICLES OF THE TERRAN SYSTEM
ISSUE: 473250
Tanya Harrison
Planetary Relations Ambassador
Terran System Command
To reaffirm faith in the fundamental human rights. In the dignity and worth of the human person, to the equal rights of
male and female and of planetary social systems large and small, and To establish conditions under which justice and
mutual respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other sources of interplanetary law can be maintained, and
To practice benevolent tolerance and live together in peace with one another as good neighbors, and
To ensure by the acceptance of principles and the institution of methods that armed force shall not be used except in the
common defense, and
To employ machinery for the promotion of the economic and social advancement of all humans,
Accordingly, the respective social systems, through representatives assembled on the planet Earth, who have exhibited
their full powers to be in good and due form, have agreed to these articles of the Terran System, and do hereby establish
an interplanetary organization to be known as the Terran System Alliance.
Chapter I
Purposes And Principles
ARTICLE 1
The purposes of the Terran System Alliance are:
1. To maintain interplanetary peace and security within the Terran System, and to that end: to take effective collective
measures for the prevention of threats to the peace, the suppression of acts of aggression, and to bring about by
peaceful means, and employing the principles of justice and interplanetary law, adjustment or settlement of
interplanetary disputes which might lead to a breach of the peace;
2. To develop friendly relations among planets based on respect for the principles of equal rights and self-
determination of humans, and to other appropriate measures to strengthen universal peace;
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A Master Plan for Mars: From Transporting the First Colonists to Total Terraformation of the Red Planet
3. To achieve interplanetary cooperation in solving problems of economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character;
in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights; and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction
between culture, sex, race, or religious belief.
ARTICLE 2
The Alliance and its members, in pursuit of purposes stated, shall act in accordance with the following principles:
Chapter II
Membership
ARTICLE 3
All planetary bodies in this Solar System that are colonized are members of the Terran Alliance. If a body that was
previously uninhabited is colonized, it becomes a member of the Terran Alliance. This includes all nine planets orbiting
our Sun and all of their moons.
ARTICLE 4
Any member of the Terran Alliance which has persistently violated the purposes and principles contained in these
articles of the Terran Alliance may be expelled from the Alliance by the Supreme Assembly by recommendation of the
Alliance Council. With this action, the member that has been expelled loses all rights and protection given to them by
the Alliance.
Chapter III
Agencies
ARTICLE 5
1. There are established as the principal agencies of the Terran Alliance: a Supreme Assembly, an Alliance Council,
an economic and social council, an interplanetary supreme court of justice, a combined peace-keeping force, and a
secretariat;
2. Such subsidiary agencies as may be deemed necessary from time to time may be established in accordance with
these Articles of the Terran Alliance.
ARTICLE 6
The Terran Alliance shall place no restriction on the eligibility of male and female persons of any member planetary
social system to participate in any capacity under conditions of equality in its principal and subsidiary agencies.
Chapter IV
The Supreme Assembly
ARTICLE 6
Composition
The Supreme Assembly shall consist of all the members of the Terran Alliance. Each member shall be entitled to have
not more than five (5) representatives in this body;
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A Master Plan for Mars: From Transporting the First Colonists to Total Terraformation of the Red Planet
ARTICLE 7
The Supreme Assembly may discuss any questions on any matters within the scope of these Articles of the Terran
Alliance or relating to the powers and functions of any agencies provided for in these articles and, except as provided
in Article 9, may make recommendations to the members and the council or both on any such questions or matters;
ARTICLE 8
1. The Supreme Assembly may discuss any questions relative to the maintenance of interplanetary peace and security
put to it by any member or the Alliance Council, and, except as provided in Article 9, may make recommendations
with regard to any such questions to the members, the Alliance Council, or the pleading planetary social system, or
to all of them. Any such question on which action is necessary shall be referred to the Alliance Council by the
Supreme Assembly either before or after discussion;
2. The Supreme Assembly may call situations which are likely to endanger the interplanetary peace and security to the
attention of the Alliance Council;
3. The powers of the Supreme Assembly as set force in this article shall not limit the scope or Article 7;
ARTICLE 9
1. Where the Alliance Council is executing the functions assigned to it under these articles with respect to any dispute
or situation, the Supreme Assembly shall make no recommendation with regard to that dispute or situation unless
so requested by the Alliance Council;
2. The Supreme-Secretariat, with the consent of the Alliance Council, shall notify the Supreme Assembly at each
session of any matters relating to the maintenance of interplanetary peace and security which are under discussion
in the Alliance Council, and shall notify the Supreme Assembly, or the members if the Supreme Assembly is not in
session, immediately when the Alliance Council completes its deliberations on any such matters;
ARTICLE 10
1. The Supreme Assembly shall initiate studies and make recommendations for the purpose of:
A) Promoting interplanetary cooperation in political fields and encouraging the progressive development of
interplanetary law and its codification;
B) Promoting interplanetary cooperation in the economic, social, cultural, educational, and health fields, and
assisting in the realization of human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to culture,
sex, language, or religion;
2. The further responsibilities, functions, and powers of the Supreme Assembly with respect to matters mentioned in
Paragraph 1(B) above are set forth in later Chapters.
ARTICLE 11
Subject to the provisions of Article 10, the Supreme Assembly may recommend measures for the peaceful adjustment
of any situation, regardless of origin, which it deems likely to impair general welfare or friendly relations among planets,
including situations resulting from violations of the provisions of these articles setting forth the purposes and principles
of the Terran Alliance;
ARTICLE 12
1. The Supreme Assembly shall receive and consider regular and special reports from the Alliance Council; which
reports shall include an account of the measures that the Alliance Council has decided upon or taken to maintain
interplanetary peace and security;
2. The Supreme Assembly shall receive and consider reports from the other agencies of the Terran Alliance on agreed
upon regular periods or reporting;
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A Master Plan for Mars: From Transporting the First Colonists to Total Terraformation of the Red Planet
ARTICLE 13
1. The Supreme Assembly shall consider and approve the budget of the Terran Alliance;
2. The expenses of the Terran Alliance shall be borne by the members as appointed by the Supreme Assembly;
3. The Supreme Assembly shall consider and approve any financial and budgetary arrangements with specialized
agencies and shall examine the administrative budgets of such specialized agencies with a view to making
recommendations to the agencies concerned;
4. All budgets of, and expenses of the Terran Alliance shall be made and paid in common interplanetary credit. The
common interplanetary credit shall be the official medium of exchange within the Terran Alliance.
VOTING
ARTICLE 14
1. Each member of the Supreme Assembly shall have one vote;
2. Decisions of the Supreme Assembly on important questions shall be made on a two-thirds (2/3) majority vote of the
members present and voting. These questions shall include: recommendations with respect to the maintenance of
interplanetary peace and security; the election of non-permanent members to the Alliance Council; the suspension
of the rights and privileges of membership; the expulsion of members; and budgetary questions;
3. Decisions on other questions, including the determination of additional categories of questions to be decided by a
two-thirds (2/3) majority, shall be made by a majority vote of the members present and voting;
ARTICLE 15
A member of the Terran Alliance which is in arrears in the payment of its financial obligations to the Alliance shall have
no vote in the Supreme Assembly if the amount it is in arrears equals or exceeds the amount of the contributions due
from it for the preceding two accounting periods. The Supreme Assembly may, nevertheless, permit such a member to
vote if it is satisfied that the failure to pay is due to conditions beyond the control of the member.
PROCEDURE
ARTICLE 16
The Supreme Assembly shall meet in regular periodic sessions and in such special sessions as occasion may require.
Special sessions shall be convoked by the Supreme-Secretariat at the request of the Alliance Council or of a majority of
the members of the Terran Alliance;
ARTICLE 17
The Supreme Assembly shall adopt its own rules of procedure. It shall elect its president for each session;
ARTICLE 18
The Supreme Assembly may establish such subsidiary agencies as it deems necessary for the performance of its functions.
Chapter V
The Alliance Council
ARTICLE 19
Composition
1. The Alliance Council shall consist of eleven (11) members of the Terran Alliance. The Supreme Assembly shall
elect six (6) other members of the Alliance to the non-permanent members of the Alliance Council, due regard being
especially paid, in the first instance, to the contribution of the members of the Terran Alliance to maintenance of
interplanetary peace and security and to the other purposes of the Alliance;
2. The non-permanent members of the Alliance Council shall be elected for a term of two (2) session periods. In the
first election of non-permanent members, however, three (2) shall be elected for a term of one (1) session period.
A retiring member shall not be eligible for immediate re-election;
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A Master Plan for Mars: From Transporting the First Colonists to Total Terraformation of the Red Planet
ARTICLE 20
1. In order to assure prompt and effective action by the Terran Alliance, its members confer on the Alliance Council
primary responsibility for the maintenance of interplanetary peace and security, and agree that in carrying out its
duties under this responsibility the Alliance Council acts on their behalf;
2. In discharging these duties the Alliance Council shall act in accordance with the purposes and principles of the
Terran Alliance. The specific powers granted to the Alliance Council for the discharge of these duties are laid down
in Chapters VI, and VII;
3. The Alliance Council shall submit regular and, when necessary, special reports to the Supreme Assembly for its
consideration;
ARTICLE 21
The members of the Terran Alliance agree to accept and carry out the decisions of the Alliance Council in accordance
with these Articles of the Terran Alliance;
ARTICLE 22
In order to promote the establishment and maintenance of interplanetary peace and security with the least diversion of
the Alliance’s people, and economic resources for armaments, the Alliance Council shall be responsible for formulating,
with the assistance of Terran System Headquarters staff referred to in Article 46, plans to be submitted to the members
of the Alliance for the establishment of a system for the regulation of armaments;
ARTICLE 23
Voting
1. Each member of the Alliance Council shall have one vote;
2. Decisions of the Alliance Council on procedural matters shall be made by an affirmative vote of seven (7) members;
3. Decisions of the Alliance Council on all other matters shall be made on affirmative vote of (7) members including
the concurring votes of the permanent members, provided that, in decisions under Chapter VI, a party to the dispute
shall refrain from voting;
PROCEDURE
ARTICLE 24
1. The Alliance Council shall be so organized as to be able to function continuously. Each member of the Alliance
Council shall, for this purpose, be represented at all times at the seat of the Alliance;
2. The Alliance Council shall hold periodic meetings at which each of its members may, if it so desires, be represented
by a member of its government or by some other specially designed representative;
3. The Alliance Council may hold meetings at such places other than the seat of the Alliance as in its judgment will
facilitate its work;
ARTICLE 25
The Alliance Council may establish such subsidiary agencies as it deems necessary for the performance of its functions;
ARTICLE 26
The Alliance Council shall adopt its own rules of procedure, including the method of selecting is governor;
ARTICLE 27
Any member of the Terran Alliance which is not a member of the Alliance Council may participate, without vote, in the
discussion of any question brought before the Alliance Council whenever the latter considers that the interests of the
member are specifically affected.
– 25 –
A Master Plan for Mars: From Transporting the First Colonists to Total Terraformation of the Red Planet
Chapter VI
Pacific Settlement Of Disputes
ARTICLE 28
1. The parties to any dispute, the continuance of which is likely to endanger the maintenance of interplanetary peace
and security, shall, first of all, seek a solution by negotiation, inquiry, mediation, conciliation, arbitration, judicial
settlement, resort to regional agencies or arrangements, or other peaceful means of their own choice;
2. The Alliance Council shall, when it deems necessary, call upon the parties to settle their dispute by such means;
ARTICLE 29
The Alliance Council may investigate any dispute, or any situation that might lead to interplanetary friction or give rise
to a dispute, in order to determine whether the continuance of the dispute or situation is likely to endanger the
maintenance of interplanetary peace and security;
ARTICLE 30
1. Any member of the Terran Alliance may bring any dispute, or any situation of the nature referring to in Article 29,
to the attention of the Alliance Council or the Supreme Assembly;
2. The proceedings of the Supreme Assembly in respect to matters brought to its attention under this article will be
subject to the provisions of Articles 8 and 9;
ARTICLE 31
1. The Alliance Council may, at any stage of a dispute of the nature referred to in Article 28 or of a situation of like
nature, recommend procedures or appropriate methods of adjustment;
2. The Alliance Council shall take into consideration any procedure for the settlement of the dispute that has already
been adopted by the parties;
3. In making recommendations under the article of the Alliance Council should also take into consideration that legal
disputes should as a general rule be referred to the Interplanetary Supreme Court of Justice in accordance with the
provisions of the statute of the court;
ARTICLE 32
1. Should the parties to a dispute as referred to in Article 28 fail to settle it by means indicated in that article, they shall
refer it to the Alliance Council;
2. If the Alliance Council deems that the continuance of the dispute is in fact likely to endanger the maintenance of
interplanetary peace and security, it shall decide whether to take action under Article 31 or to recommend such terms
as it may consider appropriate;
ARTICLE 33
Without prejudice to the provisions of Articles 28 through 32, the Alliance Council may, if all the parties to any dispute
so request, make recommendations to the parties with a view to a pacific settlement of the dispute.
Chapter VII
Action With Respect To Threats To The Peace, Breaches Of The Peace, And Acts Of Aggression
ARTICLE 34
The Alliance Council shall determine the existence of any threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression
and shall make recommendations to maintain or restore interplanetary peace and security;
ARTICLE 35
In order to prevent aggravation of the situation, the Alliance Council may call upon the parties concerned to comply
with such provisional measures as it deems necessary or desirable. Such provisional measures shall be without prejudice
– 26 –
A Master Plan for Mars: From Transporting the First Colonists to Total Terraformation of the Red Planet
to the rights, claims, or position of the parties concerned. The Alliance Council shall take into account any failure to
comply with such provisional measures;
ARTICLE 36
All members of the Terran Alliance in obligation to the maintenance of interplanetary peace and security, agree to make
available to the Alliance, on call of the Alliance Council, armed forces, assistance, and facilities, including rights of
passage, necessary for the maintenance of interplanetary peace and security;
ARTICLE 37
When the Alliance Council has decided to use force it shall, before calling upon a member not represented on it to
provide armed forces in fulfillment of obligations assumed under Article 36, invite that member to participate in the
decisions of the Alliance Council relating to the employment of contingents of the member’s armed forces;
ARTICLE 38
In order to enable the Terran Alliance to take urgent military measures, all members so capable, shall assign contingents
of their armed forces to the Alliance to be employed as a single peacekeeping force of the Terran Alliance. All
contingents so assigned, and for the duration of their assignment, shall hold full faith and loyalty to the Terran Alliance
and the protection of purposes and principles of these Articles;
ARTICLE 39
Plans for the application of Alliance armed forces shall be made by the Alliance Council with the assistance of the
military staff committee of Alliance Headquarters;
ARTICLE 40
There shall be established within the Alliance a military staff committee to advise and assist the Alliance Council on all
matters relating to the Terran Alliance’s military requirements for maintaining interplanetary peace and security;
ARTICLE 41
The action required to carry out decisions of the Alliance council for the maintenance of interplanetary peace and
security shall be taken by the Alliance, using such contingents as appropriate to the specific action.
Chapter VIII
The Interplanetary Supreme Court Of Justice
ARTICLE 42
The Interplanetary Supreme Court of Justice shall be the principle judicial instrument of the Terran Alliance. It shall
function in accordance with the appended statute, and forms and integral part of these Articles;
ARTICLE 43
All members of the Terran Alliance are “ipso facto” parties to the statute of the Interplanetary Supreme Court of Justice;
ARTICLE 44
1. Each member of the Terran Alliance undertakes to comply with the decision of the Interplanetary Supreme Court
of Justice in any case to which it is a party;
2. If any party to a case fails to perform the obligations incumbent upon it under a judgment rendered by the court, the
other party may have recourse to the Alliance Council, which may, if it deems necessary, make recommendations
or decide upon measures to be taken to give effect to the judgment;
ARTICLE 45
1. The Supreme Assembly or the Alliance Council may request the Interplanetary Supreme Court of Justice to give an
advisory opinion on any legal question;
– 27 –
A Master Plan for Mars: From Transporting the First Colonists to Total Terraformation of the Red Planet
2. Other bodies of the Terran Alliance and the specialized agencies, which may at any time be so authorized by the
Supreme Assembly, may also request advisory opinions of the court on legal questions arising within the scope of
their activities.
Chapter IX
The Supreme-Secretariat
ARTICLE 46
The secretariat shall be comprised of a supreme-secretariat and such staff as the Alliance may require. The supreme-
secretariat shall be appointed by the Supreme Assembly upon the recommendation of the Alliance Council, and shall be
the chief administrative officer of the Terran Alliance;
ARTICLE 47
The supreme-secretariat shall act in that capacity in all meetings of the Supreme Assembly, of the Alliance Council, of the
Economic and Social Council, and shall perform such other functions as are entrusted to the secretariat by these bodies.
The supreme-secretariat shall make a periodic report to the Supreme Assembly on the work of the Terran Alliance;
ARTICLE 48
The supreme-secretariat may bring to the attention of the Alliance Council any matter which in his opinion may threaten
the maintenance of interplanetary peace and security;
ARTICLE 49
1. The staff shall be appointed by the supreme-secretariat under regulations established by the Supreme Assembly;
2. Appropriate staffs shall be permanently assigned to the economic and social council, and, as required, to other
bodies of the Alliance. These staffs shall form a part of the secretariat;
3. The paramount consideration in the employment of the staff and in the determination of the conditions of service
shall be the necessity of securing the highest standards of efficiency, competence, and integrity. Due regard shall
be paid to the importance of recruiting the staff on as wide a basis as possible.
Chapter X
Ratification And Signature
ARTICLE 50
1. These Articles of the Terran Alliance shall be ratified by the signatory governments in accordance with their
respective statutory processes;
2. The ratifications shall be deposited with the government of the United Nations of Planet Earth, which shall notify
all of the signatory governments of each deposit as well as the supreme-secretariat of the organization when he/she
has been appointed;
3. These Articles of the Terran Alliance shall come into full force upon the deposit of the ratifications by the United
Nations of Planet Earth, the Lunar Alliance, and the Federal Republic of Mars. A protocol of the ratifications
deposited shall thereupon be drawn up by the government of the United Nations, which shall communicate copies
thereof to all of the signatory governments;
4. The governments signatory to these Articles of the Terran Alliance which ratify it after it has come into force will
become original members of the Terran Alliance on the date of the deposit of their respective ratifications;
ARTICLE 51
These Articles of the Terran Alliance, of which the various language texts are equally authentic, upon the coming into
full force of the Terran Alliance, shall be transferred by the United Nations to the organization for permanent deposit in
its archives. Duly certified copies thereof shall be transmitted by the supreme-secretariat to the governments of all the
signatory social systems.
– 28 –
A Master Plan for Mars: From Transporting the First Colonists to Total Terraformation of the Red Planet
In faith whereof the representatives of the Governments of the Terran Alliance have signed these Articles of the Terran
Alliance.
Done at the Planet Earth, Earth date / Lunar date 25 April 2038
Martian date 15 Hecates, M.Y. 8.
References
Web sites
• Advances in Computing: Final Report – www-dse.doc.ic.ac.uk/~nd/surprise_97/journal/vol4/ary/
• Artemis Project Mars – www.asi.org/adb/02/05/01
• Biometric Consortium – www.biometrics.org
• Cyber Sci-Fi Network–Mars – cybersci-fi.net/mars/mars.html
• ESA Spaceflight – www.estec.esa.nl/spaceflight/index.html
• Facial Action Encoding System – www.cs.wpi.edu/~matt/courses/cs563/talks/face_anim/ekman.html
• Holographic Data Storage – menger.eecs.stevens-tech.edu/sd99/group23/HDSFinalReport.htm
• Holographic Storage – silver.neep.wisc.edu/~lakes/hoStorage.html
• The Incredible Ions of Space Transportation – spacescience.com/headlines/y2000/ast15jun_1.htm
• IriScan – www.iriscan.com
• Late Martian Weather! – nova.Stanford.edu/projects/mgs/late.html
• MARS – www.iag.net/~crs/mars
• Mars Academy – www.marsacademy.com
• MARS–A Candidate Cipher For AES – www.research.ibm.com/security/mars.pdf
• Mars Direct Home Page – www.nw.net/mars
• Mars Global Surveyor – mars.jpl.nasa.gov/mgs/mgs-readme.html
• Mars Introduction – www.planetscapes.com/solar/eng/mars.htm
• MarsNews.com – www.marsnews.com
• The Mars Society – www.marssociety.org
• Nanocomputing and Nanoprocessors – www.artificialbrains.com/nanoprocessors
• Nanomachinery Computational – www.msu.edu/~hungerf9/nano1.html
• NASA Homepage – www.nasa.gov
• National Space Society Mars Page – www.nss.org/mars
• NSF Understanding the Face 2 – www.nirc.com/Research/NSFrept2.html
• Return to Mars @ nationalgeographic.com – www.nationalgeographic.com/features/98/mars
• Roving Mars Atlas Clickable Globe – www.roving-mouse.com/planetary/Mars/Atlas/clickable-globe.html
• Russian Space Agency – www.rka.ru/english/eindex.htm
• Sensar, Inc. – www.sensar.com/sensarhome.htm
• Space.com – www.space.com/index.html
• SpaceDev – www.spacedev.com
• Star Trek Website – www.startrek.com
• Think Mars – www.thinkmars.net
• Whole Mars Catalogue – www2.astrobiology.com/astro/mars/index.html
– 29 –
A Master Plan for Mars: From Transporting the First Colonists to Total Terraformation of the Red Planet
• Dobbins, Thomas and Sheehan, William. “The Colours of Mars: Reality and Illusion.” “Sky and Telescope,” April 1999, pgs. 116-120.
• Doody, David F. “Three Ships to Mars.” “Sky and Telescope,” Dec. 1999, pgs. 24-26.
• Ferris, Timothy. “Personal: Human Seeks Alien.” “Popular Science,” Jan. 2000, pgs. 51-53.
• Fogg, Martyn J. Terraforming: Engineering Planetary Environments. 1995 by SAE International, Warrendale.
• Gresh, Lois and Weinberg, Robert. The Computers of Star Trek. 1999 by Basic Books, New York.
• Groopman, Jerome. “Medicine on Mars.” “The New Yorker,” Jan. 2000, pgs. ?
• Hammond, George and Kuck, Valerie J. Fullerenes: Synthesis, Properties, and Chemistry of Large Carbon Clusters. 1992 by the American
Chemical Society, Washington, D.C.
• Hartmann, William K. “Invading Martian Territory.” “Astronomy,” April 1999, pgs. 46-51.
• Hoagland, Richard C. The Monuments of Mars: A City on the Edge of Forever (4th ed.). 1987 by North Atlantic Books, Berkeley, California.
• Joëls, K.M. The Mars One Crew Manual. 1985 by Ballentine Books, New York.
• Kaplan, David. Environment of Mars. 1988 from the NASA Technical Memorandum 100470, Washington, D.C.
• Kieffer, Hugh H. (with 114 collaborating authors) Mars. 1992 by University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
• Krauss, Lawrence M. The Physics of Star Trek. 1995 by Harper-Perennial, New York.
• Malin, Michael C. “Visions of Mars.” “Sky and Telescope,” April 1999, pgs. 42-49.
• “Mars.” New Standard Encyclopaedia, Vol. 9, pgs. M-156-M-158.
• McDaniel, Stanley V. The McDaniel Report. 1993 by North Atlantic Books, Berkeley, California.
• McKay, C.P., Toon, O.B. and Kasting, J.F. “Making Mars Habitable.” Nature, 352, 489-496, 1991.
• Michaun, C.M. Handbook of the Physical Properties of the Planet Mars. 1967 by the U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
• Moore, Patrick. On Mars. 1998 by Cassell, London.
• “More Martian Microbes?” “Sky and Telescope,” June 1999, pgs. 24-25.
• NASA/CP – 2000-210429, Compiled by Smitherman, Jr., D.V. Space Elevators: An Advanced Earth-Space Infrastructure for the New
Millennium. 2000 by NASA Marshall Space Flight Centre, Huntsville, AL.
• Newton, Sir Isaac. Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (Principia Mathematica). 1934 (Written 1687) by Encyclopaedia
Britannica, Inc., London.
• “Nuclear Physics.” New Standard Encyclopaedia, Vol. 10, pgs. N-427-N-428.
• Odenwald, Sten. The Astronomy Café. 1998 by W.H. Freeman and Company, New York.
• Okuda, Michael and Denise. The Star Trek Encyclopaedia: Updated and Expanded Edition. 1997 by Pocket Books, New York.
• Okuda, Michael and Sternbach, Rick. Star Trek: The Next Generation Technical Manual. 1991 by Pocket Books, New York.
• Pauls, Michael and Facaros, Dana. The Traveller’s Guide to Mars. 1997 by Cadogan Books, London.
• Raeburn, Paul. “Manned Mission to Mars.” “Popular Science,” Feb. 1999, pgs. 40-47.
• Raeburn, Paul. Uncovering the Secrets of the Red Planet. 1998 by National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C.
• Robinson, Kim Stanley. Green Mars. 1994 by Bantam Spectra, New York.
• Robinson, Kim Stanley. Red Mars. 1994 by Bantam Spectra, New York.
• Schefter, Jim. “NASA’s Changing Fortunes.” “Popular Science,” April 2000, pgs. 56-61.
• Shirley, Donna. Managing Martians. 1998 by Broadway Books, New York.
• Slipher, E.C. A Photographic History of Mars: 1905-1961. 1962 by Northland Press, Flagstaff, Arizona.
• Stewart, John. Moons of the Solar System: An Illustrated Encyclopaedia. 1991 by McFarland & Company, Inc. Publishers, Jefferson, North
Carolina.
• Sweetman, Bill. “Runway to Space.” “Popular Science,” June 1999, pgs. 72-77.
• “A Tale of Two Polar Caps.” “Sky and Telescope,” April 1999, pg. 17.
• Utter, E.C. Parliamentary Law at a Glance. 1928 by The Reilly & Lee Company, Chicago.
• Watters, Thomas R. “Planetary Face-Off.” “Astronomy,” Jan. 1999, pgs. 58-63.
• Wells, R.A. Geophysics of Mars. 1979 by Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, New York.
• Wilford, John Noble. Mars Beckons. 1990 by Alfred A. Knopf, Inc, New York.
• Zubrin, Robert. The Case for Mars: The Plan to Settle the Red Planet and Why We Must. 1996 by the Free Press, New York.
• Zubrin, Robert. Entering Space. 1999 by Tarcher-Puntam, New York.
Documentaries
• Life on Mars?
• Destination: Mars
• Mars: Pioneering a Planet
• Inside the Space Shuttle
• Into Orbit: The Astronaut
• The Science of Star Trek
• Understanding Space Travel
• Rocket Ships
• Solar Empire
• Terraforming
• Cosmic Safari: Are We Alone?
• NASA Press Conference: Possible Evidence of Liquid Water On Mars
– 30 –
A Master Plan for Mars: From Transporting the First Colonists to Total Terraformation of the Red Planet
• Space Colonies
• Science of the Impossible: Can We Reach the Stars?
– 31 –
Mobile Nuclear Fission Engines for Mars Surface Vehicles and/or Aircraft
Robert D. Woolley
[2000]
Abstract
When humans go to Mars, we should take vehicles such as “rovers” or helicopters, powered by compact nuclear fission
reactor engines. This would provide portable “muscle power” for digging, e.g., in search of life or water, and for long
distance mobility to explore the entire planet without having to periodically return to a fixed ground base. Reactor
power would provide continuous life support, including heat to survive the frigid Martian nights.
Technical requirements for Martian mobile nuclear fission engines are discussed. The fundamental design issue is
minimizing mass while providing adequate power conversion and radiation shielding.
Nuclear fission reactors have supplied more than 20% of Earth’s electricity over the last several years, using either
natural uranium fuel or uranium slightly enriched in the fissionable isotope U235. However, a compact reactor must use
either Highly Enriched Uranium (HEU) or plutonium fuel in its core. A plutonium core would be smaller than a HEU
core but would suffer from a smaller experience base. Compact nuclear fission reactors using HEU are ubiquitous in
the submarines of several nations’ navies and are even used to power some aircraft carriers.
Substantial design, development and testing activity was pursued in the 1950s and 1960s to adapt mobile nuclear fission
reactors to propel jet aircraft and nuclear thermal rockets. The aircraft and rocket applications are not in use today, in
part due to radiological safety issues that could accompany a crash in a populated region. In contrast to plutonium, HEU
fuel carries the safety advantage of having negligible radioactivity before it is inserted into a reactor and fissioned. If a
Mars mission with an unoperated HEU-fueled reactor as cargo were to crash while being launched from Earth,
radiological safety issues would be insignificant.
Fixed installations employing gas turbines for electric power production usually add various heat exchangers between
airflows to more efficiently use heat, via regeneration and/or intercooling. But these additions are not appropriate for a
mobile engine since they add significant weight. For a mobile engine, the simple Figure 1 diagram is proper.
On Earth, the open Brayton cycle has been used in aircraft and surface vehicles. For such terrestrial implementations,
the “heat addition” stage is usually implemented by burning hydrocarbon fuels in the compressed air. Although further
temperature increase would in principle boost output power and efficiency, air temperatures are not usually designed to
exceed about 1300°C due to turbine blade materials limits.
–1–
Mobile Nuclear Fission Engines for Mars Surface Vehicles and/or Aircraft
Because the crew of each manned mission to Mars will spend about 18 months on the planet Mars, and because each
mission will be expensive, it would be wasteful for manned exploration to be limited to the immediate vicinity of each
landing site. For instance, if round-trip long distance mobility on Mars’ surface were severely limited to not exceed 100
km (62 miles) from each landing site, then 4554 separate missions to Mars would be required to visit the entire planet
once. A happier situation would provide round-trip long distance mobility to explore any location within a 2,171 km
(1,349 mile) distance from each landing site, allowing access to 10% of Mars’ surface area during each mission. The
ultimate capability would support round-trip excursions up to 10600 km away, providing mobility to explore any place
on Mars from any single landing site.
The alternative to using a mobile nuclear reactor engine would be to use a conventional engine powered by the chemical
reaction of fuel and oxidizer, such as an internal combustion engine or a combustion gas turbine. But Mars has no global
network of fuel and oxidizer manufacturing plants, so chemically fueled vehicle engines would need to be supported by
the infrastructure of a fuel and oxidizer manufacturing plant built at a ground base. The Martian air, composed primarily
of CO2 gas, cannot support combustion, so in addition to the weight of a fuel tank, a vehicle powered by internal
combustion would also need to carry another tank containing an even greater weight of oxidizer. Since Mars lacks
petrochemicals to serve as chemical feedstocks, the fuel and oxidizer would need to be manufactured from available
simple materials, e.g., CO2 and perhaps H2O. Engine-relevant quantities of oxygen practically require a cryogenic tank
along with the weight of its thermal insulation and the complexity of its boil-off pressure controls. Depending on which
fuel is manufactured, e.g., CH4 (methane), the fuel itself could also practically require cryogenic storage. Long duration
trips would then require further increasing the amount of cryogenic oxidizer and fuel in order to accommodate boil-off
during the excursion. The maximum weight of fuel plus oxidizer plus tanks, which the vehicle is capable of carrying,
would determine the vehicle’s maximum range. The maximum distance of points accessible via round-trips from the
ground base would be about one third of that maximum range if a safety margin is included, but could never exceed one
half of that maximum range.
On Earth, cars typically can carry enough gasoline to operate for up to 8 hours at cruising speed. The oxygen consumed
has a mass 3.5 times the mass of gasoline burned, so if it were necessary to also carry oxidizer within the same total weight,
the time between refueling would need to be reduced below 2 hours and the driving range similarly reduced. Some long
distance passenger aircraft can cruise for up to 12 hours, but that duration would be reduced below 3 hours if it were
necessary to carry oxidizer along with the jet fuel. Martian excursion duration could be extended somewhat by increasing
fuel and oxidizer tank sizes at the expense of payload, or by reducing engine size and power (thus jeopardizing the crew).
To safely venture even 100 km round-trip from the landing site, the one-way range should be 300 km. For a surface
vehicle with an average ground speed of 20 km/hr through rough terrain, the 300 km range would require driving for 15
hours. This is probably near the limit achievable for engines powered by combustion of chemical fuel and oxidizer.
Truly long-range mobility excursions lasting for days or weeks using chemical fuels and with an adequate power level
appear impossible. Nuclear power appears to be necessary for long range mobility on Mars.
–2–
Mobile Nuclear Fission Engines for Mars Surface Vehicles and/or Aircraft
General Requirements
Long range mobility implies that between returns to the ground base, crewmembers may be inside a mobile vehicle for
extended excursion periods of time, measured in days or even weeks. Such excursion durations are too long for
continuously wearing space suits as done in rover excursions during Apollo missions to the Moon. Each Mars vehicle
with long distance mobility must therefore have a pressurized crew compartment with air rebreathing life support
equipment (i.e., CO2 removal and O2 addition), sanitary facilities, food preparation facilities, communications
equipment, sleeping bunks, and storage for consumables such as oxygen, drinking water, and food. The vehicle’s engine
must be capable of powering the internal equipment in addition to providing mobility. Because the nighttime Martian
air temperature dips to –100°C (-148°F) at the equator and gets even colder elsewhere, the vehicle’s engine must also
provide adjustable heat as needed to keep the crew compartment warm.
Nuclear fission has the advantage of very high energy content, about one million times the energy content of the same
mass of chemical fuels. The fission of one gram of fuel provides an amount of heat equal to a 1 megawatt power level
for a 24 hour day, so a one megawatt high temperature heat source can be provided continuously throughout an 18 month
Mars surface stay duration by the nuclear fission of only 0.55 kg (1.2 pounds mass) of fuel. This level of fission “burn-
up” can easily be provided by a single compact fission core without requiring any refueling operation during the 18
month mission. If the one megawatt high temperature heat source operated a thermal conversion engine with 25%
thermal conversion efficiency, the engine output would be 350 horsepower of mechanical work plus 750 kW of lower
temperature “warm” heat.
It is expected that mobile nuclear reactor engines for Mars will need to develop maximum mechanical power levels
ranging from around one hundred horsepower for small surface vehicles to several thousand horsepower for aircraft.
Fission (and thermal) power levels to consider for mobile nuclear fission engine design purposes therefore range from
about 0.3 MW to 10 MW, depending on application details.
To save weight, the energy conversion system should be open cycle, using the Martian air as its working fluid to
minimize the requirement for heavy heat exchangers. The open Brayton cycle appears to be the best choice of thermal
conversion system. That, in turn, requires that the reactor have as high an operating temperature as feasible in order to
avoid low conversion efficiency.
A good fluid to use for transferring heat between a nuclear reactor and air is the liquid metal, lithium. It has not yet
been used much as a heat transfer fluid in nuclear reactors because one of its two naturally occurring isotopes, Li6, (7.5
% abundance) has a very high cross section for absorbing neutrons and tends to prevent the fission chain reaction from
proceeding. The other isotope, Li7, (92.5 % abundance) has a very low cross section for absorbing neutrons and is
compatible with use in a reactor. Happily, the two isotopes can be separated (at some cost) so that nearly pure Li7 can
be used.4,5
Sodium is another liquid metal that has been used extensively in certain nuclear reactor designs (i.e., breeders).
However, sodium becomes temporarily radioactive within a reactor, so the heat exchanger between sodium and air
would need its own gamma ray shielding for personnel protection. In contrast, Li7 does not become activated in the
reactor. The liquid / air heat exchanger for a design using Li7 would not require shielding.
–3–
Mobile Nuclear Fission Engines for Mars Surface Vehicles and/or Aircraft
Lithium, with an atomic number of three, is a member of the chemical group known as the alkali metals. It is used in
various conventional applications, e.g., in high energy density batteries, in fireworks where it imparts a crimson color,
etc. Lithium melts at 180.54°C, so a lithium heat-transfer loop must be kept warmer to prevent freeze-up. As a liquid,
lithium’s density is about one-half the density of water. Lithium’s specific heat is close to 1.0 cal/g-°C throughout its
liquid range, matching the specific heat of water. But whereas water can be kept liquid up to 300°C only by increasing
its pressure above 90 atm, the boiling point temperature of lithium at one atm pressure (101.3 kPa) is 1,347°C.
Although lithium is corrosive to many materials, tests have shown lithium exhibits long-term chemical compatibility
with tungsten (a.k.a. wolfram) at temperatures up to 1300°C. Tungsten has the highest melting point (3,422°C) of all
known materials. It also is a very hard metal. It is used commercially in light bulb filaments and welding equipment.
With present technology, it will be difficult to manufacture complicated shapes out of tungsten.
However, there are benefits to using tungsten beyond the fact that it facilitates lithium’s use. Tungsten’s high density
(19,300 kg/m3) makes it a more effective gamma ray shield material than lead (density 11,350 kg/m3), allowing reduced
gamma ray shield mass. Tungsten is more effective than lead in scattering high-energy neutrons into lower energy
ranges where the moderator becomes effective. Tungsten’s thermal conductivity follows closely behind the thermal
conductivities of gold, silver, copper, and aluminum, exceeding thermal conductivities of other metals. Tungsten’s
chemical inactivity renders it a good container for fission products. And its high melting temperature might help if a
reactor malfunction occurred.
Using thermodynamic relationships for perfect but nonideal gases, adiabatic process pressure changes are calculated via
the relation
–4–
Mobile Nuclear Fission Engines for Mars Surface Vehicles and/or Aircraft
Given the choice of lithium and tungsten materials, the high temperature compressed Martian air emerging from the heat
exchanger is assumed to be 997°C (1,270°K = T4). (This choice may be conservatively low.) The planetary average
Martian air temperature is about -63°C (210°K = T0), and is chosen as inlet air temperature, although it could vary
between –133°C (140°K) and +7°C (280°K) depending on local conditions. For purposes of these calculations, the
Martian air pressure was taken as 680 Pa, which is consistent with Viking data. It can be shown1 that the optimum
choice of open Brayton cycle compression ratio to maximize output power per unit airflow is the one which sets T2 =
T5. Using this approach, the optimum compression ratio was determined numerically from the MarsMix
thermodynamic data, and found to be 112; the corresponding value for T2 = T5 is 580°K (which also is well above
lithium’s freezing point temperature).
Heat flows and compressor / expander powers are obtained from the enthalpy plot. For the ideal case, heating from state
2 to state 4 adds 35.5 kJ/mole, the net work output is 20.9 kJ/mole, and the thermal efficiency is (20.9/35.5) = 59 %.
Actual components may have isentropic efficiencies near 80 %, as depicted by the dashed lines of Figures 5 and 6.
Heating from 2’ to 4 adds 31.2 kJ/mole, but the net work is 28 -18.8 = 9.2 kJ/mole. Calculated thermal efficiency is
then a more realistic 29.5%.
Assuming 31.2 kJ/mole heat addition from dashed line state 2’ to 4, in Figures 5 and 6, a 1 MW nuclear reactor heat
source would correspond to a Martian airflow of
(106 Watts) / (31.2 kJ/mole) x (43.5 grams/mole) = (32 moles/second) x (43.5 grams/mole) = 1.4 kg/sec airflow
The output power produced by the engine at 29.5% efficiency would be 295 kW, equivalent to 395 horsepower.
Gas flows are not excessive inside the engines. But due to the low density of the Martian air, special designs may be
required for air intake ducts. If the Martian air density is 0.020 kg/m3, the volumetric flows at low pressure are easily
calculated.
–5–
Mobile Nuclear Fission Engines for Mars Surface Vehicles and/or Aircraft
Figure 4
Figure 5
Liquid Flow
Since this process pattern includes heating the compressed Martian air by 690°C from 580°K to 1270°K, it would be
reasonable to also select a temperature difference of 690°C for the liquid lithium loop. Using lithium’s specific heat and
density shows that a 690° temperature change corresponds to changing lithium’s heat content by 1.44 x 109J/m3.
Required volumetric flow rates of the lithium are obtained by dividing the reactor power by this value, i.e.,
–6–
Mobile Nuclear Fission Engines for Mars Surface Vehicles and/or Aircraft
Figure 6
The total flow lithium duct cross section area is given by the volumetric flowrate divided by the designed flow velocity.
A commonly used flow velocity for many cooling applications is 3 m/s. Arbitrarily selecting it, we have
Assuming that lithium flow within the nuclear reactor occurs in ducts formed between parallel tungsten plates separated
2 millimeters apart, the Reynolds number of the flow is 23077, which is well into the turbulent regime. Moody’s
diagram7 gives a friction factor of 0.025. This allows calculation of the lithium pressure drop needed to pump through
the reactor. If the flow path length between the parallel plates is 10 cm, the reactor’s pressure drop will be only 1,406
Pa = 0.2 psi.
The heat transfer coefficient within the reactor can be simply estimated by assuming slug-flow conditions in the liquid
metal, as suggested by Eckert and Drake.6 The resulting coefficient is h = 3x105 W/m2-°C. If we allow a 100°C
maximum temperature drop between tungsten and lithium, then the heat flux must be limited to
For a 10 MW reactor, a rectangular core measuring about 10 cm X 10 cm X 10 cm would provide adequate heat transfer
area to limit heat flux to this level. The core volume would be approximately25 % liquid lithium, 25% tungsten, and
50% HEU uranium almost pure in the fissionable U235 isotope. Lower power reactors could be more compact.
–7–
Mobile Nuclear Fission Engines for Mars Surface Vehicles and/or Aircraft
be used as a moderator. But hydrogen is a far better neutron moderator than any other element, which is one reason that
water is used so often in reactor designs. Natural lithium reacts with hydrogen to form the hydride, LiH, with average
molecular weight 7.95, and which remains a solid with density 0.78 g/cm3 at temperatures below its 688°C (961°K)
melting point temperature. Lithium hydride’s hydrogen density can be directly calculated from these values, and is
found to be 88% of the hydrogen density in water. So Li7H can be expected to be a superior moderator at the high
temperatures involved in mobile nuclear reactors for Mars.
To approximately estimate the effect of using lithium hydride, the “migration length” value listed for water in Glasstone
& Sesonske’s Nuclear Engineering text8 was divided by 0.88 to yield M = 6.7 cm. The “rules of thumb” recommended
there state that a neutron reflector with a thickness of two migration lengths behaves essentially the same as an infinitely
thick reflector, and that the corresponding reflector savings in the radius of the critical mass is reduced by one migration
length below a nonreflected reactor.
For a 10 MW reactor with maximal equilibrium accumulated fission products, the calculated gamma ray dose without
attenuation at a location 3 m from the reactor’s center would be 63000 Sv/hr. To be in conformance with USA rules for
continuous occupation by radiation workers, the gamma rays in occupied regions should be attenuated to not exceed
5.7x10-6 Sv/hr. If a location 3 m from the 10 MW reactor center is to be occupied, gamma rays should therefore be
attenuated by a factor of 9x10-11.
A numerical analysis using the tabulated fission gamma energy spectrum, energy absorption coefficients for different
photon energies in tungsten, and photon “buildup factors” to estimate the effects of collisions on photon energy,9 leads
to the conclusion that the attenuation factor of 9x10-11 adequate for a 10 MW reactor is provided by a 30 cm thick layer
of tungsten. This ignores the substantial gamma ray shielding effects of tungsten and uranium in the reactor core where
most of the gamma rays are produced. And it ignores the fact that mechanical engine component could be placed
between the reactor and occupied areas, providing some of the shielding.
If all 3 m distant locations in all directions surrounding the reactor were to be continuously occupied, it would make
sense to provide the gamma ray shield as a spherical shell from R=20 cm to R=50 cm. The volume of that shell is easily
calculated to be 0.49 m3, and with tungsten’s 19300 kg/m3 density the tungsten mass would be 9.46 metric tons.
If the tungsten shell thickness were reduced to 25 cm, its mass would be reduced to 6.7 tons. However, the radiation
dose at 3 m from the reactor’s center would reach the allowable annual limit in 187 hours. If the tungsten shell thickness
were reduced to 20 cm, the shell mass would be reduced to 4.5 tons. However, the radiation dose at 3 m from the reactor
center would reach the allowable annual limit in 4 hours.
The design of long range mobile vehicles should place the nuclear reactor external to the crew compartment, preferably
in the rear. Then only one side of the reactor needs to be well shielded. Thinner reactor shielding could be used on the
reactor sides where a suited astronaut might only rarely approach during an EVA, and on the top, where an astronaut
might never venture at all.
–8–
Mobile Nuclear Fission Engines for Mars Surface Vehicles and/or Aircraft
By using these strategies, it should be possible to keep the total mass of a mobile engine including a 10 MW nuclear
reactor to about 5 tons. Lower power reactors could have a slightly reduced mass.
“The chief advantage of air transportation over other forms of travel is the great speed that can be
achieved with a relatively moderate cost in terms of energy, or fuel expended per mile of flight. An
airplane of efficient aerodynamic form may have a drag less than one twentieth of its weight. The
energy required in steady flight is therefore less than one twentieth of the weight times the distance
flown . . .
“It is easily seen that the efficiency of the airplane is the result of the favorable aerodynamic properties
of the wing. If one contemplates travel by a rocket, which overcomes gravity and achieves its distance
solely by virtue of the kinetic energy imparted at the beginning of the motion, then it is found that the
energy requirement is much greater – of the order of the whole weight time the distance. The energy
expenditure of a wingless rocket or projectile thus corresponds to a lift-drag ratio of about one, a figure
that can be surpassed easily by almost any form of winged body . . .”
On Mars, the aircraft situation differs from the situation on Earth in several respects. The Martian atmosphere is far less
dense than Earth’s atmosphere, so therefore Martian aircraft designs must be different from Earth designs, requiring
much larger areas of aerofoils or wings to develop similar aerodynamic forces. Martian aerofoils or wings can be much
thinner since their forces per unit area are considerably less, and they must be much thinner in order to avoid excessive
weight. However, their weight is also reduced by the lower Martian gravity.
Traditional airplane designs land or take off while running horizontally on sufficiently smooth surfaces. However, much
of Mars’ surface is rough and strewn with rocks or boulders, and Mars also has no bodies of liquid water with their
characteristically smooth surfaces. With no existing global network of Martian airport runways, the number of locations
suitable for a traditional design of airplane to land horizontally would be extremely limited or even non-existent.
For application in Mars exploration missions, it would thus be desirable for aircraft designs to be capable of vertical
landings and vertical takeoffs at most locations on Mars’ surface. Helicopters are the most well studied machines that
provide a capability for vertical landing and takeoff on Earth. If helicopter designs were suitably modified to work on
Mars, they could provide the most useful capability for long-range mobility.
Dry Earth air at 0°C has a measured speed of sound of 331.5 m/s (742 mph) whereas carbon dioxide, the main
constituent of Mars’ atmosphere, has a speed of sound at the same temperature of 259 m/s (579 mph). The speed of
sound in colder Mars air is slower, perhaps approaching 210 m/s (470 mph) during polar winter night.
To avoid the drag increase associated with breaking the sound barrier, the designed rotor tip speed could be limited to
140 m/s (313 mph) while the maximum designed cruising speed limited to 70 m/s (157 mph). Then the maximum rotor
tip speed through still air would not exceed 70 m/s + 140 m/s = 210 m/s while cruising.
The lift force is given by the formula, L = CL 0.5 ρ V2S , where ρ represents the air density, V represents the airfoil speed
with respect to the air, S represents the planform area of the aerofoil, and CL represents the lift coefficient of that aerofoil
geometry. For most aerofoil shapes, CL varies in rough proportion to the angle of attack, reaching a maximum lift value
typically near 1.0 at an angle several degrees from the zero lift orientation.10 Using ρ = 0.017 kg/m3 as a typical Martian
air density, and using V=110 m/s as an average airspeed of the helicopter’s rotor, this gives LMAX = (200 Pa) S.
–9–
Mobile Nuclear Fission Engines for Mars Surface Vehicles and/or Aircraft
Thus for instance, to hover above Mars’ surface with a mass of 10 metric tons, a helicopter would need a total aerofoil
area of at least S=(10000 kg)(3.7 m/sec2) / (200 Pa) = 185 m2. If two 10-meter radius rotor disks were used, slightly
less than 30% of the area of the two disks would need to be aerofoils. This is a far greater solid fraction than typical of
Earth’s helicopters, but it appears possible by using multiple blades per rotor. If the aerofoil Lift / Drag ratio were as
low as 10, the engine would need to supply (3700 N)(110 m/s)= 0.4 MW (536 hp) of mechanical power just to maintain
hovering. However, the engine must also have additional power for takeoff, landing, cruising, and furthermore should
have reserve margins for emergency conditions such as high winds. Probably several thousand horsepower is more
appropriate, using a 10 MW reactor driving an open Brayton cycle.
At the proposed 70 m/s cruising speed of this example, it would require 21 hours flying time to travel from Mars’
equator to either its North or South pole, or equivalently, 84 hours flying time to completely circumnavigate the entire
globe. Because of the high-speed travel, the extent of recycling in the vehicle’s life support system could probably be
reduced to save weight. For long distance flights, the pressurized cabin space should accommodate at least 2
crewmembers to alternate as pilots.
Conclusions
The engineering design and development of nuclear powered engines and vehicles for long range mobility on Mars
should be pursued now. The developed engines, rovers, and aircraft will provide significant value on Mars at a
development and delivery cost which is a miniscule fraction of the entire Mars exploration program cost. Without such
equipment, long-range mobility for exploring Mars and for exploiting Martian resources would be extremely limited.
The mobility limitations would either cause a large increase in Mars program costs, perhaps leading to early termination
of a Mars program, or could even inhibit the first manned missions from occurring. To not undertake design and
development of nuclear powered vehicles for Mars application would thus be “penny-wise but pound-foolish.”
References
1. R. Decher, Energy Conversion, Oxford University Press, 1994, ISBN-0-19-507959-0
2. W. Reynolds, Thermodynamics, McGraw-Hill, 1968
3. M. Chase, Ed., NIST-JANAF Thermochemical Tables, 4th ed, 1989
4. J. Ballif et al, TC-1000 Lithium Literature Review: Lithium’S Properties And Interactions, Hanford Engineering Development Laboratory,
1978
5. R. OHSE, ed., Handbook Of Thermodynamic And Transport Properties Of Alkali Metals, Blackwell Scientific Pubs, 1985, ISBN-0-632-01447-
4
6. E. Eckert and R. Drake, Heat and Mass Transfer, McGraw-Hill, 1959
7. R.Fox and A. MacDonald, Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, John Wiley and Sons, 1985
8. S. Glasstone and A. Sesonske, Nuclear Reactor Engineering Fourth Edition (Vols 1 and 2), Chapman and Hall, 1994
9. J. Shultis and R. Faw, Radiation Shielding, Prentice Hall, 1996
10. L. Milne-Thomson, Theoretical Aerodynamics, Dover, 1973
11. R. Jones and D. Cohen, High Speed Wing Theory, Princeton University Press,1960
– 10 –
A Model for Minimizing the Risk of Sudden Death
During Exercise in Long-Term Space Flight
Abstract
Crew members in long-term space flight may be relatively sedentary for months. An exercise program will be necessary
to maintain health and physical capacity. However, vigorous exercise stresses the heart and can trigger sudden death.
This risk increases for those relatively sedentary individuals who occasionally attempt vigorous exercise. Alternatively,
the risk is also high for those who exercise regularly for longer periods of time. The purpose of this paper is to introduce
a model that characterizes the risk of sudden death during exercise and to use that model to determine an optimal amount
of regular vigorous exercise that minimizes that risk. The Physicians Health Study (Albert et al., N Engl J Med 343:
1353-1361, 2000) followed 21,481 physicians for 12 years during which 122 died of sudden death. These physicians
were free of cardiovascular disease at the beginning of the study and will form the reference group for our analysis
(Swanson, N Engl J Med 344: 854-855, 2001). Nested case-crossover methods were used to lay out contingency tables
in terms of sudden death and person hours of exercise or sedentary time. Combining these tables yields an odds ratio
for sudden death during exercise compared to rest: OR = [Fx / (1-Fx)] [(1-Px) / Px] where Fx is the fraction of sudden
deaths that occur during exercise and is Px is the proportion of time that exercise could trigger sudden death. As in the
Physicians Health Study, Fx is linearly related to Px: Fx = α + β Px. Combining these two equations yields a quadratic
equation for the minimum risk: β(β-1) Px2 + 2αβ Px + α(α-1) = 0. The solution characterizes the optimal amount of
exercise. For the Physicians Health Study, this was about 30 min per day six days a week. The implications of this
model will be explored for a Mars mission.
Introduction
Crew members in long-term space flight with out artificial gravity will experience an environment of micro gravity and
relative inactivity for months. Consequently, crew members will experience cardiovascular de-conditioning, loss of
muscle strength, bone deterioration and a depressed immune response.2 These effects would be detrimental for crew
members expected to be fully functional upon arrival at Mars.
Exercise has been proposed as a countermeasure. As shown in Figures 1 and 2, a variety of resistance and aerobic
exercises have been explored to counteract these effects.
However, excessive exercise increases the risk of overuse injuries,3 inflammation,4 upper respiratory track infection,10
stroke7 and vigorous exercise stresses the heart and can trigger sudden death.13 This risk increases for relatively
sedentary men and women who occasionally attempt vigorous exercise.1 Alternatively, the risk is also high for men and
women who exercise regularly but for longer periods of time.13 These risks may become important considerations for
a mission to Mars.
Therefore, an exercise prescription has as a goal to balance maintenance of health and functional capacity of crew
members with the risk of exercise. An overall model of risk / benefit ratio would be helpful here. As a first step toward
the development of such a model, we shall introduce an epidemiological model of sudden death. This model predicts
an optimal exercise exists that minimizes risk of sudden death during exercise as compared to rest.
The Model
Lack of physical activity and or lack of physical fitness are considered risk factors for heart disease.1 Therefore, life-
time physical activity has been considered protective for heart disease. However, physical activity also stresses the heart
and consequently can trigger a sudden cardiac death.13 From this point of view, habitual physical inactivity carries a
high risk of heart disease but a minimal exposure to an exercise trigger. In contrast, high habitual physical activity
George D. Swanson Ph.D; Department of Physical Education and Exercise Science; California State University; Chico, CA 95929-0330;
dswanson@csuchico.edu
–1–
A Model for Minimizing the Risk of Sudden Death During Exercise in Long-Term Space Flight
carries a lower risk of heart disease but a more extensive exposure to an exercise trigger. These concepts suggest that
there may be an optimal level of habitual physical activity – one that balances cardiac risk and exercise trigger exposure
so as to minimize the risk of sudden cardiac death.
Our approach extends the analysis of recently published Physicians Health Study data.1 Case-crossover methods8 were
used to formulate the model and optimization problem.
The case-crossover approach lays out a contingency tables in terms of person hours for each subject who dies during
exercise or rest and yields an odds ratio for sudden death during exercise versus rest. Let Fx, be the fraction of sudden
deaths that occur during exercise and Px the proportion of time (say in a week) in an exercise trigger.
Then the odds ratio8 is given by,
OR = [ Fx / (1-Fx)] [(I-Px) / Px] (1)
The data from Table 2 in the Albert, et al.1 paper can be used to estimate a relationship between the relative frequency
of habitual vigorous exercise activity Px and Fx, the fraction of deaths occurring in exercise. Following the approach of
Kessler,6 a linear relationship is derived using regression methods. Therefore, let:
Fx = α + β Px (2)
Combining equations 1 and 2 and taking the partial derivative with respect to Px and setting the result equal zero yields
the optimal value for Px. This results in quadratic equation,
β (β-1) Px2 + 2αβ Px + α(α-1) = 0 (3)
Model Implications
Equation 1 and 2 yields an odds ratio as a function of Px, while equation 3 yields the optimal Px, which minimizes the
relative risk (odds ratio) See Figure 3.
Figure 3 Odds ratio for sudden death in exercise versus in rest. Note: Px includes exercise time (in hours) plus 0.5 hour
post exercise trigger (per exercise session) as a fraction of the 168 hours in a week . OR =[Fx / (1-Fx)] [(1-Px) / Px] with
–2–
A Model for Minimizing the Risk of Sudden Death During Exercise in Long-Term Space Flight
Fx = α + β. For the Albert et al. data, Fx = .0876 + 6.31 Px, r = 0.99.6 The optimal Px is the solution of the quadratic
equation β(β-1) Px2 + 2αβ Px + α(α-1) = 0, with the optimal Px = 0.035 for the Physicians Health Study data.1
Figure 3 plots the odds ratio (relative risk) as a function of exercise amount.
Note the minimum occurs for Px = 0.035, which translates into a habitual vigorous
exercise activity (> 6 METS ) of about 30 minutes a day, six days a week.
The minimum is reasonably broad so that a range from 4 to 7 days yields a similar risk (OR ~12).
Alternatively, one day a week for a 30 minutes doubles the risk as does 2 hours per day 7 days a week.
Discussion
The male subjects in the Physicians Health Study were aged 40-84 years. Therefore, the present model may not apply
directly to a Mars crew. As pointed out by Thompson,15 the relative risk increases as age decreases because the absolute
risk at rest decreases. However, for younger men, the present model concepts should generally apply.
The incidence of sudden cardiac death during exercise is in the range of 1 per 15,000 (6.7/100,000) joggers per year.9
Analysis of sparse data from the Seattle study13,15 indicates the absolute risk of sudden death as 1 death per 17,000
(5.9/100,000) in men who exercise 1 to 19 min/week in vigorous activity; 1 death in 23,000 (4.3/100,000) for 20 to 139
min/week; and 1 death per 13,000 (7.7/100,000) for more than 140 min/week. These data suggest that the absolute risk
of sudden death during exercise is relatively low but follows a “J’ shape curve so that higher exercise levels may lead
to much higher absolute risk.
Alternatively, our modeling allows us to interpolate among the sparse data of the Physicians Health Study yielding a “J”
shape curve. The model facilitates a prediction of an optimal exercise level for minimizing the relative risk of sudden
death during exercise.
Although the absolute risk is low, the loss of a crew member to sudden death would be catastrophic. Therefore,
minimizing the risk of sudden death would seem to be an important goal. However, other considerations may dictate
longer exercise periods.
In attempt to maintain health and function, exercise periods on Soviet Salyut-6 space station and Mir space station were
as high as 2-4 hours per day.2 This amount of vigorous exercise not only increases the risk of exercise but may also be
costly to an operational work day and lead to an excessive caloric expenditure. An average daily cost of 1,450 kcal for
–3–
A Model for Minimizing the Risk of Sudden Death During Exercise in Long-Term Space Flight
2.5 hours of exercise would increase the relative risk of death during exercise to 50 (see Figure 3, Px = 0.125) and add
an extra 527,800 kcal in one year. This would mean an extra yearly consumption of 605 kg of food, which would have
to be either supplied or grown.
Alternatively, perhaps the crew will remain relatively sedentary during the trip to Mars and “ramp” up their exercise
program prior to arrival. Can an exercise prescription be designed to minimize risk while restoring function?2
Additional modeling may help answer this question. However, even the best exercise strategy may not be enough to
maintain or restore health and function. The bottom line – a partial artificial gravity may be necessary during transport.
References
1. Albert, C. M., M. A. Mittleman, C. U. Chae, I. M. Lee, C. H. Hennekens, and J. E. Manson. Triggering of sudden death from cardiac causes
by vigorous exertion. N Engl J Med 343: 1355-61., 2000.
2. Convertino, V. A. Physiological adaptations to weightlessness: Effects on exerice and work performance. In: Exercise and Sport Reviews, K.
B. Pandolf and J. O. Holloszy (Eds). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, P 119-166, 1990..
3. Fahey, T. D. Biological markers of overtraining. Biol. Sport 14: 1-19, 1997.
4. Geffken, D., M. Cushman, G. Burke, J. Polak, P. Sakkinen, and R. Tracy. Association between physical activity and markers of inflammation
in a healthy elderly population. Am J Epidemiol 153: 242-50., 2001.
5. Huikuri, H. V., A. Castellanos and R. J. Myerurg. Sudden death ddue to cardiac arrhythmias. N. Engl. J. Med. 345: 1473-1482, 2001.
6. Kessler, K. M. Triggering of sudden death from cardiac causes by vigorous exertion (Correspondence). N. Engl. J. Med. 344: 854-855, 2001.
7. Lee, I., and R. Ralph S. Paffenbarger. Physical Activity and Stroke Incidence: The Harvard Alumni Health Study. Stroke 29: 2049-2054, 1998.
8. Maclure, M. The case-crossover design: a method for studying transient effects on the risk of acute events. Am. J. Epidemiol. 133: 144-153,
1991.
9. Maron, B., C. Araujo, P. Thompson, G. Fletcher, A. Luna, J. Fleg, A. Pelliccia, G. Balady, F. Furlanello, S. VanCamp, R. Elosua, B. Chaitman,
and T. Bazzarre. Recommendations for preparticipation screening and the assessment of cardiovascular disease in masters athletes. Circulation
103: 327-343, 2001.
10. Nieman, D. Exercise, upper respiratory tract infecytion, and the immune system. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 26: 128-139, 1994.
11. Shah, P. K. Plaque disruption and thrombosis: potential role of inflammation and infection. Cardiol Rev 8: 31-9., 2000.
12. Siegel, A. J., J. J. Stec, I. Lipinska, E. M. Van Cott, K. B. Lewandrowski, P. M. Ridker, and G. H. Tofler. Effect of marathon running on
inflammatory and hemostatic markers. Am J Cardiol 88: 918-20, A9., 2001.
13. Siscovick, D. S., N. S. Weiss, R. H. Fletcher, and T. Lasky. The incidence of primary cardiac arrest during vigorous exercise. N Engl J Med
311: 874-7., 1984.
14. Swanson, G. D. Triggering of sudden death from cardiac causes by vigorous exertion (Correspondence). N. Engl. J. Med. 344: 854-855, 2001.
15. Thompson, P. Cardiovascular risks of exercise. Phys. Sportsmed. 29: 33-47, 2001.
–4–