Вы находитесь на странице: 1из 17

A general thermodynamic framework for understanding the

behaviour of absorption chillers


H.T. Chua
a
, H.K. Toh
b
, A. Malek
b,1
, K.C. Ng
b,
*, K. Srinivasan
c
a
Faculty of Engineering, National University of Singapore, 10 Kent Ridge Crescent, Singapore 117576, Singapore
b
Mechanical & Production Engineering Department, National University of Singapore, 10 Kent Ridge Crescent, Singapore 117576,
Singapore
c
Department of Mechanical, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India
Received 5 February 1999; received in revised form 1 September 1999; accepted 24 November 1999
Abstract
In this article, a general denition of the process average temperature has been developed, and the impact of the
various dissipative mechanisms on 1/COP of the chiller evaluated. The present component-by-component black box
analysis removes the assumptions regarding the generator outlet temperature(s) and the component eective thermal
conductances. Mass transfer resistance is also incorporated into the absorber analysis to arrive at a more realistic upper
limit to the cooling capacity. Finally, the theoretical foundation for the absorption chiller Ts diagram is derived. This
diagrammatic approach only requires the inlet and outlet conditions of the chiller components and can be employed as
a practical tool for system analysis and comparison. # 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd and IIR. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Refrigerating system; Absorption system; Design; Performance; Modelling
Cadre thermodynamique facilitant la compre hension du
comportement des refroidisseurs a absorption
Re sume
Dans cet article, on donne une denition generale de la temperature moyenne du processus et on evalue l'impact de divers
mecanismes de dissipation sur le COP du refroidisseur utilise. L'analyse d'un composant a la fois a l'aide d'une boi

te noire
permet d'eliminer les hypotheses concernant les temperatures a la sortie du generateur et les conductances thermiques
reelles. La resistance au transfert de masse est egalement incorporee dans l'analyse concernant l'absorbeur an de denir
une limite superieure de puissance frigorique plus realiste. Enn, le fondement theorique du diagramme Ts du refroi-
disseur a absorption est etabli. Cette approche par diagramme necessite seulement des donnees sur les conditions a l'entree
et a la sortie du refroidisseur et peut etre employee comme outil pratique pour l'analyse du systeme et an d'eectuer des
comparaisons. # 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd and IIR. All rights reserved.
Mots cles: Syste me frigorique ; Syste me a absorption ; Conception ; Performance ; Mode lisation
0140-7007/00/$20.00 # 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd and IIR. All rights reserved.
PI I : S0140- 7007( 99) 00077- 8
International Journal of Refrigeration 23 (2000) 491507
www.elsevier.com/locate/ijrefrig
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +65-874-2214; fax: +65-779-1459.
1
Present address: Kvaerner RJ Brown Pte. Ltd., 73 Science Park Drive, 02-14 Cintech 1, Singapore Science Park, Singapore
118254, Singapore.
E-mail address: mpengkc@nus.edu.sg (K.C. Ng).
1. Introduction
Absorption chillers are widely used in the air-con-
ditioning industry, in part because they can be activated
by hot water, steam and direct-red natural gas, among
others, instead of electricity. Among the various work-
ing uids, lithium bromidewater solution has been the
most prevalent, though engineering precautions have to
be taken to prevent crystallization of the lithium bromide.
It is very common for large-scale lithium bromidewater
Nomenclature
A area (m
2
)
A
D
Du hring gradient
B
D
Du hring intercept (

C)
c

specic heat capacity (kJ kg


1
K
1
)
c
l
specic heat capacity of liquid refriger-
ant/water (J kg
1
K
1
)
COP ratio of cooling capacity to valuable
thermal power input to the generator
Q
eva
aQ
gen

D mass diusivity (m
2
s
1
)
h specic enthalpy (kJ kg
1
)
H extensive enthalpy (kJ)
h
m
oH
sol
aot
om
eva
aot
(kJ kg
1
)
h
ielYm
oH
sol
aot
om
eva
aot
(kJ kg
1
)
m mass (kg)
m
eva
mass of evaporated refrigerant at the
evaporator (kg)
m
ielYm
om
iel
aot
om
eva
aot
P pressure (kPa)
PAT
ligl
high system process average tempera-
ture (K)
Q rate of heat ow across heat exchanger
(kW)
s specic entropy (kJ kg
1
K
1
)
s
m
oS
sol
aot
om
eva
aot
(kJ kg
1
K
1
)
S
genYinl
genYm
oS
genYinl
gen
aot
om
eva
aot
(kJ kg
1
K
1
)
s
ielYm
oS
iel
aot
om
eva
aot
(kJ kg
1
K
1
)
S
genYll
rate of heat transfer entropy generation
(kW K
1
)
S
genYmix
rate of mixing entropy generation (kW
K
1
)
S
genYlolal
rate of total entropy generation (kW
K
1
)
S
genYinl
rate of internal entropy generation (kW
K
1
)
S extensive entropy (kJ K
1
)
t time (s)
T temperature (

C, K)
T
inaoul
clilleo
chilled water inlet or outlet tempera-
ture (

C, K)
T
inaoul
cooling
coolant inlet or outlet temperature at
absorber (

C, K)
T
o
dew-point temperature (

C, K)
T
lealing
heat source temperature (

C, K)
T
inaoul
lealing
heat source inlet or outlet temperature
(

C, K)
T

process average temperature (K)


U heat transfer coecient (W m
2
K
1
)
v specic volume of water (m
3
kg
1
)
V extensive volume (m
3
)
v
ielYm
oV
iel
aot
om
eva
aot
(m
3
kg
1
)
x concentration of LiBr in solution
(wt%)
om
w
ot
inlelaoullel

the inlet/outlet mass ow rate of water


in solution (kg s
1
)
om
iel
ot
mass ow rate of refrigerant, absolute
value of
om
w
ot

om
w
ot
inlel
j (kg s
1
)
Greek letters
4 working uid entropy change expres-
sions evaluated for endoreversible
models (kW K
1
)
mass transfer coecient (m s
1
)

0
constant, Eq. (11) (s
0.5
)
" chemical potential (kJ kg
1
)

gen
ag which identies the saturated
regime of solution in generator

genY1
ag which identies the saturated
regime of heat source in generator
& density (kg m
3
)
6 ratio of condenser heat rejection to
total heat rejection in both the con-
denser and absorber
Subscripts
aLs absorber
Cainol Carnot limit
cono condenser
eva evaporator
g gaseous water
gY mix gaseous water after adiabatic mixing in
generator
gen generator
IiBi lithium bromide in solution
iel refrigerant
sol solution
lolal all components in the system
w water in solution
492 H.T. Chua et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 23 (2000) 491507
absorption chillers to be steam-red, especially for
multi-stage machines. In general, the ring steam may
range from low to medium pressures insofar as double-
stage machines are concerned.
Stemming from the work of Chua et al. [1], the var-
ious signicant irreversibilities will be quantied and
their relative impact on chiller 1/COP ascertained. On
account of the separation and absorption processes in
the generator(s) and absorber respectively, a rigorous
treatment to the process average temperature for multi-
stream non-isothermal mass transfer process will later
be furnished. This is an extension of our work on the
process average temperature in evaporator and con-
denser [2] and that of Pons [3].
The present approach is in the spirit of recently-
developed universal thermodynamic models for a vari-
ety of chiller types [1,2,410].
System modelling of absorption chillers has been
reported in many recent articles [1118]. In these works,
it has been common to assume, in an a priori manner, a
thermodynamic state for the refrigerant vapour at the
outlet of the generator. In some cases, heat exchanger
eectiveness and even the overall heat transfer con-
ductance (UA) are estimated based on the pre-dened
solution outlet thermodynamic state. It should be
realized that mass transfer is actually occurring non-
isothermally throughout the generator and absorber.
Hence, although the aforementioned approaches oer
some simplications to the analyses, they are actually
not rigorous and are expected to be thermodynamically
inconsistent with the mass transfer process. Further-
more, pre-dening the conditions of the solution at the
absorber outlet in addition to those at the inlet invari-
ably precludes the incorporation of mass transfer resis-
tance in the absorber module in a system analysis. This
deciency results in a somewhat restrictive model and
inevitably leads to an arbitrary cooling capacity.
The Ts diagram has been an established analysis tool
for vapour compression machines. It is able to oer, at a
glance, an understanding towards all the state points,
losses and energy exchange. Furthermore, the dierence
between the areas under the various curves and the
corresponding energy exchange refers rigorously to
the eects of the various internal-entropy-generating
mechanisms.
It would therefore be attractive if the Ts diagram
could also be used to analyse absorption chiller analysis.
There have been eorts in the scientic community [19
23] to attempt to depict sorption cycles on Ts dia-
grams. This provides motivation to search for the theo-
retical foundation for such endeavour, and to oer a
thermodynamically consistent depiction such that all the
virtues of the Ts diagram as applied to vapour com-
pression cycles can be reproduced in absorption cycles.
In view of the aforementioned considerations, the pre-
sent article therefore aspires to provide a rather rigorous
account of absorption chiller analysis. This present
analysis should enhance the function of the various
currently available system-modeling software (e.g.
[1118]).
2. An elaboration on the process average temperature
The method of computing for the process average
temperature for the evaporator and condenser has
already been discussed by Ng et al. [2]. The present
focus, motivated by one of our works [9], is therefore on
the elaboration on the process average temperature for
the generator and absorber, where multi-stream non-
isothermal mass transfer occurs.
In these cases, a general denition of process average
temperature exists, and is given by
T


_
oullel
inlel
oQ
_
oullel
inlel
oQ
T
1
One could appreciate that the general denition oered
by Eq. (1), reduces to a special denition when there is
only one stream of uid [2]. Should mass transfer be
reversible, the integration could also be performed from
outlet to inlet.
3. Thermodynamic modelling of the generator(s) and
absorber
The currently available approaches toward modelling
the evaporator, condenser, and even regenerator(s) as
black boxes are well established. The present focus is in
the generator(s) and absorber where there are multi-
stream non-isothermal heat-and-mass transfers. Rather
than simply achieving an overall thermodynamic bal-
ance between the inlet and the outlet states for the gen-
erator(s) and absorber, the present study aspires to
further achieve local thermodynamic balance within
these heat-and-mass-transfer modules when they are still
treated as black boxes. By ensuring local thermo-
dynamic balance within the black boxes, a unique over-
all energy and mass balance between the inlet and the
outlet states will then be assured. This unique thermo-
dynamic balance is in contrast with other mathemati-
cally possible thermodynamic balances where local
thermodynamic balance within the black boxes may be
violated. LiBrH
2
O solution will be used to demonstrate
the system energetic performance. The current analysis
is based on its improved thermodynamic property elds
that have been developed for concentrations ranging
from 0 to 75 wt% and for temperatures from 0 to 190

C
[2425].
H.T. Chua et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 23 (2000) 491507 493
3.1. Generator(s)
The generator(s) is generally congured such that the
solution inlet would correspond to the heat source out-
let, while the solution outlet would correspond to the
heat source inlet. Hence, the generator(s) is idealized as
counter-ow heat exchanger(s). In fact, in this study, all
heat-and-mass-transfer modules are congured as
counter-ow. This is consistent with the congurations
adopted in the scientic community and in the industry
when counter-ow is interpreted in the general sense.
Applying energy balance and ignoring kinetic and
potential energy changes as well as heat leaks,
oQ
gen
oT
gen

om
sol
ot
c
p
T
gen
Y xP
gen
Y T
gen

_ _

dH
dm
w
T
gen
Y xP
gen
Y T
gen

_ _
h
g
P
gen
Y T
gen

_
_
_
_
oom
w
aot
oT
gen
2
The path of integration is from solution inlet to outlet.
Q
gen
T
in
gen
0Y
om
w
ot
T
in
gen

om
w
ot
inlel
j . From the deni-
tion of x or concentration, and applying the Du hring's
relation,
oom
w
aot
oT
gen

om
IiBi
aot
x
2

gen
T
o
P
gen
273X15
_ _
oA
D
ox

oB
D
ox
3

gen
0 if the solution is sub-cooled or PT
gen
Y x
` P
gen
, otherwise, it assumes the value of unity. In the
present treatment, mass separation is assumed to be
proceeding in equilibrium. In a well-designed generator,
mass separation should be occurring in the nucleate
boiling regime. Hence for all practical purposes, boiling
is occurring at the saturation temperature. This is also
consistent with the fact that the scientic community
generally focuses its attention on the quantication of
the boiling heat transfer coecient rather than the mass
transfer coecient insofar as generator(s) is concerned.
Based on mass balance for a non-volatile solution,
o
om
sol
ot
_ _
oT
gen

o
om
w
ot
_ _
oT
gen
4
where
om
sol
ot
T
in
gen

om
sol
ot
inlel
j . To arrive at the thermal
conductance, UA, the following relation is invoked
oUA
gen

oT
gen

oQ
gen
oT
gen
_ _
T
lealing
T
gen
_ _ 5
with UA
gen
T
in
gen
0. U is treated as an eective value
for the entire heat exchanger. Hence, the left-hand-side
of Eq. (5) is justied. This approach ensures that the
resultant overall UA is consistent with the other thermo-
dynamic quantities. Should the generator be steam-red,
T
lealing
would then be a constant. However, should the
heat source be hot water, then for counter-ow cong-
uration, the following relation has to be used
oT
lealing
oT
gen

oUA
gen

oT
gen
T
lealing
T
gen
_ _
oM
lealing
ot
c
l
T
lealing
_ _
6
and T
lealing
T
in
gen
T
oul
lealing
.
The eect of vapour mixing in the generator has been
determined to be minimal [25]. The vapour refrigerant
generated is therefore assumed to be adiabatically mixed
at the generator outlet before being convected to the
subsequent module. Hence, the specic thermodynamic
states of the vapour refrigerant during the course of
generation can simply be determined from P
gen
and T
gen
.
The specic enthalpy of the vapour refrigerant at the
outlet after being adiabatically mixed can be described by
h
gYmix
P
gen
Y T
oul
gen

_
T
oul
gen
T
in
gen
oom
w
aotj
inlel
om
w
aot
oT
H
gen
h
g
P
gen
Y T
H
gen
oT
H
gen
_
T
oul
gen
T
in
gen
oom
w
aotj
inlel
om
w
aot
oT
H
gen
oT
H
gen
7
The mixed vapour temperature and specic entropy is
then respectively given by T
gYmix
P
gen
Y h
gYmix

and
s
gYmix
P
gen
Y h
gYmix

. Thus, the present study has elimi-
nated the need for an additional assumption about the
thermodynamic state of the gaseous refrigerant at the
outlet of the generator.
From the above analysis, the evolution of the rate of
entropy generation attributed to heat transfer may be
expressed as
oS
genYll
gen
oT
gen

oQ
gen
oT
gen
1
T
gen

1
T
lealing
_ _
8
The initial condition is S
genYlolal
gen
T
in
gen
0.
Whereas for the rate of entropy generation due to
vapour mixing, it may be expressed as
S
genYmix
gen
s
gYmix
P
gen
Y h
gYmix

_
T
oul
gen
T
in
gen
oom
w
aotj
inlel
om
w
aot
oT
H
gen
oT
H
gen

_
T
oul
gen
T
in
gen
oom
w
aotj
inlel
om
w
aot
oT
H
gen
s
g
P
gen
Y T
H
gen
oT
H
gen
9
494 H.T. Chua et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 23 (2000) 491507
From denition (1), T

gen
can be expressed as
T

gen

_
T
oul
gen
T
in
gen
oQ
gen
oT
gen
oT
gen
_
T
oul
gen
T
in
gen
1
T
gen
oQ
gen
oT
gen
oT
gen
10
The above-mentioned set of coupled ordinary dier-
ential equation is solved in double precision with the
fth-order Gear's backward dierentiation formulae
found in the DIVPAG library subroutine of the IMSL
Fortran library subroutine, using a tolerance of 110
7
.
For multi-eect absorption machines, the modelling
of the low-temperature generator(s), as a counter-ow
heat exchanger, can easily be extended from the above
treatment.
3.2. Absorber
In a well-designed absorber, it is well known that the
absorption of gaseous water into the solution is possible
only when the latter is sub-cooled and that the solution,
upon leaving the absorber, is still sub-cooled [2629].
The degree of sub-cooling in relation to the interfacial
concentration, xPY T can in fact be a measure of the
extent of the absorption driving force.
In analogy to the relation for heat transfer, the extent
of mass transfer may be governed by a similar driving
force relation [29]
o
om
w
ot
_ _
xY T
aLs
&o UA
aLs
x x T
aLs
Y P
aLs
11
As emphasized, U is treated as an overall eective value
for the entire absorber. In this study, being a black box
analysis, is assumed to adopt the following form
xY T
aLs

0
D xY T
aLs

n
12
The mass diusivity, D, is obtained from the work of
Gierow and Jernqvist [30]. The mass diusivities at
temperatures other than 25

C are obtained by account-


ing for solution viscosity. Solution viscosity has been
obtained from the work of Patterson and Perez-Blanco
[31]. Since Gierow and Jernqvist [30] have reported the
mass diusivity values until 59.27 wt%, its values at higher
concentration have been extrapolated from their work.
In principle, , just as U, is governed by dierent
correlations for dierent ow regimes and absorber
conguration. In this study, its temperature and con-
centration dependence is assumed to take the form sug-
gested in Eq. (15). Since the value of the index, n usually
ranges from about 0.2 to about 1 [26,32], it is taken to
be 0.5 in this work. This value corresponds to that
which appears in a commonly used correlation for fall-
ing-lm absorber [32]. Following the treatment for U,
0
is taken to be an eective value subject to the constraint
that
_
o
om
w
ot
_ _

om
eva
ot
13
A minimum degree of sub-cooling at the outlet of the
absorber is found to exist before Eq. (13) is satised. It
is worthwhile to note that the common assumption that
the solution is saturated at the outlet of a falling-lm
absorber would imply that the absorber heat-and-mass-
transfer area and/or the mass transfer coecient are
innitely large. Such an assumption contradicts the
insight gained from detailed falling-lm absorber ana-
lysis. Intensive mixing of a low-capacity absorber may,
however, provide negligible sub-cooling, but the capa-
city might not be satisfactory. Finally, comparing the
current approach with the conventional methodology,
the former actually imposes a more realistic upper limit
to the achievable cooling capacity that is commensurate
with the minimum degree of sub-cooling at the outlet of
the absorber.
Applying energy balance, and ignoring kinetic and
potential energies as well as heat leaks,
oQ
aLs
oT
aLs

om
sol
ot
c

P
aLs
Y T
aLs
Y x
h
g
P
aLs
Y T
eva
_ _

dH
dm
w
P
aLs
Y T
aLs
Y x
_ _
o omaot
oT
aLs
14
with Q
aLs
T
in
aLs
0Y
om
w
ot
T
in
aLs

om
w
ot
inlel
j . The vapour
ow from the evaporator to the absorber is assumed to
be ideal, hence P
aLs
P
eva
. On account of mass bal-
ance, Eq. (4) still applies, and the initial condition is
om
sol
ot
T
in
aLs

om
sol
ot
inlel
j . In order to obtain the overall UA
value for the absorber,
o UA
aLs

oT
aLs

oQ
aLs
aoT
aLs
T
aLs
T
cooling
_ _ 15
and UA
aLs
T
in
aLs

0. The evolution of T
cooling
is gov-
erned by
oT
cooling
oT
aLs

oQ
aLs
aoT
aLs
oM
cooling
ot
c
l
T
cooling
_ _
16
with T
cooling
T
in
aLs

T
oul
cooling
. Whereas for the evolution
of the water mass ow rate in the solution, combining
Eqs. (11), (14) and (15) and re-arranging,
H.T. Chua et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 23 (2000) 491507 495
o om
w
aot
oT
aLs

& xY T
aLs
x x P
aLs
Y T
aLs

om
sol
ot
c

P
aLs
Y T
aLs
Y x
T
cooling
T
aLs
_ _
& xY T
aLs
x x P
aLs
Y T
aLs

h
gas
P
aLs
Y T
eva
_ _

dH
dm
w
P
aLs
Y T
aLs
Y x
_ _
17
And
om
w
ot
T
in
aLs

om
w
ot
inlel
j . Finally, the total rate of
entropy generation in the absorber can be expressed as
oS
genYlolal
aLs
oT
aLs

oQ
aLs
oT
aLs
1
T
cooling

1
T
aLs
_ _

_
s
g
P
aLs
Y T
aLs
s
g
P
aLs
Y T
eva
_ _

h
g
P
aLs
Y T
aLs
h
g
P
aLs
Y T
eva
_ _
T
aLs
_
o om
w
aot
oT
aLs

_
dS
dm
w
P
aLs
Y T
aLs
Y x s
g
P
aLs
Y T
aLs

h
g
P
aLs
Y T
aLs

dH
dm
w
P
aLs
Y T
aLs
Y x
T
aLs
_
o om
w
aot
oT
aLs
18
with S
genYlolal
aLs
T
in
aLs

0. The rst term at the right-hand-
side of Eq. (18) refers to the rate of entropy generation
due to heat transfer, the second term to that due to
vapour superheating, and the third term refers to that
due to mass transfer.
The process average temperature of the absorber, T

aLs
can be easily deduced from Eq. (10).
For a given degree of sub-cooling at the outlet of the
absorber, given solution inlet and outlet temperatures, a
given evaporator pressure, and a given solution pump
ow rate at the outlet of the absorber, the coupled set of
ordinary dierential equations for the absorber is solved
with double precision, using the fth-order Gear's
backward dierentiation formulae found in the DIV-
PAG library subroutine of the IMSL Fortran library
subroutine. The tolerance used is 110
6
. This solver is
further nested within the DNEQNF library subroutine
found in the IMSL Fortran library subroutine that
searches for
0
as the root to Eq. (13). The tolerance for
this non-linear equation solver is set to 110
8
. In this
study, the degree of sub-cooling is increased from 0

C in
steps of 0.5

C until Eq. (13) is satised.


It is worthwhile to note that Eq. (11) is inherently
dissipative. Hence the direction of integration in the
case of the absorber, at least for the solution, must pro-
ceed from the inlet to the outlet.
The present formalism for the generator(s) and
absorber serve to complement the established system
modelling methodology by providing additional physi-
cal constraints and thereby reduces the number of
assumptions needed in a conventional approach. Further-
more, it imposes a tighter upper limit to the achievable
cooling capacity. For multi-stage system, the present
study has made use of the double precision non-linear
equation solver, DNEQNF library subroutine found in
the IMSL Fortran library subroutine, to achieve global
energy balance to within a tolerance of 110
5
.
As far as entropy generation analysis is concerned,
Anand and Kumar [33] and Aphomratana and Eames
[34] have oered their approaches to the scientic
community. This study has taken one step forward by
providing a thermodynamically consistent approach
towards the process average temperatures and thermal
conductance, as well as by incorporating the eect of
mass transfer into the analysis.
4. Applications to single- and double-stage cycles
The above-mentioned system modelling formalism
is illustrated with the single-stage, double-stage series-
and parallel-cycle chillers. Their congurations have
been adapted from the work of Chuang and Ishida [35].
Figs. 13 illustrate the schematic diagrams of these three
types of chillers.
Grossman et al. [14] have found that the parallel-
cycle has generally a higher COP and a lower risk of
crystallization than the series-cycle. According to
the patented parallel-ow design of Hitachi,
2
the
height of the machine can be signicantly reduced,
while retaining the same footprint. This is due to the
fact that the high-temperature generator no longer
needs to be located at the highest elevation. Further-
more, low-pressure steam (5 kgf/cm
2
or less), in contrast
with medium-pressure steam (8 kgf/cm
2
), can be used to
drive the high-temperature generator, resulting in great
energy saving. In this study, in order to minimize the
eect of mixing in the solution heat exchanger, the con-
centration of the solutions exiting the high-temperature
and the low-temperature generators are assumed to be
the same.
Based on the aforementioned formalism, the state
point's properties for the single-stage chiller depicted
in Fig. 1 are delineated in Table 1a. Table 1b tabulates
the energetic performance and the various thermal
conductances that are consistent with the results in
Table 1a. Finally, Table 1c presents the impact of the
various dissipative mechanisms on the 1/COP of the
single-stage chiller based on a generic chiller performance
expression as described by Eqs. (19) and (20) [1,25].
2
Hitachi, Ltd., ``Hitachi two stage steam absorption chier'',
catalog no. MR-E048, Tokyo, Japan.
496 H.T. Chua et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 23 (2000) 491507
1
COP

1
T

eva

1 6
T

cono

6
T
aLs
_ _
1 6
T

cono

6
T

aLs

1
T

gen
_ _

S
genYinl
lolal
1 6
T

cono

6
T

aLs

1
T

gen
_ _
Q
eva
19
All heat ows in Eq. (19) are dened as positive. When
internal and external entropy generations are elimi-
nated, the Carnot limit [36,37] is given by:
1
COPCainol

1
T
in
clilleo

1
T
in
cooling
_ _
1
T
in
cooling

1
T
in
lealing
_ _ 20
Similarly, the results arising from the performance ana-
lysis of the double-stage series-cycle absorption chiller
are recorded in Table 2ac. Finally, the results arising
from the performance analysis of the double-stage par-
allel-cycle absorption chiller are recorded in Tables 3ac.
Referring to Tables 1a, 2a, and 3a, in order to allow
for a better comparison, medium pressure steam of 8
kgf/cm
2
is used to re all the three types of chillers. The
coolant and chilled water inlet temperatures are also
maintained at the same level. The absorber's conditions,
namely vapour pressure, inlet and outlet ow rate,
solution concentration, and concentration, are also
identical for all these three types of chillers. Chilled
water ow rate is also held constant. The highest and
lowest vapour pressures in all the systems are also held
common. Consequently, the pump power input is also
the same throughout.
Referring to Tables 1b, 2b, and 3b, although the
coolant ow rates are dierent for the single- and dou-
ble-stage chillers, it turns out that
0
is insensitive to
their dierences. As for the cooling capacity, on account
of the high vapour pressure in the condenser of the
single-stage chiller, its value is lower than that in the
double-stage machine. COP increases markedly from
single-stage to double-stage. Under the current premise,
only a marginal increase is observed between the series-
and the parallel-cycle. However, from Tables 2b and 3b,
one could appreciate that the parallel-cycle requires a
signicant lower total thermal conductance to achieve
the same performance. Furthermore, based on the current
Fig. 1. A schematic diagram of a single-stage absorption chiller.
Fig. 1. Schema du refroidisseur a absorption monoetage.
H.T. Chua et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 23 (2000) 491507 497
rigorous approach towards the process average tem-
perature, it is again observed that the sum of entropy
change between the condenser and evaporator and that
between the condenser and generator are negative for all
the three types of chillers studied. This reinforces the
claim of Chua et al. [1] that the following inequalities, as
shown in Eqs. (21) and (22) are untenable:
4
1

Q
cono
T
cono

Q
eva
T
eva
50 21
4
2

Q
cono
T
cono

Q
gen
T
gen
50 22
From Tables 1c, 2c, and 3c, one could appreciate that
internal entropy generation due to heat transfer in the
solution heat exchanger dominates the internal dissipa-
tion. For the single-stage machine, because of the large
temperature dierence in the condenser, the impact of
heat transfer with the environment on 1/COP of the
machine is very high. This also explains the signicant
contribution of the refrigerant expansion on the machi-
ne's performance. The impact of mass transfer in the
absorber tends to contribute about 6 to 8% to the
1/COP of absorption chillers. Its eect is also compar-
able to that due to heat transfer in the low-temperature
generator, in the case of the double-stage machines. The
present analysis shows that while mass transfer is an
important mechanism that actually makes absorption
induced evaporation possible, it is a signicant, though
not a dominating mechanism as what was previously
assumed by Gordon and Ng [7].
5. Ts diagram for heat-driven machine: theoretical
foundation and application to chiller performance
depiction
There have been eorts in the scientic community
[1923] to attempt to depict sorption cycles on the Ts
diagrams. This provides motivation to search for the
theoretical foundation for such endeavour, and to oer
a thermodynamically consistent depiction such that all
the virtues of the Ts diagram as applied to vapour com-
pression cycles can be reproduced in absorption cycles.
This is an extension of one of our previous works [38].
Fig. 2. A schematic diagram of a double-stage series-cycle absorption chiller.
Fig. 2. Schema du refroidisseur a absorption bietage a generateurs en serie.
498 H.T. Chua et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 23 (2000) 491507
The path taken by a stream of refrigerant particles
through the condenser, throttling valve, and evaporator
can be described by the Gibbs equation
Tos
ielYm
PY T oh
ielYm
PY T v
ielYm
PY T oP 23
In the absorber, assuming that pressure drop is negli-
gible, the stream of refrigerant particle interacts with the
stream of the solution particles, and the paths taken by
these two streams can be described by
T
aLs
os
m
P
eva
Y T
aLs
Y xY
om
sol
ot
_ _
T
aLs
s
g
P
eva
Y T
eva
_ _
o 1 m
ielYm
_ _
oh
m
P
eva
Y T
aLs
Y xY
om
sol
ot
_ _
h
g
P
eva
Y T
eva
_ _
om
ielYm
_ _

_
h
g
P
eva
Y T
eva
_ _

dH
dm
w
P
eva
Y T
aLs
Y x
_ _
_ _
T
aLs
s
g
P
eva
Y T
eva
_ _

dS
dm
w
P
eva
Y T
aLs
Y x
_ _
_ _
_
om
ielYm
24
The rst term in the right-hand-side of Eq. (24) refers
to the oQ
aLs
normalised by the constant om
eva
aot.
while the second term to the lost work due to all
internal entropy generations. Hence one realizes
that by tracing the solution path using T
aLs
and s
m
and
by tracing the refrigerant path using T
aLs
and
1 m
ielYm
s
g
P
eva
Y T
eva

from the absorber's inlet to
its outlet, the sum total of the areas under these two
resultant curves represent the net heat rejection and the
eects of internal irreversibilities due to vapour super-
heating and mass transfer.
Referring to the second term of the left-hand-side of
Eq. (24), one appreciates that, at the absorber inlet, the
state of the refrigerant stream can be described by T
in
aLs
,
and s
g
P
eva
Y T
eva

. One therefore concludes that the
path that links the state point T
eva
Y

s
g
P
eva
Y T
eva

at
the evaporator outlet and that at the absorber inlet is an
isentrope described by the equation s s
g
P
eva
Y T
eva

.
At the absorber outlet, the evaporated refrigerant from
the evaporator is fully absorbed, hence the state of the
refrigerant stream can be described by T
oul
aLs
and 0 on the
Ts plane.
Pressurization and sensible heating of the solution
stream is a simple application of the Gibbs equation.
Fig. 3. A schematic diagram of a double-stage parallel-cycle absorption chiller.
Fig. 3. Schema du refroidisseur a absorption bietage a generateurs en parallele.
H.T. Chua et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 23 (2000) 491507 499
Table 1
(a) The various state point's properties for the single-stage chiller depicted in Fig. 1
Tableau 1
Valeurs de divers parametres pour le refroidisseur en Figure 1
State Mass ow rate (kg/s) Pressure (kPa) T (

C) x (wt%) h (kJ/kg) s (kJ/kg.K)


1 19.78 96.4 143.6 59.8 315.0 0.7701
2 18.61 96.4 163.3 63.6 363.4 0.8114
5 18.61 96.4 46.4 63.6 148.6 0.2391
5A
a
18.61 0.8 46.4 63.6 148.6 0.2392
6 19.78 0.8 39.4 59.8 112.8 0.2123
7 19.78 96.4 39.4 59.8 112.8 0.2123
13 1.17 96.4 158.1 0 2792.3 7.6802
14 1.17 96.4 98.6 0 413.2 1.2911
14A
a
1.17 0.8 4.1 0 413.2 1.4910
15 1.17 0.8 4.1 0 2508.0 9.0479
21 2.94 170.7
22 2.94 170.7
31 424.4 32.0
32 424.4 34.0
33 424.4 35.5
41 190.9 12.0
42 190.9 8.9
(b) Performance parameters of the single-stage chiller depicted in Fig. 1
Q
gen
(kW) 3794.6 UA
gen
(kW/m
2
K) 305.1
Q
aLs
(kW) 3463.5 UA
aLs
(kW/m
2
K) 370.6
Q
eva
(kW) 2445.6 UA
eva
(kW/m
2
K) 388.4
Q
cono
(kW) 2777.5 UA
cono
(kW/m
2
K) 43.5
Q
SHX
(kW) 3998.2 UA
SHX
b
(kW/m
2
K) 325.6
Reversible pump power=0.97 kW, COP 0X64

0
0X0219 s
1a2
T

gen
=430.3 K, T

aLs
=315.6 K, T

eva
=277.2 K, T

cono
=373.1 K
6=0.555
4
1
=1.378 kW/K, 4
2
=1.375 kW/K
(c) Relative impact of various mechanisms on 1aCOP of the single-stage chiller
Requirement of reversibility 0.145
Heat transfer with environment 0.530
Vapour superheating in absorber 0.007
Mass transfer mechanism in absorber 0.059
Expansion between state 14 to state 14A 0.098
Expansion between state 5 to state 5A 0.001
Heat transfer in solution heat exchanger 0.160
a
``A'' refers to the corresponding state point that follows immediately after expansion.
b
SHX refers to solution heat exchanger.
500 H.T. Chua et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 23 (2000) 491507
Table 2
The various state point's properties for the double-stage series-cycle absorption chiller depicted in Fig. 2
Tableau 2
Valeurs de divers parametres pour le refroidisseur bietage en Figure 2
State Mass ow rate (kg/s) Pressure (kPa) T (

C) x (wt%) h (kJ/kg) s (kJ/kg K)


1 19.78 96.4 147.5 59.8 322.8 0.7888
2 19.12 96.4 158.7 61.9 349.7 0.8130
3 19.12 96.4 88.6 61.9 216.3 0.4758
3A
a
19.12 7.5 88.6 61.9 216.3 0.4759
4 18.61 7.5 94.0 63.6 234.6 0.4901
5 18.61 7.5 46.4 63.6 148.6 0.2391
5A
a
18.61 0.8 46.4 63.6 148.6 0.2391
6 19.78 0.8 39.4 59.8 112.8 0.2123
7 19.78 96.4 39.4 59.8 112.8 0.2123
8 19.78 96.4 81.6 59.8 193.8 0.4553
11 0.66 96.4 155.9 0 2788.0 7.6576
12 0.66 96.4 98.6 0 413.2 1.2911
12A
a
0.66 7.5 40.3 0 413.2 1.3561
13 0.50 7.5 92.0 0 2672.0 8.5391
14 1.17 7.5 40.3 0 168.8 0.5763
14A
a
1.17 0.8 4.1 0 168.8 0.6092
15 1.17 0.8 4.1 0 2508.0 9.0480
(12A
a
+13) 1.17 7.5 40.3 0 1386.3 4.4605
21 1.47 170.7
22 1.47 170.7
31 309.5 32.0
32 309.5 34.7
33 309.5 35.8
41 190.9 12.0
42 190.9 8.6
(b) Performance parameters of the double-stage series-cycle chiller depicted in Fig. 2
Q
HT-gen
(kW) 2153.5 UA
HT-gen
b
(kW
2
K) 143.0
Q
abs
(kW) 3462.7 UA
abs
(kW
2
K) 379.7
Q
LT-gen
(kW) 1578.1 UA
LT-gen
c
(kW/m
2
K) 230.2
Q
evap
(kW) 2731.0 UA
evap
(kW.m
2
K) 449.0
Q
cond
(kW) 1421.4 UA
cond
(kW/m
2
K) 281.1
Q
SHXF
(kW) 2551.2 UA
SHXF
d
(kW/m
2
K) 285.7
Q
SHXG
(kW) 1601.7 UA
SHXG
e
(kW/m
2
K) 169.5
Reversible pump power=0.98 kW, COP=1.27

0
=0.0219 s
1/2
T

gen
=428.5 K, T

aLs
=315.7 K, T

eva
=277.7 K,
T

cono
=313.5 K
6=0.709
4
1
=5.317 kW/K, 4
2
=0.491 kW/K
(c) Relative impact of various mechanisms on 1/COP of the double-stage series-cycle absorption chiller
Requirement of reversibility 0.285
Heat transfer with environment 0.370
Vapour superheating in absorber 0.010
Mass transfer mechanism in absorber 0.075
Heat transfer in low-temperature generator 0.052
(continued)
H.T. Chua et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 23 (2000) 491507 501
Whereas in the generator(s), a stream of refrigerant is
reversibly separated from the solution, and the isobaric
paths taken by the solution and the refrigerant can be
described by
T
gen
os
m
P
gen
Y T
gen
Y x P
gen
Y T
gen
_ _
Y
om
sol
ot
_ _

gen
T
gen
s
g
P
gen
Y T
gen
_ _
om
ielYm
oh
m
P
gen
Y T
gen
Y x P
gen
Y T
gen
_ _
Y
om
sol
ot
_ _

gen
h
g
P
gen
Y T
gen
_ _
om
ielYm
25
Should Eq. (25) refer to the low-temperature generator,

gen
is replaced by
genY1
. The right-hand-side of Eq. (25)
refers to the oQ
gen
normalized by om
eva
aot.
While the rate of entropy generation due to vapour
mixing in the generator may be small, it could be
expressed as [25]
oS
genYinl
gen
o
oS
iel
P
gen
Y T
gYmix
Y m
iel
_ _
ot
s
g
P
gen
Y T
gen
_ _
o
om
iel
ot
26
Normalizing Eq. (26) with om
eva
aot, and combining
with Eq. (25), one obtains
T
gen
P
gen
Y T
gen
Y x P
gen
Y T
gen
_ _
Y
om
sol
ot
_ _

gen
T
gen
os
ielYm
P
gen
Y T
gYmix
Y
om
iel
ot
_ _
oh
m
P
gen
Y T
gen
Y x P
gen
Y T
gen
_ _
Y
om
sol
ot
_ _

gen
h
g
P
gen
Y T
gen
_ _
om
ielYm

gen
T
gen
os
genYinl
genYm
27
Hence, by tracing the solution stream with T
gen
and s
m
,
and the refrigerant stream with T
gen
and m
ielYm
s
g
P
gen
Y T
gYmix

, the sum total of the areas under the two
resultant curves represent the net heat input to the gen-
erator. At the generator's inlet, the state point of the
refrigerant stream could be described with T
in
gen
and 0 on
the Ts plane. When the solution is still sub-cooled in
the generator, since there is still no mass separation, the
refrigerant will follow the isentrope, s 0, until the
temperature given by T
gen
P
gen
Y xT
in
gen
. Following this
refrigerant path, at the end of the separation, the state
point is described by T
oul
gen
and s
g
P
gen
Y T
gYmix

m
ielYm
T
oul
gen
. So the path that links this state point to the
nal state point for the vapour refrigerant at the exit
of the generator, T
gYmix
and s
g
P
gen
Y T
gYmix
m
ielYm
T
oul
gen
,
is an isentrope described by the equation
s s
g
P
gen
Y T
gYmix
m
ielYm
T
oul
gen
. Recalling that the state
point of the refrigerant stream at the absorber's outlet is
T
oul
aLs
and 0 on the same plane, the path that links the
refrigerant properties at the absorber outlet to that at
the generator's inlet is again an isentrope described by
the equation s 0.
With this, the theoretical foundation for the Ts dia-
gram for absorption chiller is laid down. Based on the
above-mentioned discussion, all the features of Ts dia-
gram that apply to vapour compression cycles are now
reproduced for the absorption chiller.
Figs. 46 depict the Ts diagrams for the single-stage,
double-stage series-cycle and parallel-cycle absorption
chillers. The pressure and concentration levels are also
indicated. In the present approach, whenever there is
stream-mixing/separation in a certain control volume,
the incoming stream(s) is conceptually viewed to be
destroyed within the control volume, while the outgoing
stream(s) is viewed to be created within the control
volume. Hence, during mixing/separation and referring
to the Ts diagrams for the double-stage chillers, the
specic entropy of the incoming stream(s) is reduced to
Table 2 (continued)
Stream mixing (12A+13) in condenser 0.006
Expansion beteen state 14 and state 14A 0.021
Expansion between state 5 and state 5A 0.000
Expansion between 12 and state 12A 0.024
Expansion between state 3 and state 3A 0.002
Heat transfer in solution heat exchanger F 0.083
Heat transfer in solution heat exchange G 0.074
a
``A'' refers to the corresponding state point that follows immediately after expansion.
b
HT refers to high temperature.
c
LT refers to low temperature.
d
SHXF refers to solution heat exchanger F.
e
SHXG to solution heat exchanger G.
502 H.T. Chua et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 23 (2000) 491507
Table 3
The various state point's properties for the double-stage parallel-cycle absorption chiller depicted in Fig. 3
Tableau 3
Valeurs de divers parametres pour le refroidisseur bietage en Figure 3
State Mass ow rate (kg/s) Pressure (kPa) T (

C) x (wt%) h (kJ/kg) S (kJ/kg k)


1 11.34 96.4 145.2 59.8 318.1 0.777
2 10.67 96.4 163.3 63.6 363.4 0.8113
2A
a
10.67 7.5 163.3 63.6 363.4 0.8115
3 8.44 96.4 79.4 59.8 189.6 0.4434
3A
a
8.44 7.5 79.4 59. 189.6 0.4436
4 7.94 7.5 94.0 63.6 234.6 0.4901
5 18.61 7.5 46.4 63.6 148.6 0.2391
5A
a
18.61 0.8 46.4 63.6 148.6 0.2391
6 19.78 0. 39.4 59.8 112.8 0.2123
7 19.78 96.4 39.4 59.8 112.8 0.2123
11 0.67 96.4 158.1 0 2792.3 7.6677
12 0.67 96.4 98.6 0 413.2 1.2911
12A
a
0.67 7.5 40.3 0 413.2 1.3561
13 0.50 7.5 89.4 0 2667.2 8.5259
14 1.17 7.5 40.3 0 168.8 0.5763
14A
a
1.17 0.8 4.1 0 168.8 0.6092
15 1.17 0.8 4.1 0 2508.0 9.0479
12A
a
+13 1.17 7.5 40.3 0 1374.6 4.4232
21 1.47 170.7
22 1.47 170.7
31 309.5 32.0
32 309.5 34.7
33 309.5 35.8
41 190.9 12.0
42 190.9 8.6
(b) Performance parameters of the double-stage parallel-cycle chiller depicted in Fig. 3
Q
HT-gen
(kW) 2140.1 UA
HT-gen
(kW/m
2
K) 173.5
Q
abs
(kW) 3462.7 UA
abs
(kW/m
2
K) 379.7
Q
LT-gen
(kW) 1592.9 UA
LT-gen
(kW/m
2
K) 171.9
Q
evap
(kW) 2731.0 UA
evap
(kW.m
2
K) 449.0
Q
cond
(kW) 1407.7 UA
cond
(kW/m
2
K) 278.2
Q
SHX
(kW) 2976.5 UA
SHX
(kW/m
2
K) 236.3
Reversible pump power=0.98 kW, COP=1.28

0
=0.0219 s
1/2
T

gen
=430.5 K, T

aLs
=315.7 K, T

eva
=277.7 K,
T

cono
=313.5 K
6=0.711
4
1
=5.361 kW/K, 4
2
=0.480 kW/K
(c) Relative impact of various mechanisms on 1/COP of the double-stage parallel-cycle absorption chiller
Requirement of reversibility 0.287
Heat transfer with environment 0.364
Vapour superheating in absorber 0.010
Mass transfer mechanism in absorber 0.075
Heat transfer in low-temperature generator 0.071
Stream mixing (12A+13) in condenser 0.006
Expansion beteen state 14 and state 14A 0.021
Expansion between state 5 and state 5A 0.000
Expansion between 12 and state 12A 0.024
Expansion between state 3 and state 3A 0.001
Heat transfer in solution heat exchanger F 0.001
Heat transfer in solution heat exchange G 0.143
a
``A'' refers to the corresponding state point that follows immediately after expansion.
H.T. Chua et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 23 (2000) 491507 503
zero isothermally, while that of the outgoing stream(s) is
increased from zero to the nal specic entropy iso-
thermally. Conceptually, one could view the s 0 isen-
trope as a bi-directional path that serves to ensure
closure of the cycle. For those regions involving isobaric
heat and mass transfer, the initial and nal state points
could adequately be linked by straight lines. This is
conrmed by the computational results of the present
study. This nding further reinforces the utility of the
Ts diagram as it implies that the heat exchanges could
Fig. 4. Ts diagram for the single-stage lithium bromidewater chiller depicted in Fig. 1. P1 = 96.4 kPa, P3=0.8 kPa, x1=63.6 wt%,
x3=59.8 wt%. The hollow block arrow indicates the direction of regeneration.
Fig. 4. Diagramme Ts pour le refroidisseur monoetage utilisant le couple bromure de lithium-eau en Figure 1. P1=96,4 kPa, P3=0,8
kPa, x1=63,6 %, x3=59,8 %. La eche blanche indique la direction de la regeneration.
Fig. 5. Ts diagram for the double-stage series-cycle chiller depicted in Fig. 2. P1=96.4 kPa, P2=7.5 kPa, P3=0.8 kPa, x1=61.9
wt%, x2=63.6 wt%, x3=59.8 wt%. The hollow block arrows indicate the direction of regeneration.
Fig. 5. Diagramme Ts pour le refroidisseur bietage en Figure 2. P1 = 96,4 kPa, P2 = 7,5 kPa, P3 = 0,8 kPa, x1=61,9 %, x2 =
63,6%, x3 = 59,8%. La eche blanche indique la direction de la regeneration.
504 H.T. Chua et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 23 (2000) 491507
be quickly estimated by evaluating the areas under
trapeziums. Furthermore, only the inlet and outlet
thermodynamic conditions (pressure, temperature, con-
centration and mass ow rate) need to be known to plot
the Ts diagram.
In Fig. 7, the Ts diagrams of the single-stage and
the double-stage parallel-cycle absorption chillers are
superimposed for comparison. The double-stage series-
cycle chiller performance is not included for clarity.
While the energy saving achieved by multi-staging could
be understood via a system analysis, the Ts diagram
oers a direct and diagrammatic insight into the extent
of the energy saved and the location where the bulk of
which is occurring. It is also diagrammatically clear
Fig. 6. Ts diagram for the double-stage parallel-cycle chiller. P1=96.4 kPa, P2=7.5 kPa, P3=0.8 kPa, x1=63.6 wt%, x2=63.6
wt%, x3=59.8 wt%. The hollow block arrows indicate the directions of regeneration.
Fig. 6. Diagramme Ts pour le refroidisseur bietage a generateurs en parallele. P1=96,4 kPa, P2=7,5 kPa, P3=0,8 kPa, x1=61,9 %,
x2=63,6%, x3=59,8%. La eche blanche indique la direction de la regeneration.
Fig. 7. Performance comparison between a single-stage (dashed lines) and a double-stage parallel-cycle (solid lines) chillers.
Fig. 7. Comparaison des performances de refroidisseurs monoetages (courbes hachurees) et celles des refroidisseurs bietages (courbes
continues).
H.T. Chua et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 23 (2000) 491507 505
that, due to the high pressure in the condenser, the sin-
gle-stage machine's cooling capacity is lower than its
double-stage counterpart.
6. Conclusions
In this work, a generalized concept of the process
average temperature has been derived. Based on which,
the conventional concept of work coupling between
pairs of heat-reservoirs is conrmed to be untenable.
The present study has also introduced extra physical
constraints such that local thermodynamic balance
within the component black box is respected. By incor-
porating mass transfer mechanism into the absorber
modelling, a more realistic upper limit to the achievable
cooling capacity can therefore be imposed, and the
extent of the internal loss due to mass transfer quantifed.
Consequently, the number of assumptions required in a
system analysis is reduced.
The present study has further laid down the theore-
tical foundation for the construction of the Ts diagram
for absorption chillers. Only the inlet and the outlet
conditions of the various modules need to be known in
order to generate the diagram. Such depiction comple-
ments a system analysis and oers a direct and dia-
grammatic insight to the cycle operation. The extent of
energy saving, and the region (in the Ts plane) within
which predominant saving is occurring could be under-
stood directly from such a diagrammatic approach.
References
[1] Chua HT, Ng KG, Gordon JM, Han Q. Entropy
production analysis and experimental conrmation of
absorption systems. Int J Refrig 1997;20:17990.
[2] Ng KC, Chua HT, Tu K, Gordon JM, Kashiwagi T,
Akisawa A, Saha BB. The role of internal dissipation and
process average temperature in chiller performance and
diagnostics. J Appl Phys 1998;83(4):18316.
[3] Pons M. Analysis of the adsorption cycles with thermal
regeneration based on the entropic mean temperatures.
Appl Thermal Engrg 1997;17(7):61527.
[4] Chua HT, Ng KC, Gordon JM. Experimental study of the
fundamental properties of reciprocating chillers and its
relation to thermodynamic models with actual chiller per-
formance. Int J Heat Mass Transfer 1996;39:2195204.
[5] Gordon JM, Ng KC. Thermodynamic modeling of reci-
procating chillers. J Appl Phys 1994;75:276979.
[6] Gordon JM, Ng KC. Predictive and diagnostic aspects of
a universal thermodynamic model for chillers. Int J Heat
Mass Transfer 1995;38:80718.
[7] Gordon JM, Ng KC. A general thermodynamic model for
absorption chillers. Heat Recovery Systems & CHP
1995;15:7383.
[8] Gordon JM, Ng KC, Chua HT. Centrifugal chillers: ther-
modynamic modeling and a diagnostic case study. Int J
Refrig 1995;18:2537.
[9] Ng KC, Tu K, Chua HT, Gordon JM, Kashiwagi T,
Akisawa A, Saha BB. Thermodynamic analysis of
absorption chillers: internal dissipation and process aver-
age temperature. Appl Thermal Engrg 1998;18(8):67182.
[10] Ng KC, Chua HT, Han Q, Kashiwagi T, Akisawa A,
Tsurusawa I. Thermodynamic modeling of absorption
chiller and comparison with experiments. Heat Transfer
Engineering 1999;20(2):4251.
[11] Grossman G, Perez-Blanco H. Conceptual design and
performance analysis of absorption heat pumps for waste
heat utilization. Int J Refrig 1982;5(6):36170.
[12] Grossman G, Gommed KA. Computer model for simula-
tion of absorption systems in exible and modular form.
ASHRAE Trans 1991;93(2):2389428.
[13] Grossman G. Modular and exible simulation of
advanced absorption systems. Proc. of the International
Absorption Heat Pump Conference, vol. 31, New Orleans,
(LA): AES, 1994. p. 345352.
[14] Grossman G, Wilk M, DeVault RC. Simulation and
performance analysis of triple-eect absorption cycles.
ASHRAE Trans 1994;100(1):45262.
[15] Grossman G, Zaltash A, Adcock PW, DeVault RC.
Simulating a 4-eect absorption chiller. ASHRAE J 1995;
4553.
[16] Herold KE, Radermacher R, Klein SA. Absorption chil-
lers and heat pumps. FL: CRC Press, 1996.
[17] Manole DM, Lage JL. Thermodynamic optimization
method of a triple eect absorption system with wasted
heat recovery. Int J Heat Mass Trans 1995;38(4):65563.
[18] Perez-Blanco H. Conceptual design of a high-eciency
absorption cooling cycle. Int J Refrig 1993;16(6):42933.
[19] Meunier F, Neveu P, Castaing-Lasvignottes J. Compar-
ison of sorption systems based on equivalent Camot
cycles. ASHRAE Trans 1997;103(1):37583.
[20] Meurner F, Neveu P, Castaing-Lasvignottes J. Equivalent
Carnot cycles for sorption refrigeration. Int J Refrig
1998;21(6):47289.
[21] Tozer RM, James RW. Cold generation systems: a theo-
retical approach. Proc Instn Mech Engrs 1995;209:28796.
[22] Tozer RM, James RW. Fundamental thermodynamics
of ideal absorption cycles. Int J Refrig 1997;20(2):12035.
[23] Tozer RM, James RW. Heat powered refrigeration cycles.
Appl Thermal Engrg 1998;18:73143.
[24] Chua HT, Toh HK, Malek A, Ng KC, Srinivasan K.
Improved thermodynamic property elds of LiBrH
2
O
solution. Int J Refrig 2000;23(6):41229.
[25] Chua HT. Universal thermodynamic modelling of chillers:
special application to adsorption chillers. Ph.D. thesis,
National University of Singapore, Singapore, 1998.
[26] Kirby MJ, Perez-Blanco H. A design model for horizontal
tube water/lithium bromide absorbers. Heat pump and
refrigeration systems design, analysis and applications.
Chicago (IL): AES, 1994. p. 110.
[27] Miller WA, Perez-Blanco H. Vertical-tube aqueous LiBr
falling lm absorption using advanced surfaces. Proc. of
the Internal Absorption Heat Pump Conference, AES,
vol. 31, New Orleans (LA), 1994. p. 185202.
[28] Nomura T, Nishimura N, Wei S, Yamaguchi S, Kawa-
kami R. Heat and mass transfer mechanism in the absor-
ber of water/LiBr conventional absorption refrigerator:
experimental examination by visualised model. Proc. of
506 H.T. Chua et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 23 (2000) 491507
the Internal Absorption Heat Pump Conference, AES,
vol. 31, New Orleans (LA), 1994. p. 203208.
[29] Patnaik V, Perez-Blanco H. A counterow heat-exchanger
analysis for the design of falling-lm absorbers. Proc. of
the Internal Absorption Heat Pump Conference, AES,
vol. 31, New Orleans (LA), 1994. p. 209216.
[30] Gierow M, Jernqvist A. Measurement of mass diisivity
with holographic interferometry for H
2
O/NaOH and
H
2
O/LiBr working pairs. Proc. of the International
Absorption Heat Pump Conference, AES, vol. 31, New
Orleans (LA), 1994. p. 52532.
[31] Patterson MR, Perez-Blanco H. Numerical ts of the
properties of lithium-bromide water solutions. ASHRAE
Trans 1988;96(2):205977.
[32] Cussler EL. Diusion: mass transfer in uid system. 2nd
ed. Cambridge: University Press, 1997.
[33] Anand DK, Kumar B. Absorption machine irreversibility
using new entropy calculations. Solar Energy
1987;39(3):24356.
[34] Aphornratana S, Eames IW. Thermodynamic analysis of
absorption refrigeration cycles using the second law of
thermodynamics method. Int J Refrig 1995;18(4):24452.
[35] Chuang CC, Ishida M. Comparison of three types of
absorption heat pumps based on energy utilization dia-
grams. ASHRAE Trans 1990;2:27581.
[36] Jernqvist A

, Abrahamsson K, Aly G. On the eciencies of


absorption heat pumps. Heat Recovery Systems & CHP
1992;12:46980.
[37] Abrahamsson K, Jernqvist A. Carnot comparison of
multi-temperature level absorption heat cycles. Int J
Refrig 1993;16:2406.
[38] Gordon JM, Ng KC, Chua HT. Simple thermodynamic
diagrams for real refrigeration systems. J Appl Phys
1999;85(2):6416.
H.T. Chua et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 23 (2000) 491507 507

Вам также может понравиться