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PUBLISHED BY THE AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY TO ADVANCE THE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND APPLICATION OF WELDING
AND ALLIED JOINING AND CUTTING PROCESSES WORLDWIDE, INCLUDING BRAZING, SOLDERING, AND THERMAL SPRAYING
September 2013
For Info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
3 WELDING JOURNAL
CONTENTS
34 Aluminum Welding Safety Tips
These tips detail the safety concerns that are specific to
welding aluminum
T. Pfaller
38 Evaluating SMAW Electrode Fume Formation Rates
Researchers measured fume formation rates for four SMAW
consumables commonly used in mining
K. Sham and S. Liu
42 Remote Control Technology Helps Reduce Fall Hazards
Eliminating cables helps to declutter the job site and lessen
the chances that a worker will fall
J. Ryan
Welding Journal (ISSN 0043-2296) is published
monthly by the American Welding Society for
$120.00 per year in the United States and posses-
sions, $160 per year in foreign countries: $7.50
per single issue for domestic AWS members and
$10.00 per single issue for nonmembers and
$14.00 single issue for international. American
Welding Society is located at 8669 NW 36th St.,
# 130, Miami, FL 33166-6672; telephone (305)
443-9353. Periodicals postage paid in Miami, Fla.,
and additional mailing offices. POSTMASTER: Send
address changes to Welding Journal, 8669 NW
36th St., # 130, Miami, FL 33166-6672. Canada
Post: Publications Mail Agreement #40612608
Canada Returns to be sent to Bleuchip Interna-
tional, P.O. Box 25542,London, ON N6C 6B2,
Canada.
Readers of Welding Journal may make copies of
articles for personal, archival, educational or
research purposes, and which are not for sale or
resale. Permission is granted to quote from arti-
cles, provided customary acknowledgment of
authors and sources is made. Starred (*) items
excluded from copyright.
Departments
Editorial ............................4
Press Time News ..................6
News of the Industry ..............8
International Update ............14
Stainless Q&A ....................18
RWMA Q&A ......................22
Product & Print Spotlight ......26
Conferences ......................46
Coming Events....................48
Certification Schedule ..........54
Society News ....................57
Tech Topics ......................58
Errata D17.1:2010..............58
Guide to AWS Services ........71
Personnel ........................72
American Welder
Learning Track ..................88
Fact Sheet ......................94
Thermal Spray Profiles ........96
Classifieds ......................100
Advertiser Index ................102
251-s Neural Network Model for Recognizing Joint Offset
during Fiber Laser Welding
A model is proposed to recognize the weld joint offset based
on the molten pool feature parameters
X. D. Gao et al.
258-s Heat Input and the Liquation Cracking of Laser Welded
IN738LC Superalloy
The susceptibility to liquation cracking decreased with increasing
heat input and peak power in both the conduction and keyhole
welding modes
M. Montazeri et al.
265-s Quantifying Heat-Affected Zone Hydrogen-Induced
Cracking in High-Strength Naval Steels
Researchers used the implant test to compare a recently developed
blast-resistant steel to two existing naval steels
X. Yue et al.
274-s Feasibility of Cold-Metal-Transfer Welding Magnesium
AZ31 to Galvanized Mild Steel
It was learned cold-metal-transfer welding of magnesium to steel
is possible if the steel has a zinc coating
R. Cao et al.
Features
The American Welder
Welding Research Supplement
34
38
42
September 2013 Volume 92 Number 9
AWS Web site www.aws.org
On the cover: In addition to educating employees about safety standards and
implementing the use of personal protection equipment (PPE), remote control
welding technologies have become an increasingly viable means to creating
a safer job site environment.(Photo courtesy of Miller Electric Mfg. Co.,
Appleton, Wis.)
78 Solving the Winter Work Boot Woes
This guide will help you select safety work boots that will
ensure safety and comfort during inclement weather
M. Reilly
82 Controlling Hydrogen-Induced Cracking
Methods are presented to help control hydrogen throughout
the welding process
B. Guy
86 Origins of Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
A short history relates why the GTAW process was developed
A. F. Manz
EDITORIAL
Why does a welding engineer get plugged into AWS code committee work when his
whole career has been in an industry where the default welding code is ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code, Section IX? AWS standards cover bridges and buildings, not the
tanks and pressure vessels Chicago Bridge & Iron constructs, dont they?
Well, about 15 years ago, we experienced problems with some of our construction equip-
ment and it turned out the performance issues were related to weld quality. Specifically, the
equipments manufacturer employed a joint detail and welding sequence that resulted in
unacceptable distortion in a principal component of the machine.
Root cause analysis for this deficiency showed the manufacturer did not use an appro-
priate welding standard for the equipment being built. We subsequently discovered AWS
publishes a series of standards specific to the manufacture of machinery and equipment,
so we decided some involvement in the committees responsible for content of these stan-
dards could benefit our company. I then volunteered to serve on the D14 Committee on
Machinery and Equipment.
The D14 Committee was organized in 1967 to provide standards and recommended
practices for the control of welding fabrication on various types of industrial machinery
and equipment. The goal of the committee was to collect, review, and promulgate mini-
mum requirements for the control of welding, including design data, process selection,
material control, fabrication practices, quality standards, and inspection and testing pro-
grams. After initial discussions, it became evident a universal standard covering all
machinery and equipment was impractical due to differences in utilization and opera-
tional requirements. The solution was to form several subcommittees that would address
a specific type or class of equipment and its unique welding requirements.
Over the ensuing 45 years, the D14 standards have evolved, but the purpose and goal
remain the same. Today, six subcommittees are responsible for standards that address six
different types of equipment. These standards and their areas of interest are as
follows:
D14.1, Specification for Welding of Industrial and Mill Cranes and Other Material
Handling Equipment, addresses cranes for industrial, mill, powerhouse, and nuclear facil-
ities as well as overhead material-handling equipment.
D14.3, Specification for Welding Earthmoving, Construction, and Agricultural
Equipment, addresses self-propelled, on- and off-highway crawlers, tractors, graders,
loaders, off-highway trucks, power shovels, backhoes, and the like.
D14.5, Specification for Welding Presses and Press Components, addresses weld joint
design and fabrication of presses and press components.
D14.6, Specification for Welding Rotating Elements of Equipment, covers the manu-
facture of rotating components of equipment such as fans, pumps, compressors, etc.
D14.7, Recommended Practice for Surfacing and Reconditioning of Industrial Mill
Rolls, provides guidance for preparing, building up, cladding, heat treating, finish
machining, and inspection of new and reconditioned industrial mill rolls.
D14.9, Specification for the Welding of Hydraulic Cylinders, addresses design and
manufacture of welded joints in hydraulic cylinders.
The D14 committee also publishes D14.4, Specification for the Design of Welded Joints
in Machinery and Equipment, which establishes requirements for allowable stresses and
other design criteria. It is intended for use in conjunction with the aforementioned appli-
cation-specific D14 standards.
The D14 committees have worked diligently to maintain the relevance of their suite
of standards and incorporate new technologies that are available to industry today. They
have also improved the harmony of the D14 documents by
removing overlapping requirements and creating comple-
mentary product-related standards. Each committee is
comprised of members representing manufacturers, end
users, and industry experts to ensure a relative balance of
priorities.
And yes, my companys equipment is now manufac-
tured using the appropriate specifications, and the prob-
lems are being resolved. So you see, it pays to get
involved.
SEPTEMBER 2013 4
Officers
President Nancy C. Cole
NCC Engineering
Vice President Dean R. Wilson
Well-Dean Enterprises
Vice President David J. Landon
Vermeer Mfg. Co.
Vice President David L. McQuaid
D. L. McQuaid and Associates, Inc.
Treasurer Robert G. Pali
J. P. Nissen Co.
Executive Director Ray W. Shook
American Welding Society
Directors
T. Anderson (At Large), ITW Global Welding Tech. Center
U. Aschemeier (Dist. 7), Miami Diver
J. R. Bray (Dist. 18), Affiliated Machinery, Inc.
R. E. Brenner (Dist. 10), CnD Industries, Inc.
G. Fairbanks (Dist. 9), Fairbanks Inspection & Testing Services
T. A. Ferri (Dist. 1), Victor Technologies
D. A. Flood (At Large), Tri Tool, Inc.
S. A. Harris (Dist. 4), Altec Industries
K. L. Johnson (Dist. 19), Vigor Shipyards
J. Jones (Dist. 17), The Harris Products Group
W. A. Komlos (Dist. 20), ArcTech, LLC
T. J. Lienert (At Large), Los Alamos National Laboratory
J. Livesay (Dist. 8), Tennessee Technology Center
M. J. Lucas Jr. (At Large), Belcan Engineering
D. E. Lynnes (Dist. 15), Lynnes Welding Training
C. Matricardi (Dist. 5), Welding Solutions, Inc.
J. L. Mendoza (Past President), Lone Star Welding
S. P. Moran (At Large), Weir American Hydro
K. A. Phy (Dist. 6), KA Phy Services, Inc.
W. A. Rice (Past President), OKI Bering
R. L. Richwine (Dist. 14), Ivy Tech State College
D. J. Roland (Dist. 12), Marinette Marine Corp.
N. Saminich (Dist. 21), NS Inspection and Consulting
K. E. Shatell (Dist. 22), Pacific Gas & Electric Co.
T. A. Siewert (At Large), NIST (ret.)
H. W. Thompson (Dist. 2), Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
R. P. Wilcox (Dist. 11), ACH Co.
J. A. Willard (Dist. 13), Kankakee Community College
M. R. Wiswesser (Dist. 3), Welder Training & Testing Institute
D. Wright (Dist. 16), Zephyr Products, Inc.
Founded in 1919 to Advance the Science,
Technology and Application of Welding
It Pays to Get Involved
Tom Landon
Chair, AWS D14 Committee
And with an offer like this, now is the time to get it.
Contact your ESAB sales rep or distributor or visit
www.esabna.com/gearup to nd out more. But hurry
this offer wont be around as long as your Warrior will.
ESAB Welding & Cutting Products / esabna.com / 1.800.ESAB.123
PRESS TIME
NEWS
AWS Careers in Welding Trailer Kicks Off 2013 Tour
at Boy Scouts of America Jamboree
The American Welding Society (AWS) Careers in
Welding Trailer recently started its 2013 tour at the Boy
Scout Jamboree in West Virginia where more than
40,000 scouts, volunteers, and visitors had the opportu-
nity to participate in virtual welding. Held once every
three years, this was the first jamboree at its new per-
manent home at the Summit Bechtel Reserve, W.Va.
The event allowed scouts to camp out with friends,
meet new ones, take part in exciting adventures, explore
different exhibits, and work on earning merit badges,
including the welding merit badge. An AWS special
committee chaired by Dave Landon, current vice presi-
dent of the AWS, developed this badge and got it ap-
proved by the Boy Scouts of America. Introduced in
February 2012, the program allows Boy Scouts to learn
hands-on how to join metals using welding techniques.
The American Welding Society is excited to con-
tinue strengthening its relationship with the Boy Scouts
and is thrilled that we were invited to take part in the
jamboree, said Landon, during the event. Being part
of such an amazing event allows us to connect with
scouts from across the country, and we cant wait for them to come on board the Ca-
reers in Welding Trailer so we can show them how much fun and rewarding a career in
the welding industry can be.
The 53-ft, expandable trailer features 650 sq ft of exhibit space, including five Lin-
coln Electric Co. VRTEX360 welding simulator stations. Scouts tried out actual weld-
ing equipment in an adjacent tent provided by Lincoln. Those who worked with a weld-
ing professional met part of the requirements for the welding merit badge.
For more details on where the trailer will be this year, visit www.explorewelding.com.
Primoceler Creates Sapphire-to-Sapphire Welding Machine
Primoceler, Tampere, Finland, a microfabrication company specializing in laser mi-
crowelding and scribing of transparent materials, has developed what is believed to be
the first sapphire-to-sapphire welding process. The new machine contains a fiber laser
unit optimized for the welding process by Corelase and features software/components
developed in house.
Sapphires cost effectiveness, durability, high melting point, chemical inertness, trans-
parency, and capacity for optical transmission in visible, ultraviolet, and near-infrared
light make it useful for several industries.
Thermal Spray Technologies Marks 1-Million Hours
of Incident-Free Production
Thermal Spray Technologies, Sun Prairie, Wis., recently celebrated 1-million hours
with no lost time. More than 120 employees and their families gathered to acknowledge
the milestone with a celebration including food and drink, plant tours, and a raffle.
Employees participate in annual training sessions and are encouraged to speak about
any safety concerns. Precautions and protocols instituted exceed Occupational Safety
and Health Administration requirements to help ensure safe working conditions.
Miller Consolidates Smith Products under Its Own Brand
Miller Electric Mfg. Co., Appleton, Wis., has consolidated the Smith Equipment oxy-
fuel cutting equipment product line under its own brand. The oxyfuel product line will
continue to be manufactured in Watertown, S.Dak.; the only difference is the name on
the product will change to Miller. Several products, however, will retain the Smith Equip-
ment brand name, including the Little Torch jewelry torch, QuickBraze HVAC/R
and appliance repair torches, specialty gas regulators, Handi Heet soldering outfits,
and Silver Smith air-fuel jewelers torches.
SEPTEMBER 2013 6
MEMBER
Publisher Andrew Cullison
Publisher Emeritus Jeff Weber
Editorial
Editorial Director Andrew Cullison
Editor Mary Ruth Johnsen
Associate Editor Howard M. Woodward
Associate Editor Kristin Campbell
Editorial Asst./Peer Review Coordinator Melissa Gomez
Design and Production
Production Manager Zaida Chavez
Senior Production Coordinator Brenda Flores
Manager of International Periodicals and
Electronic Media Carlos Guzman
Advertising
National Sales Director Rob Saltzstein
Advertising Sales Representative Lea Paneca
Advertising Sales Representative Sandra Jorgensen
Senior Advertising Production Manager Frank Wilson
Subscriptions
Subscriptions Representative Tabetha Moore
tmoore@aws.org
8669 NW 36 St., # 130, Miami, FL 33166-6672
(305) 443-9353 or (800) 443-9353
Publications, Expositions, Marketing Committee
D. L. Doench, Chair
Hobart Brothers Co.
S. Bartholomew, Vice Chair
ESAB Welding & Cutting Prod.
J. D. Weber, Secretary
D. Brown, Weiler Brush
T. Coco, Victor Technologies International
L. Davis, ORS Nasco
D. DeCorte, RoMan Mfg.
J. R. Franklin, Sellstrom Mfg. Co.
F. H. Kasnick, Praxair
D. Levin, Airgas
E. C. Lipphardt, Consultant
R. Madden, Hypertherm
D. Marquard, IBEDA Superflash
J. F. Saenger Jr., Consultant
S. Smith, Weld-Aid Products
D. Wilson, Well-Dean Enterprises
N. C. Cole, Ex Off., NCC Engineering
J. N. DuPont, Ex Off., Lehigh University
L. G. Kvidahl, Ex Off., Northrop Grumman Ship Systems
D. J. Landon, Ex Off., Vermeer Mfg.
S. P. Moran, Ex Off., Weir American Hydro
E. Norman, Ex Off., Southwest Area Career Center
R. G. Pali, Ex Off., J. P. Nissen Co.
N. Scotchmer, Ex Off., Huys Industries
R. W. Shook, Ex Off., American Welding Society
Copyright 2013 by American Welding Society in both printed and
electronic formats. The Society is not responsible for any statement
made or opinion expressed herein. Data and information developed by
the authors of specific articles are for informational purposes only and
are not intended for use without independent, substantiating investiga-
tion on the part of potential users.
At the Boy Scout Jamboree this
year in West Virginia, attendees
performed virtual welding inside
the AWS Careers in Welding
Trailer.
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SEPTEMBER 2013 8
NEWS OF THE
INDUSTRY
Welding Champions Honored at
Recent WorldSkills Competition
Four competitors welded their way to the top by earning high-
est honors at the 42nd WorldSkills Competition held July 27 at
the Leipziger Messe in Leipzig, Germany.
Jin Soo Namof Korea won the gold medal. He trained at Sam-
sung Heavy Industries Co. Ltd. Capturing silver awards were
Alexander Pazkowski of the United States, a lab technician in
the welding department at Washtenaw Community College, Ann
Arbor, Mich., who was also the highest scorer from team USA
and recently earned his Certified Welding Inspectors endorse-
ment, along with Rafael Pereira of Brazil, who trained at SENAI
Mossor RN and Itumbiara GO. Lachlan Mayled of Aus-
tralia, an in-house welder for Binderee Beef, received bronze.
This showcase attracted the finest young professionals in
skilled trades and technologies from 52 member countries/
regions. Approximately 1000 competitors in 46 skills vied for
medals and awards across four days of competition. The total
number in attendance including for the competition, open-
ing, and closing ceremonies was close to 200,000.
Koike Aronson Celebrates Latest Expansion
President and CEO Gerald Leary kicked off Koike Aronson, Inc./Ransomes open house on July 19 to commemorate the
30,000-sq-ft expansion at its main facility in Arcade, N.Y. Ninety guests participated in the festivities.
Over the last five years, the designer and manufacturer of welding positioners and cutting products, as well as portable equip-
ment and a gas apparatus line, has worked to finish this expansion. Thanks to a grant and financing from the state of New York,
railroad tracks at the back of the building were moved, enabling space for the addition.
Now we can do everything here, Leary said. The height and crane capacity allow us to make larger positioners and can ac-
commodate more, presenting a good opportunity for our systems.
The energy-efficient area helps meet rising demand for all of its equipment used in heavy industries such as mining, energy, and
transportation. Also, it houses the positioner assembly department and offers the fol-
lowing: a 50-ton crane, the largest ever made for installation in a New York facility by
its manufacturer, Cranetech, Inc.; a 35-ton crane built by the same provider; two 600-
sq-ft paint booths; and extra room for manufacturing its welding positioner line, espe-
cially for large-scale projects, and for refurbishing/repairing parts on these machines. A
removable wall can add another 70,000 sq ft of space in the future.
New York State Senator Patrick M. Gallivan pointed out to the audience that Koike
is a success story for the Arcade area. He wants this momentum to build for the rest of
the state. Matt MacNeil, field representative for Congressman Chris Collins, presented
an accommodation award in recognition of the recent expansion.
In addition, Leary reviewed the companys history and showed pictures of its jour-
ney, including its 1946 start in Arcade; various facility expansions; todays product offer-
ings; last years purchase of Biondi Maquinas in Brazil; and receiving the Manufacturer
of the Year Award from the Arcade Chamber of Commerce this past May. The facility
now totals 167,000 sq ft and has 151 employees.
According to Paul King, director of manufacturing, Koike presently employs 14 full-
time welders working over two shifts. How-
ever, the workforce is cross functional, and
more than 30 welders have been qualified
by a third party under American Welding
Society guidelines. They mostly use gas
metal arc welding to work on hundreds of
positioners every year, with the steel used
to construct these coming from numerous
providers. Unique to the company is that
workers use its own equipment brands to
build customer orders.
Up next is demolishment of a restaurant
space it purchased next door to give right
of way for trucks accessing the buildings
east side and more parking spaces. The
eatery is moving to a larger location nearby.
The event concluded with plant tours
and a barbecue lunch.
Kristin Campbell, associate editor
Gerald Leary, Koikes president and CEO,
spoke to open house attendees about the
companys history and recent progress.
The 30,000-sq-ft addition to Koikes loca-
tion in Arcade, N.Y., features room for its
welding positioner line, plus 50- and 35-
ton cranes.
Buzz Noel, a welder/assembler at Koike,
performs gas metal arc welding on the top
of an HD500, a nearly 15,000-lb welding
positioner held by a 25-ton crane.
9 WELDING JOURNAL
Kimberly-Clark Corp. donated $10,000 to support the Amer-
ican Welding Societys (AWS) United States training for this
event. Following each biennial national welding skills competi-
tion, an individual is selected to represent the United States in
the international competition; this time, it was Alexander
Pazkowski. The contribution will support AWS competitions that
lead to the selection in early 2015 of the United States welding
winner who will represent the country in So Paulo, Brazil. As
travel, training, and other related activities are expensive, this
contribution will assist with those activities.
Welding Journal and Inspection Trends
Win Charlie Awards
The Welding Journal and Inspection Trends recently earned three
writing excellence honors as part of the Florida Magazine Associ-
ations 2013 Charlie Awards competition, which followed the or-
ganizations 60th annual publishing conference and exposition.
The trophies were presented during a ceremony on August 2 at
Disney Yacht & Beach Club Resort in Lake Buena Vista, Fla.
For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
The welding winners at the 42nd WorldSkills Competition are (from
left) Lachlan Mayled (bronze); Alexander Pazkowski (silver); Jin
Soo Nam (gold); and Rafael Pereira (silver). (Photo courtesy of
the WorldSkills Photostream on Flickr.)
The Florida Magazine Association presented three awards to the
Welding Journal and Inspection Trends in recognition of writing
excellence.
SEPTEMBER 2013 10
Heres a listing of what won in the trade/technical division:
Best feature, silver award, for Editor Mary Ruth Johnsens
article in the Welding Journals April 2013 issue, Alabama Trains
Workers at World-Class Robotics Center, featuring the state of
Alabamas Robotics Technology Park in Tanner.
Best in-depth reporting, bronze award, for Uwe Aschemeier
and Kevin Peterss article in the Welding Journals March 2013
magazine, Repair of a Hull 15 m below the Waterline, concern-
ing the repair work Miami Diver LLC performed when a 50,000-
ton product tanker ended up with a hull breach.
Best feature, bronze award, for Editor Mary Ruth Johnsens
article in the April 2013 issue of Inspection Trends, Tips for Work-
ing Overseas, giving advice to help inspectors cope when work-
ing in countries with different cultures and languages.
Fronius USA Dedicates NE Regional Office
Fronius USA LLC recently held an open house at its Brighton,
Mich., location, dedicating it as the companys NE regional of-
fice for the welding technology division. The building previously
housed Froniuss corporate headquarters in the United States.
Early in the year, Fronius moved that headquarters to a new
500,000-sq-ft facility in Portage, Ind.
Dave Grant, manager of the Brighton location, greeted close
to 50 customers who attended the open house. Food and bever-
ages were provided, and a raffle of items that included autodark-
ening helmets and welding machines culminated the event.
This regional office covers 14 states from Michigan to Maine.
An inside sales force as well as road salesmen will call this their
home base. The 10,000-sq-ft facility also has a technical support
group who provide service to customers on process optimization
and guidance on special applications. Equipment in the techni-
cal area includes two robots.
This regional office compliments another one based in Chat-
tanooga, Tenn. Fronius USA has been operating in the United
States for 12 years and employs approximately 130. Fronius In-
ternational is headquartered in Pettenbach, Austria.
Second Annual National Manufacturing
Day Slated for Oct. 4
On Oct. 4, manufacturers, educational institutions, and oth-
ers will host events highlighting the importance of manufactur-
ing to the nations economy and draw attention to these high-
skill jobs.
National Manufacturing Day is coproduced by the Fabrica-
tors & Manufacturers Association, Intl; National Association of
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continued on page 12
Give It To Us Straight.
Call us at 800-782-2110 for a free quote on your
next Metal Bending job.
www.greinerindustries.com
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a
y
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With our ROUNDO R-16S Rolling Machine,
we can roll, bend and shape structural steel
beams, angles, channels, pipe and tubing in
dimensions not found anywhere in our region.
We specialize in all types of custom rolling and
fabrication including pipe trusses, angle and tee trusses,
beam trusses, square and rectangular tubing, and girders.
We can:
Roll a W44 by 242lbs/ft I-beam the HARD way (X-X axis)
Roll any size I-beam, which is currently made the EASY way
(Y-Y axis)
Roll a W40 by 211lbs/ft I-beam to a radius less than 100ft
with almost no distortion
Roll a 26 OD pipe with 2 wall thickness
Roll almost any size square or rectangular tubing
We also fabricate rolled structural members
from steel plate, flat bar, angles, channels,
beams and pipe. From our 400,000 sq. ft.
facility (under roof ) in Lancaster County, PA, well
truck any size rolled steel, truss or
girder to your site. We can even paint
them before they leave.
So give it to us straight, and well
handle the curves.
Call us at 800-782-2110
for a free quote on your
next Metal Bending job.
greinerindustries.com
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Manufacturers; The Manufacturing Institute; and National In-
stitute of Standards and Technologys Hollings Manufacturing
Extension Partnership.
This years activities will feature open houses, public tours,
career workshops, and other activities to increase public aware-
ness of modern manufacturing. Visit www.mfgday.com.
Time Capsule Placed on Gerald R. Ford
Huntington Ingalls Industries Newport News Shipbuilding
division recently welded a time capsule inside the flight deck con-
trol room of the nuclear-powered aircraft carrier Gerald R. Ford
(CVN 78). It contains items placed under the 555-metric-ton is-
land during a ceremonial event in January by Susan Ford Bales,
the ships sponsor and daughter of the late president, as well as
shipyard and Navy leadership. She placed a sandstone piece made
of the same stone used to construct the White House and U.S.
Capitol; it was embedded with a coin she designed, plus five offi-
cial seals representing her fathers service.
Gerald R. Fords primary hull structure reached 100% struc-
tural completion in May, bringing more than three years of struc-
tural erection work to a close. Work continues on the ship, in-
cluding piping/electrical systems, hull painting, and habitable
areas.
T. J. Snow Co. Achieves Golden
Anniversary
T. J. Snow Co., Chattanooga, Tenn., an American Welding So-
ciety Sustaining Member and manufacturer/distributor of resist-
ance welding machines with related supplies, recently reached a
SEPTEMBER 2013 12
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Celebrating 50 years in
operation, T. J. Snow Co.
provides resistance weld-
ing machines. Displayed
is an archived picture of
the companys founder,
T. J. Jim Snow Sr., on a
sales call.
Newport News Shipbuilding welder Shaun Woroneski (left) welds a
time capsule holding commemorative items into the island of the
aircraft carrier Gerald R. Ford (CVN 78) while fitter Jerry Wom-
ack looks on. (Photo by John Whalen.)
continued from page 10
NEWS OF THE INDUSTRY
water or gas-cooled models. To see the VR5000 Case feeder in action visit
www.youtube.com/FroniusWelding and search VR 5000.
To learn more visit www.fronius-usa.com
/ Battery Charging Systems / Welding Technology / Solar Electronics
/ The VR 5000 Case feeder is compact, sturdy and portable making it ideal for welding on rail
vehicle construction. Its light weight (22 pounds) and comes with a Bayonet connector which
protects it from strain when pulling on the hosepack (up to 225 feet). Synergic and manual,

INTERNATIONAL
UPDATE
Advancements in Welding Simulation
Technology Shared at JOM Conference
This past May marked the 17th
biennial International Confer-
ence on Joining Materials in as-
sociation with the Institute for
the Joining of Materials (JOM)
and the International Institute
of Welding (IIW). The three-day
conference was held in Hels-
ingr, Denmark. Industry lead-
ers from around the globe were
invited to share, experience, and
learn with the best and the
brightest.
The JOM conference series
dates back to the 1970s and has
maintained its status and repu-
tation as a world leader in endorsing research and development
in materials joining and welding technology.
AWS Vice President David Landon was invited to share ad-
vancements in welding simulation technology. His presentation,
Implementation of Welding Simulation for Pre-Employment
Evaluation and Entry Level GMAW Welder Training A Case
Study, was included in the Education, Training, Qualification,
and Certification session of the conference. Additional presen-
tations included Practical and Theoretical Training of Welding
Personnel through Competition by Volodynmyr Ponomarov
from the Federal University of Uberlandia, Brazil, and a global
overview of the IIW by Ccile Mayer from IIW France.
JOM-17 International Conference was a success for all those
involved. Planning has already begun for JOM-18, to be held in
April 2015.
New Friction Welding Machine Generates
Forging Force of 400 Metric Tons
According to Thompson Friction Welding, Halesowen, West
Midlands, England, a manufacturer of machines for component
makers, it has built the worlds largest direct-drive friction weld-
ing machine for joining parts typically used in construction ma-
chines and exploration tools. The machine, with a forging force
of 400 metric tons, will be used by a customer in North America
to produce hydraulic parts.
The welding machine has been equipped with Thompsons
new dual tool flash-removal device and HMI system, which pro-
vides a graphical representation of the machines functions. The
system is also designed to allow an operator to remotely access
the machine from either a tablet device or smartphone.
Growing customer demand for equipment capable of gener-
ating higher weld forces for joining components such as piston
rods, cylinders, and drill pipes has prompted the new machine
design, explained Nick Edge, sales director of Thompson Fric-
tion Welding. He added, Its totally scalable, which means it will
be possible to use this platform to produce machines with even
more forging power while also retaining the benefits of the di-
rect-drive process, which include lightweight tooling and quick
changeover times.
Petronas Holds Ceremony for Its First
Floating Liquefied Natural Gas Facility
A steel cutting ceremony for Petronas first floating liquefied
natural gas (FLNG) facility was recently held at the Daewoo
Shipbuilding and Marine Engineering (DSME) shipyard in Okpo,
South Korea. The ceremony signified a major milestone for the
project to proceed to the construction phase and meet its com-
missioning schedule in 2015. The ceremony was led by Shamsul
Azhar Abbas, Petronas president and group CEO, and jointly
hosted by Thierry Pilenko, Technip president and CEO, and Jaeho
Ko, DSME president and CEO.
Petronas signed the engineering, procurement, construction,
installation, and commissioning contract for the project with
Technip in June 2012. The FLNG facility, which will be located
in Malaysias Kanowit gas field, 180 km (112 miles) offshore
Sarawak, will have the capacity to produce 1.2-million tons/year
of LNG. Once operational, the facility will be able to carry out
liquefaction, production, and offloading processes of LNG hun-
dreds of kilometers away from land and closer to offshore gas
sources.
The facility is expected to play a significant role in efforts to
unlock the gas reserves in Malaysias remote and stranded fields,
currently deemed uneconomical to develop.
Wilhelmsen Ships Offers Free Welding
Safety Inspections
Wilhelmsen Ships Service is currently running a campaign to
promote safe onboard welding across the Asia-Pacific region.
The welding safety inspection service, launched earlier this year
in Singapore, deals with the challenges faced by vessel owners
and operators in maintaining welding equipment on board and
ensuring operational practices are up to date with regulations.
At this time, the inspection service is offered free of charge to
existing customers.
Risks to seafarers from poor practices or badly maintained
equipment range from electric shock to gas cylinder explosions.
The welding safety inspection program enables the companys
safety engineers to check welding and related equipment on-
board ships as well as ensure that it is in good working order and
safe to use.
Wilhelmsen Ships Service offers a portfolio of Unitor branded
welding equipment, cleaning and maintenance products, spares,
and gases. The product range is supported by a welding safety
handbook, company-approved Unitor training programs at a
number of maritime training centers, and a global service net-
work providing 24/7 support.
SEPTEMBER 2013 14
David Landon, AWS vice presi-
dent, is shown at the 17th bien-
nial International Conference
on Joining Materials.
Thompsons 400-metric-ton forging force model can be accessed
remotely from a tablet or smartphone.
Emeric Suma
The Ohio State University
Welding Engineering
Education is the most vital tool in being
successful. To get an education, one must
be able to finance it as well as hard
working enough to learn, apply, and excel
at the material. I am thankful that the
American Welding Society has awarded
me the Howard E. and Wilma J. Adkins
Memorial Scholarship. I am also thankful
that the Family and Friends of the Adkins
established the Scholarship. Through my
hard work and their financial backing, I
will have an extraordinary school year."
William Teifke
Ferris State University
Welding Engineering Technology
I am honored to be chosen by the
American Welding Society to receive the
Airgas-Jerry Baker Scholarship. It makes
me proud to be chosen by an organization
that does so much to help students and to
advance welding and related joining
processes. Thank you.
Tevan Boersma
Brigham Young University
Welding and Fabrication Technology
"I feel blessed to receive the Airgas Terry
Jarvis Memorial Scholarship. Welding is
one of my greatest passions, I hope where
ever I end up in the industry, I can have a
positive impact in my career and
continued activity in the AWS."
Brittani Maskley
University of Florida
Materials Science and Engineering
"My passion for studying metals was
launched by my welding education and
has influenced my pursuit of majoring in
Materials Science and Engineering at the
University of Florida. I would like to
thank the Arsham Amirikian Engineering
Scholarship Foundation and the
American Welding Society for providing
the funds I need to continue my studies. I
am privileged to have been chosen by
these committees for such a honorable
award."
Nathaniel Vanderhoof
"I want to thank the AWS National
Scholarship Committee for selecting me
for the Edward J. Brady Memorial
Scholarship. Mr. Brady has given me
inspiration as I continue my welding
education. His entrepreneurial spirit,
knowledge, perseverance, vision and
respect for welding and its community I
believe match that of my own. I hope by
continuing to support the AWS and
welding community I can inspire others
to follow in Mr. Brady's footsteps."
Shaun C. Ott
Florence-Darlington
Technical College Welding
I am honored to be one of the recipients
of the ESAB welding and cutting
scholarship. I want to thank Florence
Darlington tech for this opportunity and
their support. Thank you.
Conner Sarich
Welding Engineering
"I am deeply honored and grateful to be
selected as the Donald F. Hastings
Scholarship recipient. This scholarship
will allow me to continue my pursuit of a
degree in Welding Engineering from The
Ohio State University and fulfill my
professional goal of becoming a future
welding engineer. I would also like to
thank the American Welding Society for
their generous support of welding
students."
Myles Fimbinger
To be recognized as the recipient of the
2013-2014 Miller Electric Mfg. Co.
Scholarship is a distinct honor! I would like
to personally thank the American Welding
Society and all others involved within the
scholarship. The generous donations that the
American Welding Society provides each
year for students, is a major contribution to
not only myself, but many other students
continuing their education. The AWS
Foundation will help me continue my journey
towards becoming a Welding Engineer.
Thank you for the support given to myself,
and all others around the United States.
Travis Goetz
"Thank you AWS and Miller Electric for
helping financially support my education.
I appreciate all the support you have
shown me."
Philip Brown
"It is an honor and a blessing to be this
years recipient of the Past Presidents
Scholarship. I wish to thank the
American Welding Society Foundation
for their gracious gift as it will greatly
help me further my welding education.
This scholarship will assist me in
achieving my goal of becoming a
Welding Engineer. Thank you for all that
the American Welding Society has done
to benefit Welding students."
Joe Bassindale
Welding Engineering
It is truly an honor to receive the Robert Peaslee
Brazing Scholarship. I would like to thank the
Detroit Brazing and Soldering Division of the AWS
Detroit Section, the AWS Foundation, and the
Peaslee family for their generous assistance in my
studies towards the science of brazing. I am grateful
for this scholarship because it will assist me in
completing my graduate studies in welding
engineering. I would also like to extend my
sincerest appreciation for the welding engineering
faculty and staff at The Ohio State University. I
plan to continue my career in the welding industry,
specifically brazing, and hope to contribute fiscally
and informatively to the AWS organization and
welding community. Lastly, I hope to make a career
in brazing and progress the field as the late Robert
L. Peaslee has done. Thanks again!
Arsham Amirikian
Engineering Scholarship
Airgas Terry Jarvis
Memorial Scholarship
Airgas Jerry Baker
Scholarship
Howard E. and
Wilma J. Adkins
Edward J. Brady Memorial
Scholarship
William A. and Ann M.
Brothers Scholarship
ESAB Welding and Cutting
Scholarship
Donald F. Hastings
Scholarship
Miller Electric Mfg. Co.
Scholarship
Scholarship
Past Presidents Scholarship Robert L. Peaslee Brazing
Scholarship
The AWS Foundation is proud to announce its
2013-2014 National Scholarship Recipients
Joan Lee
Welding Engineering
"I am honored and privileged to be the
William A. and Ann M. Brothers scholarship
recipient for 2013. This award has a
tremendous impact on my career in that I am
able to continue my education for this year. I
am so grateful for the amazing support from
the generous donors and the American
Welding Society. Furthering my education
would not be possible without the generous
contributions of donors and the American
Welding Society. I look forward to gaining as
much experience as I can with the welding
community during my education."

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Jacob Marchal
Welding Engineering
"It is with great honor that I accept this
reward. Understanding that so much
progress is yet to be made in the world of
welding has driven my fellow classmates
and I to pursue a degree in welding
engineering at OSU. With this education,
we will better industry by optimizing the
use of the equipment and available
processes to keep US manufacturing
alive and profitable."
Matthew Schmitz
Welding Engineering
It is an honor to be selected for the Jack R.
Barckhoff Welding Management Scholarship
and I am thankful to everyone who has made
it possible. It is an incredible gift to receive
such a scholarship and I will make sure I get
the most out of my education. A gift such as
this helps me realize how blessed I am and I
will do my best to "pay it forward" everyday
as Woody Hayes always taught. I had the
honor of meeting Mr. Barckhoff this past
year as a student in his Total Welding
Management class at Ohio State. He donated
his time to teach us what he has spent his life
creating and a gift such as that is nothing less
than incredible!
Jason Rausch
Welding Engineering
"It is a great privilege to be the recipient
of the D. Fred and Marian L. Bovie
Scholarship this year. I am grateful to the
Bovie Family for their generous financial
assistance in my endeavor to become a
welding engineer. I am indebted to the
AWS for its multiple years of
contributions to my schooling at The
Ohio State University. I will aim to
further the welding industry as I begin
my career as a welding engineer this
coming year."
Benjamin Van Dyne
Zane State College
Applied Science Welding
It is truly an honor to receive the D. Fred
and Marian L. Bovie Technical
Scholarship. Thanks to this scholarship, I
can continue to further my education is
the welding field. Being able to pursue a
career in welding is a dream come true.
Thank you so much to the AWS and
everyone involved with the scholarship.
Preston Anderson
Welding Engineering
I am honored to be the recipient of the
Donald and Shirley Hastings
Scholarship. It is an honor to be
recognized as an honorable student by
such a prestigious organization. I am
thankful for this opportunity provided to
me as it will tremendously help me
become a successful Welding Engineer.
Cody Tohm
I would like to thank the AWS for the
William B. Howell Scholarship. I am
working hard to achieve my bachelors in
Welding Engineering Technologies from
Ferris State University. I look forward to
my futures as a lifelong AWS member
and the opportunity to help others as I am
being helped now.
Rex Alexandre
Welding Engineering
I am both honored and grateful to be
presented with this scholarship this year.
Without a doubt, it will enable me to
achieve my educational and professional
goals. I look forward to being able to pass
on this great favor in the future.
Gabriel Johnson
LeTourneau University
Materials Joining Engineering
Where fire and metal meet, youll find
me.
Samuel Luther
Welding Engineering
"It is with heartfelt thanks that I accept
the 2013-2014 Praxair International
Scholarship. Few things mean more to
me than the investment others are making
into my education, because without the
many donors out there, I would be
financially unable to study welding
engineering at Ohio State. One day I will
bring pride and honor to those who have
supported me thus far."
D. Fred and Marian L. Bovie
Technical Scholarship
Scholarship
Jack R. Barckhoff Welding
Management Scholarship
Jack R. Barckhoff Welding
Scholarship
William B. Howell Memorial
Scholarship
John C. Lincoln Memorial
Scholarship
Matsuo Bridge Company Ltd.
of Japan Scholarship
Bradley Williamson
"I am extremely grateful and honored to be a
recipient of the RWMA scholarship. I would
like to thank the Resistance Welder
Manufacturers Association for their
investment in my education to become a
welding engineer. I am also grateful to the
American Welding Society, and the staff of
the Welding Engineering Technology
Program at Ferris State University, for their
guidance and motivation. Thank you for the
support you have provided for myself and
other future welding engineers."
Lee Farrelly
I am honored to be the recipient for the
Victor Technologies Award for
Excellence in Welding and Cutting. I
would like to thank both the American
Welding Society and Victor Technologies
for providing me with such an honor. It is
encouraging to feel such great support as
I continue to further my education in the
Welding Industry. Thank you.
Evan OBrien
Welding Engineering
I am honored to receive the 2013-2014
Victor Technologies Cutting and Welding
Scholarship. Entering my fourth year at The
Ohio State University, I am excited and
looking forward to continuing my education
in Welding Engineering. I would like to thank
everyone who has made this possible and to
the American Welding Society for allowing
me to apply. My goal is to make good use of
this generous gift, working hard so that one
day I will be able to give back to the
profession.
RWMA Scholarship Victor Technologies Award
for Excellence in Cutting and Welding
Victor Technologies Cutting
and Welding Scholarship
Praxair International
Scholarship
www.aws.org
Each year, the American Welding Society Foundation provides scholarship funds to help hundreds
of students who otherwise would be unable to afford a welding education. We are the only industry
foundation with the specific mission of helping to fund the education of welding students.
In so doing, we create the careers that sustain and grow our industry.
We get these funds from your contributions. The more you contribute, the more students we can
help educate.
To make a scholarship contribution or to set up your own District, Section or National Named
Scholarship, contact Sam Gentry at the AWS Foundation. Call 800-443-9353, x331, or email to
sgentry@aws.org. Remember, for a short time, AWS is matching all funds donated to a new or existing
endowed scholarship!
Thank you
for your continued support.

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SEPTEMBER 2013 18
STAINLESS
Q&A
BY DAMIAN J. KOTECKI
Q: We are fabricating tubing for a waste
heat recovery system. The Alloy 253MA
stainless steel tubes will see 1900F peak
service temperatures. We are using
matching 253MA filler metals, both cov-
ered electrodes for shielded metal arc
(SMA) and solid wires for gas metal arc
(GMA) and gas tungsten arc (GTA) weld-
ing. We have encountered some centerline
cracking, primarily in the GMA deposits.
What is the cause and what can we do
about it?
A: Alloy 253MA is a relatively lean
austenitic stainless steel primarily chosen
for oxidation resistance at temperatures
up to 1090C (2000F) or higher. By com-
parison, the oxidation resistance of 304H
falls off badly above about 815C
(1500F). The improved oxidation resist-
ance of Alloy 253MA as compared to that
of 304H stems from slightly higher
chromium content, higher silicon content,
and the addition of a small amount of rare
Fig. 1 WRC-1992 diagram with compositions of Table 2.
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19 WELDING JOURNAL
earth alloy elements. The rare earth ele-
ment addition is primarily cerium, but
the rare earth addition to the melt is usu-
ally made in the form of mischmetal,
which is an alloy consisting of about
50% cerium, 25% lanthanum, and
lesser amounts of neodymium and
praseodymium. Only the cerium is part
of the base metal specification, however.
The alloy appears in various ASTM
specifications including A240, A276,
A312, A358, A409, A479, A813, and
A814, all under the UNS number
S30815. The compositions of UNS
S30815 and 304H are shown in Table 1.
The AWS specifications for stainless
steel welding filler metals do not include
a matching composition for Alloy
253MA nor does the ISO standard for
covered electrodes (ISO 3581), but the
ISO 14343:2009 standard for solid stain-
less steel filler metals does provide a
specification for a matching filler metal,
designated G 21 10 N for GMAW and W
21 10 N for GTAW. Table 1 includes the
composition ranges for this matching
filler metal. However, some suppliers of
Alloy 253MA do offer matching compo-
sition covered electrodes, although
cerium recovery is stated to be uncertain.
The solidification mode obtained with
these electrodes (and therefore the re-
sistance to solidification cracking) is a bit
uncertain. It is noteworthy that the 21 10
N composition in ISO 14343:2009 carries
with it a footnote e (also attached to sev-
eral other compositions) stating: The all-
weld metal is in most cases fully austenitic
and therefore can be susceptible to mi-
crofissuring or hot cracking. The occur-
rence of fissuring/cracking is reduced by
increasing the weld metal manganese level
and in recognition of this the manganese
range is extended for a number of grades.
But in the case of the 21 10 N compo-
sition, the manganese (Mn) content is
not increased, presumably because Mn is
detrimental to oxidation resistance at
high temperatures. This footnote offers
a clue to the centerline cracking you are
experiencing, as centerline cracking in
austenitic stainless steel welds is usually
solidification cracking when the alloy so-
lidifies either as 100% austenite (solidi-
fication Mode A), or as primary austen-
ite with eutectic ferrite (solidification
Mode AF).
The Sandvik online datasheet for its
matching filler metal claims a typical 6
Ferrite Number (FN) calculated by the
DeLong Diagram, while the Rolled Al-
loys online datasheet states 4 to 12 FN
without stating whether this is measured
or calculated by a constitution diagram. I
also note that the Rolled Alloys online
datasheet indicates some sensitivity to so-
lidification cracking in submerged arc
welding (SAW) but not in GTA, GMA, or
SMA welding.
You did not state the source of your
filler metal. If these stated FNs are rep-
resentative of the actual weld metal, then
one would expect that the weld metals
would solidify as primary ferrite (solidifi-
cation Mode FA) and therefore be resist-
ant to solidification cracking. However,
these FNs are at variance with the quoted
footnote from ISO 14343:2009, and the
indication of sensitivity to solidification
cracking in SAW in the Rolled Alloys on-
line datasheet.
At this point, I should note that the
DeLong Diagram is known to be in error
regarding the effect of silicon on the FN.
The DeLong Diagram considers silicon
to be a ferrite-promoting element, with a
coefficient of 1.5 in the chromium equiv-
alent. However, Kotecki (Ref. 1) found a
negligible effect on the FN of silicon over
the range of 0.34 to 1.38% in 308L-type
weld metal. Subsequently, the WRC-
1988 and WRC-1992 Diagrams dropped
silicon from the chromium equivalent be-
cause its effect on ferrite was found to be
statistically insignificant. Because the 21
10 N composition that matches Alloy
253MA is quite high in silicon, I would
expect that a FN calculation according to
the DeLong Diagram for that alloy would
yield a falsely high FN prediction.
Table 2 lists the typical weld metal
compositions from the Sandvik and
Rolled Alloys online datasheets, along
with calculated FNs for those typical
compositions using the WRC-1992 Dia-
gram. Table 2 shows that the typical com-
positions given in these datasheets do not
provide predicted FNs as high as the
datasheets state, but they also do not pro-
vide a prediction of 0 FN as Footnote e to
Table 1 in ISO 14343:2009 suggests.
It is instructive to plot the composi-
tions in Table 2 on the WRC-1992 Dia-
gram to see where they lie relative to the
solidification modes included in the Dia-
gram. This is done in Fig. 1. The WRC-
1992 Diagram indicates four solidifica-
tion modes, separated by three dashed
lines, two of which are not parallel to the
iso-ferrite lines. Above and to the left of
the dashed line that coincides with 0 FN,
the weld metal solidifies as 100% austen-
ite (solidification Mode A). Between the
SEPTEMBER 2013 20
Table 1 253MA Base Metals and 253MA Matching Filler Metal Compositions
Chemical Composition (wt-%) (single value is maximum)
Alloy
C Mn Si Cr Ni N Ce
0.05 to 0.8 1.4 to 20.0 to 10.0 to 0.14 to 0.03 to
253MA
0.10 2.0 22.0 12.0 0.20 0.08
0.04 to 2.00 0.75 18.0 to 8.0 to 0.10
304H
0.10 20.0 10.5
G 21 10 N or 0.06 to 0.3 to 1.0 to 20.5 to 9.5 to 0.10 to 0.03 to
W 21 10 N 0.09 1.0 2.0 22.5 11.0 0.20 0.08
Table 2 Typical 253MA Filler Metal Compositions from Online Datasheets
Typical Chemical Composition (wt-%)
Filler
Metal C Mn Si Cr Ni N Ce WRC-
1992 FN
Sandvik
Covered 0.06 0.8 1.5 22 10.5 0.18 3.3
Electrode
Sandvik
0.08 0.5 1.6 21 10 0.17 0.06 1.3
Bare Wire
Rolled
Alloys
0.08 0.7 1.5 22.0 10.5 0.18 2.0
Covered
Electrode
Rolled
Alloys Bare 0.07 0.7 1.6 21.0 10.0 0.15 2.5
Wire

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0 FN dashed line and the next dashed line
to the right, the weld metal solidifies as
austenite first with eutectic ferrite (solid-
ification Mode AF). Both of these two so-
lidification modes are often susceptible
to solidification cracking. Farther to the
right, between the second and third
dashed lines in Fig. 1, the weld metal so-
lidifies as ferrite first with eutectic
austenite (solidification Mode FA). The
FA solidification mode is most resistant
to solidification cracking. Finally, to the
right and below the third dashed line, the
weld metal solidifies as 100% ferrite (so-
lidification Mode F). All four of the typ-
ical compositions from the online
datasheets are predicted to solidify by so-
lidification mode AF, according to Fig. 1,
which would indicate sensitivity to solid-
ification cracking. I believe this is the ori-
gin of your centerline cracking problems.
There are several well-established
techniques for preventing solidification
cracking when solidification Mode A or
solidification Mode AF happens. These
include 1) adding excessive filler metal to
form convex beads; 2) using low welding
heat input and low interpass temperature
(150C (300F) max); and 3) overfilling
craters to produce a convex-shaped
crater.
I suggest you try these approaches to
eliminating solidification cracking.
Reference
1. Kotecki, D. J. 1986. Silicon effect on
stainless steel weld metal ferrite. IIW
document 11-C-779-86, Paris, France. In-
ternational Institute of Welding.
21 WELDING JOURNAL
DAMIAN J. KOTECKI is president,
Damian Kotecki Welding Consultants, Inc.
He is treasurer of the IIW and a member of
the A5D Subcommittee on Stainless Steel
Filler Metals, D1K Subcommittee on Stain-
less Steel Structural Welding; and WRC
Subcommittee on Welding Stainless Steels
and Nickel-Base Alloys. He is a past chair of
the A5 Committee on Filler Metals and Al-
lied Materials, and served as AWS president
(20052006). Send questions to damian@
damiankotecki.com, or Damian Kotecki,
c/o Welding Journal Dept., 8669 NW 36th
St. # 130, Miami, FL 33166-6672.
RWMA
Q&A
BY TYLER ALEXANDER
Q: Our automotive end user has asked
us to prove our resistance fastener weld-
ing process is capable because our push-
out values are fairly inconsistent. What
factors influence capability in resistance
projection welding?
A: A number of factors influence the final
result beyond the primary adjustable vari-
ables. Fundamentally, resistance welding
relies on precise control of current, force,
and time; however, by definition, resistive
heating is the reason for the formation of
the resistance weld. Many of the factors
that need to be considered when dis-
cussing capability in resistance projection
welding directly influence resistance in
the welding loop, and it is imperative that
variabilities in these factors are properly
identified and evaluated.
This response is not meant to address
all possible quality aspects that may deem
a fastener welding process inconsistent.
In discussing weld quality, there are more
factors to consider than only a fasteners
ability to withstand an applied load. Vi-
sual discontinuities, positional accuracy,
fastener set down, thread function, and
the presence or absence of weld buttons
all may factor into the final quality assess-
ment. Here we consider only the push-out
test. Furthermore, inconsistent push-out
values might result from an inconsistent
welding or inspection process, but we will
assume the inspection process is capable
and will only discuss inconsistencies in the
welding process.
While the AWS does not currently pub-
lish a document that specifically addresses
resistance projection welding quality,
AWS C1.4M/C1.4:2009, Specification for
Resistance Welding of Carbon and Low-
Alloy Steels, establishes welding equip-
ment requirements and welding proce-
dures used to produce resistance welds of
acceptable quality in coated and uncoated
carbon and low-alloy steels. Section 6.1
discusses validation of welding equipment
and procedures, and includes the mini-
mum parameters (essential variables) that
must be specified on the Welding Proce-
dure Specification as follows:
Metal composition and coating
Thickness range of metals
Total weld schedule
Metal cleaning and surface preparation
Electrode force range
Weld (travel) speed (primarily in roll
spot/roll seam welding)
Equipment and tooling
Weld location and quantity.
While this is a generic list meant to
apply to resistance welding in the broad
form, it highlights the fact that a number
of factors beyond the primary adjustable
variables exist and influence a resistance
weld. These factors need to be considered
and properly controlled to ensure process
capability. In dealing specifically with re-
sistance projection welding, the list of es-
sential variables from AWS C1.4 is too
generic and should be modified to include
material condition and fastener properties.
Metal Composition and Coating
In the automotive industry, many of
the original equipment manufacturers
specifications outline chemical require-
ments for a given grade of material. A per-
centage range is often provided for the
chemical composition and, if the chemi-
cal properties of the material fall within
that range, the material is considered ac-
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23 WELDING JOURNAL
ceptable. Falling within a range for chem-
ical compositions does not necessarily
guarantee consistency, only that the ma-
terial is held to a given designation.
Both workpiece material and fasteners
are manufactured in lots. Any variation in
chemical consistency, heat treat, quench,
or forming can potentially cause a differ-
ence in material properties. A difference
in process should be of special concern
when changing material suppliers. A sup-
plier may introduce a process that im-
proves manufacturing efficiency with lit-
tle consideration for its impact on weld-
ability. Resistive heating is generally influ-
enced by bulk material resistance, which
is affected by the materials electrical and
thermal conductivity. Any change in
process or chemical composition that in-
fluences these properties may impact the
heat developed in the weld.
Material coatings fall subject to much
of the same variability. Several different
methods can be used to apply coatings to
the base material and fastener. These may
introduce variability depending on the
coating material and application method
(e.g., hot dipped vs. electrogalvanized).
Coating thickness, composition, and finish
need to be considered and held constant.
Coating variability will influence resistance
at the interface, bulk material resistance,
and potential for contaminants at the in-
terface. Considerations for coating vari-
ability should not be restricted to only the
expected or intended coatings. Both the
fastener and the workpiece go through
manufacturing processes that can poten-
tially leave behind lubricants, scales, oils,
and other undesirable residues that may
harden or absorb undesired contaminants
from the environment, limiting conductiv-
ity and affecting consistency.
Thickness Range of Metals
Material thickness impacts bulk mate-
rial resistance and the heat developed dur-
ing welding. Change in material thickness
will modify the heat balance in the work-
piece. While the workpieces desired thick-
ness may remain constant over a products
life, the actual material being received
from the rolling mill supplier may not.
Bowing in the rolls may make the received
thickness dependent on where it is slit from
in the coil width. Rolls may change dimen-
sionally because of temperature cycles and
features in the stamped part may cause the
material to thin and vary in thickness.
Weld Schedule
The resistance weld control is another
influential variable frequently assumed to
be consistent over a products life. From
a weld consistency standpoint, it is impor-
tant the weld control be set up to deliver
the same current over the same amount
of time by the same means. Unmonitored
wear or changing conditions on the sec-
ondary, combined with fluctuations in
plant power associated with large equip-
ment draws or the robustness of the sup-
ply infrastructure, can influence a con-
trollers ability to perform as expected.
Metal Cleaning and Surface Preparation
Inconsistency in the presence and
amount of die oils, residue from stamp-
ing, and processing fluids have always
been a part of the resistance welding en-
vironment, but ideally, parts to be welded
are clean and contaminant free. Typically,
the application of the surface contaminant
is not formally controlled in amount or
method of application. While it may not
be entirely resistant to the flow of current,
there is certainly the potential that it will
absorb other contaminants from the en-
vironment that may influence contact re-
sistance and final weld quality.
Electrode Force Range
In resistance welding, the actuator is ex-
pected to control contact resistance at all
critical interfaces by providing the required
force as the current is passed. For projec-
tion welding, this means maintaining the
desired force follow-up as the projections
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collapse and avoiding impact loads on con-
tact. Insufficient follow-up will allow rapid
expansion of the molten material at the in-
terface, potentially to the point of uncon-
trolled expulsion and depleted weld qual-
ity. Impact loads may partially collapse the
projections or embed the projections into
the coating, and influence mechanical wear
in the actuator. Mechanical wear, unex-
pected leaks, and failure to adhere to the
manufacturers suggested operating win-
dow restrictions, can contribute to incon-
sistency in the delivered force.
Equipment and Tooling
Tooling can be simple or complex, but
regardless, it is responsible for complet-
ing the weld loop on the secondary side
of the transformer(s). When improperly
grounded/insulated, where there are loose
connections, or when electrodes have the
potential to make unexpected contact with
the part, the current may be offered pre-
ferred paths through the tooling, without
first passing through the projections. In
such situations, it becomes difficult to pre-
dict or control the amount of current that
passes through the alternate path. Beyond
the tooling design itself, inconsistencies
can result from poor or inadequate tool
maintenance. A piloted nut or a welding
stud allowed to drift in a stamping hole
may arc, thus providing a new and unex-
pected path to the part. In a similar way,
unmonitored electrodes that have been
allowed to wear excessively may no longer
support the stamping adequately and
force the current to find alternate paths.
Weld Location and Quantity
Whether through a tool or through a
part, current takes the path of least resist-
ance. In spot welding, shunt paths through
nearby spot welds are normally consid-
ered but, unfortunately, this is rarely a
consideration in projection welding appli-
cations. In scenarios where there are
nearby spot welds that create an easier
path through the material, certain projec-
tions may become preferential depending
on fastener orientation. Most applications
do not control the fastener/projection ori-
entation, so the preferred path will vary
as the orientation varies. Relative to weld
location, there is an additional concern
for AC systems, which are sensitive to the
amount of ferrous material in the equip-
ment throat. Ignoring the impact of im-
pedance on an AC system may create un-
warranted consistency concerns associ-
ated with the same fastener welded with
the same weld schedule at two different
points in the weld loop.
Material Condition
The presence of wrinkles on the stamp-
ing can impact the consistency of the pro-
jection weld, especially as stamping com-
plexity and material strength increase. As
industry replaces mild, low-carbon steel
with high- and ultrahigh-strength steels, it
is no longer reasonable to rely on the force
of the weld actuator to flatten the stamp-
ing in the weld location. If the stamping is
not completely flat in the weld area, there
is the potential for the fastener to make
inconsistent contact with the workpiece.
Burrs in the holes that locate the fas-
tener may also alter the contact area at
the weld interface. Depending on the
manufacturing process and condition of
the tools, burrs may occur. When left un-
addressed, they have the potential to cre-
ate alternate paths for the current, reduc-
ing flow through the projections.
Flaws in the surface finish are usually
less visually apparent than burrs, but im-
portant nevertheless. Surface roughness
(contact resistance) contributes the ma-
jority of the resistive heat to a resistance
weld, so it is important to monitor consis-
tency in this regard. The surface finishes
between electrode and fastener, fastener
and workpiece, and workpiece and elec-
trode, are critical.
Fastener Properties
To this point, the essential variables
discussed would be relevant to any resist-
ance welding process. Fastener projection
welding is unique because it uses a fas-
tener and projections to focus the current
delivery to the workpiece. Their integral
role in the quality of the final product
makes consistency in projection geome-
try (shape and height) critical. It is impor-
tant to evaluate a fasteners projection
height for consistency relative to other
projections on the same fastener, but also
fastener to fastener. If the material is kept
flat but the projection height varies, only
certain projections will make contact with
the material. As the number of projections
increases, sensitivity increases because the
potential to have more projections out of
contact with the material increases. When
projections do not make contact with the
workpiece, the contact area and current
density change during the weld.
Another key consideration is consis-
tency of the projection profile. Die wear
and consistency of the forming force af-
fect stamped and coined projections. In
the commonly applied three-projection
conical design, if two projections come to
a point and the third is flatter, the current
paths will differ from a fastener where all
projections consistently come to a point.
Choice of fastener manufacturing
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process can also influence consistency. In
general, there should be concern for ma-
chined or cast fasteners. The suppliers at-
tention to tooling wear, cleanliness, and ma-
terial choice affects the consistency of ma-
chined fasteners. An occasional burr can
introduce an alternate current path, heat
treatments may create an insulating scale,
and improved machining efficiency through
the use of easily machined material, like
leaded stock, may create issues with weld
solidification. Fasteners cast or manufac-
tured using powdered metallurgy tend to
have inconsistent composition, which re-
sults in current path inconsistencies.
Looking beyond the fastener in isola-
tion, the fasteners interaction with mat-
ing surfaces is also of concern. Variability
in the parallelism at the contact surface
between the head of the fastener and the
electrode creates variability in contact re-
sistance. This can affect current transfer
to the fastener and the amount of current
that flows through each projection. Simi-
larly, there should be consideration for
the amount of contact area between the
electrode and fastener. The surface of
every projection-welded fastener should
have a consistently flat and sufficiently
large area in place to allow for current
transfer from the electrode. Variability
will change the current density at the in-
terface between electrode and fastener.
Summary
Unfortunately, in the production world
there is not typically one individual or
group that controls and manages all es-
sential variables. The product user, com-
ponents supplier(s), and equipment man-
ufacturer all control different elements.
In most industries, the end user provides
specifications and tolerances, but it is im-
portant for equipment manufacturers to
understand how the tolerances were de-
veloped and whether projection welding
was considered in their development.
In resistance projection welding, the
most consistent push-out values occur
when base material is pulled on all projec-
tions such that the yield strength of the ma-
terial dictates the failure point. In the ab-
sence of pulling base material, a compari-
son of push-out values may not give an ac-
curate picture of machine consistency. Too
many essential variables that influence the
push-out value are beyond the equipment
manufacturers control. Equipment manu-
facturers may need to prove the equip-
ments capability by isolating and demon-
strating capability for only those essential
variables the equipment influences.
25 WELDING JOURNAL
TYLER ALEXANDER is the weld engineering
group supervisor for CenterLine (Windsor) Ltd.
He is a member of the AWS Detroit Section Ex-
ecutive Committee and serves on the AWS C1
Committee on Resistance Welding. He holds a
Bachelor of Applied Science degree in Mechan-
ical Engineering with a Welding Specialization
from the University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ont.,
Canada. This article would not have been pos-
sible were it not for the assistance from mem-
bers of the CenterLine (Windsor) team. Send
your comments/questions to tyler.alexan-
der@cntrline.com, or to Tyler Alexander, c/o
Welding Journal, 8669 NW 36 St., #130, Miami,
FL 33166.
Correction
In the Electrode Cooling section of the RWMA Q&A that ran on pages 16 and 17
of the July Welding Journal, the term gap was changed to root opening in error.
The correct sentence is as follows: The reason for this is that each test is a singular
condition among many possibilities and cannot account for the potential litany of
material combinations, gap or fitup concerns, general conditions of the tooling, or
other production variables. A correction has been made to the copy archived on the
AWS Web site at www.aws.org.
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The companys 13-poster set has re-
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Paying Attention to Safety and Health
SMAW Glove Features Insulated, Extended Cuff
The 1155 SMAW glove protects users forearms against sparks and spatter from heavy-
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29 WELDING JOURNAL
Welding; Oxyacetylene Welding; Welding Po-
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Hobart Institute of Welding Technology
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Earmuffs Give Protection
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The Peltor X series earmuffs provide
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An electrically insulated twin headband
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The company recently released a new
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SEPTEMBER 2013 34
P
eople often say aluminum is diffi-
cult to weld. This is not entirely ac-
curate since welding aluminum is
more different than difficult com-
pared to other materials they may be ac-
customed to welding. In the same way that
welding techniques and metallurgy may
be unique for aluminum, there are also
distinct safety concerns.
Safety is moving to the forefront of the
welding industry with more and more
companies promoting their impeccable
safety records and rewarding employees
for following safe practices both on the
job and at home. There are several areas
that should be addressed related to alu-
minum welding safety. These areas must
be accounted for to ensure a safe working
environment for both the employees and
visitors to an aluminum welding shop.
Hazards to consider include burns from
hot metal, electric shock, radiated light,
THOMAS PFALLER
(tpfaller@alcotec.com) is a technical
services engineer, AlcoTec Wire Corp.,
Traverse City, Mich.
The author outlines
some of the risks
associated with
welding aluminum
BY THOMAS PFALLER
Aluminum Welding
Safety Tips
Fig. 1 Appropriate use of flash curtains
help protect other welders and by-
standers. Also, note that the floor is free
of aluminum dust and chips.
35 WELDING JOURNAL
noise, fume emissions, cleaning liquids,
and explosions.
Hot Metal Burns
The first and most notable item to con-
sider when welding aluminum is that it
does not change in appearance when it is
heated. Compared to steel, this makes it
much more difficult to distinguish the cold
material from the very hot material. An-
other item to consider is that aluminum
has lower thermal emissivity than steel.
This makes it more difficult to detect ra-
diating heat from hot aluminum.
Conversely, aluminum has approxi-
mately five times the thermal conductiv-
ity of steel. This means the edges of a steel
weldment may be cool enough to touch,
but on a comparable aluminum assembly,
the areas away from the weld may be hot
enough to cause severe burns. After weld-
ing, one should always mark unattended
material as hot to ensure that someone
does not accidentally touch a recently
completed weldment.
A safe practice for aluminum welding
shops would be for people to wear leather
gloves when entering areas where weld-
ing commonly occurs to reduce the likeli-
hood of them getting burned.
Electrical Shock
As with welding other types of materi-
als, there is the risk of electrical shock
when arc welding aluminum. For alu-
minum, there are risks that are somewhat
unique compared to arc welding of other
materials. When gas tungsten arc welding
(GTAW) steel, the welds are usually initi-
ated by using a scratch-start technique or
a high-frequency arc starting option. Once
the arc is initiated, the high-frequency op-
tion is turned off. When GTA welding alu-
minum, there are some welding machines
that require the high-frequency option to
remain active throughout the length of the
weld. This is because a common polarity
setting for GTAW aluminum is alternat-
ing current (AC). The continuous high-
frequency feature assists to increase the
robustness of the welding arc, which can
be unstable when welding in alternating
current. The instability in the arc occurs
when the current switches from positive
to negative. This can be a hazard since the
high-frequency option makes it easier
for the welding current to bridge gaps in
an effort to close the welding circuit.
When utilizing the high-frequency op-
tion with GTAW, caution should be used
to ensure the welding system is well insu-
lated from the operator and any other
electronic devices. Proper grounding of
the welding machine and the workpiece
at the point of use will also help protect
against possible high-frequency electrical
shock or damage. Keep in mind that even
a small amount of sweat can result in a
loss of insulation and a painful shock. Al-
though many welders become conditioned
to the dangers associated with electricity,
they should be reminded to never take it
for granted.
Radiated Light
Radiated light is an important hazard
since it causes some of the more common
injuries in welding. Arc welding produces
three types of light: ultraviolet, visible, and
infrared. Ultraviolet light the light that
causes sunburn is invisible to the
human eye. Visible light falls into the
wavelength spectrum that is detectable by
the human eye. Although capable of caus-
ing blindness, exposure to visible light is
relatively easy to detect and avoid. In-
frared light, although invisible to the eye,
is of little concern be-
cause of a humans abil-
ity to feel its warming
effect. Due to its high
reflectivity compared
to steel, aluminum re-
quires extra caution to
avoid light-related in-
juries to both welders
and bystanders. Light-
blocking curtains are a
great way to protect
those who may not be dressed for weld-
ing Fig. 1.
Ultraviolet light is particularly danger-
ous since it is invisible to the human eye
and exposure often goes unnoticed until
it is too late. Skin burned by ultraviolet
light may seem like a temporary incon-
venience, but over time, it can lead to
more serious health issues such as
melanoma. Long sleeves and pants are a
must for manual welding operations.
However, it should be noted that some
long sleeve shirts may not be sufficient.
Often when welding aluminum, the emit-
ted light can be intense enough to cause
burning through a shirt. Also, depending
on the situation, a full cloth or leather
hood may be needed to protect the back
of the operators head and neck Fig. 2.
An example of this would be when weld-
ing inside an aluminum tank trailer or
dump box. This situation can result in the
light from welding being reflected off the
aluminum behind the welder and burning
the back of his or her neck.
A common mistake that welders often
make is not wearing a glove on the hand
manipulating the filler rod during GTAW.
The intensity and proximity of the arc to
the welders hand makes this situation
particularly dangerous. Again, skin burns
may seem minor, but over years of weld-
ing or being around welding they can re-
sult in more serious medical issues.
Often skin burns go unnoticed in the
shadow of eye-related light injuries. Be-
cause of the reflectivity of aluminum and
the inability of the human eye to detect
ultraviolet light, there is considerable dan-
ger for such injuries. Commonly referred
to as arc flash or welders flash, this is the
equivalent of getting sunburn on ones
eyes. Arc flash can be suffered not only by
the welder but someone who is nearby and
the unsuspecting victim of light reflection.
Since the human eye is one of the most
delicate and sensitive parts of the body,
this type of injury tends to be very painful.
Because of the reflectivity of aluminum
and the use of relatively high welding cur-
rents, extra care should be taken to en-
sure light is not reflecting off walls or fab-
ricated assemblies. Therefore, even if
someone is not welding but is in an area
where welding is taking place, he/she
should wear polycarbonate safety glasses
that will block the majority of the ultravi-
Fig. 2 A full leather hood protects the welder from ultraviolet
light reflection and subsequent burning.
SEPTEMBER 2013 36
olet light rays produced by welding. The
common designator for these types of
safety glasses is ANSI Z87. It is important
to note that because polycarbonate safety
lenses reflect ultraviolet rays, one should
be aware that if the light from welding en-
ters the side, bottom, or rear of the glasses,
it could be reflected back into the wearers
eyes. When welding in confined aluminum
structures, a full cloth hood may be nec-
essary to prevent light from reflecting and
entering the welders helmet or safety
glasses from the rear.
When welding or observing a weld, it
is important to wear a welding helmet with
the appropriate shade lens. There are sev-
eral factors that determine what lens
shade to use, including welding process,
amperage, and personal preference.
Because of the high welding currents
and reflectivity of aluminum, a darker
shade than that used for welding steel is
often required. The purpose of shaded
lenses is to filter the visible light produced
during arc welding as opposed to just the
ultraviolet light. Visible light can cause
temporary visual anomalies often de-
scribed as seeing spots. This sensation
is the result of the shaded lens being too
light. If the lens shade is too dark, it can
result in eye strain that can cause
headaches. Depending on the welders
personal preference and welding applica-
tion, a lens may range from a #10 shade
all the way up to a #14. A table with lens
shade requirements may be found in the
latest edition of ANSI Z49.1 (available as
a free download from www.aws.org).
Eyesight is one sense a welder cannot
work without, making the protection of it
one of the highest priorities for an indi-
vidual, a company, and an industry.
Noise
Hearing loss and general fatigue can
result from the effects of noise in almost
any manufacturing shop. Although not
typically thought of as the result of alu-
minum welding or welding in general,
noise can often result from welding or op-
erations related to welding. One source
Fig. 3 A The welder is shown wear-
ing appropriate personal protective
equipment but his head is in the welding
fume cloud; B the welder has carefully
positioned the exhaust hood to keep his
head out of the fumes.
A
B
of noise can indeed be the welding process
itself. For example, some machines can be
quite loud during AC GTAW. Cutting and
preparing aluminum for welding can also
result in a significant amount of noise.
These operations may range from cutting
and grinding to vacuums and hammers.
Noise levels should be evaluated on a
regular basis. This will help ensure that if
the intensity of the noise is at dangerous
levels, necessary precautions can be taken
to safeguard against hearing loss. Al-
though hearing loss is a definite concern,
elevated noise levels in a shop can also re-
sult in fatigued employees. Fatigue can re-
sult in at-risk behavior and injuries in
other areas of the job site.
Fume Emissions:
Smoke and Gases
When aluminum is welded, some of the
metal is vaporized into smoke. Depend-
ing on the aluminum alloy being welded,
there may be alloying elements that be-
come harmful when they are vaporized
into the air. Although similar concerns
exist when welding other materials, there
are some examples that apply specifically
to aluminum. In alloys such as the 7XXX
series that are alloyed with zinc, there is
the risk of sickness related to zinc. Al-
though the percentage of zinc tends to be
relatively low, ventilation should still be
used to protect welding personnel. Some
form of ventilation should always be used
when welding on aluminum that is alloyed
with potentially harmful elements. Also,
both the base and the filler material
should be checked to ensure they do not
exceed the upper limits of poisonous ele-
ments. For example, the limit of 0.0003%
beryllium should not be exceeded in any
aluminum subjected to welding. Beryllium
can be vaporized into a deadly gas if it is
exposed to welding.
The easy answer for most discussions
related to fume emissions is to utilize care-
fully positioned ventilation ductwork to
evacuate the fumes. However, for many
small shops or hobby welders, this is
often impractical or economically difficult
to make a reality. In these situations, op-
erators can implement simple behavior
practices. Although it seems elementary,
keeping ones head out of the smoke pro-
duced by the welding process is important
Fig. 3. This helps keep the particulate
and gas aggregate from being directly in-
haled by the welding operator. Following
such a practice is precautionary for
welders but should never be considered a
replacement for appropriate ventilation.
Cleaning Liquids
Porosity in aluminum welds is caused
by the solidifying weld material rejecting
dissolved hydrogen. As the hydrogen is re-
jected, it gathers in bubbles that may or
may not escape the weld before it is com-
pletely solidified. In an effort to limit the
amount of dissolved hydrogen in a weld,
the common practice is to preclean the
aluminum parts. Cleaners can range from
simple dish soap to industrial degreasers
or etching acids. Each of these methods
carries with it special considerations. Al-
though not commonly used, dish soap has
the least amount of safety-related con-
cerns. Some industrial degreasers, on the
other hand, contain trichloroethylene or
chlorinated hydrocarbons that, when ex-
posed to the ultraviolet light from weld-
ing, can decompose into very toxic gases.
It is essential to verify the ingredients of
chemicals prior to using them in areas
where welding is taking place.
When utilizing acids to clean the alu-
minum and remove the aluminum oxide
layer, there are other considerations.
Namely, those individuals applying the
acid should be equipped with appropriate
personal protective equipment. Consid-
erations should also be made for the
proper disposal procedure that is required
for the acid after usage.
Ultimately, all manufacturers recom-
mended handling practices must be fol-
lowed. This information can be found in
the Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS).
Explosions
Although relatively rare, explosions re-
lating to aluminum welding are a concern
because of their potential severity. When
work is being performed with aluminum
alloys such as 5356, 5183, or 5556 that con-
tain high levels of magnesium, the dust
from machining or grinding should regu-
larly be collected to prevent dust explo-
sions. In spite of the relative scarcity of
such an event, precautions should be con-
sidered since even a small explosion can
cause serious harm.
Miscellaneous
Although not exclusive to aluminum
welding, there are a few more safety items
that are worth noting. When handling cut
base material, care should be taken to en-
sure the edges are rounded or that cut-
resistant gloves are worn to protect a
welders hands. This is particularly impor-
tant because many industrial injuries are
hand related. Care should also be taken
to ensure that metal dust and chips are
cleaned up from any cutting, milling, or
grinding that may have taken place before
or after welding. Basic housekeeping will
help prevent slip and trip hazards.
As with other types of welding, care
should always be taken when handling
compressed shielding gas cylinders. Pro-
tective caps should be kept on the cylin-
ders when they are not in use. The cylin-
ders should also be attached to a fixed ob-
ject to prevent them from tipping.
Another item to consider involves
tungsten arc welding electrodes. Thorium
alloyed tungsten electrodes are not typi-
cally used to weld aluminum because of
their poor performance welding in alter-
nating current; however, if thoriated tung-
stens are used, care should be taken to en-
sure good ventilation is in place or respi-
rators are used to limit potential dust in-
halation hazards for welders. This stems
from the fact that thorium, an alloying
element that improves the tungstens
current-carrying ability, has radioactive
properties.
Conclusion
In addition to the safety concerns
brought about by welding, aluminum
welding requires specific considerations.
Like the unique aspects of the aluminum
welding process, the safety issues need to
be understood by those welding and those
who work in the area where aluminum
welding takes place.
Safety in the industrial sector will con-
tinue to play an important role as compa-
nies focus efforts on keeping safety
records spotless. Not only do employees
need a safe working environment, but
companies benefit in the long run from
reduced insurance costs and increased
employee longevity. It is important to not
only implement safe practices within weld-
ing areas, but a culture should be culti-
vated in which safe practices are pro-
moted. This culture must be stimulated
from the top of an organization down. If
managers do not take safety seriously,
a safe culture will never be successfully
implemented.
By ensuring that employees have a safe
work environment and perform safely on
the job, companies encourage a mindset
that promotes safety outside the work-
place. This can limit lost time injuries that
might occur on the employees personal
time that could potentially impact produc-
tion rates. Ultimately, there is no product
or project that is worth the death or in-
jury of an employee or bystander.
37 WELDING JOURNAL
SEPTEMBER 2013 38
F
umes generated by the welding
process may be inhaled by welders
and others in the area. The fumes
may contain a number of metallic ele-
ments, including insoluble chromium VI,
iron oxide, manganese, soluble nickel, and
zinc oxide. The Mine Safety and Health
Administration (MSHA) periodically
samples the welding fume components or
individual metals considered as health
hazards at mining operations. However,
it does not regulate the total amount of
welding fume generated, which is meas-
ured in weight per volume (mg/m
3
).
Table 1 summarizes the permissible ex-
posure limits (PELs) for the 16 metals reg-
ulated by MSHA, which differ slightly
from the National Institute for Occupa-
tional Safety and Health (NIOSH) rec-
ommended exposure limits (RELs). As
guidelines, NIOSH has published weld-
ing fume emission limits that are interna-
tionally accepted. In the United States,
the Occupational Safety & Health Ad-
ministration (OSHA) and the American
Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists (ACGIH) have collaborated
to set the PEL and the threshold limit val-
ues (TLVs) for certain elements in weld-
ing fumes. For example, a PEL of 5 mg/m
3
for manganese has been set as an average
for workplace air during an 8-h workday,
40-h work week (Ref. 1).
Earlier Studies on
Fume-Formation Rates
In the 1970s, Heile and Hill (Ref. 2)
measured fume-formation rates (FFRs)
from gas tungsten arc (GTA), shielded
metal arc (SMA), gas metal arc (GMA),
and flux cored arc welding (FCAW), and
correlated the FFRs with voltage, current,
welding travel speed, and plate thickness.
The composition and particle size distri-
bution of the fume was also studied. Using
Evaluating SMAW
Electrode Fume
Formation Rates
K. SHAM (ksham@mymail.mines.edu)
and S. LIU are with the Center for
Welding, Joining, and Coatings
Research, Department of Metallurgical
& Materials Engineering, Colorado
School of Mines, Golden, Colo.
Four shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
consumables commonly used in the mining
industry were evaluated for factors
affecting fume formation
BY K. SHAM AND S. LIU
Fig. 1 Fume chamber shown with main
door open. The dimensions are base di-
ameter 24 in., top diameter 12 in., height
24 in.
Fig. 2 Closer view of the gravity weld-
ing setup inside the main chamber.
39 WELDING JOURNAL
high-speed video, Kobayashi et al. (Ref.
3) observed the formation of welding
fume at the tip of the electrode generated
by the vaporization of the molten metal.
Gray et al. (Ref. 4) observed FFR to
be a function of oxygen potential in the
shielding gas but reported that the exter-
nal atmospheric oxygen potential seemed
to have a greater effect on FFR. The in-
crease in FFR was also attributed to the
combustion of spatters. Higher oxygen po-
tential in the atmosphere caused more
combustion of spatters resulting in more
fume.
Block-Bolten and Eagar (Ref. 5) de-
termined that chromium vapors in
GMAW fume were approximately a mag-
nitude lower than the manganese vapors
for most steels. The manganese/iron con-
centration ratios showed strong correla-
tions to the weld pool composition and
temperature.
In 1981, Johansson et al. (Ref. 6) char-
acterized several welding methods and
concluded for SMAW that at the manu-
facturer-recommended voltages, only
minor variations in fume elemental com-
position occurred when the current was
changed. Due to the changes in arc length
and arc characteristics, welding voltage
and current mode (AC/DC) had a distinct
impact on the elemental composition of
the fume (Ref. 7). The FFR was primarily
determined by welding current and to a
lesser extent also voltage. Gray, Hewitt,
and Dare (Ref. 8) furthered this study,
which concluded that welding fume re-
sulted from 1) evaporation from the tip
of the electrode or from the droplet, 2)
evaporation from the cathode or anode
spot, 3) explosive evaporation of con-
stricted neck during droplet separation,
4) extremely small metal droplets ejected
by wire explosion, 5) ejected droplets and
spatter, and 6) evaporation from the weld
pool and molten weld bead. The transfer
mode, shielding gas composition, and
voltage affected FFR the most.
Kobayashi et al. (Ref. 9) reported that
fume collected from SMAW electrodes
contained more flux material since the arc
contacts the flux coating and slag during
welding. Fume was found to mainly origi-
nate from the high-temperature metal
vapor of the arc.
Quimby and Ulrich (Ref. 10) also stud-
ied fume formation in FCAW. Liberati,
Raoult, and Liu along with various other
researchers (Refs. 1114) investigated the
relationship between fume formation rate
and welding parameters. Some of their
results showed that by optimizing welding
parameters, e.g., voltage, FFR can be
minimized.
Experimental Procedures
The fume chamber used for this part
of the experiments conformed to AWS
F1.2:2006, Laboratory Method for Measur-
ing Fume Generation Rate and Total Fume
Emissions of Welding and Allied Processes
(Ref. 15). Its two main features are the
welding chamber and an exhaust system
powered by a 1.25-hp motor mounted on
top with several O-ring seals Fig. 1. In-
sulation in the form of a skirt was added
to the base of the main chamber to achieve
a uniform flow rate of 2535 ft
3
/min.
Figure 2 shows the gravity welding
setup located inside the fume chamber
that automatically fed the covered elec-
trodes and deposited the welds. A survey
of several mines in the United States de-
termined that SMA is the most-used weld-
ing process using AWS Type E7018,
E8018, E11018, and EFeCr-A1 electrodes
(Ref. 16). These electrodes were tested in
two diameters,
1
8 and
5
32 in., using a Ho-
bart Cyber TIG Series 300 welding ma-
chine. Following AWS standards, a What-
man G54, cellulosic grade, filter paper
was used for fume collection.
Using
5
32-in. EFeCr-A1 electrodes con-
taining the highest alloying contents,
which are expected to produce the most
fumes, initial runs were conducted to de-
termine the duration of extraction time
(arc time and air pump time) that would
collect most of the welding fumes. It was
determined that 5 min of fume extraction
time would be sufficient for 1 min of weld-
ing time since there were only minor fluc-
tuations in FFR after 5 min Fig. 3. For
each electrode diameter, tests were con-
ducted at three ranges of currents: the av-
erage current recommended by the man-
ufacturer; 10% below the average current;
and 10% above the average current.
Results and Discussion
The FFR and volumetric fume-forma-
tion rate (VFFR) for each of the welding
Fig. 3 Fume formation rate vs. collection time showing how
readings stabilized after 5 min.
Fig. 4 Fume formation rate vs. welding current (A) for E7018
electrodes.
SEPTEMBER 2013 40
electrodes and the diameters chosen were
determined. The coating ratio, defined as
the total flux coating thickness divided by
the core rod diameter, was determined to
verify its effects on FFR and VFFR. The
amount of weld deposit for each of the
welds was also measured to determine its
influence on FFR and VFFR.
The coating ratio for each of the eight
electrodes was determined using calipers.
As shown in Table 2, the
1
8-in. electrodes
have a larger coating ratio than the
5
32-in.
ones for the three carbon-steel electrodes.
The EFeCr-A1 electrodes exhibited simi-
lar coating ratios, independent of the elec-
trode diameters. Also shown is the nomi-
nal manganese content in the weld metal
for each electrode (as reported by the
manufacturers), with 7018 as the lowest
and EFeCr-A1 the highest.
To investigate the FFR behavior of
each electrode with regard to welding pa-
rameter, several plots were constructed.
Figure 4 summarizes the FFR data from
the E7018 electrodes. As the welding cur-
rent increased, the amount of fume emit-
ted also increased. Using the recom-
mended welding current, the
1
8-in. elec-
trode produced ~0.2 g/min of fume and
the
5
32-in. electrode ~0.3 g/min. Using a
welding current 10% below the recom-
mended value, the amount of fume emit-
ted was less. Welds made using the higher
welding current, i.e., 10% above average,
produced proportionately higher amounts
of fume. This finding indicates that fume
formation is dependent on the initial elec-
trode size, both core rod diameter and the
flux coating thickness, and the welding
current. Using a higher welding current,
in an attempt to increase productivity, will
increase the FFR.
The fume emission behavior of E11018
electrodes was similar to that of the E7018
ones. That is, the smaller-diameter elec-
trodes resulted in lower FFR that in-
creased with increasing current, but the
larger-diameter electrodes had a much
higher FFR, which also followed an in-
creasing trend with increasing current.
E7018 and E11018 released similar
amounts of fume, ~0.2 g/min for
1
8-in. and
~0.3 g/min for
5
32-in. electrodes.
The E8018 electrodes displayed the
same overall increasing fume-generation
trend with increasing current for both di-
ameters, but both sizes produced similar
levels of fume. For the
1
8-in.-diameter
E8018, the average FFR of 0.25 g/min is
higher than the other two grades. The
5
32-
in. E8018 electrodes emitted ~0.1 g/min
less fume than the other two grades of sim-
ilar diameter. The coating ratio for the
5
32-
in. E8018 electrodes averaged to 0.60 and
much lower than the
5
32-in. E7018 and
E11018 electrodes. These results indicate
that flux coating played a significant role
in fume emission during welding. Thicker
flux coating will produce greater amounts
of welding fume.
As expected, the EFeCr-A1 electrodes
produced the largest amount of fume
amongst the four electrodes, ~ 0.4 and
0.55 g/min for the
1
8-in. and
5
32-in. elec-
trodes, respectively. The
1
8-in. electrodes
exhibited the same increasing trend in
FFR with current, but the
5
32-in. electrodes
showed a fairly constant FFR with in-
creasing current.
Typically, as welding current increases
heat input increases and therefore, the
weld deposition rate increases. The high-
Table 1 Welding Fume Exposure Limits
NIOSH OSHA MSHA
(RELs) (PELs) (PELs)
Metal (mg/m
3
) (mg/m
3
) (mg/m
3
)
Aluminum oxide 10 15 10
Arsenic 0.002 0.01 0.5
Beryllium 0.0005 0.002 0.002
Cadmium 0.005 0.1
Chromium 0.5 1.0 0.5
Cobalt 0.05 0.1 0.1
Copper 0.1 0.1 0.1
Iron oxide 5 10 10
Lead 0.05 0.05 0.15
Magnesium oxide 10 15 10
Manganese 1 5 5
Molybdenum 10 15 10
Nickel 0.015 1 0.001
Titanium dioxide 15 10
Vanadium 0.05 0.5 0.5
Zinc oxide 5 5 5
Table 2 Coating Ratio and Nominal Weld Metal Manganese Content
Electrode Type Coating Ratio Nominal Weld Metal
Mn Content (wt-%)
E7018-
1
8 0.83 0.67
E7018-
5
32 0.73 0.67
E8018-
1
8 0.79 1.10
E8018-
5
32 0.60 1.10
E11018-
1
8 0.71 1.62
E11018-
5
32 0.67 1.62
EFeCr-A1-
1
8 1.05 1214
EFeCr-A1-
5
32 1.09 1214
Table 3 Welding Fume Formation Rate (FFR) Data for Electrodes in This Study
Electrode FFR Volumetric FFR FFR per Coating
Type (g/min) (g/m
3
) 8-h Shift Ratio
(g/8 h)
E7018-
1
8 0.18 6.4 87.2 0.37
E7018-
5
32 0.31 10.8 147.2 0.41
E8018-
1
8 0.25 8.7 118.5 0.30
E8018-
5
32 0.24 8.3 113.3 0.39
E11018-
1
8 0.20 6.9 93.7 0.34
E11018-
5
32 0.34 12.0 162.6 0.36
EFeCr-A1-
1
8 0.44 15.6 211.9 0.53
EFeCr-A1-
5
32 0.55 19.3 262.7 0.55
est weld depositions were observed with
the E11018, E7018, and E8018
5
32-in. elec-
trodes. The weld deposition for EFeCr-
A1 electrodes was toward the lower end
of the spectrum for weld deposition rate
as a function of welding current and yet it
had the highest FFRs of all the SMAW
consumables evaluated. Again, this find-
ing supports the theory that flux coating
plays a strong role in fume emission in cov-
ered electrodes.
Examining the core rod diameter and
flux coating thickness, the effects of these
two variables on FFRs can be estimated.
Despite the increasing FFRs with increas-
ing electrode diameter, the core rod di-
ameter remained constant for all four
types of electrodes, thus it can be con-
cluded that the increase in fume must have
originated from the flux coating. How-
ever, since a major advantage of SMAW
electrodes is alloying via the flux coating,
greater amounts of alloying element can
be achieved by thicker electrode cover-
ings. Thus, the selection of an electrode
for alloying content and high deposition
rate must also take into consideration its
FFR.
For the carbon-steel electrodes, the in-
crease of nominal manganese content
from 0.6 to 1.6 wt-% did not result in large
changes in FFRs. Comparing the four
electrodes, the highest FFRs resulted
from the EFeCr-A1 electrodes that con-
tain the highest manganese content, rang-
ing between 12 and 14 wt-%.
The FFR per deposit was also analyzed
to determine whether any other factors
could have affected the formation of the
fumes. For the E7018 electrodes, the FFR
per deposit increased with increasing cur-
rent, but by expressing FFR as a normal-
ized value, the effect of electrode diame-
ter disappeared. The E11018 electrodes
showed an overall slightly higher FFR per
deposit for the thicker electrode. The
E8018 electrodes displayed a lower FFR
per deposit for the thicker electrode than
the thinner electrode. The thicker EFeCr-
A1 electrodes showed a decreasing FFR
per deposit with increasing current. The
size of the deposits appears to have ex-
erted a stronger than usual effect in the
E8018 and EFeCr-A1 electrodes. It is,
however, unclear why the different behav-
iors were observed. The limited experi-
mental matrix in this research program
was not able to clarify these effects.
The FFR can also be expressed as
VFFR using the following equation.
VFFR(g/m
3
) = FFR (g/min) 1/air-pump
flow rate (ft
3
/min) 1/2.832 10
2
(m
3
/ft
3
)
Table 3 shows the FFRs for all the elec-
trodes tested along with the VFFRs, FFRs
per 8-h shift, and the flux coating ratios.
The FFRs per 8-h shift are ~100 g more
for both the EFeCr-A1 electrodes with re-
spect to the three carbon-steel electrode
counterparts. For the carbon-steel elec-
trodes, the values ranged from 87.2 to
162.6 g/8 h, whereas the EFeCr-A1 elec-
trodes ranged from 211.9 to 262.7 g/8 h.
Note that these experiments were con-
ducted in a fume chamber that attempted
to collect all fume generated during the
welding process. Thus, it is important to
further analyze the EFeCr-A1 electrodes
since they are widely used in the mining
industry for hardfacing surfaces, often in
closed and confined spaces.
Conclusions
The major findings of this study are
summarized below.
The FFR increased with increasing
current for all four consumables studied.
For electrodes E7018 and E11018, the
FFR showed greater dependency on the
initial electrode size, both core rod diam-
eter and the flux coating thickness. For
the unalloyed electrodes, more specifi-
cally E7018 and E11018, weld deposit size
appeared to affect FFR, increasing the
amount of fume with larger deposit. This
relationship was not observed for the
E8018 and the higher-alloyed EFeCr-A1
electrodes.
An increase in coating ratio caused an
increase in FFR, likely due to the greater
amount of alloying elements such as man-
ganese in the flux coating.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge
Doug Scott of the National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health, Spokane
Research Laboratory, for his interest and
support of part of this work, and the Col-
orado School of Mines Environmental,
Health and Safety Department staff for
their guidance on fume analysis.
References
1. U.S. Occupational Safety and
Health Administration, Dec. 2005,
www.osha.org.
2. Heile, R. F., and Hill, D. C. 1975.
Particulate fume generation in arc weld-
ing processes. Welding Journal 54(7): 201-
s to 210-s.
3. Kobayashi, M., Maki, S., Hashimoto,
Y., and Suga, T. 1978. Some considera-
tions about fume formation mechanism
of welding fumes. Welding in the World 16
(11-12): 238249.
4. Gray, C. N., Hewitt, P. J., and Hicks,
R. 1980. The prediction of fume compo-
sitions in stainless steel metal inert gas
welding. The Welding Institute, Abington
Hall, Cambridge, UK. Vol. 1: 197203.
5. Block-Bolten, A., and Eagar, T. W.
1981. Selective evaporation of metals
from weld pools. Trends in Welding Re-
search in the United States. pp. 5373. ASM
International, Metals Park, Ohio.
6. Johansson, G. E., et al. 1981. Char-
acteristics of welding fume. Report
LUTFD2TFKF-3030, Institutionen fur
Karnfysik, Lunds Tekniska Hogskola,
Sweden.
7. Kobayashi, M., and Suga, T. 1981.
Measurements of arc temperature in cov-
ered arc welding. Kobe Steel Technical Re-
port 31(3): 7680.
8. Gray, C. N., Hewitt, P. J., and Dare,
P. R. M. 1982. New approach would help
control welding fumes at source (MIG and
MMA). Part two: MIG fumes. Welding and
Metal Fabrication: 393397.
9. Kobayashi, M., Maki, S., Hashimoto,
Y., and Suga, T. 1983. Investigation on
chemical composition of welding fumes.
Welding Journal 62(7): 190-s to 196-s.
10. Quimby, B. J., and Ulrich, G. D.
1999. Fume formation rates in gas metal
arc welding. Welding Journal 78(4): 142-s
to 149-s.
11. Liberati, G., Raoult, P., and Liu, S.
2007. Investigation into welding fume for-
mation in FCAW under CO
2
. Technical
Journal of Oerlikon Welding and Cutting
Expertise: 2533.
12. Leuduey, B., Galand, E., Baune,
E., and Bonnet, C. 2007. Improvement of
the welders environment through con-
sumable product development. Technical
Journal of Oerlikon Welding and Cutting
Expertise: 515.
13. Marconi, M., and Bravaccini, A.
2008. Capture efficiency of integral fume
extraction torches for GMA welding. IIW
Commission VII Health, Safety, and
Environment, Doc. VII: 20762080.
14. Liberati, G. 2002. Investigation on
fume generation in 100% CO
2
shielded
flux-cored arc welding on low-carbon
steels. MS dissertation. Colorado School
of Mines.
15. F1.2:2006, Laboratory Method for
Measuring Fume Generation Rate and Total
Fume Emissions of Welding and Allied
Processes. American Welding Society,
Miami, Fla.
16. Private communications with Doug
Scott, National Institute of Occupational,
Safety, and Health (NIOSH).
41 WELDING JOURNAL 41
SEPTEMBER 2013 42
S
afety on the job site is nonnego-
tiable, regardless of whether its a
general construction application,
pipeline welding, or a complex process
pipe system project. In addition to edu-
cating employees about safety standards
and implementing the use of personal
protection equipment (PPE), remote
control welding technologies have be-
come an increasingly viable means to cre-
ating a safer job site environment. In
many cases, this technology can signifi-
cantly reduce the opportunity for trips
and falls.
Because many job sites are expansive,
the welding may actually take place hun-
dreds of feet from the power source
Fig. 1. Remote control welding technolo-
gies offer welding operators the ability
to make critical process changes and pa-
rameter adjustments at the weld joint vs.
at the power source, thereby eliminating
the need to navigate cluttered job sites
and risk potential injury. Over the years,
these technologies have also evolved to
eliminate additional cords and control
cables and, in some cases, to allow weld-
Remote control welding technologies offer
innovative ways to improve job site safety
BY JOE RYAN
Fig. 1 Many job sites are expansive with the
welding actually taking place hundreds of feet
from the power source. Remote control welding
technologies can help eliminate the need to nav-
igate cluttered job sites and risk potential injury.
Remote Control Technology
Helps Reduce Fall Hazards
JOE RYAN is marketing segment
manager, Process Pipe Welding,
Miller Electric Mfg. Co., Appleton, Wis.,
www.millerwelds.com.
43 WELDING JOURNAL
ing operators to alternate between weld-
ing processes remotely by the push of a
button.
Locating the welding controls next to
the work site offers the additional bene-
fit of encouraging proper machine set-
tings to improve quality, and provides for
more arc-on time, which leads to a larger
number of completed welds and greater
overall productivity.
To date, remote control welding tech-
nologies exist for both traditional and
advanced welding processes, encourag-
ing greater safety in a multitude of
applications.
The Status of Safety
Risks on the Job Site
In 2011, the Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA) attrib-
uted 738 fatalities out of 4138 (or 17.6%)
occurring in private industry to construc-
tion accidents. Out of those 738 fatali-
ties, the organization cited falls as re-
sponsible for 259 deaths (35%), putting
this type of accident at the top in OSHAs
Fatal Four injuries. Fall protection is
also cited as the top OSHA standards
violation for preventable injuries on con-
struction job sites (www.osha.gov/osh-
stats/commonstats.html).
While these statistics may sound dis-
mal, they are actually an indication of
continued safety improvements over past
years in reducing job site falls. These im-
provements, however, arent just the
result of stricter regulations. They are
also the result of a greater commitment
to safety on the part of contracting
companies.
Increasingly, companies are taking
steps to invest in comprehensive training
programs and technologies that can re-
duce the risk of injury. Implementation
can include improved self-retracting de-
vices (SRDs), more detailed fall protec-
tion and rescue programs, and simply in-
vesting in employee education.
While all of these improvements cost
money, the investment in safety is essen-
tial both from a moral and a business
sense.
In many cases, the investment in
safety technology also doesnt have to be
excessive. Remote control welding tech-
nologies, in particular, have evolved over
the years, making it easier to gain the
safety benefits of these capabilities in a
cost-effective manner Fig. 2.
Remote Hand Controls
for the Field
Welding equipment manufacturers in
todays marketplace offer various remote
technologies for the shielded metal arc
welding (SMAW) and gas tungsten arc
welding (GTAW) processes, both of
which are common in field applications.
These technologies improve job site
safety by minimizing trips to the power
source to make changes to the welding
parameters (i.e., to compensate for heat
buildup in the part, changing weld posi-
tions, and more), and with it the poten-
tial risk for trips and falls.
Wireless remote hand controls are
one such technology that is especially
Fig. 2 Remote control welding technologies have evolved over the years, making it easier to gain the safety benefits of these ca-
pabilities in a cost-effective manner.
SEPTEMBER 2013 44
prevalent in pipeline applications, struc-
tural steel erection, and maintenance and
repair operations Fig. 3. These con-
trols offer the ability to make basic pa-
rameter changes at the weld, usually as
far as 300 ft away from the power source,
and remove a tripping hazard by elimi-
nating the control cable. They feature an
on/off contact switch that further in-
creases safety by allowing the welding op-
erator to shut off the current output when
he or she is not welding.
Wireless remote hand controls use a
radio signal to control the output of a va-
riety of compatible machines, including
engine drives or plug-in machines. They
connect through a remote 14-pin and are
synced with the receiver directly out of the
box, featuring a unique address that en-
sures they communicate only with each
other without crosstalk with other systems.
Wireless remote hand controls typi-
cally need to be operated in the line of
sight of the power source; they may be
limited in their ability to operate in the
presence of structures or parts that block
the radio signal. They also represent only
a percentage of the amperage set at the
power source, similar to traditional
corded remotes. As an example, if the re-
mote is set at 40, and the machine is set
at 300 A, it indicates the welding opera-
tor is welding with 120 A.
More advanced remote technologies
are also available for SMAW and GTAW
that provide operators with complete
control over the welding process and
eliminate the line-of-sight issues; they
can still operate if a structure blocks the
area between the weld and the power
source. These remotes also feature the
same controls as the power source, and
use a weld cable for communication,
which again eliminates the control cable
and reduces clutter on the job site. Fewer
cables mean less risk for injuries from
trips and falls.
Such advanced remotes can also sense
incorrect connections and offer remote
polarity reversing, ensuring the welding
operator is using the correct polarity for
either the SMAW or GTAW process. If
any aspect of the setup is incorrect, the
welding operator will be alerted with an
error message, which indicates the cables
need to be switched at the weld joint. The
remotes also allow welding operators to
set the actual amperage, as opposed to a
percentage. This full control eliminates
the need for welding operators to track
cables back to the correct power source,
as many job sites have multiple power
sources in one area and it helps im-
prove productivity and quality.
Both types of remotes for SMAW and
GTAW eliminate the need to move the
Fig. 3 Wireless remote hand controls (shown here) offer the ability to make basic parameter changes at the weld, usually as far
as 300 ft away from the power source, and remove a tripping hazard by eliminating the control cable.
power source once installed on a job site,
minimizing safety risks associated with
lifting and moving the machine.
Reducing Injury Risks for
GMAW and FCAW
Remote technologies for gas metal arc
welding (GMAW) and flux cored arc
welding (FCAW) are available that use
weld cable controls to allow welding op-
erators to make welding parameter ad-
justments (e.g., wire feed speed and volt-
age) at the wire feeder from up to 200
ft away. These controls, as with the ad-
vanced remotes discussed for SMAW and
GTAW, communicate through the same
cable that carries the welding current
from the power source to the feeder,
eliminating the need for an extra control
cable and with it, an additional tripping
hazard. Many contractors in the con-
struction industry employ this remote
control technology, as do shipbuilding
contractors.
This type of remote technology helps
ensure the signal wont be blocked by
structures on the job site and provides
the welding operator with more flexibil-
ity. Its not necessary to be in the line of
sight of the power source to ensure the
remote capabilities work. Such a benefit
is especially good for welding vessels
and/or other confined spaces such as
those in the shipbuilding industry.
The information communicated from
the wire feeder to the power source may
include welding power source output
command information (amperage/volt-
age), welding circuit on/off information
(power source output contactor control),
and/or power source state control (con-
stant voltage/constant current). Welding
operators can, in addition to the safety
benefits, gain quality control by being
able to adjust the actual voltage levels on
the feeders digital meter.
As with other remote technologies,
having each of these capabilities allows
welding operators to spend more time
welding as opposed to walking to and
from the power source and makes them
safer by not having to navigate obstacles
on the job site. They also experience less
strain and fatigue caused by reposition-
ing cables.
Benefits for Advanced
Welding Processes
Many pipe welding contractors,
specifically those serving the refinery,
petrochemical, power-generation, and
heating, ventilation, and air-condition-
ing industries, have begun to turn to ad-
vanced wire welding processes to im-
prove quality and productivity. These
processes include modified short circuit
GMAW and Pulsed GMAW. Gaining
these advantages is still an option, while
instilling remote welding capabilities into
the welding process to improve safety.
Remote control technologies exist for
the advanced welding processes that give
the welding operator the ability to change
weld parameters at the weld joint with a
touch of a button, as well as the ability to
change the weld processes. Welding op-
erators simply connect the power source
with a specially designed smart wire
feeder to gain full remote control capa-
bilities, including process selection, ma-
terial type, and wire diameter, gas type,
wire feed speed, and voltage. The power
source automatically shifts all controls to
the feeder when connected, eliminating
the need to string and manage the clut-
ter of the additional control cables.
The wire feeders with these remote
technologies extend the distance from
the power source 200 or more feet away
from the power source (without line-of-
sight issues), and they actually generate
and control the welding process, which
ensures the waveform extends to the
point of use in an optimal state because
it is only traveling the length of the
GMAW gun cable. Previously, cables for
advanced processes would carry the
waveform from the power source over
long distances to the feeder, resulting in
a distorted waveform that could affect
arc performance and weld quality. These
cables could also be quite expensive to
purchase and to repair should they be-
come damaged.
Most importantly, by featuring one
less cable (the communication cable) and
giving the welding operator total process
control at the weld, such remote control
capabilities are again increasing safety
by reducing travel to and from the power
source.
Making the Decision
Deciding between remote control
technologies depends largely on the
welding processes needed for a given ap-
plication, but offers the same benefit for
every one: safety. By removing the need
to travel to and from the power source,
they reduce the hazard of trips and falls
occurring while welding operators navi-
gate what are often cluttered work corri-
dors. As companies continue to invest in
greater safety education and new safety
technologies, remote control technolo-
gies are one more item they can
consider adding to help create a safer
job site.
45 WELDING JOURNAL
Correction
An error appeared in the article ti-
tled NO-Doped Shielding Gases Bene-
fit Stainless Steel Welding by J. Berk-
manns, which ran in the August issue
of Welding Journal. On page 44, in the
section titled Hexavalent Chromium, in
the paragraph that starts with In a sep-
arate paper (Ref. 13), the percentages
for a shielding gas mix were switched.
The correct sentence is as follows:
When used as the outer shroud gas
around a 95% Ar/5% CO
2
mix, the ozone
reduction was stronger but the CR
VI
re-
duction weaker. A correction has been
made to the digital version of the arti-
cle and to the copy archived on the AWS
Web site at www.aws.org.
CONFERENCES
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FABTECH 2013, Chicago, Ill.
How to get up to speed quickly. How to ask the right ques-
tions. How to get the results you need, save money, and stay out
of trouble. This is some of the information youll receive at this
two-day conference. The conference is for managers, engineers,
designers, and others with welding responsibility but limited ex-
posure to or background in welding. While the conference will
focus on arc welding applications, the principles have universal
applicability. Presentations and discussion are based on the Ap-
plication Analysis Worksheet, which was developed for a senior
college course for engineers about to enter the industry, with the
objective of helping them understand and deal with the chal-
lenges they may encounter.
SEPTEMBER 2013 46
For more information, please contact the AWS Conferences and
Seminars Business Unit at (800) 443-9353, ext. 223, or e-mail
ablanco@aws.org. You can also visit the Conference Department
Web site at www.aws.org/conferences for upcoming conferences
and registration information.
For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
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COMING
EVENTS
Intl Conf. on Solar Energy Materials and Energy Engineering
(SEMEE2013). Sept. 1, 2. Hong Kong. www.semme-conf.org.
16th Annual Aluminum Conf. Sept. 4, 5. Chicago, Ill. Sponsored
by the American Welding Society (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 264;
www.aws.org/conferences.
12th Intl Conf. on Application of Contemporary Non-Destructive
Testing in Engineering. Sept. 46. Grand Hotel Metropol, Por-
toroz, Slovenia. Sponsored by The Slovenian Society for Non-De-
structive Testing. www.fs.uni-lj.si/ndt.
Content Marketing World Conf. and 1st Annual Content Mar-
keting World Mfg. Summit. Sept. 912. Cleveland Convention
Center, Cleveland, Ohio. Sponsored by ThomasNet and Content
Marketing Institute. http://contentmarketinginstitute.com/events/.
LPPDE-North America. Sept. 911. Savannah, Ga. Lean Product
& Process Development Exchange, Inc. Address e-mail to
lppde@leanfront.com.
Lasers for Manufacturing Event (LME 2013). Sept. 11, 12.
Schaumburg Convention Center, Schaumburg, Ill. Laser Institute
of America. www.laserevent.org; lme@lia.org.
66th IIW Annual Assembly. Sept. 1117. Essen, Germany. Or-
ganized by DVS (German Welding Society). www.dvs-
ev.de/IIW2013/.
GAWDA Annual Convention. Sept. 1518. Orlando, Fla. Gases
and Welding Distributors Assn. www.gawda.org.
ASM Heat Treating Society Conf. and Expo. Sept. 1618. Indiana
Convention Center, Indianapolis, Ind. www.asminternational.org/
content/Events/heattreat/.
IIW Intl Conf. on Automation in Welding. Sept. 16, 17. Essen,
Germany. www.iiw2013.com. Event in the IIW Annual Assembly.
Schweissen & Schneiden 2013 Intl Trade Fair Joining, Cutting,
Surfacing. Sept. 1621. Essen, Germany. Sponsored by DVS, Ger-
man Welding Society. www.schweissenuschneiden.de/en/schweis-
sen_schneiden/index.html.
9th Annual Northeast Shingo Prize Conf. Sept. 24, 25. The Re-
sort & Conference Center at Hyannis, Hyannis, Mass.
www.neshingoprize.org.
POWER-GEN Brasil 2013, HydroVision Brasil, and DistribuTech
Brasil. Sept. 2426. Transamerica Center, So Paulo, Brazil.
www.power-gen.com.
Construct 2013. Sept. 2527. Music City Center, Nashville, Tenn.
www.constructshow.com.
Canadian Manufacturing Technology Show (CMTS) 2013. Sept.
NOTE: A DIAMOND ( ) DENOTES AN AWS-SPONSORED EVENT.
SEPTEMBER 2013 48
MOTOR GUARD CORPORATION
(800) 227-2822
www.motorguardplasma.com
From the
Makers of the
Motor Guard FiIter
The Magna-Stitcher is a unique new tool
for the structural repair and fabrication of
plastic parts. The MS-2500 works by
welding a rigid stainless steel stake
into the surface of the plastic
resulting in a permanent repair
of the crack. The system can
be used to repair containers,
housings, brackets, shrouds,
mounting tabs and any ther-
moplastic part. The MS-2500
comes with an assortment of
stainless steel Magna-Stakes,
each for a specific repair including
cracks on flat surfaces, broken tabs, and the
repair of inside corners and outside corners.
Features:
Three power levels for rapid and precise welding
on a range of materials.
High-intensity work light in the grip to illuminate
out-of-the-way areas.
Comes complete with an assortment of stainless
steel Magna-Stakes;
100/Ea of S, M, V, & W Shapes.
For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
51 WELDING JOURNAL
30Oct. 3. The International Centre, 6900 Airport Rd., Missis-
sauga, Canada. Society of Manufacturing Engineers. (888) 322-
7333, ext. 4426; www.cmts.ca.
Brazil Welding Show 2013. Oct. 14. So Paulo, Brazil. Sponsored
by DVS, German Welding Society. www.brazil-welding-show.com/.
MFGDAY 10.04.13 National Manufacturing Day. Oct. 4. Open
house events held nationwide. Sponsored by Fabricators & Man-
ufacturers Assn. Intl, Nat. Assn. of Manufacturers, and Mfg.
Extention Partnership. Visit www.mfgday.comfor interactive map.
ICALEO Intl Congress on Applications of Lasers & Electro-
Optics. Oct. 610, Hyatt Regency Miami Resort, Miami, Fla.
www.lia.org/conferences/icaleo.
The Intl WorkBoat Show. Oct. 911, Morial Convention Center,
New Orleans, La. www.workboatshow.com.
25th National Robot Safety Conf. Oct. 1416, Indianapolis Mar-
riott East, Indianapolis, Ind. Sponsored by Robotics Industries
Assn. (RIA). www.robotics.org/events/.
WESTEC. Oct. 1517. Los Angeles Convention Center, Los An-
geles, Calif. The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. (800) 733-
4763; www.westeconline.com.
Canadian Intl Aluminum Conf. Oct. 2125, Palais des Congrs
de Montral, Montreal, Que., Canada. www.ciacmontreal.com.
12th Inalco Intl Aluminum Conf. Oct. 21, 22, Palais des Congrs
de Montral, Montreal, Que., Canada. www.inalco2013.com.
SOUTH-TEC. Oct. 2931. TD Convention Center, Greenville,
S.C. The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. (800) 733-4763;
www.southteconline.com.
FFA Annual Convention. Oct. 30Nov. 3, Kentucky Exposition
Center, Louisville, Ky. Future Farmers of America.
www.ffa.org/Pages/default.aspx.
ASNT Fall Conf. and Quality Testing Show 2013. Nov. 47, Rio
Hotel, Las Vegas, Nev. The American Society for Nondestructive
Testing. www.asnt.org.
POWER-GEN Intl Event. Nov. 1214, Orange County Conven-
tion Center, Orlando, Fla. www.power-gen.com/event-info.html.
Intl Conf. for Vision Guided Robotics. Nov. 1315, Georgia In-
stitute of Technology, Atlanta, Ga. www.visiononline.org/events/.
FABTECH 2013. Nov. 1821, McCormick Place, Chicago, Ill.
This exhibition is the largest event in North America dedicated to
showcasing the full spectrum of metal forming, fabricating, tube
and pipe, welding equipment, and myriad manufacturing tech-
nologies. American Welding Society. (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 264;
www.fabtechexpo.com.
5th Thermal Spray Technology: High-Performance Surfaces.
Nov. 19. McCormick Place, Chicago, Ill. Sponsored by Intl Ther-
mal Spray Assn., an AWS Standing Committee. itsa@thermal-
spray.org. American Welding Society. (800/305) 443-9353, ext.
264; www.fabtechexpo.com.
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COMING EVENTS
SEPTEMBER 2013 52
Alloys in Power Plant Technology Intl Conf. Nov. 26, 27. NH
Berlin-Mitte, Berlin, Germany. www.vdi-international.com/alloys.
AERODEF Manufacturing. Feb. 2527. Long Beach Convention
Center, Long Beach, Calif. The Society of Manufacturing Engi-
neers. (800) 733-4763; www.aerodefevent.com.
FABTECH Canada. March 1820. Toronto Congress Centre,
Toronto, Ont., Canada. www.fabtechcanada.com.
FABTECH India colocated with Weld India. April 1012. Pra-
gati Maidan Exhibition Complex, New Delhi, India. Concurrent
with the 2014 Intl Congress of the IIW. Cosponsored by AWS,
FMA, SME, PMA, CCAI, and India Institute of Welding.
www.fabtechexpoindia.com.
ITSA International Thermal Spray Assn. Annual Meeting.
April 2426. Savannah, Ga. Sponsored by ITSA, an AWS Stand-
ing Committee. itsa@thermalspray.org; www.thermalspray.org.
FABTECH Mexico. May 68. Centro Banamex, Mexico City,
Mexico. www.fabtechmexico.com.
mfg4 colocated with MicroManufacturing Conf. and Exhibits.
May 68. Connecticut Convention Center, Hartford, Conn. The
Society of Manufacturing Engineers; (800) 733-4763;
www.mfg4event.com.
MMTS Montreal Mfg. Technology Show. May 1214. Place
Bonaventure, Montreal, Que., Canada. www.mmts.ca.
Composites Manufacturing. May 1315. Northern Kentucky
Convention Center, Covington, Ky. Society of Manufacturing En-
gineers. www.sme.org/composites.
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CERTIFICATION
SCHEDULE
Certified Welding Inspector (CWI)
LOCATION SEMINAR DATES EXAM DATE
Anchorage, AK Exam only Sept. 21
Miami, FL Sept. 1520 Sept. 21
Idaho Falls, ID Sept. 1520 Sept. 21
St. Louis, MO Sept. 1520 Sept. 21
Houston, TX Sept. 1520 Sept. 21
New Orleans, LA Sept. 2227 Sept. 28
Fargo, ND Sept. 2227 Sept. 28
Pittsburgh, PA Sept. 2227 Sept. 28
Indianapolis, IN Sept. 29Oct. 4 Oct. 5
Corpus Christi, TX Exam only Oct. 12
Long Beach, CA Oct. 611 Oct. 12
Tulsa, OK Oct. 611 Oct. 12
Cedar Rapids, IA Oct. 611 Oct. 12
Miami, FL Exam only Oct. 17
South Plainfield, NJ Oct. 1318 Oct. 19
Portland, OR Oct. 1318 Oct. 19
Nashville, TN Oct. 1318 Oct. 19
Atlanta, GA Oct. 2025 Oct. 26
Shreveport, LA Oct. 2025 Oct. 26
Detroit, MI Oct. 2025 Oct. 26
Roanoke, VA Oct. 2025 Oct. 26
Cleveland, OH Oct. 27Nov. 1 Nov. 2
Spokane, WA Oct. 27Nov. 1 Nov. 2
Sacramento, CA Nov. 38 Nov. 9
Corpus Christi, TX Exam only Nov. 16
Miami, FL Nov. 1015 Nov. 16
Annapolis, MD Nov. 1015 Nov. 16
Dallas, TX Nov. 1015 Nov. 16
Chicago, IL Exam only Nov. 21
Miami, FL Exam only Dec. 5
Los Angeles, CA Dec. 813 Dec. 14
Orlando, FL Dec. 813 Dec. 14
Reno, NV Dec. 813 Dec. 14
Houston, TX Dec. 813 Dec. 14
St. Louis, MO Exam only Dec. 14
Certified Welding Sales Representative (CWSR)
CWSR exams will be given at CWI exam sites.
Certified Welding Educator (CWE)
Seminar and exam are given at all sites listed under Certified
Welding Inspector. Seminar attendees will not attend the Code
Clinic portion of the seminar (usually the first two days).
9Year Recertification Seminar for CWI/SCWI
(No exams given.) For current CWIs and SCWIs needing to meet
education requirements without taking the exam. The exam can be
taken at any site listed under Certified Welding Inspector.
LOCATION SEMINAR DATES
Denver, CO Sept. 1520
Dallas, TX Oct. 611
New Orleans, LA Oct. 27Nov. 1
Seattle, WA Nov. 38
Miami, FL Dec. 813
Certified Welding Supervisor (CWS)
Miami, FL Sept. 2327 Sept. 28
Norfolk, VA Oct. 1418 Oct. 19
CWS exams are also given at all CWI exam sites.
Certified Radiographic Interpreter (CRI)
Chicago, IL Sept. 2327 Sept. 28
Pittsburgh, PA Oct. 1418 Oct. 19
The CRI certification can be a stand-alone credential or can
exempt you from your next 9-Year Recertification.
Certified Robotic Arc Welding (CRAW)
The course dates are followed by the location and phone number.
Dec. 913 at
ABB, Inc., Auburn Hills, MI; (248) 3918421
Dec. 26 at
Genesis-Systems Group, Davenport, IA; (563) 445-5688
Oct. 14 at
Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, OH; (216) 383-8542
Oct. 2125 at
OTC Daihen, Inc., Tipp City, OH; (937) 667-0800
Training: Sept. 2325, Nov. 1820
Exams: Sept. 2627, Nov. 2122 at
Wolf Robotics, Fort Collins, CO; (970) 225-7736
On request at
MATC, Milwaukee, WI; (414) 297-6996
Certification Seminars, Code Clinics, and Examinations
IMPORTANT: This schedule is subject to change without notice. Applications are to be received at least six weeks prior to the
seminar/exam or exam. Applications received after that time will be assessed a $250 Fast Track fee. Please verify application dead-
line dates by visiting our Web site www.aws.org/certification/docs/schedules.html. Verify your event dates with the Certification
Dept. to confirm your course status before making travel plans. For information on AWS seminars and certification programs, or
to register online, visit www.aws.org/certification or call (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 273, for Certification; or ext. 455 for Seminars.
Apply early to avoid paying the $250 Fast Track fee.
SEPTEMBER 2013 54
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www.lincolnelectric.com/alloys
With FABTECH, its so easy and economical to exhibit to the enormous Indian market!
The newly combined FABTECH INDIA / WELD INDIA exhibition is the premier welding and metal
fabricating trade show in the worlds most populous country. Hundreds of international exhibitors and
thousands of buyers from Indias largest manufacturing and energy firms will assemble to exchange
welding, fabricating and automation solutions for Indias fastest growing industries, such as:
Aerospace Agriculture Automotive Defense Energy
Infrastructure Mining Paper and pulp Plant construction
Rail and transit Refining and chemicals Repair Shipbuilding
As a FABTECH exhibitor, you will join AWS, FMA, SME, PMA, CCAI and the entire FABTECH
community in introducing yourself to the economic dynamo of todays India.
Why India?
WorId's Iargest popuIation
EngIish-speaking business and technicaI community
RapidIy deveIoping infrastructure, mining, energy and manufacturing capacity
Thousands of Indian buyers have come to FABTECH to find technologies like
yours. Now your tried-and-trusted show team at FABTECH is going to India
where you can meet a vast multitude of ready buyers and prospective partners.
Your FABTECH professionals will be with you every step of the way!
www.fabtechexpoindia.com
FABTECH India will co-locate with the Indian Institute of Weldings Weld India
ApriI 10-12, 2014 New DeIhi
and the International Institute of Weldings 2014 International Congress (April 9-11)
IS TAKING YOU TO INDIA
Forming & Fabricating/
Tube & Pipe Exhibitors (A-L)
Jim Gorzek, FMA
(800) 432-2832 ext. 269
jimg@thefabricator.com
Welding Exhibitors
Joe Krall, AWS
(800) 443-9353 ext.297
jkrall@aws.org
Tube & Pipe Exhibitors (M-Z)
John Catalano, SME
(800) 733-3976 ext.3163
jcatalano@sme.org
Stamping,Tool & Die
Exhibitors
Roger Judson, PMA
(800) 541-5336
rjudson@pma.org
Finishing Exhibitors
Andy Goyer, CCAI
(941) 373-1830
andy@goyermgt.com
Cosponsors
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF WELDING
WELD INDIA 2014
International Welding Technology Exhibition
10 - 12 April 2014, New Delhi, India

IS
ABTE FFA

S TTA
te with the Indian Institute of ABTECH India will co-loca
AKIN

te with the Indian Institute of
OU NG YYO

eld India s W elding W te with the Indian Institute of
O T IND

eld India
DIA

and the Interna
welding, fabricating and automation solutions fo
thousands of buyers from India
fabricating trade show in the world
The newly combined
ABTECH, it ith F W

tional Institute of and the Interna
r p A
welding, fabricating and automation solutions fo
s largest manufacturing and energy firms will assemble to exchange thousands of buyers from India
s most populous country fabricating trade show in the world
ABTECH INDIA FFA The newly combined
s so easy and economical to exhibit to the enormous Indian market! ABTECH, it

s 2014 Interna elding W tional Institute of
D w e N 4 1 0 2 , 2 1 - 0 1 I i r
s fastest growing industries, such as: r India welding, fabricating and automation solutions fo
s largest manufacturing and energy firms will assemble to exchange
. Hundreds of international exhibitors and s most populous country
exhibition is the premier welding and metal INDIA / WELD ABTECH INDIA
s so easy and economical to exhibit to the enormous Indian market!

ess (April 9-11) r tional Cong s 2014 Interna
i h I e D
elding
s fastest growing industries, such as:
. Hundreds of international exhibitors and
exhibition is the premier welding and metal

ess (April 9-11)
s fastest growing industries, such as:
. Hundreds of international exhibitors and
exhibition is the premier welding and metal

community in introducing yourself to the economi
ABTECH F As a

community in introducing yourself to the economi
, you will join exhibitor ABTECH
Refining and chemicals Rail and transit
Mining Infrastructure
Agriculture Aerospace

Why India?
c dynamo of today community in introducing yourself to the economi
MA, SME, PMA, CCAI WS, F AAW
Refining and chemicals
Paper and pulp Mining
Automotive Agriculture

s India. c dynamo of today
ABTECH F and the entire MA, SME, PMA, CCAI
Shipbuilding Repair
Plant construction Paper and pulp
Energy Defense

ABTECH
Shipbuilding

Your
yours. Now your tried-and-trusted show team at
Thousands of Indian buyers have come to
echnology Exhibition T elding International W

4 1 0 2 A I D N I D L E W
10 12 Apr 2014, New De h Ind a

professionals will be with you every step of the way! FABTECH Your
yours. Now your tried-and-trusted show team at
Thousands of Indian buyers have come to
r f n i g n i p o I e v e d y I d i p a R
n i s u b g n i k a e p s - h s i I g n E
t a I u p o p t s e g r a I s ' d I r o W

professionals will be with you every step of the way!
FABTECH yours. Now your tried-and-trusted show team at
FABTECH Thousands of Indian buyers have come to
r e n e , g n i n i m , e re u t c u r t s a r
m m o c I a c i n h c e t d n a s s e n
n o i

professionals will be with you every step of the way!
is going to India FABTECH
to find technologies like FABTECH
c g n i r u t c a f u n a m d n a y g r
y t i n u m

y t i c a p a c

jimg@thefabricator
(800) 432-2832 ext. 269
, FMA Jim Gorzek
ube & Pipe Exhibitors (A-L) T

jcatalano@sme.org
(800) 733-3976 ext.3163
, SME John Catalano
ube & Pipe Exhibitors (M-Z) T
.com jimg@thefabricator
(800) 432-2832 ext. 269
ube & Pipe Exhibitors (A-L)
osponsors C

ube & Pipe Exhibitors (M-Z)
jkrall@aws.org
(800) 443-9353 ext.297
WS , A Joe Krall
elding Exhibitors W
osponsors

andy@goyermgt.com
(941) 373-1830
Andy Goyer
rjudson@pma.org
(800) 541-5336
, PMA Roger Judson
Exhibitors
ool & Die Stamping,T

andy@goyermgt.com
(941) 373-1830
, CCAI Andy Goyer

SOCIETYNEWS SOCIETYNEWS
BY HOWARD WOODWARD
woodward@aws.org
The 15th annual AWS Leadership Symposium was held July
2831, 2013, at AWS World Headquarters in Miami, Fla. Section
leaders from all 22 AWS Districts participated to develop the skills
they need to better perform their Section responsibilities.
Listed are the District number, attendees name, and Section.
1) Patrick Kein, Maine; 2) Paul Lenox, New Jersey; 3) Jason
Deiter, Leigh Valley; 4) Paul Miller, Tidewater; 5) Donald Whit-
men, South Carolina; Camilo Liscano, South Florida; 6) Carter
Cook, Northern N.Y.; 7) Jeff Minter, Cincinnati; 8) Thomas Atkin-
son, Chattanooga; 9) Cynthia Harris, Pascagoula; Catherine Chi-
fici, New Orleans; 10) Thomas Kostreba, Northwestern Pa.; 11)
Wesley Doneth, Detroit; 12) Todd Gilbert, Lakeshore; 13) Christo-
pher Winn, Illinois Valley; 14) Coy Hall, Lexington; 15) Mike
ODonnell, Arrowhead; Ric Eckstein, Northwest; 16) Joseph Bai-
ley, Iowa; 17) R. Aaron Brown, Ozark; Michael Florczykowski,
East Texas; Charles Griffin, Tulsa; 18) Tiffany Rivera, Corpus
Christi; 19) Jared Satterlund, Spokane; Stuart Guest, Alberta;
20) Alan Barber, Colorado; 21) Paul G. Anderson, Long Beach;
22) James Adamo, San Francisco; Greg Hockert, Fresno; and
Brandon Beattie, Chelsey Morris, and Gerald Wentland, Sacra-
mento Valley.
The Leadership Symposium is facilitated each year by Ron
Gilbert, senior partner and principal management consultant for
Gilbert Education & Management Systems, www.gilbertems.com,
and a professor of management in the Chapman Graduate School
of Business at Florida International University. Assisting Dr.
Gilbert again this year was Lee Kvidahl, an AWS past president
and manager of welding/ manufacturing engineering at Hunting-
ton Ingalls Industries, Pascagoula, Miss. The AWS staff members
contributing to the event included Cassie Burrell, senior associ-
ate executive director; and Rhenda Kenny, director, and Alfred
Nieves, coordinator, Member Services.
57 WELDING JOURNAL
Section Leaders Nationwide Convene in Miami
AWS Meets with Asian Welding Federation
Notice of Annual Meeting American Welding Society
AWS President Nancy Cole (front row, center) is shown with leaders of the Asian Welding Federation. The meeting, held July 11 at Singapore
Management University, explored potential collaboration opportunities.
The Annual Meeting of the members of the American Welding Society will be held Monday, Nov. 18, 2013, beginning at 9
AM at McCormick Place, Chicago, Ill. The regular business of the Society will be conducted, including election of officers and
nine members of the Board of Directors. Any business properly brought before the membership will be considered.
Leadership Symposium Class of 2013
SEPTEMBER 2013 58
Technical Committee Meetings
All AWS technical committee meet-
ings are open to the public. Persons wish-
ing to attend a meeting should e-mail the
committee secretary listed.
Sept. 10, D15 Committee on Railroad
Welding. Smyrna, Ga. S. Borrero, sbor-
rero@aws.org.
Sept. 10, D15A Subcommittee on Cars
and Locomotives. Smyrna, Ga. S. Borrero,
sborrero@aws.org.
Sept. 24, B2D Subcommittee on Stan-
dard Welding Procedure Specifications.
Coraopolis, Pa. A. Diaz, adiaz@aws.org.
Sept. 24, B2E Subcommittee on Sol-
dering Qualifications. Coraopolis, Pa. A.
Diaz, adiaz@aws.org.
Sept. 25, B2B Subcommittee on Weld-
ing Qualifications. Coraopolis, Pa. A.
Diaz, adiaz@aws.org.
Sept. 25, B2C Subcommittee on Ma-
terials. Coraopolis, Pa. A. Diaz, adiaz@
aws.org.
Sept. 25, SH4 Subcommittee on Label-
ing and Safe Practices. Pittsburgh, Pa. S.
Hedrick, steveh@aws.org.
Sept. 26, B2 Committee on Procedure
and Performance Qualifications. Cora-
opolis, Pa. A. Diaz, adiaz@aws.org.
Sept. 26, B2A Subcommittee on Qual-
ifications. Coraopolis, Pa. A. Diaz,
adiaz@aws.org.
Sept. 26, 27, C1 Committee on Resist-
ance Welding. Columbus, Ohio. E.
Abrams, eabrams@aws.org.
Oct. 811, D1 Committee and Sub-
committees on Structural Welding. Seat-
tle, Wash. B. McGrath, bmcgrath@
aws.org.
Oct. 23, SH1 Subcommittee on Fumes
and Gases. Columbus, Ohio. S. Hedrick,
steveh@aws.org.
New Standards Projects
Development work has begun to revise
the following two standards. Affected in-
dividuals are invited to contribute to their
development. Contact Staff Secretary E.
Abrams, eabrams@aws.org, ext. 307.
C2.16/C2.16M:201X, Guide for Ther-
mal Spray Operator Qualification. This
guide offers recommendations for quali-
fying operators based on knowledge and
skill testing. It includes 12 tests for engi-
neering and corrosion-control applica-
tions: one each for job knowledge, high-
velocity oxyfuel spraying, and flame spray-
fusing; two for arc spraying; and three
each for flame and air-plasma spraying.
Stakeholders: thermal spray community.
C2.20/C2.20M:201X, Specification for
Thermal Spraying Zinc Anodes on Steel Re-
inforced Concrete. This standard is for-
matted as an industrial process instruc-
tion. The scope includes job description,
safety, pass/fail job reference standards,
feedstock materials, equipment, step-by-
step process instructions for surface
preparation, thermal spraying, and qual-
ity control, with two annexes: job control
record and portable adhesion testing.
Stakeholders: thermal spray community.
Revised Standard Approved by ANSI
D1.2/D1.2M:2013, Structural Welding
Code Aluminum. Approved 6/11/13.
Standard for Public Review
AWS C1.4M/C1.4-201X, Specification
for Resistance Welding of Carbon and Low-
Alloy Steels. Revised. $25.00. 8/19/13. E.
Abrams, eabrams@aws.org.
AWS was approved as an accredited
standards-preparing organization by the
American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) in 1979. AWS rules, as approved
by ANSI, require that all standards be
open to public review for comment dur-
ing the approval process. The above re-
vised standard was submitted for public
review with the expiration date shown. A
draft copy may be obtained from the Staff
Secretary listed with the document.
ISO Standards for Public Review
ISO/DIS 9453, Soft solder alloys
Chemical compositions and forms
ISO/DIS 17643, Nondestructive testing
of welds Eddy current testing of welds by
complex-plane analysis
ISO/DIS 17916, Safety of thermal cut-
ting machines
Copies of the above standards are
available for review and comment through
your national standards body, which in the
United States is ANSI, 25 W. 43rd St., 4th
Fl., New York, NY 10036; (212) 642-4900.
In the United States, if you wish to par-
ticipate in the development of Interna-
tional Standards for welding, contact A.
Davis, adavis@aws.org.
Tech Topics
Safety and Health Committee seeks ed-
ucators, users, general interest, and con-
sultants. S. Hedrick, steveh@aws.org.
Oxyfuel gas welding and cutting, C4
Committee seeks educators, general in-
terest, and end users. C. Lewis,
clewis@aws.org.
Friction welding, C6 Committee seeks
professionals. C. Lewis, clewis@aws.org.
High energy beam welding and cutting,
C7 Committee seeks professionals. C.
Lewis, clewis@aws.org.
Magnesium alloy filler metals, A5L
Subcommittee seeks professionals. R.
Gupta, gupta@aws.org.
Robotic and automatic welding, D16
Committee seeks general interest and ed-
ucational members. B. McGrath, bmc-
grath@aws.org.
Local heat treating of pipe, D10P Sub-
committee seeks professionals. B. Mc-
Grath, bmcgrath@aws.org.
Mechanical testing of welds, B4 Com-
mittee seeks professionals. B. McGrath,
bmcgrath@aws.org.
Reactive Alloys, G2D Subcommittee
seeks volunteers. A. Diaz, adiaz@aws.org.
Titanium and zirconium filler metals,
A5K Subcommittee seeks professionals.
A. Diaz, adiaz@aws.org.
Welding qualifications, B2B Subcom-
mittee seeks members. A. Diaz,
adiaz@aws.org.
Friction stir welding of aluminum al-
loys for aerospace applications, D17J
Subcommittee seeks members. A. Diaz,
adiaz@aws.org.
Resistance welding equipment, J1
Committee seeks educators, general in-
terest, and users. E. Abrams,
eabrams@aws.org.
Thermal spraying and automotive
welding, The D8 and C2 Committees seek
educators, general interest, and end users.
E. Abrams, eabrams@aws.org.
Machinery and equipment and surfac-
ing and reconditioning of industrial mill
rolls, D14 Committee and D14H Subcom-
mittee seek professionals. E. Abrams,
eabrams@aws.org.
Opportunities to Serve on AWS Technical Committees
Volunteers are sought to contribute to the following technical committees. Visit www.aws.org/technical/jointechcomm.html.
Errata D17.1/D17.1M:2010
Specification for Fusion Welding for
Aerospace Applications
Page 37, Figure 7.2, Note correct
Dimention to Dimension, and change
Refer to 6.1.4.4 to Refer to 7.5.2.1.
59 WELDING JOURNAL
Life Members of the American
Welding Society are urged to take ad-
vantage of their complimentary free ad-
mission to the upcoming FABTECH ex-
position plus free registration to the en-
tire Professional Program (a $325
value), scheduled for November 1821
at McCormick Place in Chicago, Ill.
The Professional Program registra-
tion entitles AWS Life Members to at-
tend any of the technical sessions oc-
curring during the four-day period.
Registration forms are available in
issues of the Welding Journal, as well as
in the Advance Program that was mailed
to members previously. You may also
request the form from the Membership
Department at (800) 443-9353, ext. 260.
To obtain your free registration,
mark AWS Life Member Free Reg-
istration at the top of your Registra-
tion Form. Fax both sides of the form
to (305) 443-5647, Attn: Rhenda
Kenny, membership director; e-mail to
rhenda@aws.org; or mail the form to
Rhenda Kenny, AWS, 8669 NW 36th
St., #130, Miami, FL 33166-6672.
AWS Life Members to Receive Free FABTECH Perks
Ricardo M. Suria, St.
Louis Section, has attained
the status of Distinguished
Member for his participation
in the Societys leadership,
professional development ac-
tivities, and membership re-
cruitment activities.
To qualify for Distin-
guished Member status, ap-
plicants must accrue 35 points
or more from at least four cat-
egories: national AWS lead-
ership, local AWS leadership,
professional development,
and AWS member recruit-
ment. If you believe you qual-
ify, contact the AWS Mem-
bership Dept. (800/305) 443-
9353, ext. 260.
Suria Attains Distinguished Member Status
Deadline Approaches for Masubuchi Award Nominations
The Houston Section, District 18, has
been awarded the Henry C. Neitzel National
Membership Award for the greatest net nu-
merical increase in membership for the 2012-
2013 year.
The winner of the Henry C. Neitzel Na-
tional Membership Award for the greatest
net percentage increase for the year is the
Northern Plains Section, District 15.
The following Sections recorded the
greatest percentage increase in membership
in their District.
1 Maine
2 New York
3 Lancaster
4 Northeastern Carolina
5 Columbia
6 Rochester
7 Wheeling
8 Greater Huntsville
9 Morgan City
10 Mahoning Valley
11 Northern Michigan
12 Lakeshore
13 Blackhawk
14 St. Louis
15 Northern Plains
16 Central Nebraska
17 Central Texas
18 Lake Charles
19 British Columbia
20 Wyoming
21 Kern
22 Sierra Nevada
Neitzel National Membership Awards Announced Crusmire Receives Student
Chapter Member Award
Levi Crusmire, an AWS Ivy Tech Com-
munity College Student Chapter member,
has been selected by Student Chapter Advi-
sor Bob Richwine, District 14 director, to re-
ceive the AWS Student Chapter Member
Award.
Crusmire was cited as an exceptional
welder who served as Student Chapter Pro-
gram Chairman, maintained a 4.0 GPA, and
personally raised $5000 to help fund Student
Chapter projects.
The Ivy Tech Community College Student
Chapter is affiliated with the AWS Indiana
Section.
AWS Member Counts
August 1, 2013
Sustaining ......................................599
Supporting.....................................341
Educational ...................................622
Affiliate..........................................526
Welding Distributor........................51
Total Corporate ..........................2,139
Individual .................................59,135
Student + Transitional .................8,558
Total Members.........................67,693
The following AWS Student Chapter
Members were chosen to receive the Student
Chapter Member Award by Section repre-
sentatives during their District conferences.
Dillon Blume, Zachary Bosley, Adam
Brinegar, Adam Deas, Kory Shaffer, Shawn
Wheeler, Montannez Moody, Steven Miller,
Spencer Credle, Justin Hege, and Cabel
Shrewsbury, Charlotte Section (Dist. 4);
Nathan Brown and Jesse Warner, Nashville
Section (Dist. 8); Cole Johnson, Greater
Huntsville Section (District 8); William Lam-
perez, Baton Rouge Section (Dist. 9); Dakota
Grant, Stark Central Section (Dist. 10); Katie
Bell, Mahoning Valley Section (Dist. 10);
Tiffany Rivera and Mario Quezada, Corpus
Christi Section (Dist. 18); Marco Costa, El
Paso Section (Dist. 18); Edgardo Vela and
Ruben Perez, San Antonio Section (Dist. 18);
J. Austin Hudman and Tevan Boersma,
Idaho/Montana Section (Dist. 20); Tyler
Price, Utah Section (Dist. 20); Chelsey Mor-
ris, Melissa Sheetz, Shawn Perkins, and
Shirley Glassgow, Sacramento Valley Section
(Dist. 22); and Mathison Ott and Brett Fos-
enburg, San Francisco Section (Dist. 22).
The AWS Board of Directors established
this award to recognize students whose Stu-
dent Chapter activities have made outstand-
ing school, community, or industry achieve-
ments. Students must be affiliated with an
AWS Student Chapter. The criteria and nom-
ination form can be downloaded from the
AWS Web page www.aws.org/sections/awards/
student_chapter.pdf, or call the Membership
Dept. at (800) 443-9353, ext. 260.
Student Chapter Members Recognized at District Conferences
Ricardo Suria
November 1, 2013, is the deadline for
submitting nominations for the 2014
Prof. Koichi Masubuchi Award. This
award includes a $5000 honorarium. It
is presented each year to one person,
40 years old or younger, who has made
significant contributions to the ad-
vancement of materials joining through
research and development. Nomina-
tions should include a description of the
candidates experience, list of publica-
tions, honors, and awards, and at least
three letters of recommendation from
fellow researchers. The award is spon-
sored by the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology Dept. of Ocean Engineer-
ing. E-mail your nomination package to
Todd A. Palmer, assistant professor,
The Pennsylvania State University,
tap103@psu.edu.
SEPTEMBER 2013 60
2013 District and Section Award Winners (District, Members Name, Section)
Section Meritorious
2 Vince Murray, New Jersey
4 Nathan Minnix, SW Virginia
4 Wayne Johnson, SW Virginia
4 Ron Hunnicut, Tidewater
4 Doug Carpenter, Tidewater
4 Russell Wahrman Triangle
4 Jay Manning, Triangle
4 Brandon Holcomb, Charlotte
4 Steve Gore, Charlotte
4 Robert Simpson, Charlotte
4 Hardick Suthar, Charlotte
4 Craig Streiff, Charlotte
4 Sergey Kobelev, Carolina
5 Howard Record, N. Central Florida
8 Dusti Jones, Chattanooga
8 David Hamilton, Chattanooga
8 Keith Cole, Chattanooga
8 Ken Nicklas, NE Tennessee
8 Sam Davis, NE Tennessee
8 Preston Farabow, NE Tennessee
8 Jerry Sullivan, Holston Valley
8 Frank Miller, Greater Huntsville
8 Scott Bradley, Nashville
8 Bob ONeal, Nashville
9 Robert Wells, Mobile
9 Steve Moore, Auburn-Opelika
9 Amanda Davis, Auburn-Opelika
9 Hyejin Park, Auburn-Opelika
9 Jianping He, Auburn-Opelika
9 Donald J. Berger, New Orleans
9 Catherine Chifici, New Orleans
9 Cynthia Harris, Pascagoula
9 Darren Haas, Pascagoula
9 William Harris, Pascagoula
9 Marcie Jacquet, Acadiana
9 Anthony Blakeney Baton Rouge
10 Marty Siddall, Northwestern Pa.
10 Mike Sampson, Mahoning Valley
10 Mike Sherman, Cleveland
10 Art Baughman, Stark Central
10 Rolf Laemmer, Drake Well
14 Becky McDonald, St. Louis
14 Martina Miller, Indiana
14 Eric Cooper, Indiana
14 Stephen Gillig, Indiana
14 Greg Early, Indiana
14 Irvin Ziegler, Louisville
14 Frank McKinley, Lexington
14 Karl Watson, Lexington
14 William Judd III, Tri-River
14 Steve Eidson, Tri-River
14 Earl Young, Tri-River
14 Tony Parrish, Tri-River
14 Mike Bumgarner, Tri-River
14 Scott Stringer, Tri-River
14 Keith Titzer, Tri-River
15 Mike ODonnell, Arrowhead
15 Joel Johnson, Northern Plains
17 Toby McEntire, Oklahoma City
17 Charles Griffin, Tulsa
17 Jamie Kidder, Tulsa
17 Michael Beaton, N. Texas
17 Bryan Walker, Ozark
17 Ryan Rummell, Central Texas
17 Dan Bricker, E. Texas
18 Carlos Garcia, Corpus Christi
18 Vince Martinez, El Paso
18 Ronnie Mercer, Houston
18 Jim Young, Houston
18 Jay Austin, Lake Charles
18 Rolando Gonzales, Rio Grande Valley
18 Hector Rendon, Rio Grande Valley
18 John McKeehan, Sabine
18 Rachel Morin, San Antonio
18 Elaine Davis, San Antonio
20 Casey Giacoletto, Utah
20 Tevan Boersma, Idaho/Montana
20 Don Hossma, New Mexico
20 Brett Jones, New Mexico
20 Gerald Henderson, New Mexico
20 Lee Corn, Southern Colorado
20 Dave Traverso, Wyoming
20 Alan Barber, Colorado
20 Farren Elwood, Colorado
20 Gary Armstrong, Colorado
20 Dave Fullen, Colorado
22 Will Childress, Sacramento Valley
22 Brad Bosworth, Fresno
Section Educator
4 Gary Riedel, Tidewater
4 Dwain Tisdom, Tidewater
4 Randy Wilkins, Tidewater
4 Troi Coswell, Tidewater
4 Thomas Shirk, Tidewater
4 Ernie Bennett, Tidewater
4 Andrew Sullivan, Tidewater
4 Eddie Daggs, Tidewater
4 James Jones, Tidewater
4 Robert Smile, Charlotte
4 Pat Emch, Charlotte
4 Anver Classens, Charlotte
4 Steve Gerhardt, Charlotte
4 Jill Roberts, Charlotte
4 Hardiis Suthar, Charlotte
4 Brandon Hoffner, Charlotte
4 Steve Gore, Charlotte
4 Alex Silliman, Charlotte
4 Robert Howard, Charlotte
4 Randy Hendrick, Charlotte
4 Dusty Stump, Triangle
5 Josh Esposito, N. Central Florida
5 Adam Leese, N. Florida
6 Kevin Adair, Rochester
8 Bobby Dykes, Chattanooga
8 Thomas Atkinson, Chattanooga
8 David Porter, Nashville
8 Carl Lundin, NE Tennessee
9 Kenny Stevens, New Orleans
9 Cynthia Harris, Pascagoula
9 Tommy Smith, Acadiana
9 Anthony Blakeney, Baton Rouge
10 Denny Naples, Mahoning Valley
10 Mike Swansiger, Stark Central
10 Don Adams, Northwestern Pa.
10 Jesse McIntosh, Northwestern Pa.
10 John Napier, Cleveland
10 Travis Crate, Drake Well
14 Shawn Gannon, Lexington
15 Joel Ziegler, Northern Plains
15 Ric Eckstein, Northwest
15 Rick Mayerich, Arrowhead
16 Eric Cox, Iowa
17 Gil Linker, Oklahoma City
17 Marcia Sommer, Ozark
17 Joe Melendez, Central Texas
17 Charles Prause, Central Texas
18 Juan Diaz, Corpus Christi
18 David Twitte, El Paso
18 Dino Robles, El Paso
18 Drew Fontenot, Lake Charles
18 Richard Ingram, Rio Grande Valley
18 Israel Carls, Rio Grande Valley
18 Rick McAnally, Sabine
18 Jason Bingham, Sabine
18 Cornelio Ontiveras, San Antonio
20 Greg Smith, Utah
20 Brian Ostler, Utah
20 Hech Bevelor, Colorado
20 Cole Dudley, Wyoming
22 Mike Nakimoto, San Francisco
22 Mark Smith, San Francisco
22 Gary Lederer, San Francisco
22 Ryan Costas, Sacramento Valley
22 Miles Peacock, Sacramento Valley
22 Steve Shields, Sacramento Valley
District Educator
4 Gary McCrickland, Tidewater
4 Randy Owens, Carolina
4 Greg Bellamy, Charlotte
4 Robert Simpson, Charlotte
5 Adam Leese, North Florida
6 Kevin Adair, Rochester
8 Chris Renfro, Chattanooga
8 Charlie Bloomer, NE Tennessee
9 Tim Devargas, Mobile
9 Joseph James, Auburn-Opelika
10 Jennifer Munoz, Northwestern Pa.
10 Huck Hughes, Mahoning Valley
12 Sue Silverstein, Milwaukee
12 Dan Crifase, Racine-Kenosha
14 Erin Fromson, Indiana
14 Tim Pinson, Lexington
17 Donnie Williams, N. Texas
17 Dennis Pickering, Central Arkansas
18 Sonny Vela, Corpus Christi
18 Mike Mylnar, Corpus Christi
20 Jeff Oliver, Colorado
20 Gordon Reynolds, Utah
20 Leland Vetter, Wyoming
22 Alex Taddei, Sacramento Valley
22 Dan Turner, San Francisco
Section CWI of the Year
4 David Owens, SW Virginia
4 Dale Clemons, SW Virginia
4 David Kincaid, SW Virginia
4 Nathan Minnix, SW Virginia
5 Curtis Warren, N. Central Florida
6 Carter Cook, Northern New York
6 Jeff Deuel, Rochester
8 Sam Davis, Chattanooga
8 Ian Moreau, Chattanooga
8 Christopher Ennis, Nashville
8 Matt Montoya, Nashville
9 Robert Bennefield, New Orleans
9 Paul Deslatte, New Orleans
9 Barry Bernard, Acadiana
9 Johnny Dupuy, Baton Rouge
10 Jeff Andrews, Mahoning Valley
10 John Stempka, Northwest Pa.
10 Dan Feurstein, Cleveland
10 Travis Crate, Drake Well
14 Wyatt Piediscalzi, Indiana
14 Sherman Cook, Lexington
14 Jim Phillips, Indiana
14 Jack Laudig, Indiana
14 Bill Judd, Tri-River
15 Mike Carey, Northwest
15 Mike ODonnell, Arrowhead
15 Rick Mayerich, Arrowhead
15 Lee Larson, Northern Plains
16 Greg Schroeter, Nebraska
17 John Marx, Oklahoma City
17 Ralph Johnson, Tulsa
17 Larry Yarrington, Ozark
61 WELDING JOURNAL
17 Joseph Francia, Central Texas
17 Jimmy Brewer, Central Arkansas
17 Glen Tarver, E. Texas
18 Jose Gomez, El Paso
18 Scott Witowski, Houston
18 Bill Vincent, Lake Charles
18 Saul Olivera, Rio Grande Valley
18 Mike Stuckey, Sabine
18 Roger Dean, Sabine
18 Michael Martinez, San Antonio
20 Austin Nicodemus, Colorado
20 Dick Keller, Colorado
20 Alan Barber, Colorado
20 Bill Johnson, Wyoming
20 Herb Smith, New Mexico
20 Nicole Wesley, New Mexico
20 Bradley Wilkerson, Utah
District CWI of the Year
1 William Elliott, Boston
4 Walter Sperko, Carolina
4 Virginia Posqual, Carolina
5 Curtis Warren, N. Central Florida
6 Jeff Deuel, Rochester
8 Daniel Ivey, Chattanooga
8 Dan Mobley, NE Tennessee
9 Cleveland E. Rhodes Jr., Mobile
9 Donald J. Berger, New Orleans
9 Charles Payne, Mobile
10 Richard Harris, Cleveland
10 Mark Brereton, Northwestern Pa.
13 George Bane, Illinois Valley
14 Tom Bruno, Lexington
14 Dan Hayes, Sr., Louisville
15 Tom Baldwin, Arrowhead
16 Greg Schroeter, Nebraska
17 Donnie Williams, N. Texas
17 Paul Wittenbach, Tulsa
18 Ellery Francisco, Corpus Christi
18 Terry C. Wells, Houston
18 James Bobo, Lake Charles
20 Joe Ferguson, Colorado
20 Russ Shelby, Wyoming
22 Bill Wenzel, Sacramento Valley
22 Brandon Beattie, Sacramento Valley
22 Mark Smith, San Francisco
District Meritorious
4 Ray Sosko, Charlotte
4 Wayne Smith, Tidewater
5 Howard Record, N. Central Florida
5 Al Sedory, Florida W. Coast
8 Bob Kimbrell, Greater Huntsville
8 Josh Burgess, NE Tennessee
9 Jackie Morris, Mobile
9 Mike Skiles, Acadiana
10 Ward Kiser, Drake Well
10 Richard Harris, Cleveland
12 Ben Newcomb, Madison-Beloit
12 Lloyd Cuddnohufsky, Upper Peninsula
14 Gordon Holl, Lexington
14 Jerry Simpson, St. Louis
16 Diane Steadham Kansas
17 Bill Hall, N. Texas
17 J. Jones, E. Texas
18 Steve Burke, Corpus Christi
18 Justin Kirby, Houston
18 Al Marin, San Antonio
20 Russell Rux, Wyoming
20 Jim Truett, Utah
22 Mark Reese, Sacramento Valley
22 Jerry Wentland, Sacramento Valley
22 Doug Williams, San Francisco
Section Private Sector Instructor
4 Kevin Schaffer, Triangle
4 Bill King, Charlotte
4 Patrick Thomas, SW Virginia
5 Greg Hofmann, N. Central Florida
8 Ruben Gage, Chattanooga
9 Albert Theriot, New Orleans
9 Aldo Duran, New Orleans
9 Cleveland Kelly, Pascagoula
9 Darren Haas, Pascagoula
9 John Gault, Acadiana
9 Annette Brown, Mobile
10 Jesse McIntosh, Northeastern Pa.
12 Tony Stute, Madison-Beloit
14 Cathy Cook, St. Louis
14 Brent Wright, Tri-River
17 Rodney Riggs, Tulsa
17 Thomas Green, Central Arkansas
17 Michael Dugan, Central Arkansas
18 Mike Castro, Corpus Christi
18 James Petru, Corpus Christi
18 Andre Horn, Houston
18 Tac Edwards, Lake Charles
18 Eric Lahmore, Rio Grande Valley
18 Morris Weeks, Sabine
18 Clifton Rogers, San Antonio
20 Shannon Baade, Colorado
20 Mike Heaton, Colorado
20 Nick Hefner, Wyoming
22 Dean Gooding, Sacramento Valley
District Private Sector Instructor
4 Rick Land, Charlotte
4 Brian Burroughs, Tidewater
4 Lynn Showalter, Tidewater
5 Greg Hofmann, N. Central Florida
8 Sam Davis, Chattanooga
10 Donna Bastian, Northwestern Pa.
14 Jeff Sparks, Lexington
14 Gary Dugger, Indiana
17 Charles Griffin, Tulsa
18 Manny Lopez, Corpus Christi
18 Ronald Theiss, Houston
18 Juan Moreno, San Antonio
20 Dale Mortensen, Idaho/Montana
20 Adam Chaez, Colorado
22 Joe Medina, Sacramento Valley
22 Steve Eckley, Sacramento Valley
Member-Get-A-Member Campaign
15+ points
Paul Kreitman, Chicago 15
10 to 14 points
Rodney Riggs, Tulsa 10
Chris Layton, Central Arkansas 10
Shown are the members participating
in the June 1, 2013Dec. 31, 2013 cam-
paign. Members receive 5 points for each
Individual Member and 1 point for each
Student Member recruited. Standings as
of July 18.
See page 65 of this Welding Journal for
campaign rules and the prize list or visit
www.aws.org/mgm. If you have questions
about your member-proposer point sta-
tus, e-mail rhenda@aws.org, or call
(800/305) 443-9353, ext. 480.
George Fairbanks, District 9 director,
nominated the following to receive this
award. Tommy Smith, Barry Bernard, and
Gator Cove Restaurant, Acadiana; Gene
Roy, Tom Reynolds, and Crawfish Town,
Acadiana and Baton Rouge; Anthony Blak-
eney and CEI Fabricators, Baton Rouge;
Paul Hebert, Travis Moore, and Caf Hope,
New Orleans; Rips on the Lake for its out-
standing service at the 2013 District 9 con-
ference; and Lake Pontchartrain Basin Mar-
itime Museum for generously hosting the
District 9 conference.
J. Jones, District 17 director, nominated
the following for this award. The Boardman
Co., Oklahoma City; Patrick Fagerquist,
Lincoln College of Technology, and The Lin-
coln Electric Co., North Texas; Scott Gross,
Crowder College, and Ozark Technical Col-
lege, Ozark; Caterpillar Work Tools, Central
Texas; Angela Harrison, WELSCO, and
Arkansas Career Training Institute, Central
Arkansas; Luminant and Red Ball Oxygen,
East Texas; David Clark and Harry Fite, Gas
and Supply, and Heater Specialists, Tulsa.
John Bray, District 18 director, nomi-
nated the following for this award. Jim
Young, Sparc Academy, and Maverick 1 Test-
ing Laboratories, Houston; Elaine Davis,
San Antonio; Jim Stuckey, Sabine; Nev Aras,
Lake Charles; Dona Ana College, El Paso;
Edwin Rivera and Los Fresnos High School,
Rio Grande Valley; and Tiffany Rivera, Cor-
pus Christi.
The District Director Award provides a
means for District Directors to recognize in-
dividuals and corporations who have con-
tributed their time and effort to the affairs
of their local Section and/or District.
District Director Awards Announced
SEPTEMBER 2013 62
New AWS Supporters
Bumgarner Welding &
Inspection, Inc.
831 E. Windsor Ave., Unit #9
Elkhart, IN 46514
Rep.: Tina Arbuckle
www.bwi-inc.com
BWI offers a wide variety of
welding-related inspection and
consulting services that comply
with the latest industry codes and
specifications. It offers a full range
of QC/QA services for all types of
production welds, welding proce-
dures, and procedure qualification
testing, materials verification,
welder qualification, and third-
party inspections.
Iowa Central C. C.
Welding Technology
One Triton Cir.
Fort Dodge, IA 50501
Rep.: Branden Otto
www.iowacentral.edu
Iowa Central Community Col-
lege offers a technology program
designed to teach fundamental
welding techniques and principles
with an overview of related metal-
lurgy, fabrication, and robotic
welding topics.
Indiana State Pipe
Trades Association
2930 W. Ludwig Rd.
Fort Wayne, IN 46818
Rep.: Jaime Wilhelm
http://indianastatepipetrades.com
Indiana State Pipe Trades
Assn. works to provide its mem-
bers a fair wage and safe working
conditions. This 100-year-old or-
ganization strives to maintain its
tradition of excellence and to serve
as a valuable partner to both its
members and contractors.
Kiewit
9401 Renner Blvd.
Lenexa, KS 66219
Rep.: Jeffrey Fisher
www.kiewit.com
Mecatrnica Ingeniera y
Fabricacin S.A.
Calle 20 de Agosto No. 1, Colonia
Linda Vista Apizaco, Tlaxcala,
C.P. , 90300, Mexico
Rep.: Alfonso Leon
www.mifingenieria.com.mx
Precision Cut Industries
115 Ram Dr., Hanover, PA 17331
Rep.: Justin Kline
www.precisioncut.com
Riccardelli Consulting
Services, Inc.
3375 W. Mayflower Way, Ste. B
Lehi, UT 84043
Rep.: Summer Hunter
www.rcsnde.com
Riccardelli Consulting Services
provides daily in-line inspection of
pipelines with smart-pigging to de-
tect, validate, measure, and char-
acterize pipeline defects. It recom-
mends repairs based on engineer-
ing repair protocol, then inspects
to ensure repairs meet mandatory
code compliance.
Rock Valley College
4151 Samuelson Rd.
Rockford, IL 61109
Rep.: Michael Merriman
www.rockvalleycollege.edu
USAF 2nd Maintenance
Squadron Fabrication Flight
640 Lindbergh Rd., Bldg. 5766
Barksdale AFB, LA 71110
Rep.: Ryan Thompson
Supporting Companies
Ball Service Group Inc.
2365 Shirley Dr.
Kitchener, ON N2B3X4, Canada
Cypress Equipment Service, Inc.
6637 Airline Hwy.
Baton Rouge, LA 70805
DUKSHA
Corua # 101 Jardines
de Churubusco
Monterrey, NL 64590, Mexico
Ebco Industries Ltd.
7851 Alderbridge Way
Richmond, BC V6X2A4, Canada
Industrial Steel, Inc.
PO Box 346, Mims, FL 32754
Summit Metal Fabricators
40 Lowell Rd., Bldg. 2
Salem, NH 03079
LEAS S.p.A.
Via Palladio, 2958
San Giorgio in Bosco
Padova 35010, Italy
SYATEND
Calzade Del Valle 225
Col. Del Valle
San Pedro, NL 66220, Mexico
Affiliate Companies
3J Ryan, Inc.
809 W. Pasadena Fwy.
Pasadena, TX 77506
Arc Tech LLC
1076 Lake St.
Salt Lake City, UT 84105
Bunker Mfg., Inc.
1501 W. 12th St.
Sault Ste. Marie, MI 49783
Countryside Welding LLC
3370 Hwy. 2 E.
Kalispell, MT 59901
Ginco Steel LLC
Plot # 740 Ind. Area #1
Opp. BMW Rd., Sharjah, UAE
Ibis Tek
912 Pittsburgh Rd., Bldg. 1
Butler, PA 16002
K Jones LLC
PO Box 1048
Middlefield, OH 44062
M-Sac, Inc.
1200 N. Central Ave., Ste. 111
Kissimmee, FL 34741
Marvel Mfg. Co.
3501 Marvel Dr.
Oshkosh, WI 54902
Specialty Support Systems, Inc.
2100 Hartel St.
Levittown, PA 19057
T.B.L. Fabrications Co.
31701 Groesbeck Hwy.
Fraser, MI 48026
Turbocare C.A.
Ave. 62 Cruce Con Calle 146
Edif Turbocare No. C5
Maracaibo 4009, Venezuela
Wrights Iron and Steel
Works, Inc.
12314 Old Gordonsville Rd.
PO Box 750, Orange, VA 22960
Educational Institutions
Athens Technical College
Elbert County Campus
1317 Athens Hwy.
Elberton, GA 30635
Center for Advanced &
Professional
Studies (NCSD #1)
970 N. Glenn Rd.
Casper, WY 82601
Chattanooga State College
Engineering Tech - IMJAT
4501 Amnicola Way
Chattanooga, TN 37406
Cope Area Career Center
6052 Slab Landing Rd.
Cope, SC 29038
Dumas High School
300 S. Klein Ave.
Dumas, TX 79029
FCI Herlong
741-925 Herlong Access Rd. A-25
Herlong, CA 96113
John Tyler C. C.
13101 Jefferson Davis Hwy.
Chester, VA 23831
National Institute of Technology
PO Box 15065
Jeddah 21444
Saudi Arabia
Northwest State C. C.
22600 S.R. 34
Archbold, OH 43502
Page & Howard Intl Technical
Training Institute, Inc.
Powerserve Cmpd. Blk 6, Lot 3
Hologra St., LISP1, Diezmo,
Cabuyao, Laguna 4025
Philippines
Pittsburgh Technical Institute
1111 McKee Rd.
Oakdale, PA 15071
Riverland C. C.
2200 Riverland Dr.
Albert Lea, MN 56007
St. Charles C. C.
4601 Mid Rivers Mall Dr., SC203
Cottleville, MO 63376
Technical & Administrative
Training Institute LLC
PO Box 337, Muscat 115, Oman
Tidewater Tech Trades
5301 E. Princess Anne Rd.
Norfolk, VA 23502
Sustaining Member Companies
63 WELDING JOURNAL
SECTIONNEWS SECTIONNEWS
District 1
Thomas Ferri, director
(508) 527-1884
thomas_ferri@victortechnologies.com
District 2
Harland W. Thompson, director
(631) 546-2903
harland.w.thompson@us.ul.com
Shown at the Connecticut Section CWI seminar are proctors (from left) Ray Haley, Chair
Steve Goodrow, Joe McGloin, Nissa Norris, and Russ Norris, site supervisor.
Merilyn McLaughlin receives the District
Meritorious Certificate Award from Mike
Wiswesser, District 3 director, at the Read-
ing Section program.
Attendees are shown at the District 3 conference.
BOSTON
JUNE 28
Activity: Tom Ferri, District 1 director, at-
tended the Connecting for Success event
sponsored by the Massachusetts Associa-
tion of Vocational Administrators for
metal-fabrication and welding instructors.
Virtual reality welder training systems
were demonstrated. The event was held in
Blackstone Valley Technical School, Black-
stone, Mass.
CONNECTICUT
JUNE 2429
Activity: The Section sponsored a CWI
seminar and exam for 45 participants at
the Hartford Sheraton Suites in Hartford,
Conn. Russ Norris was test site supervi-
sor, assisted by proctors Section Chair
Steve Goodrow, Ray Haley, Joe McGloin,
and Nissa Norris.
District 3 Conference
JUNE 7
Activity: Mike Wiswesser, District 3 direc-
tor, conducted the meeting, held at Her-
itage Hills Golf Resort & Conference Cen-
ter in York, Pa. The AWS staff represen-
tative was Andy Cullison, publisher, Weld-
ing Journal.
READING
APRIL 17
Activity: Mike Wiswesser, District 3 direc-
tor, recognized the winners in the Sections
recent welding and scholarship contests
and presented Merilyn McLaughlin and
Tracy Davenport District Meritorious Cer-
tificate Awards. Davenport was also cited
for his services as chairman.
District 3
Michael Wiswesser, director
(610) 820-9551
mike@wtti.com
District 4
Stewart A. Harris, director
(919) 824-0520
stewart.harris@altec.com
SEPTEMBER 2013 64
Reading Section Chair Tracy Davenport
(left) received two awards from Mike
Wiswesser, District 3 director.
Shown at the Pittsburgh Section meeting are from left (seated) Carl Spaeder, Roger Hilti, John Foley, Don Stoll, and Tom White, (standing)
Bill Kashin, Ray Knobbs, Jim Sekely, Chair John Menhart, Brad Kirk, George Kirk, and Carl Ott.
Mark Gilbert (left) is shown with Bill
Rhodes, Southwest Virginia Section chair.
Shown at the New Orleans Section fishing tournament are from left (front) Catherine Chi-
fici and D. J. Berger; (back) Travis Moore, Chair Aldo Duron, Jimmy Goodson, Bruce
Hallila, Mike Skiles, and Tony DeMarco.
George Fairbanks (head of table), District 9 director, is shown with officers of the New Or-
leans and Baton Rouge Sections.
SOUTHWEST VIRGINIA
JUNE 25
Speaker: Mark Gilbert
Affiliation: New River Community Col-
lege
Topic: Robotic welding and automation
Activity: The program was held at Blue
Ridge Library in Roanoke, Va.
PITTSBURGH
JUNE 25
Activity: The Sections executive board,
headed by Chair John Menhart, met at
Springfield Grille in Mars, Pa., for a fiscal
year-end budget review and making plans
for activities for the coming year.
District 5
Carl Matricardi, director
(770) 979-6344
cmatricardi@aol.com
District 6
Kenneth Phy, director
(315) 218-5297
kenneth.phy@gmail.com
District 7
Uwe Aschemeier, director
(786) 473-9540
uwe@miamidiver.com
District 8
Joe Livesay, director
(931) 484-7502, ext. 143
joe.livesay@ttcc.edu
67 WELDING JOURNAL
NEW ORLEANS
MAY 25
Activity: The Section held its 15th annual
fishing tournament at C&M Marina in
Laffite, La. The event raises funds for the
scholarship program and the annual stu-
dent welder competition to be held in No-
vember. Chair Aldo Duron cooked the bar-
becue on a grill built by the Sections Stu-
dent Chapter members. Travis Moore was
the tournament chair. Mike Skiles, Aca-
diana Section chair, served as weigh mas-
ter for the event.
NEW ORLEANS and
BATON ROUGE
JULY 10
Activity: George Fairbanks, District 9 di-
rector, met with executives from both Sec-
tions to plan a joint meeting to welcome
AWS President Nancy Cole and Dean Wil-
son, president-elect. Aldo Duron was cited
for his services as New Orleans Section
chair.
District 9
George Fairbanks Jr., director
(225) 473-6362
ts@bellsouth.net
Nancy Cole, AWS president, is shown at the
Detroit Section ladies night event.
Blackhawk Technical College Student Chapter members take a break in building four metal
benches for a park in Milton, Wis. Shown from left are (seated) Mike Cougar and Wendy
Kienbaum, (standing) Advisor Dan Crifase, Ricky Carmichael, Josh Beyer, Evan Gunsolus,
Joey Kingsley, and Rich Johnson.
Shown at the St. Louis past chairmens program are (from left) Ross Kimbrell, Kevin Cor-
gan, Tully Parker, Vick Shorkey, Pat Cody, Brian Muenchau, and Bob Palovcsik.
DETROIT
JUNE 25
Activity: The Section held its 73rd annual
ladies night dinner and dance party at the
Detroit MGM Grand Hotel & Casino for
450 attendees and 32 sponsor companies.
Special guests included AWS President
Nancy Cole, husband Leon Cole, District
11 Director Bob Wilcox, and wife Mardell
Wilcox.
Blackhawk T. C.
Student Chapter
JULY
Activity: The Student Chapter members,
headed by Advisor Dan Crifase, fabricated
four steel park benches for a new splash
park in the city of Milton, Wis. Local busi-
nesses donated the materials and powder
coating for the project. The Chapter is af-
filiated with the Madison-Beloit Section.
ST. LOUIS
MAY 18
Activity: The Section held its past chair-
mens night program at Fairmont Race
Track in Collinsville, Ill. Honored were
District 10
Robert E. Brenner, director
(330) 484-3650
bobren28@yahoo.com
District 11
Robert P. Wilcox, director
(734) 721-8272
rmwilcox@wowway.com
District 12
Daniel J. Roland, director
(715) 735-9341, ext. 6421
daniel.roland@us.ncantieri.com
District 14
Robert L. Richwine, director
(765) 378-5378
bobrichwine@aol.com
District 13
John Willard, director
(815) 954-4838
kustom_bilt@msn.com
SEPTEMBER 2013 68
District 14 conference attendees are shown in Lexington, Ky.
The Siouxland Section members are shown during their membership drive event in April.
Shown at the CONALEP CAST Student Chapter tour are (from left) Jeff Kamentz, Olivia
Martinez, Manual Flores, AWS President Nancy Cole, Dr. Rene de Luna Alanis, and John
Bray, District 18 director.
District 15
David Lynnes, director
(701) 365-0606
dave@learntoweld.com
District 16
Dennis Wright, director
(913) 782-0635
awscwi1@att.net
Tully Parker, Ross Kimbrell, Kevin Cor-
gan, Vick Shorkey, Pat Cody, Brian Muen-
chau, and Bob Palovcsik.
JUNE 8
Activity: Robert Richwine, District 14 di-
rector, conducted the conference for 27
attendees at Homewood Suites in Lexing-
ton, Ky. Coy Hall, Lexington Section chair,
was chosen to attend the Leadership Sym-
posium (see photo story on page 57) and
Karl Watson was selected to attend the In-
structors Institute at AWS World Head-
quarters in Miami. Alfred Nieves was the
AWS staff representative.
held during the grand opening of A-OX
Welding Supply in Sioux City, Iowa. The
event included demonstrations of Lincoln
Electrics virtual reality arc welding
trainer, and displays from Victor Tech-
nologies, ESAB, American Torch Tip,
Nasco, Walter, Smith, Kimberly Clark,
Revco, Torit Donaldson, 3M, Hyundai
Welding, and Milwaukee Tools.
CONALEP CAST NL
Student Chapter
MAY 7
Activity: Advisor Rene de Luna Alanis con-
ducted a tour of the school for AWS Pres-
ident Nancy Cole, District 18 Director
John Bray, and Jeff Kamentz, AWS cor-
porate director, international sales. The
school offers Lincoln virtual reality weld-
ing equipment to train beginning students
and robotic welding cells for use by the ad-
vanced students. Dr. de Luna Alanis re-
ceived District Director Awards printed in
English and in Spanish.
SIOUXLAND
APRIL 17, 18
Activity: Chair Kelly Kleinwolterink led
the Section in a two-day membership drive
District 17
J. Jones, director
(832) 506-5986
jjones6@lincolnelectric.com
District 18
John Bray, director
(281) 997-7273
sales@afliatedmachinery.com
69 WELDING JOURNAL
Attendees are shown at the District 18 conference.
Shown at the Houston Section golf outing are (from left) Homer Ballard, Calvin Nolen,
Robert Ashlock, and John Bray, District 18 director.
Shown at the AWS Weldmex booth are (from left) District 18 Director John Bray, Ray Shook,
Bob Pali, and Fernando Diez.
Timothy Davis discussed welding engineer-
ing jobs at the Idaho/Montana Section event.
Misty Ralls, deputy District 18 director, is
shown with John Bray, District 18 director.
JUNE 1
Activity: The Corpus Christi Section mem-
bers hosted the conference at OMNI
Bayfront Hotel in Corpus Christi, Tex.
John Bray, District 18 director, conducted
the program for 35 participants plus 13
guests. Gesana Villegas was the AWS rep-
resentative. John Stoll was elected to serve
as District 18 director from January 1,
2014, through December 2017. Misty Ralls
received her deputy District directors
briefcase.
HOUSTON
APRIL 1
Activity: The Section hosted its annual golf
tournament for 80 players at Cypress
Lakes Golf Club in Cypress, Tex. The event
raises funds for the Sections scholarship
program.
Weldmex Show
MAY 6 9
Activity: District 18 Director John Bray
met with Dr. Fernando Diez to discuss
forming an AWS Monterrey Section.
Diez, a graduate of Colorado School of
Mines, is engineering manager for Cater-
pillar in Monterrey. Also working the
Weldmex booth were Ray Shook and Bob
Pali, AWS executive director and treas-
urer, respectively.
District 19
Ken Johnson, director
(425) 957-3553
kenneth.johnson@vigorshipyards.com
District 20
William A. Komlos, director
(801) 560-2353
bkoz@arctechllc.com
SEPTEMBER 2013 70
District 21
Nanette Samanich, director
(702) 429-5017
nan07@aol.com
AWCIWT Chapter members shown at FABTECH are (from left) Luis Chavez, Omar Macias, Mason Hart, Martin Toledo, Raul Renteria,
Gonzalo Huerta Jr., John Stratz, Jefferson Yazzie, Daniel Herrera, James Veldhuis, Scott Gray, Advisor Samuel Colton, and Lynn Bailey.
Ecuador Section members pose for a group shot.
IDAHO/MONTANA
JULY 11
Speaker: Timothy Davis, CWI, CWE
Affiliation: Naval Reactor Facility, staff
engineer
Topic: Careers in welding engineering
Activity: The program was held at Brigham
Young University in Rexburg, Idaho.
AWCIWT
Student Chapter
OCT. 19, 20, 2012
Activity: Advisor Samuel Colton with the
Arizona Western College Institute of
Welding Technology hosted the Welders
Without Borders: Welding Thunder 2012
welding expo and competitions for college
and high school students at its main cam-
pus in Yuma, Ariz.
NOV. 1214, 2012
Activity: The AWCIWT Student Chapter
members participated at the FABTECH
show in Las Vegas, Nev.
Bernard DSilva (left) is shown with Bashkar
Ra, Emirates Welding Section chair.
ECUADOR
JULY
Activity: Section Chair Julio Segura sub-
mitted a group photo from a recent event.
EMIRATES WELDING
JULY 12
Activity: Bernard DSilva was presented
the AWS Certificate of Appreciation from
Bashkar Ra, Section chair. DSilva was
cited for his 25 years of excellent contri-
butions to the Section and the Society on
the occasion of his relocation from Dubai,
UAE, to Canada. The meeting was held in
Dubai.
GERMANY
CALENDAR
Essen, Germany, SEPT. 1117
66th IIW Annual Assembly
2013 Intl Trade Fair
Joining, Cutting, Surfacing
SEPT. 16, 17
Intl Conf. on Automation in Welding
SEPT. 1621
Young Welders Competitions
www.iiw2013.com
District 22
Kerry E. Shatell, director
(925) 866-5434
kesi@pge.com
International
Sections
71 WELDING JOURNAL
Guide to AWS Services
8669 NW 36th St., #130, Miami, FL 33166-6672
T: (800/305) 443-9353; F: (305) 443-7559
Staff phone extensions are shown in parentheses.
AWS PRESIDENT
Nancy C. Cole
nccengr@yahoo.com
NCC Engineering
2735 Robert Oliver Ave.
Fernandina Beach, FL 32034
ADMINISTRATION
Executive Director
Ray W. Shook.. rshook@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(210)
Sr. Associate Executive Director
Cassie R. Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . .(253)
Chief Financial Officer
Gesana Villegas.. gvillegas@aws.org . . . . . .(252)
Chief Technology Officer
Dennis Harwig..dharwig@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(213)
Executive Assistant for Board Services
Gricelda Manalich.. gricelda@aws.org . . . . .(294)
Administrative Services
Managing Director
Jim Lankford.. jiml@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(214)
IT Network Director
Armando Campana..acampana@aws.org . .(296)
Director
Hidail Nuez..hidail@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(287)
Director of IT Operations
Natalia Swain..nswain@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(245)
Human Resources
Director, Compensation and Benefits
Luisa Hernandez.. luisa@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(266)
Director, Human Resources
Dora A. Shade.. dshade@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(235)
International Institute of Welding
Senior Coordinator
Sissibeth Lopez . . sissi@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(319)
Liaison services with other national and international
societies and standards organizations.
GOVERNMENT LIAISON SERVICES
Hugh K. Webster . . . . . . . . .hwebster@wc-b.com
Webster, Chamberlain & Bean, Washington, D.C.,
(202) 785-9500; FAX (202) 835-0243. Monitors fed-
eral issues of importance to the industry.
CONVENTION and EXPOSITIONS
Director, Convention and Meeting Services
Matthew Rubin.....mrubin@aws.org . . . . . . .(239)
ITSA International Thermal
Spray Association
Senior Manager and Editor
Kathy Dusa.kathydusa@thermalspray.org . . .(232)
RWMA Resistance Welding
Manufacturing Alliance
Management Specialist
Keila DeMoraes....kdemoraes@aws.org . . . .(444)
WEMCO Association of
Welding Manufacturers
Management Specialist
Keila DeMoraes....kdemoraes@aws.org . . . .(444)
Brazing and Soldering
Manufacturers Committee
Stephen Borrero..sborrero@aws.org . . . . . .(334)
GAWDA Gases and Welding
Distributors Association
Executive Director
John Ospina.. jospina@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(462)
Operations Manager
Natasha Alexis.. nalexis@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(401)
INTERNATIONAL SALES
Managing Director, Global Exposition Sales
Joe Krall..jkrall@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(297)
Corporate Director, International Sales
Jeff P. Kamentz..jkamentz@aws.org . . . . . . .(233)
Oversees international business activities involving
certification, publication, and membership.
PUBLICATION SERVICES
Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(275)
Managing Director
Andrew Cullison.. cullison@aws.org . . . . . .(249)
Welding Journal
Publisher
Andrew Cullison.. cullison@aws.org . . . . . .(249)
Editor
Mary Ruth Johnsen.. mjohnsen@aws.org . .(238)
National Sales Director
Rob Saltzstein.. salty@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(243)
Society and Section News Editor
Howard Woodward..woodward@aws.org . .(244)
Welding Handbook
Editor
Annette OBrien.. aobrien@aws.org . . . . . . .(303)
MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS
Director
Ross Hancock.. rhancock@aws.org . . . . . . .(226)
Public Relations Manager
Cindy Weihl..cweihl@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(416)
Webmaster
Jose Salgado..jsalgado@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(456)
Section Web Editor
Henry Chinea...hchinea@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(452)
MEMBER SERVICES
Sr. Associate Executive Director
Cassie R. Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . .(253)
Director
Rhenda A. Kenny... rhenda@aws.org . . . . . .(260)
Serves as a liaison between Section members and AWS
headquarters.
CERTIFICATION SERVICES
Managing Director
John L. Gayler.. gayler@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(472)
Oversees all certification activities including all inter-
national certification programs.
Director, Certification Operations
Terry Perez..tperez@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(470)
Oversees application processing, renewals, and exam
scoring.
Director, Certification Programs
Linda Henderson..lindah@aws.org . . . . . . .(298)
Oversees the development of new certification pro-
grams, as well as AWS-Accredited Test Facilities, and
AWS Certified Welding Fabricators.
EDUCATION SERVICES
Director, Operations
Martica Ventura.. mventura@aws.org . . . . . .(224)
Director, Education Development
David Hernandez.. dhernandez@aws.org . . .(219)
AWS AWARDS, FELLOWS, COUNSELORS
Senior Manager
Wendy S. Reeve.. wreeve@aws.org . . . . . . . .(293)
Coordinates AWS awards, Fellow, Counselor nom-
inees.
TECHNICAL SERVICES
Managing Director
Technical Services Development & Systems
Andrew R. Davis.. adavis@aws.org . . . . . . .(466)
International Standards Activities, American Coun-
cil of the International Institute of Welding (IIW)
Director, Operations
Annette Alonso.. aalonso@aws.org . . . . . . .(299)
Associate Director, Operations
Alex Diaz.... adiaz@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(304)
Welding Qualification, Sheet Metal Welding, Air-
craft and Aerospace, Joining of Metals and Alloys
Senior Program Manager, Safety and Health
Stephen P. Hedrick.. steveh@aws.org . . . . .(305)
Metric Practice, Safety and Health, Joining of Plas-
tics and Composites, Welding Iron Castings, Per-
sonnel and Facilities Qualification
Program Managers II
Stephen Borrero... sborrero@aws.org . . . . .(334)
Brazing and Soldering, Brazing Filler Metals and
Fluxes, Brazing Handbook, Soldering Handbook,
Definitions and Symbols, Structural Subcommit-
tees on Bridge Welding, Stainless Steel, and Rein-
forcing Steel
Rakesh Gupta.. gupta@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(301)
Filler Metals and Allied Materials, International
Filler Metals, UNS Numbers Assignment, Arc
Welding and Cutting Processes, Computerization
of Welding Information
Brian McGrath .... bmcgrath@aws.org . . . . .(311)
Structural Welding, Welding in Marine Construc-
tion, Piping and Tubing
Program Managers
Efram Abrams.. eabrams@aws.org . . . . . . . .(307)
Automotive, Resistance Welding, Machinery and
Equipment
Chelsea Lewis.. clewis@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(215)
Friction Welding, Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cut-
ting, High-Energy Beam Welding, Robotics Weld-
ing, Welding in Sanitary Applications
Jennifer Rosario.. jrosario@aws.org . . . . . .(308)
Railroad Welding, Thermal Spraying, Welding Iron
Castings, Welding Qualification
Note: Official interpretations of AWS standards
may be obtained only by sending a request in writ-
ing to Andrew R. Davis, managing director, Tech-
nical Services, adavis@aws.org. Oral opinions on
AWS standards may be rendered, however, oral
opinions do not constitute official or unofficial
opinions or interpretations of AWS. In addition,
oral opinions are informal and should not be used
as a substitute for an official interpretation.
AWS FOUNDATION, Inc.
www.aws.org/w/a/foundation
General Information
(800/305) 443-9353, ext. 212, vpinsky@aws.org
Chairman, Board of Trustees
Gerald D. Uttrachi
Executive Director, Foundation
Sam Gentry.. sgentry@aws.org. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (331)
Corporate Director, Workforce Development
Monica Pfarr.. mpfarr@aws.org. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (461)
The AWS Foundation is a not-for-profit corpora-
tion established to provide support for the educa-
tional and scientific endeavors of the American Weld-
ing Society.
Promote the Foundations work with your financial
support. For information, call Vicki Pinsky, (800/305)
443-9353, ext. 212; e-mail vpinsky@aws.org.
Stropki to Retire as
Lincoln Chair
John M. Stropki
Jr. has announced he
will retire in Decem-
ber from his position
as executive chair-
man and member of
the board of Lincoln
Electric Holdings,
Inc., Cleveland,
Ohio. Upon his re-
tirement, the board
intends to elect
Christopher L. Mapes to the office of
chair in addition to his present role as
president and CEO. With Lincoln Elec-
tric for 41 years, Stropki served as CEO
from 2004 to 2012. In July, Phillip J.
Mason was elected to the board of direc-
tors. Mason, with Ecolab, Inc., since 1974,
recently retired as president of its Europe,
Middle East, Africa sector.
Koike Aronson Appoints
CFO and Mfg. Director
Koike Aronson, Inc./Ransome, Ar-
cade, N.Y., a manufacturer of metal cut-
ting and positioning equipment for the
metalworking industry, has named Tom
Calabrese CFO and Paul King director of
manufacturing. Prior to joining the com-
pany, Calabrese was CFO for nine years
at Flexovit USA, Inc. King, who joined the
company in 1988 as a welder, most re-
cently served as plant superintendent.
SigmaTEK Systems Hires
VP Finance
SigmaTEK Systems, LLC, Cincinnati,
Ohio, a specialist in CAD/CAM nesting
and manufacturing process automation,
has named Anthony Turner vice president
of finance. Turner is a CPA with extensive
experience in domestic and international
finances for both public and private
companies.
C. H. Hanson Makes
Executive Changes
Hand tool manufacturer, C. H. Han-
son, Naperville, Ill., has named Craig
Hanson CEO and Phil Hanson president.
Bill Loebbaka joins the company as COO,
replacing Bob Hudson who recently re-
tired. Craig Hanson previously served as
president and Phil Hanson formerly was
executive vice president. Loebbaka, with
20 years of industry experience, has served
as a business advisor to the company for
more than 15 years.
Aerobraze Names Two
Oklahoma Managers
Aerobraze Engineered Technologies,
Oklahoma City, Okla., a division of Wall
Colmonoy, has named Mark Saffell plant
manager and Brian Martin business de-
velopment manager for the Oklahoma
City facility. Saffell brings 30 years of
experience in the aerospace, defense,
heavy equipment, and oil and gas indus-
tries to the position. Martin has 20 years
experience in the field, primarily with
Rolls-Royce Corp. and aerospace and gas
turbine manufacturing.
Nickel Institute Names
President
The Nickel Institute, Brussels, Bel-
gium, has appointed Tim Aiken president.
A former chair of the board, he succeeds
Kevin Bradley. Aiken has worked his en-
tire career with Anglo American Plat-
inum Ltd., Marshalltown, Johannesburg,
South Africa. The institute is a nonprofit
organization representing the interests of
22 companies that produce three quarters
of the worlds nickel requirements.
CCAM Appoints CTO
The Commonwealth Center for Ad-
vanced Manufacturing (CCAM), Rich-
mond, Va., has appointed Bob Fagan chief
technology officer. In the industry for 30
years, Fagan previously served as a chief
engineer at Pratt & Whitney and earlier
with companies in the gas turbine and
power-generation industries. The center
is a research-based collaboration between
the University of Virginia, Virginia Tech,
and its member manufacturing companies
Brian Martin Mark Saffell
PERSONNEL
SEPTEMBER 2013 72
John Stropki Jr. Christopher Mapes
Phillip Mason
Tom Calabrese Paul King
A STANDING COMMITTEE OF
This Fall Only:
Will Be Hosted By EWI
THE 2013
RWMA
REGIONAL
MEETING
EWI is an organization that provides innovative technology
and engineering solutions for the advancement of manufacturing
competitiveness ewi.org
Exciting Items in The Schedule of Events Include:
A Q&A Session Ask an Expert Panel hosted by EWIs Business Development Managers
Facilitated by Dr. Jerry Gould, EWI Technology Leader a session focused on resistance welding market conditions
Thursday Night Reception Speech:
Vehicle Emissions Regulations and Their Effect on Automotive Material Selection
Russ Balzer, Technical Director of Phoenix Group, Manager of WorldAutoSteel Vehicle Life Cycle Assessment Modeling Programs
A Guided Tour of EWIs cutting-edge laboratories
2013 RWMA Regional Meeting
EWI
1250 Arthur E. Adams Drive, Columbus, OH
September 26 - 27, 2013
Online Registration Opens July 26th
Reservations at the Hilton Garden are open!
1) Guests may call 1-877-STAY-HGI and reference the 2013 RWMA REGIONAL MEETING.
2) Guests may also make reservations online "http://www.columbusuniversityarea.hgi.com"
www.columbusuniversityarea.hgi.com, group code: RWMA13

*Visit www.rwma.org to register and download the schedule of events.
**Follow the RWMA Discussion Group on LinkedIn for frequent updates.

This Fall Only:

This Fall Only:

REGION
RWMA
THE 2013

REGION
RWMA
THE 2013
This Fall Only:

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. MEETING

75 WELDING JOURNAL
worldwide to deliver better manufactur-
ing processes.
Fischer Technology Names
Sales Manager
Fischer Technology, Inc., Windsor,
Conn., a manufac-
turer of coating thick-
ness, material testing,
microhardness, and
material analysis in-
strumentation, has
appointed David
Carreiro sales man-
ager. Previously, Car-
reiro worked for
Thermo Fisher Sci-
entific in various
roles, including sales management and at
CSM Instruments as an applications
engineer.
SME Cites 30 Rising Stars
The Society of Manufacturing Engi-
neers (SME), Dearborn, Mich., has an-
nounced its inaugural 30 Under 30 list-
ing of the brightest young stars in manu-
facturing and the critical STEM (science,
technology, engineering, and mathemat-
ics) fields that underpin our industry. Visit
www.sme.org/30honorees for detailed in-
formation about the program and biogra-
phies and photos of the following hon-
orees. Cited were Catherine Ross, Fair-
fax, Va.; Kevin James Shaw, Freeland,
Mich.; Meghan West, Tolland, Conn.;
Christina Borgese, San Ramon, Calif.;
Alexandria Moseley, Newberg, Ore.; Sri
Atluru, Mebane, N.C.; Allen Henri, Plain-
field, Conn.; Ananya Rajagopal, Dublin,
Ohio; Chad Frank, Marine, Ill.; Raymond
Manning, Playa del Rey, Calif.; Jasone
Dube, Troy, Mich.; Catherine Tradd, San
Diego, Calif.; Aubrey Kelley-Cogdell, Fair
Lawn, N.J.; Kimberly Jung, Holland,
Mich.; Jandre TerreBlanche, Cincinnati,
Ohio; Bret Weber, Independence, Iowa;
Lauren Welch, Seoul, South Korea; Afton
Hollertz, Holdrege, Neb.; Amanda Nixon,
Flint, Mich.; Cody Leuck, Chico, Calif.;
John Giraldo, Fair Lawn, N.J.; Daniil
Popov, Vancouver, Wash.; Ronald
Olkowski III, Big Rapids, Mich.;
Lotheronie Raby, Houston, Tex.; Kyle
Rhodes, Seadrift, Tex.; Ryan Stephenson,
Osceola, Wis.; Ryan Boehm, Kent, Wash.;
Anabel Ugalde-Huebe, Seadrift, Tex.;
Jesse Paschall, Allendale, Mich.; and
Brandon Killian, Santee, Calif.
David Carreiro
PERSONNEL
Member Milestone
Eric Boes
Eric Boes, corporate quality engineer at Delta
Faucet Co., Indianapolis, Ind., affiliated with the
AWS Indiana Section, has received the Copper Club
Award from ASTM International Committee B05 on
Copper and Copper Alloys for his contributions to
copper standardization. An ASTM Fellow, Boes was
cited for his leadership of the main committee as well
as numerous subcommittees and task groups and his contributions to the
development of new standards and revisions of existing standards. He is
also active with committees on nonferrous metals and alloys, precious
metals, electrical contact materials, steel, stainless steel, light metals and
alloys, chemistry for metals and ores, plastic piping systems, and corro-
sion of metals. Boes is also active with ASM International, American
Society for Quality, and American Foundry.
Eric Boes
milestone of 50 years in business. The
company celebrated with an open house
and employee luncheon.
Founded by T. J. (Jim) Snow Sr. on
April Fools Day, 1963, it has grown from
a one-man operation to more than 75 em-
ployees. Currently, it is housed in a 64,000-
sq-ft climate-controlled facility on 12
acres adjacent to the Chattanooga airport.
Company highlights include utilizing a
small, single-engine aircraft to service re-
gional customers; furnishing a multigun
spot welding machine to the Tier 1 sup-
plier manufacturing mufflers for the 2014
Corvette; and building machines used by
companies that resistance weld products
from fabricated steel wire.
Thomas J. (Tom) Snow Jr., CEO and
son of Jim Snow, will soon celebrate his
40th year in the business. Other senior ex-
ecutives include Mark Pepping, VP of
sales; David Hetzler, president/COO;
James Dillard, VP engineering & manu-
facturing; and Sam Snow, third genera-
tion and VP/IT manager.
Robinson Construction
Donates $10,000 to
Perryvilles Welding
Program
Bill Johns, the welding instructor at
Perryville Area Career and Technology
Center at Perry County School District 32,
Perryville, Mo., was recently presented a
$10,000 donation to the schools welding
program from Frank Robinson, president
of Robinson Construction Co., a local li-
censed contractor.
Its going to provide better, more re-
liable equipment for my students, Johns
said. Along with Steve King, the career
centers director, they are using matching
grants to stretch the gift into $35,000
worth of equipment for the welding
program.
His willingness to share his expertise
with our welders has allowed us to meet
certification and safety requirements,
Robinson said of Johns. Were also very
fortunate to have a local vocational pro-
gram that is producing job-ready welders.
Campaign Recognizes
Welding Projects Built by
Miller End Users
Miller Electric Mfg. Co., Appleton,
Wis., recently announced the We Build
campaign. Participants submit a photo via
www.millerwelds.com/webuild of what they
have built with Miller equipment. Every
month, the company will randomly select
10 winners from the submitted welding
projects. These will be shared on its Web
site and through social media channels. It
will run through Dec. 31.
At the end, one grand prize winner will
be randomly selected to win a build your
own, all-expenses-paid trip to New York
City. The winner will choose touring, din-
ing, and entertainment options. The cam-
paigns idea comes from the daily hard
work welder-operators across the country
put into their jobs and home projects to
make the products and machines that
build our world.
Industry Notes
A new welders liability coverage is of-
fered by USA Business Insurance, Bur-
bank, Calif., with adjustments unique
to each independent welder. Plans start
from as low as $79/month. Coverage can
include bodily injury, property damage,
products and completed operations,
damage to the premises, medical ex-
penses, plus personal and advertising
injury coverage. Visit www.businessin-
suranceusa.com.
The Fairfield Industrial Development
Corp. has finished a transaction to ac-
quire Windstream Facilities, Fairfield,
Tex., for technical training with welding
as the first skill. It has been working with
Navarro College; remodeling a 5800-
sq-ft building at the site for 13 welding
stations and a classroom; and is on track
to commence classes this fall.
The Compressed Gas Association has
bestowed the Leonard Parker Pool
Safety Award to Matheson, Basking
Ridge, N.J. The awards are presented
annually to participating member com-
panies recording the greatest improve-
ment in safety performance during the
previous two years.
Air Industries Group, Inc., Bay Shore,
N.Y., has acquired certain assets and
the business of Decimal Industries,
Copiague, Long Island, N.Y., a special-
ist in aerostructure products, including
welded and brazed chassis structures.
Rolled Alloys has expanded capabilities
at its new 66,000-sq-ft service center in
Cincinnati, Ohio, with addition of a
Flow Mach 4 waterjet with a 72 156-
in. bed for cutting material up to 6 in.
NASA Langley Research Center and the
Commonwealth Center for Advanced
Manufacturing recently announced the
NASA center will join the organization
as a government member. This will
create opportunities for joint participa-
tion in R&D of new surface engineer-
ing technologies and manufacturing
systems.
SEPTEMBER 2013 76
WORK
SMART
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Model 1200 Pipemate

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NEWS OF THE
INDUSTRY
Laboratory Testing, Inc., Hatfield, Pa.,
introduced fatigue crack growth testing
as one of its mechanical testing services
performed to the ASTM E647 standard.
Piedmont Technical College, Green-
wood, S.C., and Laurens District 56
have formed a partnership to offer the
colleges journeyman welding certifi-
cate program to students at Clinton
High School. It allows them to complete
the entire certificate in one school year,
and there is no charge to enter.
ThyssenKrupp Metallurgical Products
GmbH, Essen, Germany, has acquired
the business of metal commodity trad-
ing company BenMet NY in New York,
whose product range comprises nickel,
cobalt, cobalt oxide, and minor metals.
Diamond Ground Products, a provider
of preground tungsten electrodes, has
moved to a 40,000-sq-ft location in
Newbury Park, Calif., a few blocks away
from its old location.
Tech-Con Automation, Burlington, On-
tario, has become the first Canadian
systems integrator to get the Certified
Robot Integrator title from the Robotic
Industries Association.
Shiloh Industries, Inc., Valley City,
Ohio, has added aluminum die castings
with on-site heat treating for automo-
tive structural, body-in-white, and com-
ponents to support its focus on being a
casting, laser welding, and stamping sys-
tems supplier.
The PPG Industries Foundation has do-
nated $15,000 to Stark State College for
its Barberton, Ohio, satellite center that
features welding training equipment
and offers academic classes.
The Motoman Robotics Division of
Yaskawa America, Inc., Miamisburg,
Ohio, has acquired all outstanding
shares of Agile Planet, Inc., a developer
of intelligent robotics software.
Manncorp, Inc., an electronics manu-
facturing equipment supplier, has relo-
cated and expanded its corporate HQ
by purchasing, upgrading, and moving
to a new facility in Huntingdon Valley,
Pa., giving it 18,000 sq ft of space.
The Wagner Companies, Milwaukee,
Wis., has added Bystronics BySprint
fiber laser cutting system to its opera-
tion that uses 4000 W of power for pro-
cessing steel plates, aluminum, stain-
less/galvanized steels, and nonferrous
metals.
Hypertherm, Hanover, N.H., is giving
away one of its special edition Power-
max30 plasma cutting/gouging systems
by asking people to let it know what they
would build or have built with a Power-
max. Visitors to its Facebook page vote
on their favorite entry, and the one
with the most votesby September 30
will win.
77 WELDING JOURNAL

CUSTOH
RPRINTS
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THE AMERICAN WELDER
SEPTEMBER 2013 78
S
afety truly starts from the ground up,
making the choice in footwear an
important one Fig. 1.
Many workers dont realize the value
of proper footwear on the job, particular-
ly in winter when worksites can be at their
most dangerous.
Statistics released by the Bureau of
Labor Statistics (BLS) reiterate the
importance of proper safety on the job-
site. The BLS uses the Occupational
Injury and Illness Classification System in
the Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries
and the Survey of Occupational Injuries
and Illnesses.
In 2011, the census found a staggering
2,986,500 nonfatal injuries and illnesses
in the private industry with 908,300 cases
involving days away from work. In addi-
tion, 225,550 of these injuries were falls,
slips, and trips. Moreover, of the 4693
fatal injuries on the job, 681 were associ-
ated with falls, slips, and trips (Ref. 1).
Todays footwear market is full of
manufacturers introducing new boots,
performance technologies, and the latest
additions to the art of safety footwear.
At Keen Utility, a provider of safety
toe work boots, footwear is considered an
important tool for your feet that helps
combat workplace hazards, discomfort,
and fatigue.
However, understanding what you
need and knowing the terminologies to
navigate this sea of work boots will help
you to better find what will hopefully be
your favorite pair of boots. After all, com-
fortable feet make the workday easier
and let you focus on the real job at hand.
Working out in the Cold
Mother Nature provides many extra
challenges for already demanding work-
sites during the winter months. The drops
in temperature and frequent rain and
snow can lead to cold and wet feet
and extremely slippery and hazardous
conditions.
When shopping for winter work boots,
it is important to know what the worksite
conditions will be. What are the lowest
temperatures that you may be working
in? How much time will be spent out-
doors? How much snow and rain does
your area usually get? What kind of work
will you be doing in these conditions?
To find a pair of work boots that will
stand up to the test of your job during the
winter months, you must know your
needs. Understanding the features of
safety footwear and their functions are
the key to buying the right pair. Always
start with your safety manager, foreman,
or HR manager to determine if there are
specific safety-gear requirements for your
job or project.
Understanding cold weather specific
features can ensure safety and comfort in
inclement weather. Wet and/or cold feet
can be a major distraction and hindrance
on the jobsite, not to mention just plain
annoying.
Toe Protection Features
The environment of a welder is often
wrought with heavy hazards. Finding the
right protective toe is, in part, preference.
There are three types of protective toes a
worker can choose from steel, compos-
ite, and aluminum. All three toes can be
ASTM-rated similarly for protection.
Oftentimes, workers will select a specific
safety toe based on their working envi-
ronment and needs.
1. Composite
Composite toes are often a preference
in the chilly winter months. They are typ-
ically comprised of carbon fiber, plastic,
or Kevlar. Also, they comply with
ANSI/ASTM safety requirements and
though lighter than steel are the thickest
option for a safety toe and have a more
pronounced silhouette than their steel or
aluminum counterparts.
Composite toes do not transfer cold or
heat and are nonmetallic, ensuring toes
stay warmer in the colder months.
Additionally, they offer a great safety
option for workers passing through metal
detectors or working in an environment
that needs to stay metal free.
2. Steel
Steel toes are the traditional choice
for protective toe caps but are also the
heaviest and transfer heat and cold.
While your feet arent exposed to the
steel insert, steel toes can conduct tem-
perature, often making toes even colder.
3. Aluminum
Aluminum toes are a lightweight toe
protection option, but again can transfer
Heres a guide for purchasing safety
boots that stand up to winter
weather challenges
MARK REILLY (info@keenfootwear.com)
is the Keen Utility division director,
Portland, Ore.
(Photos courtesy of Keen Footwear.)
Solving the Winter
Work Boot Woes
BY MARK REILLY
THE AMERICAN WELDER
79 WELDING JOURNAL
heat and cold. All three toe protection
options can be ASTM rated similarly for
protection. When shopping for winter
safety footwear, it is important to keep in
mind the working conditions and needs
when making selections.
Insulation Highlights
Insulation in boots can make a big dif-
ference in foot warmth Fig. 2. Many
footwear companies partner with insula-
tion technology manufacturers to meet
the needs of their customers and design
characteristics.
Thinsulate is an insulation, pro-
duced by 3M, that is thinner than most
polyester fiber linings. Its effectiveness
comes from the increased density of
fibers compared with more traditional
insulation. As with most insulation, the
space between fibers not only reduces the
flow of air, but also allows moisture to
escape.
In addition, Keen.Warm is an eco-
conscious lightweight and durable insula-
Fig. 1 Workers at the American Steel
Factory in Oregon are pictured wearing
boots designed to keep them dry and
warm whether they are inside or out.
THE AMERICAN WELDER
SEPTEMBER 2013 80
tion made from charcoal and bamboo
that provides warmth across a range in
temperatures.
One thing to keep in mind when shop-
ping for boots is that the higher the gram
rating, the warmer the boot. A thermal
heat shield footbed can also be beneficial
in the colder months. The multilayer
footbed captures warmth while providing
comfort and support. Having a clear idea
of the worksite demands and temperature
range will help make the decision of insu-
lation levels easier.
Waterproofing
Enhancements
Colder months could mean rain, snow,
or both depending on the area you live in.
No matter which one you will likely
encounter during winter, it means poten-
tial for wet conditions and worse yet, wet
feet.
Waterproofing is paramount for com-
fort and stability in the winter months.
Most waterproof boots are constructed
with a waterproof leather and liner that
prevent moisture from coming in while
allowing sweat to escape, helping to keep
feet dry. GORE-TEX waterproof
membrane is a common addition for
many footwear brands to provide water
protection.
Another option would be more propri-
etary technologies specific to certain
brands. For example, Keen.Dry technolo-
gy is a waterproof, breathable membrane
that lets vapor out without letting water
in, keeping your feet dry all day.
Construction Details
For winter work wear, welt construc-
tion is a great option as it provides
increased stability thanks to a wider foot-
print. Most often you will see boots utiliz-
ing a Goodyear welt construction,
which is also known for its longevity and
durability. The welt construction provides
a durable platform for footwear as the
upper and inner soles are stitched togeth-
er with a leather or plastic strip or welt.
The sole is then stitched through the welt.
This process allows boots to be resoled
or repaired, extending the footwears
longevity.
What Socks to Wear
While your boots provide the safety,
stability, and base for comfort, the socks
you wear with the boots can make a dif-
ference. While thick socks can provide
additional warmth, they may also make
feet sweat. Socks made of moisture wick-
ing materials like merino wool can help
keep feet dry while staying warm.
Todays work socks utilize performance
and comfort features, including toe and
heel pads to help relieve pressure where
feet feel it most; comfort seams; rein-
forced arches; and a variety of other design
additions that make a good pair of socks
the perfect partner for work boots.
Reference
1. United States Department of
Labor, www.bls.gov/iif/.
Fig. 2 This boot features an
insulated soft toe.
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THE AMERICAN WELDER
SEPTEMBER 2013 82
D
espite its abundance in the earth
and atmosphere, and its contribut-
ing benefits as an energy source
natural fuels, for example when hy-
drogen presents itself in the welding
process, it can cause significant quality
and productivity issues.
This highly combustible element (sig-
nified by H on the periodic table and the
atomic number 1) can cause stress in the
microstructure of the base material and
weld metal, leading to hydrogen-induced
cracking (HIC). This cracking (also
called cold, underbead, or delayed crack-
ing) is a rejectable defect requiring re-
pairs that are often costly. More impor-
tantly, HIC is dangerous, as weld failures
from this defect can lead to catastrophic
events if they are not recognized before
a part enters service.
For manufacturers, fabricators, or
contractors welding on steel used in crit-
ical applications such as structural
steel erection, transmission pipelines, the
offshore industry, process piping, and
others that require X-ray and/or code-
quality welds, its absolutely essential to
control the presence of hydrogen
throughout the welding process
Fig. 1. Its a best practice for noncritical
applications as well; however, the mate-
rials being used in these jobs are not al-
ways as susceptible to HIC and so the
issue may be of lesser concern.
To help better understand the impact
of hydrogen in the welding process, its
important to take a deeper look at the
consequences associated with its pres-
ence and the methods for controlling this
element from start to finish.
Entering the Weld Pool
The means by which hydrogen can
enter the weld pool vary. Typically, hy-
drogen picked up during the welding
process is present in the form of mois-
ture. This moisture comes from humid-
ity in the atmosphere or it can come from
the base material in the form of mill scale,
grease, oils, paint, or other coatings.
Welding filler metals can also be a
source of hydrogen in the welding
process. The dry chemicals and metal
powders used as fill for tubular wires
(composite metal-cored and flux-cored
or FCAW wires), as well as the flux coat-
ings on shielded metal arc welding
(SMAW) electrodes can be susceptible
to moisture pickup that introduces hy-
drogen to the weld Fig. 2.
Hydrogen-Induced
Cracking How and
Where Does It Happen?
Hydrogen is quite mobile when intro-
duced into the liquid weld pool, espe-
cially at elevated temperatures, and
Control l i ng Hydrogen-
I nduced Cracking
BLAINE GUY
(blaine.guy@hobartbrothers.com) is an
applications welding engineer with
Hobart Brothers Co., Troy, Ohio.
Five methods are presented to
help control hydrogen and reduce
the cracking risk
BY BLAINE GUY
Fig. 1 Hydrogen can adversely affect the microstructure of a weld and, as a result,
can easily lead to hydrogen-induced cracking.
THE AMERICAN WELDER
83 WELDING JOURNAL
much of it is able to diffuse out of the
weld. Once the weld has cooled, it is more
difficult for hydrogen to escape, and the
element tends to collect in the grain
boundaries at the heat-affected zone
(HAZ) the area of base metal just be-
yond the weld deposit. Over time, hydro-
gen collects in these areas and builds
stress that, in some cases, is high enough
that HIC occurs. Hydrogen-induced
cracking can also occur in the weld metal
itself and when it does, it is typically
transverse to the weld direction.
Materials with higher carbon and/or
alloy levels are especially prone to HIC.
This susceptibility comes from the pres-
ence of and propensity toward a more
brittle or crack-sensitive microstructure
called martensite.
Martensite can occur naturally during
the steel-forming process, resulting from
the heating and cooling of the metal. It
can also develop during the welding
process. The heat of the welding process
can change the microstructure of the base
material, especially in the HAZ, making
it more brittle (or creating martensite),
especially if the weld has cooled rapidly.
As the carbon and/or alloy content in-
crease, the chance of forming martensite
also increases.
Typically, HIC occurs at temperatures
below 600F (more commonly around or
below 300F) and within 48 h of complet-
ing the weld. In some cases, it can occur
as much as a week or more after welding.
In applications with greater contribut-
ing factors highly restrained joints,
high levels of hydrogen, or rapid cooling
after weld completion HIC can occur
much sooner, even immediately.
Methods to Control
Hydrogen
To avoid the consequences of HIC
rework, increased labor and material
costs, lost productivity, and quality issues
it is important to implement methods
of controlling hydrogen in the welding
process. Its even more important to pro-
tect against this weld defect to prevent
dangerous product failures. Below are
five key ways.
Minimize Joint Stress.
Highly restrained joints can
contribute to HIC, not because
they are more prone to accumulating hy-
drogen, but rather because they are al-
ready naturally under stress. That stress
can contribute to the other stresses cre-
ated by the presence of hydrogen in the
weld and lead to cracking. When possi-
ble, designing a joint to minimize stress
can be helpful (in conjunction with good
welding practices that reduce hydrogen)
to reducing the HIC.
Use Proper Pre- and Post-
weld Heating. Preheating and
postweld heat treating
(PWHT) are both critical means to min-
imizing HIC.
Preheating provides two key benefits.
First, it can remove residual moisture in
the base material, which would otherwise
be a source of hydrogen. Secondly, it helps
slow down the cooling rate after the weld
is completed, which allows more time for
the hydrogen to diffuse out of the weld
and reduces the formation of crack-sensi-
tive martensite. For example, a base ma-
terial preheated to 500F will take much
longer to cool than a base material that is
an ambient temperature of 70F.
Similarly, elevating the temperature
of the weldments after welding can help
any hydrogen that is present diffuse more
readily.
Select the Appropriate Filler
Metal. Filler metal manufactur-
ers typically offer tubular wire
(metal-cored and flux-cored wires) and
SMAW electrodes in low-hydrogen vari-
eties. There is an optional designation for
diffusible hydrogen that can be included
in the American Welding Society (AWS)
classification.
Filler metals featuring H4 or H8 des-
ignators have passed tests proving that
they deposit weld metal containing low
levels of diffusible hydrogen. For exam-
ple, filler metals with an H4 designation
consistently produce weld metal deposits
containing less than 4 mL of hydrogen
per 100 g of deposited weld metal (H8 =
8 mL). The SMAW electrodes can have
an additional designation R that means
the electrode is resistant to absorbing
moisture.
Solid wires also offer low hydrogen
levels. Because of the way these filler
metals are manufactured (they have no
fill material), they are less susceptible to
Fig. 2 The image on the left shows a weld made with a low-hydrogen metal-cored wire, and the image on the right is a weld com-
pleted with a cellulosic (nonlow-hydrogen) SMAW electrode. Both welds were completed following the same procedures and sub-
merged in mineral oil to show the presence of hydrogen diffusing from the welds.
1
2
3
THE AMERICAN WELDER
SEPTEMBER 2013 84
moisture pickup and therefore less sus-
ceptible to HIC. Note, however, the hy-
drogen designation is optional in the
AWS classification and typically not in-
cluded for solid wires.
Store and Handle Filler
Metals Properly. It is impor-
tant to store filler metals in a
dry area and keep them in their original
packaging until they are ready for use,
not only to reduce the opportunity for
hydrogen pickup, but also to prevent
them from gathering other contaminants,
such as dirt or debris.
The storage area should also be simi-
lar in temperature to the environment in
which the welding will take place. Storing
the filler metal in a cold area and moving
it to a hot one can lead to condensation,
increasing the chance of hydrogen being
introduced into the weld. If a storage area
of similar temperature is not available, al-
lowing the filler metal to acclimate to the
temperature of the welding environment
before opening the package can help min-
imize the risk of condensation and, sub-
sequently, cracking.
Consider the Filler Metal
Packaging. Filler metal pack-
aging that is heat and/or vac-
uum sealed is most likely to block mois-
ture and hydrogen from the product. Tu-
bular and solid wires are often packaged
in this style of bag. Also, SMAW elec-
trodes are available in plastic resealable
packaging that can help resist moisture.
For some SMAW electrodes, it is impor-
tant to place them in a designated oven
after they have been opened to prevent
them from accumulating moisture.
Conclusion
The introduction of these methods
into the welding process is the first and
best way to control hydrogen. Following
these steps can help reduce the risk of
cracking that leads to costly rework,
downtime, increased labor needs, poor
productivity, and most importantly, prod-
uct failure.
In addition, knowing the means by
which hydrogen can enter the weld is a
good defense against potential problems.
4
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THE AMERICAN WELDER
SEPTEMBER 2013 86
N
orthrop Aircraft, Inc., began devel-
oping the first all-magnesium air-
craft for what was then the U.S.
Army Air Corps (USAAC) in the late
1930s. The aircraft was called the XP-56
Black Bullet (Fig. 1), a single-seat, pusher-
propeller, flying-wing interceptor fighter.
The plane was the companys competitor
for a 1939 USAAC specification for a sin-
gle-seat interceptor fighter, competing
against the Curtiss-Wright XP-55 and the
Vultee XP-54. Only two prototypes were
made before the project was canceled.
During that time, the Northrop engineers,
in collaboration with the Dow Chemical
Co., which supplied the magnesium,
began to develop techniques to weld mag-
nesium. It was this magnesium welding re-
quirement that led to what we now know
as gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW).
Northrop Engineer Russell Meredith
made the first crude GTAW torch. He
used a tungsten electrode, held in a torch
that was similar to half of an atomic hy-
drogen welding (AHW) torch, a process
that was still in use at that time. He added
some tubing to deliver gas to surround the
electrode with a blanket of helium and
shield the weld pool with helium at the
same time. Helium, a monoatomic gas,
was chosen because magnesium burns in
most polyatomic gases like oxygen, car-
bon dioxide, and nitrogen. Except for the
crudeness of his torch and the use of he-
lium instead of argon, his result was much
the same as how we practice direct cur-
rent electrode negative GTAW today. A
patent was filed for Merediths torch on
January 4, 1941. United States patent
2,274,631 was issued February 24, 1942,
and assigned to Northrop Aircraft, Inc. It
is important to note that the Japanese at-
tacked Pearl Harbor between those two
dates.
Other patents by Russell Meredith,
AUGUST F. MANZ, Union, N.J.,
is an AWS Fellow.
A short history relates the development
and first use of the process
BY AUGUST F. MANZ
Origins of Gas
Tungsten Arc Welding
THE AMERICAN WELDER
87 WELDING JOURNAL
which were assigned to Northrop Aircraft,
were 2,342,086 (Fig. 2), Method of Weld-
ing Magnesium and Alloys Thereof, which
was filed January 14, 1943, and issued Feb-
ruary 15, 1944, and 2,376,265, Inert Gas
Blanketed Arc Welding Torch, filed Febru-
ary 25, 1943, and issued May 15, 1945.
Development work was first reported
in articles published in The Welding Engi-
neer in September 1942, pages 2729, with
the title Heliarc Welding, and in the
Welding Journal, October 1942, pages
490-s and 523-s, with the title Heliarc
Welding of Stainless Steel. Both of these
articles were written by Thomas E. Piper,
who was a process engineer with Northrop
Aircraft in Hawthorne, Calif.
The term heliarc first appeared in
print with the publication of these two ar-
ticles; the term gas tungsten arc welding
was introduced much later. Heliarc is a
combination of the first three letters of
helium and the word arc. The process was
called tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding,
or even WIG welding, in some countries.
The W is used in place of T because it
stands for wolfram, another name for
tungsten.
It is interesting to note that at the time,
heliarc welding was used with either a
tungsten electrode or a carbon electrode,
unlike today where only tungsten is em-
ployed.
Initially, Northrop engineers used the
new welding torch with a carbon elec-
trode, direct current electrode positive,
and helium for welding stainless steel, fer-
rous metals, and copper alloys. Tungsten
and direct current electrode negative was
used for magnesium. Except for its use in
the Thomas E. Piper articles, this was the
first and last time heliarc was used to de-
scribe welding with a carbon electrode.
Heliarc was never again used to describe
the carbon electrode version Piper had
described. From then on, heliarc was used
only for the tungsten electrode version.
Another article was published in the
Welding Journal in December 1942 on
pages 598-s to 607-s, with the title Arc
Welding of Magnesium Alloys by W. S.
Loose and A. R. Orban. A two-part series
with the same title as in the Welding Jour-
nal, but with different text, was published
in The Welding Engineer in December 1942
and January 1943. In these articles, he-
liarc was used to describe what we call gas
tungsten arc welding today.
The Linde Air Products Co., then a di-
vision of the Union Carbide and Carbon
Corp., obtained the patent rights. Both of
these firms are now gone via company
mergers. Union Carbide is now part of
Dow, and what was the welding part of
Linde is now part of ESAB. The term he-
liarc is still in use today by ESAB.
Fig. 1 The GTAW process got its start
because Northrop Aircraft needed to
weld magnesium to build this plane, the
XP-56 Black Bullet. Only two prototypes
were made. Testing showed the plane not
only underperformed but that it was ba-
sically not airworthy. However, the les-
sons learned were used on later
Northrop flying wing designs. (Photo
courtesy of the National Museum of the
Air Force, Dayton, Ohio.)
Fig. 2 The design shown in
this later patent is the same
illustration used in the origi-
nal patent for Merediths
torch.
THE AMERICAN WELDER
LEARNING TRACK
SEPTEMBER 2013 88
The local need for skilled welders
prompted Beal College in Bangor,
Maine, to initiate a state-of-the-art
welder training facility featuring a com-
prehensive two-year program developed
and taught by experienced instructors.
Jesse Crosby, welding technology pro-
gram director, said, This program is
what the vocational students and dis-
placed workers of Maine have needed for
a long time. With the economy on the
rebound, Beal will be able to lead welding
graduates to successful careers with plen-
ty of opportunities from locally in Maine
to Alaska and overseas. The staff at Beal
College will do its best to prepare welding
program students to become professional
tradesmen with the option for further
education in fields like engineering.
College President Allen T. Stehle
added, Beal College now has the newest
and one of the largest welding facilities of
any school in the state. We are proud to
say that Beal will produce some of the
finest welders in New England by 2015.
Off to a Good Start
Erin Leighton, director of admissions,
said the Welding Technology program is
the first occupational associate degree in
the history of the college. On Jan. 2, the
official start date, 37 students entered the
program, with an additional 14 spots
filled July 1.
The students practice welding in a
new, 5300-sq-ft building with a 10,000-
ft
3
/min roof top exhaust fan vented to the
outside as well as a 12,000 ft
3
/min fume
extractor that provides source capture to
all 14 welding booths. The study sessions
are conducted in a soundproof classroom.
The shop floor amenities include welding
booths fitted with the latest equipment
including Lincoln, ESAB, and
Hypertherm welding machines and wire
feeders, a Samson CNC plasma arc cut-
ting system, Grizzly bandsaw, rod ovens,
tungsten electrode grinder, and
Milwaukee grinders and bandsaw.
Ridgid 535A automatic pipe threading
machines chain vises, and tools are used
in all pipe fitting and welding courses.
Welding Courses
The AWS-certified associates degree
curriculum includes the following major
courses of study: Introduction to metal-
lurgy, fundamentals of and practical pipe-
fitting, basic through structural and
advanced shielded metal arc welding, flux
cored arc welding, basic through
advanced gas metal arc (GMA) and gas
tungsten arc welding (GTAW), and
GTAW of pipe and aluminum. Rounding
out the studies are general education
courses in critical thinking, sociology, col-
lege composition, technical mathematics,
Maines Beal College Offers a New
Advanced Welder Training Program
A cutting-edge, two-year, accredited welding technology
program promises to graduate some of the finest welders
in New England by 2015
BY HOWARD M. WOODWARD
HOWARD M. WOODWARD
(woodward@aws.org) is associate editor
of the Welding Journal.
The Tuesday-Thursday morning class members are (from left) Instructor Mike Collins, Chris Wilson-Frascone, Seth Hall, John Cook, Jedidiah
Rambo, Felicia Prescott, Judson Pratt, Derek Mitchell, Nick Robichaud, Brandon Tozier, Fred Veilleux, and Program Director Jesse Crosby.
Jesse Crosby (right) receives the AWS District
Director Certificate Award from Tom Ferri,
District 1 director.
THE AMERICAN WELDER
SEPTEMBER 2013 90
and general psychology. Students are
taught techniques of quality assurance,
quality control, welding metallurgy, blue-
print reading, and pipe welding. Included
are 16 weeks of pipe fitting layout and
design.
Graduates of the Welding Technology
program will have the opportunity to test
for two nationally recognized, all-position
AWS certifications in shielded metal arc
and flux cored arc welding, plus one
American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME) pipe welding test in
the 6G position.
Also offered is the four-week evening
course Basic Shielded Metal Arc Welding
Workshop, subtitled a basic welding pro-
gram designed as a personal enrichment
course for the hobbyist. It provides 24
hours of instruction that develop skills in
the flat and horizontal positions using
E7018 electrodes.
The two-day, 16-hour Welding Clinic
course presents the fundamentals of
GMAW where each student receives one-
on-one instruction. The project is to build
a wood stove that you can take home to
help keep you warm on those long, cold
days of ice fishing.
Customized training is also available
for individuals, small groups, or compa-
nies. Contact Campus Director Corey
Leighton for details.
Unique Mod System
Beal College offers a popular Mod
class-scheduling system that allows
prospective students to choose one of six
start dates to begin their studies rather
than having to wait for the start of a tra-
ditional semester. The Mod 12-month
school year is divided into six eight-week
terms. While full-time students still com-
plete the same number of college credits
per year as with a traditional schedule,
they focus on fewer classes at a time. The
classes meet on Mondays and
Wednesdays or Tuesdays and Thursdays
for 2
1
2 hours, and many programs offer
evening in addition to day classes. Very
few majors have classes on Fridays. Full-
time students take two courses per Mod.
About the Instructors
Jesse Crosby, a welder with 14 years
experience, came to Beal College from
United Technologies Center (UTC) in
Bangor where he taught welding for three
years and at Job Corps for three years
prior to that. He personally oversaw the
construction of the new welding lab and
preparation of the welding technology
curriculum. Active with AWS, Crosby
earned the District Meritorious Award,
which was presented by Tom Ferri, AWS
District 1 director, for his services plan-
ning and reorganizing the Maine
SkillsUSA welding competition.
Mike Collins, a full-time instructor in
the welding technology program, also has
impressive credentials. He taught welding
at Job Corps, and worked as a journey-
man pipefitter/welder, affiliated with
Local 716 Pipefitters Union, for 28 years.
He also brings five years of experience as
a safety representative for a large con-
struction corporation to the position.
Welding Careers
The Maine Department of Labor
posts on its Web site that the starting
annual pay for welders in the state is
between $31,000 and $50,000. Beal
College is dedicated to helping its gradu-
ates find employment in their specialized
fields. Last year, 78% were successful.
Corey L. Leighton said, We have had
a lot of inquiries about a program like this
(welding) and not just from prospective
students. Some local companies are con-
cerned that there will be a shortage of
skilled workers when their current
employees retire.
Tom Ferrri added, The prospects for
qualified welders in the state of Maine
are endless. With Cianbro Construction,
LEARNING TRACK
The Monday-Wednesday morning class members are (from left) Program Director Jesse
Crosby, David Lowe, Kaleb Bridges, James Smith, Elizabeth Richards, Jacob Scoville, Aaron
Thayer, William Garnett, and Instructor Mike Collins.
The Monday-Wednesday afternoon class members are (from left) Program Director Jesse
Crosby, Jacob Platte, Chris Foster, Joseph Murphy, Dana Albert, Wayne LeVasseur, Dylan Smith,
Joshua Nylund, Chris Davis, Jesse Stanwood, Nick Searles, and Instructor Mike Collins.
THE AMERICAN WELDER
SEPTEMBER 2013 92
the largest nonunion company on the
East Coast, Bath Iron Works, and many
smaller fab shops, there is plenty of work
for the skilled, educated welder.
Financial Aid
Maggie Magee, director of financial
aid, said, Beal Colleges policy is that no
student should be denied the opportunity
to attend college because of a lack of
financial resources. She added, The
best way to start the financial aid process
is to fill out the free Application for
Student Financial Aid form online at
www.fafsa.gov. The college urges appli-
cants to schedule an appointment with
the Financial Aid office to discuss their
career goals, educational opportunities,
financial needs, and tour the campus.
There are many financial sources
for those who qualify, including Federal
Pell Grants, Federal Supplemental
Education Opportunity Grants, Maine
State Grants, Federal Stafford Loans, as
well as Veterans Educational Benefits.
Prospective students may e-mail their
questions about financial aid to
mmagee@bealcollege.edu. Questions about
applying for admission to Beal College or
to arrange for a campus tour should be
e-mailed to admissions@bealcollege.edu.
Bout Beal and Bangor
Beal is a commuter college, small, pri-
vate, and locally owned. Established in
1891, it is fully accredited by the
Accrediting Council for Independent
Colleges and Schools. It offers associate
degrees in numerous disciplines designed
to provide hands-on skills training to pre-
pare students for jobs that are in demand
in todays marketplace.
Bangor, incorporated in 1791, current-
ly has a population of 33,000. Known as
the Gateway to the Maine Highlands
Region, the city offers a wide variety of
student housing opportunities with all of
the amenities of a rich urban environ-
ment. The colorful 31-ft-tall statue of leg-
endary lumberjack Paul Bunyan still
watches over the city that during the
1850s boasted it was The Lumber
Capital of the World. At the time, it was
busily engaged in shipbuilding and com-
merce. Local celebrity author Stephen
King brought the Bunyan statue to life in
his 1986 novel titled, IT. Today, Bangors
sawmills and shipyards are gone, the
dominant forest industry in the area
today is pulp and paper. The city has
evolved into a widely diversified econo-
my, to become the regions largest center
of retail and service businesses and a cen-
ter for government, education, and
employment.
The Tuesday-Thursday afternoon class members are (from left) Instructor Mike Collins, Melanee Sapiel, Anthony Nacri, Lauren Savoy, Bryton
Allen, Joseph Denbow, Austin Bean, David Nevells, Kyle Lynch, Michael Armstrong, Dustin Mitchell, Eric Bryant, Lucas White, Matthew Wilson,
Derek Bond, and Jesse Crosby, program director.
Beal College student Derrick Mitchell practices 0.045 flux core welding in preparation for his
AWS all-position certification.
Beal College
www.bealcollege.edu
99 Farm Rd.
Bangor, ME 04401
(207) 947-4591
Contacts:
Jesse Crosby
program director
Welding Technology
jcrosby@bealcollege.edu
Corey L. Leighton
campus director
cleighton@bealcollege.edu
LEARNING TRACK
Founded in 1919 to advance the science, technology
and application of welding and allied joining and cutting
processes, including brazing, soldering and thermal spraying.
www.aws.org/conferences
Register at www.fabtechexpo.com
T
his conference covers
welding, examination,
and post-weld heat
treatment of dissimilar joints,
including carbon-steel, nickel-
base, stainless, chrome-moly
and other alloys. It also covers
topics such as explosive
welding and how standards
address the complicated nature
of dissimilar welds.
The traditional welding codes
are nearly silent on the issue of
joining dissimilar metals.
Many companies do not
haveor have lostexpertise
in this area.
The most difficult-to-weld
challengesincluding various
material combinations
involving aluminum, creep-
enhanced ferritic steels, nickel
alloys, and morewill be
covered.
AWS Welding Dissimilar Metals Conference
FABTECH Chicago Nov. 18, 2013
THE AMERICAN WELDER

FACT SHEET
Adequate ventilation needs to be pro-
vided for all welding, cutting, brazing, and
related operations. Adequate ventilation
means enough ventilation such that per-
sonnel exposures to hazardous concentra-
tions of airborne contaminants are main-
tained below the allowable limits specified
by the authority having jurisdiction.
The Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) or others may be
the authority having jurisdiction. Al-
though not an authority having jurisdic-
tion, many of these exposure limits are
adopted from the publications of the
American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH).
Use respiratory protective equipment
when adequate ventilation is not practical.
The factors for determining adequate
ventilation include the following:
1. Volume and configuration of the
space in which operations occur
2. Number and type of operations gen-
erating contaminants
3. Concentrations of specific toxic or
flammable contaminants being generated
4. Natural air flow (rate and general at-
mospheric conditions where work is being
done)
5. Location of the welders and other
persons breathing zones in relation to the
contaminants or sources.
In cases where the values for allowable
exposure limits vary among recognized
authorities, the lower values should be
used to effect the maximum personnel
protection.
Fumes and gases from welding and cut-
ting cannot be classified simply. The com-
position and quantity of fumes and gases
are dependent upon the metal being
worked, the process and consumables
being used, coatings on the work such as
paint, galvanizing, or plating, contami-
nants in the atmosphere such as halo-
genated hydrocarbon vapors from clean-
ing and degreasing activities, as well as the
factors itemized in this section for ade-
quate ventilation. A good practice to re-
duce the generation of fumes and gases
from paints and primers is to grind or sand
the surface to bare metal prior to welding.
Note, however, that the method of re-
moval may generate particulates that re-
quire worker protection.
In welding and cutting, the composition of
the fumes is usually different from the com-
position of the electrode or consumables.
Reasonably expected fume products of
normal operation include those originat-
ing from consumables, base metals and
coating, and the atmospheric contami-
nants noted.
Reasonably expected gaseous products
include carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide,
fluorides, nitrogen oxides, and ozone.
The recommended way to determine
adequate ventilation is to sample for the
composition and quantity of fumes and
gases to which personnel are exposed.
Breathing Zone Sampling
Where concentrations of airborne
fume contaminants are to be determined
by sampling of the atmosphere, sampling
shall be in accordance with AWS F1.1,
Method for Sampling Airborne Particulates
Generated by Welding and Allied Processes.
When a helmet is worn, the samples shall
be collected inside the helmet in the
welders breathing zone.
Avoid the Fume
Welders and cutters shall take precau-
tions to avoid breathing the fume directly.
Avoiding the fume can be done by po-
sitioning of the work, the head, or by ven-
tilation that captures or directs the fume
away from the face. Tests have shown fume
control is more effective when the air flow
is directed across the face of the welder,
rather than from behind. Most of the fume
appears as a clearly visible plume that rises
directly from the spot of welding or cutting.
Types of Ventilation
If natural ventilation is not sufficient to
maintain contaminants below the allow-
able limits, mechanical ventilation or res-
pirators shall be provided.
Natural ventilation is acceptable for
welding, cutting, and related processes
where the necessary precautions are taken
to keep the welders breathing zone away
from the fumes and where sampling of the
atmosphere shows that concentration of
contaminants are below the allowable lim-
its specified previously.
Mechanical ventilation includes local
exhaust, local forced air, and general area
mechanical air movement. Local exhaust
ventilation is preferred.
Local exhaust ventilation means fixed
or movable exhaust hoods placed as near
as practicable to the work and able to
maintain a capture velocity sufficient to
keep airborne contaminants below the al-
lowable limits. Local forced ventilation
means a local air moving system (such as a
fan) placed so that it moves the air hori-
zontally across the welders face. General
mechanical ventilation may be necessary
in addition to local forced ventilation.
Examples of general mechanical venti-
lation are roof exhaust fans, wall exhaust
fans, and similar large area air movers.
General mechanical ventilation is not
usually as satisfactory for health hazard
control as local mechanical ventilation. It
is often helpful, however, when used in ad-
dition to local ventilation.
Ventilation should not produce more
than approximately 100 ft/min (0.5 m/s)
air velocity at the work (welding or cut-
ting) zone. This is to prevent disturbance
of the arc or flame. Approximately 100
ft/min air velocity is a recommended max-
imum value for quality control purposes in
welding and cutting. It is not intended to
imply adequacy in contaminant control
for worker health protection.
Recirculation
Precautions shall be taken to ensure
excessive levels of contaminants are not
dispersed to other work areas. When air is
recirculated, the buildup of the contami-
nants beyond allowable limits shall be pre-
vented. Manufacturers precautions per-
taining to consumables and processes
shall be observed.
Air Cleaners
Air cleaners are to be used only if it has
been determined by atmospheric sam-
pling that they maintain the level of haz-
ardous contaminants below the allowable
limits referred to previously.
Air cleaners are devices that circulate
contaminated air through filters and
return the filtered air to the ambient
environment.
The devices reduce the amount of air
exhausted to the outdoors and reduce
make-up air requirements. Most filters do
not remove gases. Therefore, adequate
monitoring must be done to ensure con-
centrations of harmful gases remain below
allowable limits.
Ventilation of Welding Work Areas
Excerpted from ANSI Z49.1:2012, Safety in Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes.
SEPTEMBER 2013 94
www.aws.org/conference
Are you outside your "comfort zone"
in dealing with welding in your operations?
A group of highly experienced welding engineers will hold a two-day AWS conference for
manufacturing professionals who have to make decisions about welding that are outside their
"comfort zone."
If you find yourself facing questions in the welding area that relate to...
0ost control
quallty lssues and defects
Automatlon optlons and capltal equlpment
Requlrements of codes and standards
...this conference will not give you ALL the answers, but it will tell you how to approach the
challenges of welding, and provide you with valuable take-home tools.
How to get up to speed quickly. How to ask the right questions.
How to get the results you need, save money, and stay out of trouble!
This two-day conference is for managers, engineers, designers, and others with welding responsibility but limited
exposure to or background in welding. The conference focuses on arc welding applications, but the principles have
universal applicability. Presentations and discussion are based on the Application Analysis Worksheet, which was
developed to teach a senior college course to engineers about to enter industry, with the objective of helping them
develop a path to understand and deal with the challenges they were about to face.
Register at www.fabtechexpo.com
Founded in 1919 to advance the science, technology and application of welding and allied joining
and cutting processes worldwide, including brazing, soldering and thermal spraying
SO YOURE THE NEW
WELDING ENGINEER
AWS Conference:
November 19-20, 2013
McCormick Place
Chicago, Illinois




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ABC Testing Incorporated
Founded 1981
ABC Testing Incorporated was founded by
Carleton A. Richardson out of his home in
Bridgewater, Massachusetts. The business
has remained in the family with his son
Bruce taking over in 2003. He is a 1982
Northeastern University graduate with a
degree in mechanical engineering, ASNT
certified level III, AWS certified welding
inspector (CWI), and NYDOT certified
ultrasonic inspector. We celebrated our
30th year in business in 2011. Our number 1
commitment is customer service. ABC
Testing Inc. is certified as ASNT SNT TC
1A, level III in ultrasonic, radiography, mag-
netic particle, liquid penetrant, and visual.
We have several AWS certified welding in-
spectors on staff. We can provide inspectors
certified by the NYDOT in ultrasonic
testing. We are also certified by ABS to
perform ship hull thickness surveys. We are
Veriforce certified for inspection of gas
pipelines. Visit our Web site to see what
we have to offer or contact us with any
questions you may have.
ABC Testing Incorporated
95 First Street
Post Office Box 868
Bridgewater, MA 02324
(508) 697-6068
Fax: (508) 697-6154
www.abcndt.com
Action Superabrasive Inc.
The Action Superabrasive Inc. (ASA) dia-
mond and cBN product line includes:
resin, polyimide, vitrified, and electroplated
products in diameters up to 1200 mm. Our
products are customized to meet the de-
mands of today's advancements in materials
technology and are applied in every corner
of the industry including centerless, center-
type and internal grinding, surface grinding,
toolroom and tool production. ASA also
features resin bonded superabrasives
in continuous rims up to 36 in. diameter.
Standard delivery is two weeks.
Action Superabrasive Inc.
945 Greenbriar Pkwy.
Brimfield, OH 44240
(330) 673-7333
Fax: (330) 673-9414
www.actionsuper.com
Ardleigh Minerals, Inc.
Founded 1994
Ardleigh Minerals is a specialty recycler pro-
viding one-stop recycling services. Ardleigh
can ship all your recyclables on one truck, at
one time. Since 1994 Ardleigh has been
specializing in the recycling of raw materials
generated in thermal spray preparation and
processing, including aluminum oxide,
silicon carbide, glass, plastic, bicarb blast
media, metal chips, solids, grindings, turn-
ings, steel, stainless, zinc shot/dust, thermal
spray, plasma spray, cold spray, and HVOF
overspray powders, dusts, solids, and sludge
containing chromium, cobalt, copper,
indium, molybdenum, nickel, rhenium and
tungsten carbide. Ardleigh proudly serves
the aerospace, automotive, catalytic,
electronic, and thermal spray industries.
Ardleighs corporate offices are located
in Beachwood, Ohio. Ardleigh also has
facilities in Cleveland, Charlotte, Houston
and Phoenix.
Bay State Surface
Technologies
Founded 1968
Make Bay State your complete source for
thermal spray equipment, materials, and
services. We've been in business for more
than 40 years and we are known for our high
quality and affordable plasma spray systems,
power feeders, twin wire arc metallizing
equipment, thermal spray powder, and
wire. We offer turnkey solutions and a
broad array of auxiliary equipment.
AS9100/ISO 9001 registered and award win-
ning quality and service. Check out our new
40-kw plasma system, which is value priced
for those companies that are just starting
out with plasma spraying. See special offers
online.
201 Washington Street
Auburn, MA 01501
(508) 832-5035
jkapur@aimtek.com
www.baystatesurfacetech.com
THERMAL SPRAY PROFILES(advertisements)
SEPTEMBER 2013 96
Camfil Air Pollution Control
Founded 1963
Camfil APC is a leading global manufac-
turer of cartridge dust and fume collectors
for the thermal spray industry. Our Farr
Gold Series dust collector is the most tech-
nologically advanced available delivering
greater reliability, ease of maintenance and
extended service life to our customers. By
analyzing your thermal spray application
and processes, we can lead you to the best
dust removal system to meet emissions re-
quirements and satisfy all safety concerns,
including fire and explosion prevention.
(800) 479-6801 or (870) 933-8048
filterman@camfil.com
www.camfilapc.com
CenterLine (Windsor) LTD.
Founded 1957
CenterLines Supersonic Spray Technology
Division (SST) supplies Cold Spray
metal coating systems and supplies to the
aerospace, defense, glass, and automotive
industries. Cold spray is a cost effective,
practical process, resulting in very low
oxidation, high density metal coatings with
little to no effect on temperature sensitive
materials. Cold Spray coatings are extremely
machineable with thin or thick build
characteristics and are accepting of dissimi-
lar materials with no galvanic reactions. In
addition, CenterLine provides an extensive
range of process development, system
integration, R&D support, and job shop
services. The SST family of products ranges
from portable spray systems to fully auto-
mated turnkey production systems. The
company also offers a wide variety of
powder blends and peripheral equipment.
Contact CenterLine to discuss how Cold
Spray can protect, repair, restore, refinish
and recoat your manufactured products.
(519) 734-8464
info@cntrline.com
www.supersonicspray.com
Donaldson Torit
Dust Collectors & Filters,
Donaldson Company, Inc.
Founded 1915
Donaldson Torit Downflo and
Oval (DFO) dust collectors with Ultra-
Web nanofiber filters are the ideal
solution for thermal spray applications.
The Ultra-Web filters provide high
filtration efficiency and can last twice as
long as typical filters. Get cleaner air
with Donaldson Torit!
World Headquarters
1400 W. 94th St PO Box 1299
Minneapolis MN 55440 USA
(800) 365-1331
www.donaldsontorit.com
Hayden Corporation
Founded 1919
Hayden Corporation's expertise in wear
protection spans three generations and multi-
ple industries. Our experience with the
strictest tolerances and standards (military,
aerospace, proprietary applications, etc.)
helps us solve clients' engineering challenges,
not just their service needs. Specialized capa-
bilities make Hayden a unique resource in the
Northeast: 1) Our own metallurgy lab; 2)
In-the-field thermal spray service, eliminating
time and shipping expenses; and 3) CNC-
guided laser cladding services for intricate
wear surfaces. In addition to the full
range of thermal spray coating processes,
Hayden also has in-house machining capability
for preparing and finish grinding customer
components.
333 River St.
West Springfield, MA 01089-3603
(413) 734-4981
Fax: (413) 785-5052
www.haydencorp.com
97 WELDING JOURNAL
SEPTEMBER 2013 98
Plasma Powders & Systems
Incorporated
Plasma Powders & Systems, Inc. is celebrat-
ing over 30 years in the thermal spray
industry. Providing tools to build the future,
we offer an extensive inventory of thermal
spray materials and services including
thermal spray and ceramic powders, wires,
turnkey systems, individual components,
parts, equipment overhaul and repair
services. We provide training at our facility
or on-site at your company on all the ther-
mal spray metalizing equipment we sell, as
well as technical customer assistance
via telephone with our expert technicians.
Plasma Powders is the manufacturer of
BONDRITE, one of the leading bond-
coats in the thermal spray industry.
228 Boundary Road, PO Box 132
Marlboro, NJ 07746
(732) 431-0992
www.plasmapowders.com
The Platt Brothers & Company
Platt Brothers manufactures zinc and
zinc/aluminum alloy wires used for zinc
thermal spray, metalized coatings. zinc and
zinc alloy wire sprayed coatings are
integral steps in the manufacture of
various electronic, capacitor, automotive,
heat exchanger and tube and pipe products.
Thermally sprayed zinc based alloy wire
coatings are also used in the Corrosion pro-
tection of bridges, locks and dams, above
ground storage tanks, light poles, and other
critical infrastructure.
2670 South Main St.
Waterbury CT 06721
(203) 753-4194
www.plattbros.com
Polymet Corporation
Polymet is a world-class manufacturer of
high-performance welding, hardfacing and
thermal spray wire. Our manufacturing
processes include a patented hot extruded
forged wire process, rolling, die drawing,
and alloy cored wire fabrication. Polymets
multiple wire processing capabilities allows
it to be an innovator in problem solving. The
high quality products provide protection
against abrasion, corrosion, impact and
high temperature application for the
aerospace, automotive, chemical, petro-
chemical, cement, mining, lumber, power
generating, and other industries.
Progressive Surface
Founded 1968
Progressive Surface is a full service thermal
spray equipment supplier that develops
coating processes and turnkey systems for
the thermal spray community. Our 100HE
coating system can achieve significantly
higher particle velocities and deposition
rates, which enhances the capabilities and
efficiency of the spray process. Engineered
to provide a stabilized arc, the 100HE uti-
lizes a simplified single anode and cathode
design combined with ternary gas mixture to
produce a high enthalpy plasma. Since the
100HE has three powder injection modes
(axial, radial and external) which can be
used in any combination, the system
provides uniform particle melting over a
range of commercial powders and is an
excellent tool for advanced coating applica-
tions. We continue to advance the thermal
spray field through ongoing projects
researching the emerging technologies of
solution and suspension plasma spraying.
4695 Danvers Drive SE, Grand Rapids,
Michigan 49512-4018 USA
(800) 968-0871 or (616) 957-0871
Fax: (616) 957-3484
sales@progressivesurface.com
www.progressivesurface.com
Saint-Gobain
Founded 1920
Saint-Gobain is a world class manufacturer
of equipment and consumables for the
thermal spray coatings industry. Our
expansive equipment experience dates back
to 1920 with the development of the first
oxyacteylene flame wire gun followed by
Rokide Spray Systems, Plasma Spray
Systems, PTA and many innovative materi-
als. We offer a wide range of consumables
in the form of powder, flexible cords,
Rokide rods and wire for use in many
different applications and industries. We
supply our own raw materials and this
enables us to develop a product to meet your
exact needs.
Visit our website at
www.coatingsolutions.saint-gobain.com.
1 New Bond Street
Worcester, MA 01615
(800) 243-0028
(508) 795-2380
coatingsolutions@saint-gobain.com
www.coatingsolutions.saint-gobain.com
Sulzer Metco
Sulzer Metcos innovative solutions improve
the life, reliability and performance of your
manufactured components and industrial
processes. Customers benefit from a broad
range of surface solutions, including ad-
vanced thermal spray materials, integrated
systems, and equipment for all thermal spray
processes, specialized coating and surfacing
services, high quality braze and weld hard-
facing materials, laser cladding systems,
materials and services. Our state-of-the-art
products, solutions and services are
delivered through a global sales, customer
support and manufacturing network.
1101 Prospect Ave.
Westbury, NY 11590
(516) 334-1300
Fax: (516) 338-2414
www.sulzermetco.com
Superior Shot Peening, Inc.
Superior Shot Peening, Inc. is the leading
international provider of finishing and
refurbishing of oil field tools, applying
thermal spray coatings with all systems
including HVOF, Plasma, Twin Arc, and
HVAF. Additional processes include shot
peening, phosphate, xylan, metalizing,
machining, grinding, magnetic particle test-
ing, ultrasonic peening and other protective
coatings in both shops in Houston, TX,
China, and Romania. We offer also interna-
tional field crews for service worldwide.
2350 Security Forest Dr.
Cleveland, TX 77328
(281) 432-0900
Fax: (281) 432-0912
International
Thermal Spray Association
Founded 1947
The International Thermal Spray Association is
a professional organization dedicated to
expanding the use of thermal spray technologies
for the benefit of industry and society. Once
known as Metallizing Service Contractors, the
association has been closely tied to almost all
major advances in thermal spray technology,
equipment and materials, industry events,
education, standards, and market development
in North and South America. ITSA member-
ship represents a broad spectrum of thermal
spray markets throughout the world. Contact us
for copies of our What Is Thermal Spray? and
SPRAYTIME newsletter publications.
For more information, contact
Kathy Dusa
P.O. Box 1638
Painesville, OH 44077
(440) 357-5400
Fax: (440) 357-5430
itsa@thermalspray.org
www.thermalspray.org
Hausner Industrial Coatings
Hausner Industrial Coatings, a business
division of Hausner Hard Chrome Inc. pro-
vides surface modifications that will enhance
component performance, increase life and
repair damage components. We provide
alternatives to hard chrome plating and
welding overlays using HVOF coatings,
robotic control and QS quality systems.
Coatings used in power general, oil and gas,
mining equipment, roofing industry and
on-site applications. Multiple locations.
Contact: Bruce Dulin
3094 Medley Road
Owensboro, KY
(270) 684-2279
670 Greenleaf Ave.
Elk Grove Village, IL 6007
(847) 439-6010
www.hausnerinc.com
99 WELDING JOURNAL
ATTENTION
THERMAL SPRAY MARKETEERS
We would like to thank you for
advertising in the fourth thermal
spray profile that the AWS Welding
Journal has published.
If you would like more information
on how to include your company
in the next Thermal Spray profile,
please contact us by email at
salty@aws.org or lea@aws.org.
You can also call us at 1-800-443-
9353 ext. 243, 220 or 254.
JOE FULLER LLC
We manufacture tank turning rolls
3-ton through 120-ton rolls
www.joefuller.com
email: joe@joefuller.com
Phone: (979) 277-8343
Fax: (281) 290-6184
Our products are made in the USA
EQUIPMENT FOR SALE
OR RENT
CAREER OPPORTUNITIES
CLASSIFIEDS
WELDING TECHNOLOGY INSTITUTE OF AUSTRALIA
CEO (SYDNEY, AUSTRALIA)
A rare opportunity to make your mark on the Australian construction, design, manufacturing,
and fabrication industry
A unique business ideally suited for someone who genuinely wants to make a difference
and add value.
Sydney based
Step into this CEO role where you will be instrumental in shaping the direction of Aus-
tralian industry. This role is essentially responsible for creating growth, building sustainable
and progressive frameworks within a robust business model, as well as creating and devel-
oping advantageous initiatives through visionary leadership and industry knowledge.
The WTIA is a membership-based, cooperative, not-for-profit, national organization
representing the Australian welding industry. The organization brings together its member-
ship, industry, government, and other institutes to lead and develop internationally aligned
standards, R&D, qualification and certification, education and training, and technology trans-
fer in order to deliver safe, reliable and competitive welding-related activities.
The success of the WTIA to date has been driven by an energetic, passionate and inspi-
rational leader who has developed a unique culture of innovation, client-focus and outstand-
ing performance. In conjunction with well-developed systems and processes that operate at
all levels within the business, he has built a team of people who make a difference. As such,
he is leaving some big shoes to fill so we are looking for an all-star to take on this unique
challenge!
Reporting to the Board, the newly appointed CEO will bring across their expertise to
elevate the organization and extend its reach, engage with key stakeholders, raise aware-
ness and drive revenue through the development and implementation of effective marketing
and fund-raising strategies.
As to be expected of a role of this level and importance, the responsibilities will be wide
ranging and diverse, but will focus primarily on the following:
Adding value to the current culture of team and clients;
Implementation of the strategic business plan;
Executing identified opportunities for growing revenue;
Mentoring and developing a team of passionate, enthusiastic and driven individuals;
Ensuring the existing infrastructure and processes can prepare it for future growth;
Managing the Financial Metrics of the business;
Attracting, identifying, recruiting, developing and retaining leaders for the relevant divisions;
Improving the training and members revenue generation;
Planning and implementing programs, establishing strong and appropriate relationships
with the Board, committees, volunteers, staff, and clients as well as developing smooth and
constructive relationships with executive colleagues, outside agencies, organizations and
individuals.
Encouraging innovation and business improvement
Personal characteristics essential to the success of this role are self-assuredness with a
willingness to learn, enthusiasm, drive and a passion for nurturing and developing staff. This
role is challenging and requires the ability to consistently adapt, embrace and drive innova-
tions.
This position commands someone who can meet deadlines and maintain a flexible work
schedule in line with the demands of the executive management team. You will be required
to convey a professional and positive image and attitude regarding WTIA and the not-for-
profit and for-profit sectors along with demonstrating commitment to continued professional
growth and development.
Ideally, experience in an engineering, fabrication or manufacturing environment with an
unwavering appreciation of welding-related technology is sought. A solid understanding of
not-for-profit or membership-based organization operations would be most beneficial.
An industry-leading salary package will be negotiated with the successful candidate
commensurate with experience and contribution.
This is a rare opportunity within a truly unique business, and as such will appeal to some-
one who genuinely wants to make a difference and add value.
To apply online or hold further discussion, please contact Kristine Berry at
Kristine@peopleconnexion.com.
Put Your Products and
Services to Work in the
January 2014
Welding Marketplace
Spread the word on your company around
the world by promoting a full-color photo of
your newest and hottest welding products
or services to more than 80,000 AWS
members and customers in this famous
welding product photo guide, WELDING
MARKETPLACE.
As an extra bonus, your ad will be posted
on the AWS Web site with an active link to
your Web site. Also, a digital link of Welding
Marketplace will be sent to more than
65,000 AWS members. Make AWS
members your customers!
Closing date is
November 15, 2013
Call the AWS sales team at
(800) 443-9353
Rob Saltzstein at ext. 243
salty@aws.org
Lea Paneca at ext. 220
lea@aws.org
Sandra Jorgensen at ext. 254
sjorgensen@aws.org
SEPTEMBER 2013 100
EQUIPMENT FOR SALE OR RENT
SERVICES
CERTIFICATION
& TRAINING
MITROWSKI RENTS
Made in U.S.A.
Welding Positioners
1-Ton thru 60-Ton
Tank Turning Rolls
Used Equipment for Sale
www.mitrowskiwelding.com
sales@mitrowskiwelding.com
(800) 218-9620
(713) 943-8032
CWI PREPARATORY
Guarantee Pass or Repeat FREE!
80+ HOUR COURSE
MORE HANDSON/PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Houston, TX Sep. 30Oct. 11
Houma, LA Nov. 1122
Ellijay, GA Dec. 213
Pascagoula, MS Oct. 21Nov. 1
56+ HOUR COURSE
EXTRA INSTRUCTION TO GET A HEAD START
Houston, TX Oct. 311
Houma, LA Nov. 1422
40 HOUR COURSE
GET READY FAST PACED COURSE!
Houston, TX Oct. 711
Houma, LA Nov. 1822
Test follows on Saturday at same facility &
includes additional self study for weekend
FOR DETAILS CALL OR E-MAIL:
(800) 489-2890
info@realeducational.com
Also offering: 9Year CWI Recertification,
RT Film Interpretation, MT/PT/UT Thickness,
Welding Procedure Fundamentals,
CWS, SCWI, Advanced Inspection Courses
2013
101 WELDING JOURNAL

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Place Your
Classified Ad Here!
Contact Frank Wilson,
Senior Advertising
Production Manager
(800) 443-9353,
ext. 465
fwilson@aws.org
Knight School of Welding
AWS Accredited Testing Facility
Louisville, Kentucky
TRAINING TESTING INSPECTION
MIG (GMAW) STICK (SMAW)
TIG (GTAW) 6G PIPE UPHILL
CWI (Certified Welding Inspector) Training
AWS Certification Testing & ASME Sec. 9
GI BILL VA - Select Programs For
Enrollment of Veterans
Day & Evening Training Job Assistance
Call (502) 778-9767
www.knightschoolofwelding.com
Email info@knightschoolofwelding.com
Abicor Binzel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
www.binzel-abicor.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 542-4867
Aimtek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
www.aimtek.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 772-0104
ALM Materials Handling Positioners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
www.almmh.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(815) 673-5546
ArcOne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
www.Arc1Weldsafe.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 223-4685
Arcos Industries, LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IBC
www.arcos.us . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 233-8460
Astaras Welding Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
www.e3tungsten.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .web contact only
Atlas Welding Accessories, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
www.atlaswelding.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 962-9353
AWS Education Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89, 93, 95
www.aws.org/education/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353, ext. 455
AWS Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16-17
www.aws.org/foundation/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353, ext. 250
AWS Membership Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85, 91
www.aws.org/membership/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353, ext. 480
AWS Publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
www.aws.org/standards/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(888) 935-3464
Camfil Air Pollution Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
www.camfilapc.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 479-6801
Champion Welding Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
www.championwelding.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 321-9353
Commercial Diving Academy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
www.commercialdivingacademy.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(888) 974-2232
Cor-Met . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20, 80
www.cor-met.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 848-2719
Diamond Ground Products, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
www.diamondground.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(805) 498-3837
Divers Academy International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
www.diversacademy.edu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 238-3483
ESAB Welding and Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
www.esabna.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 372-2123
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SEPTEMBER 2013 102
Introduction
With advantages such as high energy
density and small heat-affected zone
(HAZ), laser beam welding has been
widely used in industry. Fiber laser weld-
ing produces good quality and high effi-
ciency, which are very desirable in system
integration (Refs. 13). Accurate joint
tracking is the key to ensure laser welding
quality. In recent years, the main method
of joint detection is the machine vision.
The information of the joint position is
captured by a visual sensor, and the laser
beam focus position is adjusted to follow
the weld joint according to its offset (Refs.
4, 5). Due to the concentrated welding en-
ergy, a small laser spot diameter and a nar-
row root opening, together with the
smoke, metal plume, and spatter during
welding, makes it difficult to use the ma-
chine visual method to directly obtain the
weld information and realize accurate
joint tracking (Ref. 6). Usually the weld-
ing speed of a high-power fiber laser is fast
and the root opening is narrow. This
makes it difficult to track the weld joint
due to the small laser spot diameter (Refs.
7, 8). Clear images of the weld pool need
to be captured to analyze the exact weld
path when the visual method is applied to
detect the weld position (Refs. 9, 10).
High-Power Fiber Laser Welding
Joint Offset
Infrared Radiation Neural Network Model
The traditional methods of joint track-
ing are the arc and vision sensor methods
(Refs. 1116). The arc sensor method is ef-
fective for joint tracking during arc welding.
It has good resistance to arc light, heat, and
magnetic disturbances. However, the arc
sensor is limited to recognizing the joint po-
sition for V-groove and fillet welds. At pres-
ent, the most popular technique used for
weld detection is based on the principle of
optical triangulation. A structured light is
projected onto the weldment surface in the
front of the laser spot and the reflected scat-
tered light is imaged back to a camera.
However, in the case where the width of a
butt joint is less than 0.1 mm, the root open-
ing is too narrow to measure directly using
optical triangulation.
The thermal radiation goes through the
whole welding process, and the thermal
phenomenon contains a wealth of welding
information (Refs. 17, 18). An infrared cam-
era can be used to capture molten pool im-
ages and analyze the welding status.
A new method has been proposed to
detect the offset between the laser beam
spot and the weld joint. The root opening
was narrow and the joint width was less
than 0.1 mm. When the laser beam spot
deviates from the joint, it will inevitably af-
fect some characteristics of the molten
pool (Ref. 10). Considering that the whole
laser welding process is accompanied by
thermal radiation, a high-speed infrared
camera was used to capture the molten
pool images during welding. Molten pool
characteristic parameters such as keyhole
characteristic parameters, the centroid
value of a keyhole, and heat accumulation
effect parameter were extracted as a state
vector to research the relationship with the
joint offset. Also, in order to reduce the in-
fluence of the noises on the measurement
of the joint offset during welding, a BP
neural network method was used to design
a mathematical model for joint offset
recognition in high-power fiber laser weld-
ing. This model takes into full account the
factors and the interference that may in-
fluence the measurement of the joint off-
set. The joint offset was indirectly
acquired by the calculation of the molten
SUPPLEMENT TO THE WELDING JOURNAL, SEPTEMBER 2013
Sponsored by the American Welding Society and the Welding Research Council
Neural Network Model for Recognizing Joint
Offset during Fiber Laser Welding
Experiments were conducted to detect the offset between the laser beam and the
joint in high-power fiber laser butt-joint welding of Type 304 stainless steel
BY X. D. GAO, L. MO, Q. WEN, AND S. KATAYAMA
KEYWORDS
High-Power Fiber Laser
Welding
Joint Offset
Infrared Radiation
Neural Network
Model
X. D. GAO (gaoxd666@126.com), L. MO, and
Q. WEN are with the School of Electromechani-
cal Engineering, Guangdong University of Tech-
nology, Higher Education Mega Center, Panyu
District, Guangzhou, China. S. KATAYAMA is
with the Joining and Welding Research Institute,
Osaka University, Ibaraki, Osaka, Japan.
ABSTRACT
It is required that the laser beam focus be controlled to follow the weld path in the
laser welding process. Small focus and wandering off the weld joint may result in insuffi-
cient penetration or unacceptable welds. Recognition of joint offset, which describes the
deviation between the laser beam focus and the weld joint, is important for obtaining high-
quality welds. A model based on back propagation (BP) neural network was proposed to
detect the joint offset. A high-speed infrared camera was used to capture the molten pool
images during high-power fiber laser butt-joint welding, in which the joint root opening
width was less than 0.1 mm. The characteristics of infrared radiation in the situation where
the laser beam focus centered and then deviated from the joint weres analyzed. The
molten pool images were processed to reinforce the molten pool thermal features. Molten
pool feature parameters such as the keyhole characteristic, keyhole centroid, and the heat
accumulation effect parameters were defined. Also, the corresponding joint offset was
measured. Those parameters were applied as the inputs for the proposed neural network
to train the network weight parameters. Thus, a model based on BP neural network was
established to calculate the joint offset. This model had an adaptive ability to the laser
welding environments. Experimental results proved the accuracy of the proposed model
to recognize the weld joint offset based on the molten pool feature parameters.
251-s WELDING JOURNAL
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pool characteristic parameters, which es-
tablished the foundation for controlling
the movement of the laser beam focus.
Experimental Setup
The experimental system consisted of
a Panasonic VR-016 6-axis robot, YLR-
10000 high-power fiber laser welding
equipment (laser power 10 kW), shielding
gas (argon), and a welding experimental
platform equipped with a NAC Memre-
cam fx RX6 high-speed infrared camera
whose sampling rate was 1000 frames per
second. Image size was 512 512 pixels.
To eliminate the interference and obtain
the best infrared image of a molten pool, a
combination filtering system with a filter
length of 960990 nm was placed in front
of the vision sensor.
The actual arrangement of the fiber-
laser welding setup is shown in Fig. 1A.
Figure 1B depicts the schematic of the ex-
perimental device. The welding path is
shown in Fig. 1C. The specimens were
Type 304 austenitic stainless steel plates
with the dimensions of 150 100 10
mm (LWD). The welding path was an
oblique trajectory, which reflected the
welding joint deviation encountered in in-
dustry (Ref. 19).
At the beginning of welding, the laser
beam spot wandered off the joint center-
line, and the horizontal distance between
the start point and joint centerline was
1.26 mm. The laser beam moved along an
oblique line (dashed line in Fig. 1C), and
the offset between the laser beam spot
and joint centerline gradually decreased
until the laser beam spot was on the joint
centerline, then the laser beam moved off
the joint centerline and the offset be-
tween the laser beam spot and the joint
centerline gradually became larger. The
deviation between the welding end point
and the joint centerline was 0.3 mm.
Two polished and clean Type 304
austenitic stainless steel plates were fixed
on the work table and clamped by jigs.
The root opening between the two plates
was less than 0.1 mm, and the weldments
were cleaned before welding. The move-
ment of the weldment fixed on the work-
table was controlled by an X-Y-Z servo
system. The laser welding head was fixed
and the laser beam was focused vertically
on the weldment surface. The welding
speed was 2.5 m/min, the gas flow was 20
L/min, and the laser focus distance was
300 mm. The top and back views of the
welded specimen are shown in Fig. 2.
Molten Pool Image Processing
In order to highlight the keyhole and
its surrounding area in a molten pool
image, grayscale transformation was used
to compress the lower grayscale of a
molten pool image. To separate the key-
hole from the molten pool image, linear
transformation and Ostu threshold seg-
mentation methods were used to obtain a
binary image.
In image processing, the Otsu method
was used to automatically perform the his-
togram-shaped image thresholding. This
algorithm assumes the image to be thresh-
olded contains two classes of pixels (e.g.
foreground and background), and then
calculates the optimum threshold separat-
ing those two classes so that their intra-
class variance is minimal. The molten pool
image processing is shown in Fig. 3, where
the keyhole was segmented from a molten
pool image. Figure 3A shows an original
molten pool image whose size is 512 512
pixel. The image resolution was 11.4
pixel/0.1 mm. Figure 3B was obtained by
gray transformation of a molten pool
image. It maps the values in intensity of
Fig. 3A to new values, increasing the con-
trast of the image. Figure 3C was obtained
by Ostu threshold segmentation, in which
the image threshold was calculated
automatically.
During laser welding of a butt joint, the
laser beam focus was controlled to move
along the joint, but the laser beam focus
deviated from the weld centerline at first,
then gradually centered the weld, and fi-
nally it deviated from the weld centerline
again. The temperature distribution and
the change of heat radiation characteristic
at the moment when the laser beam cen-
tered or deviated from the weld could be
fully observed and analyzed. A total of
3243 frame infrared images were collected
in the whole experiment, including the sit-
uations where the laser beam focus cen-
tered and deviated from the weld.
Extraction of Molten Pool
Characteristics
Characteristic Parameters of a Keyhole
The keyhole plays an important role in
laser welding. The formation of a keyhole
is the most advantageous feature of laser
welding, and it could be used to monitor
weld quality. The keyhole geometry could
be studied as a function of the main oper-
ating parameters such as welding speed,
laser power, etc., and it could be observed
by the ray-tracing method (Refs. 2022).
With fiber laser welding, the metal is radi-
SEPTEMBER 2013, VOL. 92 252-s
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Fig. 1 Schematic of fiber laser welding experiments. A Fiber laser welding setup; B schematic di-
agram of experimental setup; C oblique trajectory of laser beam movement.
A
B
C
ated by the laser beam, then vaporized
and expanded dramatically, producing a
meltdown pressure.
Deep penetration relies on the evapo-
ration of material by the high-power fiber
laser beam in order to drill a vapor capil-
lary, usually referred to as a keyhole. A
large quantity of the laser beam energy
gathers in the keyhole. The energy passed
along the keyhole wall and was absorbed
by the metal. Because of the differences
between the physical structure of the weld
and the joint, when the laser beam devi-
ated from the weld centerline, the heat
distribution would change. According to
the Stefan-Boltzman law, the total energy
of the infrared radiation is directly pro-
portional to the thermodynamic tempera-
ture. A little change in temperature will
cause a tremendous change in total energy
from the infrared radiation. This phenom-
enon will be reflected and a keyhole mor-
phological fluctuation will clearly appear
in the infrared molten pool images. Thus,
the keyhole configuration was closely re-
lated to the joint offset.
In order to study the influence of the
joint offset on the keyhole dynamic be-
havior, the characteristics of the keyhole
configuration were analyzed. The abscissa
values of up, down, left, and right end-
points of a keyhole were defined as the
keyhole characteristic parameters. The
progression scan method was used to ex-
tract those characteristic parameters from
the binary keyhole images. Figure 4 shows
the corresponding 2700 characteristic pa-
rameters of the keyhole images. Figure
4A D was obtained by calculating the key-
holes up, down, left, and right endpoints
after keyhole segmentation in the whole
welding process. The solid line and the
dashed line are corresponding to the
measured and fitted value of the charac-
teristic parameters, respectively. It can be
seen that the abscissa values of the down,
left, and right endpoints of the keyhole
were increased with the movement of the
laser beam focus.
Keyhole Centroid
In deep penetration laser welding, the
energy of the laser beam is partially con-
verted into heat, which drives the thermo-
dynamics of the welding process. The laser
beam produces the keyhole with the in-
crease in laser beam energy. The keyhole
position could be considered as the laser
beam focus location. We can determine in-
directly whether the laser beam deviates
from the weld joint through the keyhole
position. While the laser beam centered
on the weld interface, the keyhole shape
was approximately symmetrical. While the
laser beam deviated from the joint center-
line, the keyhole configuration apparently
changed. A relationship between the key-
hole configuration and the joint offset
could be established by researching the
keyhole varieties. There may be a correla-
tion between the coordinate values of a
keyhole centroid and the joint offset. Fac-
tors that affected the image centroid were
the distribution of gray level in two-di-
mension space. The centroid of a molten
pool image is the gray scale center of the
target area of a molten pool image (Ref.
23), while the centroid of a keyhole is the
gravity of grayscale of the keyhole area.
The centroid value of a keyhole image
could be calculated by Equation 1. Be-
cause the laser beam always moved along
the direction of the welding route, the de-
viations that appeared in the left and right
of the weld were the only ones considered.
Thus, only the abscissa values of a keyhole
centroid were analyzed. As shown in Fig.
5, when the laser beam moved along the
welding joint, the abscissa values of the
keyhole centroid exhibited an increasing
trend. Figure 5 was obtained by calculat-
ing the keyhole centroid coordinates. It
shows the horizontal coordinates of the
keyhole centroid in the whole welding
process.
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Fig. 2 A Top view of welded specimen; B back view of welded specimen.
A B
Fig. 3 Processing of a molten pool image. A Original image of a molten pool; B grayscale transformation of a molten pool image; C segmentation
of a keyhole.
A B
C
Table 1 Training Error of Different Numbers of Hidden Layer Neurons
Numbers 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
RMS error/ 0.000989 0.000981 0.000983 0.000998 0.000998 0.000997 0.000999
mm
(1)
where i, j are the row and column numbers
of the keyhole images, respectively. g (i, j)
is the gray value of point (i, j) in an image.
m and n are the pixel numbers of a row
and a column, respectively. x and y are the
centroid coordinates at directions of row x
and column y in an image, respectively.
Heat Accumulation Effect Parameter
In the process of the butt joint laser
welding experiment, there was a small root
opening between the two stainless steel
plates. This opening was less than 0.1 mm
and was approximately uniform. The tem-
perature of 304 austenitic stainless steel
during laser welding could be obtained
using a transient heat transfer and fluid
flow model (Ref. 24). It has been demon-
strated that the heat transfer creates a
thermal field around the molten pool dur-
ing laser welding. The gray-value scale cor-
responded to the temperature range of the
molten pool (Ref. 10). Because the ther-
mal conductivity of the metallic weldment
was different from that in air, a greater
thermal resistance would appear in the
weld joint, resulting in a phenomenon
called heat accumulation. This phenom-
enon in infrared imaging exhibited a gray
mutation on the weldments.
Reference 25 researched the relation-
ship between infrared radiation signals
and welding parameters in laser welding.
It indicated that the infrared radiation sig-
nals could be used to monitor the molten
pool in the welding process. In fiber laser
welding, the thermal images collected by
an infrared camera contained a lot of use-
ful information. The nonmelting area of
the front of the keyhole, from line 391 to
line 512, was selected as the ROI (region
of interest). By successively scanning the
ROI of infrared molten pool images, a
gray distribution map could be obtained.
It was found that the grayscale distribution
could better reflect the heat accumulation
effect. The column coordinate of the peak
value in grayscale distribution curve was
defined as the heat accumulation effect
parameters. Here, line 391 grayscale dis-
tribution curve was chosen in every molten
pool image. Figure 6A shows an original
image of the molten pool. Line 391 in an
image was chosen to analyze the gray dis-
tribution where the weld joint was still
solid state. The heat accumulation param-
eter of the image could be calculated by
finding the column corresponding to the
sudden change of gray scale. Figure 6B
shows the 3-D image of the heat distribu-
tion from lines 391 to 512 of Fig. 6A. The
column coordinate corresponding to the
gray level peak of line 391 was defined as
the heat accumulation parameter. Figure
6C shows the 2-D image of the heat accu-
mulation parameter of Fig. 6A. The value
of the heat accumulation parameter of
Fig. 3A was 232 where the gray level
reached the maximal value 34. Statistical
heat accumulation parameters of the
whole experiment are shown in Fig. 6D.
Neural Network Model of
Joint Offset
Formulation of Neural Network Model
Based on the molten pool characteris-
tic parameters, a BP neural network
model was formulated to estimate the
joint offset. A total of 2700 frame images
were sampled to extract the proposed pa-
rameters. In order to observe and study
the actual situation of the joint offset, the
images from frame 98 to frame 2798,
which corresponded to the moment that
the laser beam spot reached the weld from
left to the right side of the joint were ana-
lyzed. The data for 500 groups were se-
lected as the training samples for the
neural network, and another 500 groups
were used as the testing samples.
To analyze the relationship of the joint
offset, molten pool characteristic parame-
ters and the infrared thermal radiation of
metallic materials during welding, six pa-
rameters including keyhole characteristic
parameters x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
, the heat accumula-
tion effect parameter z, and the keyhole
centroid Xwere selected as the inputs of the
neural network model. The output of the
model was the joint offset. The actual joint
offset curve is shown in Fig. 7. It shows that
the joint offset corresponded to the oblique
welding path in Fig. 1C. It could be consid-
ered that when the actual deviation was
zero, the laser beam spot was on the weld
interface. When the actual deviation was
positive, the laser beam spot located at left
side of the weld. When the actual deviation
was negative, the laser beam spot located at
the right side of the weld.
The model was a three-layer BP neural
network with the ability to approach arbi-
trary function. The training precision or
the training time needed to be taken into

( )
( )
( )
( )
= =
= =
= =
= =
x
y
g i j i
g i j
g i j j
g i j
,
,
,
,
i
m
j
n
i
m
j
n
i
m
j
n
i
m
j
n
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
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Fig. 4 Measured and fitted value of keyhole characteristic parameters with image sequences. A Ab-
scissa value of keyhole up endpoint; B abscissa value of keyhole down endpoint; C abscissa value
of keyhole left endpoint; D abscissa value of keyhole right endpoint.
A B
C
D
consideration for selecting the numbers of
hidden layer units. A lesser number of the
hidden layer units would lead to excessive
error in the neural network training, which
reduces the accuracy of the model and the
mapping capability of the network. Too
many numbers of the hidden layer units
would lead to much training time, increas-
ing the output error of samples that were
not trained. Therefore, the network with
the minimum error of the RMS (root
mean square) was selected. The RMS was
defined by Equation 2.
(2)
where M is the number of the training
samples, Q is the number of output vari-
ables, y
k
j
is the expected output, y
k
j
is the
network output. By training the selected
samples and comparing the network out-
put with the measured joint offset value,
the mean-square error could be obtained.
Then the network with the minimum value
of RMS error was chosen. In comparison
of the network error values of different
numbers of hidden layer units, it could be
seen from Table 1 that when the number
of hidden layer units was 4, the network
error was the minimal. The dynamic BP
neural network model structure of joint
offset is shown in Fig. 8, where x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
are the abscissa value of keyhole up, down,
left, and right endpoint, X is the abscissa
value of keyhole centroid, z is the heat ac-
cumulation effect parameter.
Training of Neural Network
Choosing image frames from numbers
98 to 598 as the testing samples, the BP
network learning function was used to
train the neural network. Figure 9 shows
the comparison of network output, the ac-
tual joint offset, and the error curve during
network training.
Images from frames 98 to 598 and ac-
tual joint offsets ranging from 1.26 to 0.98
mm were used to train the model. The
laser beam focus approached the weld
centerline gradually from the left side of
the weld joint. The network output fluctu-
ated around the actual joint offset values.
The training was carried out for 300 steps.
When training was at about 100 steps, the
network training error was stable. The
goal value was 0.001, so the training error
could meet the requirement and the net-
work convergence velocity was fast.
Images from frames 1800 to 2300 were
selected as the testing samples. The test-
ing comparison of the neural network out-
put with actual output of the joint offset is
shown in Fig. 10. The actual joint offset
ranged from 0.26 to 0.01 mm. For the
image frame 2347, the laser beam was on
the weld and the joint offset was approxi-
mately equal to zero.
Experimental Results and
Analysis
The inputs of the designed BP neural
network model included 6 variables such
as keyhole characteristic parameters (x
1
,
x
2
, x
3
, x
4
), keyhole centroid abscissa X, and
heat accumulation effect parameters z.
The output was the joint offset y. The hid-
den layer contained 4 neurons and tangent
S-type function was used as the transfer
function. The output layer contained one
neuron and linear function was used as the
transfer function. The weights and thresh-
old of each trained network layer are
shown in Equation 3.
(3)
The experimental results showed that
the proposed BP neural network model
could estimate the joint offset according
to the keyhole characteristic parameters,
keyhole centroid parameters, and heat ac-
cumulation effect parameters. It provides
a new method for the detection of offset
with a micro root opening during butt-
joint laser welding.
Discussion
The established BP neural network
model is limited to micro root opening
butt-joint laser welding. In the fiber laser
welding setup, two polished and clean
Type 304 stainless steel plates were placed
on the worktable, and the root opening of
RMS
y y
M Q
j
k
j
k
j
Q
k
M
=
( )
= =

2
1 1
net IW .
. . . . .
=
03233 18466 05876 05787 18824 004385
10530 07886 14832 05593 19463 0
.
. . . . . ..
. . . . .
8691
07998 09842 09798 02153 06301 1 ..
. . . . .
3834
01618 10383 03314 01315 14618 1 ..
. . . .
4081
1 16153 02753 1
= net b 66233 06616

2 00516
002
=
=
.
. .
. .
T
net b
net LW 332 01383 00519 01559 . . .

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Fig. 5 Measured and fitted values of keyhole cen-
troid with image sequences.
Fig. 6 Heat accumulation effect parameter. A Original molten pool image; B 3-D image of the heat
distribution from lines 391 to 512 of Fig. 6A; C 2-D image of the heat accumulation effect parameter of
Fig. 6A; D measured and fitted values of heat accumulation parameter with image sequences.
A
C D
B
^
the butt joint was less than 0.1 mm. The
weld joint fitup is dependent on the weld
specification requirements. The joint in-
ternal wall should be smooth and clean to
meet the part cleanliness requirements of
precise welding. The stainless steel plates
were cleaned to remove the oil and surface
contaminants. The part cleanliness could
affect the heat source-to-material interac-
tion, which ultimately affects the heat cou-
pling, plume development, and keyhole
behavior. If the joint fitup and part clean-
liness were changed, they would affect the
recognizing model.
The proposed recognizing model could
determine which side of the joint the offset
was on. The joint offset can be calculated
through the neural network output. If the
joint offset obtained by the model is posi-
tive, the laser beam spot is on the left side
of the joint. If the joint offset obtained by
the model is negative, the laser beam spot
is on the right side of the joint. If the
model output is zero, the laser beam spot
is centered on the weld joint. The side of
joint offset could be estimated by the pro-
posed model, then a closed-loop control
could be implemented. The ability of neu-
ral network model to handle the produc-
tion variabilities is indeed a challenging
task. The work now is focused on the ap-
plication of neural network for detecting
the joint offset during micro-root opening
butt-joint laser welding. It is possible that
the neural network can meet the flexibil-
ity requirement of actual welding in in-
dustry in the future.
In the fiber laser welding experiment,
the laser beam moved along the oblique
path, making the joint offset between the
laser beam and weld joint centerline
changing continuously. The aim was to
simulate the different joint deviations en-
countered in actual welding. Currently,
this research is only on recognition of the
joint offset. This study provided a new
method to detect micro-root opening of
butt-joint welding and an experimental
basis for future joint tracking control.
Conclusions
In the process of high-power fiber laser
welding, the joint offset between the laser
beam focus and the weld will lead to the
change of the infrared radiation charac-
teristics in the molten pool. The joint off-
set can be indirectly calculated by analyz-
ing a molten pool infrared image and
extracting the molten pool characteristic
parameters.
A three-layer BP neural network
model was established to detect the joint
offset. The keyhole centroid parameter,
keyhole characteristic parameters, and
heat accumulation effect parameter were
defined as the inputs of the BP neural net-
work, the joint offset between the laser
beam spot and the weld was defined as the
output of the BP neural network. The ex-
perimental results showed this model
could recognize the joint offset within a
certain range of precision.
Acknowledgments
This work was partly supported by the
National Natural Science Foundation of
China (51175095), Guangdong Province
Natural Science Foundation of China
(10251009001000001, 9151009001000020)
and the Specialized Research Fund for the
Doctoral Program of Higher Education of
China (20104420110001).
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Cu
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Fig. 7 Actual joint offset curve during high-
power fiber laser welding.
Fig. 8 BP neural network structure of joint off-
set recognition model.
Fig. 9 Neural network output curve and the training process. A Comparison of neural network out-
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B
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Introduction
Weld heat-affected zone (HAZ) liqua-
tion cracking is one of the most significant
problems in manufacturing widely used pre-
cipitate-hardened, nickel-based superal-
loys. Liquation cracking results from com-
petition between the mechanical driving
force for cracking, which generates
stress/strain during weld cooling, and a met-
allurgical factor, which is the intrinsic re-
sistance of material to fracture. The metal-
lurgical factors are usually affected by the
materials intrinsic potential for intergranu-
lar constitutional liquation. Nickel-based
superalloys containing large amounts of Al
and Ti (Ti + Al > 6 wt-%), such as
IN738LC, are susceptible to constitutional
liquation because of their higher solidifica-
tion and brittle temperature ranges. The
amount of stress/strain generated depends
significantly on the thermal gradient and
heat transfer mode during the welding
processes. However, the parameters that af-
fect the thermal cycle and heating flow, such
as heat input and cooling rate, can influence
the generation of tensile stress at the li-
quated grain boundaries during weld cool-
ing (Refs. 19).
Conduction and keyhole welding are
two different modes of laser welding that
are routinely used in industrial applications.
The conduction mode is used with lower in-
tensities of laser power with shallower pen-
etration, whereas in deep penetration laser
welding using higher laser beam intensities,
a keyhole can form in the workpiece (Ref.
10). The geometry of a conduction mode
weld, which is generally known by its small
aspect ratios (depth/width), is hemispheri-
cal and similar to that of conventional arc
welds (Ref. 11).
In all types of laser welding, energy is
absorbed in a nanoscale thin layer at the
surface of the metal by a process known
as Fresnel absorption. The laser beam in-
tensity plays an important role in deter-
mining the welding mode. Irradiating
with a high intensity laser beam can cause
the target material to vaporize after melt-
ing, thereby freeing some of the metal
electrons (ionization). These free elec-
trons then absorb the beams energy,
which results in a higher temperature and
increased ionization and absorption,
leading to vaporization of the surface and
forming a small depression in the work-
piece. Repeated light scattering occurs
within the weld pool as it deepens, and
the vapor flux makes a recoil pressure on
the evaporating surface. Furthermore,
thermocapillary forces can develop due
to the high temperature gradient on the
liquid-vapor interface due to the spatial
distribution of the laser beams energy.
The recoil pressure and thermocapillary
force can generate a driving force for liq-
uid ejection, creating a keyhole mode
welding. As the keyhole deepens, the
multiple reflections of the laser beam in-
side the hole greatly increase the energy
absorption (Refs. 12, 13).
Continuous wave (CW) and pulsed
laser welding are two techniques used in
conduction or keyhole mode welding, de-
pending on the process parameters. In
pulsed laser welding, the workpieces are
heated and melted by short duration
pulses, which make a series of overlapped
welding spots (Refs. 14, 15). The pulsed
laser welding can be in the conduction
mode or keyhole mode in both high and
low applied powers because the operator
can select a broad range of pulse durations
to control the power intensity (Ref. 14).
Generally, the keyhole mode in laser
welding occurs at a higher level of applied
power and heat input, whereas the actual
keyhole is formed at higher heat intensi-
ties, which create deep welds. The peak
power is a key welding parameter in pulse
laser welding that controls the weld shape
and its penetration. Peak power is calcu-
lated using the following equation:
Peak Power = P
ave
/f.D (1)
Heat Input and the Liquation Cracking of
Laser Welded IN738LC Superalloy
The effect of Nd:YAG pulsed laser welding heat input on the liquation cracking of
IN738LC superalloy in both conduction and keyhole modes is explored
BY M. MONTAZERI, F. MALEK GHAINI, AND O. A. OJO
KEYWORDS
Ni-Based Superalloy
Laser Welding
Liquation Cracking
Heat Input
M. MONTAZERI (mojtaba2088@gmail.com)
and F. MALEK GHAINI are with the Depart-
ment of Materials Engineering, Tarbiat Modares
University, Tehran, Iran. O. A. OJO is with the
Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing
Engineering, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg,
Canada.
ABSTRACT
The effects of welding heat input on the heat-affected zone (HAZ) liquation
cracking behavior in low power pulsed, laser-welded, IN738LC nickel-based su-
peralloys were studied in both conduction and keyhole modes. The HAZ cracks
observed in this study were intergranular liquation cracks associated with the con-
stitutional liquation of grain boundary terminal solidification products, such as
eutectics and MC carbides. The results showed that the cracking features for
the conduction and keyhole modes are different. The susceptibility to liquation
cracking decreased with increasing heat input and peak power in both conduction
and keyhole welding modes. However, for the same weld heat input, the conduc-
tion mode welding is more susceptible to HAZ cracking than is the keyhole weld-
ing. Additionally, the weld pool shape plays an important role in the alloys sus-
ceptibility to liquation cracking. The HAZ cracking was not significantly affected
by variations in the heat input in the fixed peak power of keyhole welding.
Where the P
ave
is the average applied
power, f is the welding frequency, and Dis
the pulse duration (Ref. 14). From this
equation, pulse duration and average
power affect the peak power, which usu-
ally determines the mode of pulse laser
welding. Conversely, the peak power can
increase with a decrease in the pulse du-
ration or an increase in the average power.
However, the type and mode of laser used,
process parameters, and material proper-
ties all need to be considered when pre-
dicting the liquation cracking behavior in
nickel-based superalloys during the laser
welding processes. Therefore, several
studies have evaluated the liquation crack-
ing problems of alloys during the laser
welding process. Heat input is one of the
most important factors in the weldability
of alloys that are susceptible to HAZ li-
quation cracking because it can control
the heat transfer, heating and cooling
rates, and thermal gradient behavior dur-
ing welding.
Idowu et al. have studied the CO
2
CW
laser welding of ATI Allvac 718Plus su-
peralloy in the deep penetration keyhole
mode and reported that the materials sus-
ceptibility to liquation cracking decreased
with increased heat input (Ref. 6). The
weldability of the magnesium alloy AZ61
using a low-power Nd:YAG (neodymium-
doped yttrium aluminum garnet) pulsed
laser with the conduction mode was studied
by Min et al. They reported that liquation
and solidification cracking increased with
higher heat input (Ref. 11). Luo, Shinozaki
et al. studied the laser weldability of IN718
nickel-based superalloys with continuous
CO
2
laser welding. They found that the ma-
terials susceptibility to liquation cracking
decreased with increasing weld heat input.
This behavior was thought to occur because
an increase in heat input and penetration
resulted in an increased
neck radius, which de-
creased the stress con-
centration (Refs. 17,
18). M. T. Rush et al. re-
cently reported that
there is an optimum
weld aspect ratio (pene-
tration divided by
width) for the weld li-
quation cracking of
Rene 80 Ni-based su-
peralloy during laser
welding (Ref. 19). The
optimum weld profile
in their results was the
conduction mode (low
penetration), which is completely different
from the results reported by Idowu et al.
for the deep weld penetration condition
(Ref. 6).
The weld aspect ratio is usually af-
fected by the weld heat input, but the
welding mode (keyhole or conduction
mode) in laser welding is an effective fac-
tor in determining the weld heat transfer
mode, thermal gradient, and subse-
quently generated stresses, which are the
main mechanical factors in HAZ liqua-
tion cracking. Conflicts among reports
arise because these parameters were not
considered by previous researchers.
The differences among several laser
processes and techniques, which have sig-
nificant effects on the materials weld-
ability, were not considered in previous
studies. It is scientifically important to re-
veal the materials responses to varia-
tions in the weld heat input because the
heat input can influence weld shape and
penetration, heating and cooling rates,
thermal gradient, weld stress/strain gen-
eration, and heat transfer models.
Additionally, little information was
found in the literature about the effects of
heat input as an important process pa-
rameter on the liquation cracking of pre-
cipitate-hardened, nickel-based superal-
loys during the pulsed laser welding
process. The goal of this research was to
study the effects of weld heat input on the
liquation cracking of IN738LC under
pulsed Nd:YAG laser welding. In this
paper, both conduction and keyhole mode
welding were studied separately.
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Fig. 1 SEM micrograph of the as-cast IN738LC base metal.
Fig. 2 Typical HAZ liquation cracking associated with the following:
A Liquation of eutectic; B liquation of MC carbide.
Table 1 Chemical Composition of As-Cast Inconel 738LC (wt-%)
Element C Cr Co W Mo Nb Fe Al Ti Ta Zr B Ni
0.1 15.5 9.8 3.04 2.27 0.7 0.09 4.36 3.15 1.81 0.04 0.01 Bal.
A
B
Experimental Methods
The cast alloy used in this study was In-
conel 738LC with the composition pre-
sented in Table 1.
The alloy was formed into 60 30 5
mm plates for these experiments.
An IQI 400W pulsed Nd:YAG laser
welding machine with a maximum laser
power of 400 W was used for welding
under pure argon gas shielding at a 10
L/min gas flow rate. A 5000-W LpOphir
power meter and LA300W-LP Joule
meter were used to measure the average
power and pulse energy.
All coupons were polished to the same
roughness using 120 mesh sandpaper to
avoid variation in the results due to differ-
ences in surface roughness. After polish-
ing and cleaning, samples were welded au-
togenously. Two experimental approaches
were selected to elucidate the exact effects
of heat input. In set (A), the average
power and peak power were increased
under fixed welding velocity, while for set
(B), the welding velocity (overlap) was de-
creased while maintaining a fixed average
power and peak power.
Table 2 shows the se-
lected laser parameters
for both conditions (A
and B). The pulse dura-
tion time and laser spot
size were 6 ms and 11.2
mm, respectively, and the
focal point was 1.5 mm
below the surface for all
the tests.
The precise calcula-
tion of the heat input in
pulsed laser welding is
more complicated than in
regular fusion welding
processes because of the
effects of the overlapping
factor. Each pulse can be
affected by preceding
and succeeding pulses, which differenti-
ates the welding method from other fu-
sion welding processes. Therefore, the
pulse energy efficiency is a critical factor
that indicates the summation of energy at
each welding spot (Ref. 20). The overlap-
ping factor (F) and the effective pulse en-
ergy (EPE) parameter were calculated
using the following equations, and the re-
sults are presented in Table 2.
F = 1 + 2n (1 (n + 1)v/2fD),
n = [Df/v] (2)
EPE = F*Pulse Energy (Ref. 20) (3)
Where D is the spot diameter (1.2
mm), f is the pulse frequency, and v is the
travel speed.
On the other hand, the simplified lin-
ear heat input (i.e., average power/veloc-
ity) was calculated and listed in Table 2. As
all effective laser parameters such as spot
size, pulse duration, focal point, and pulse
frequency were fixed in each set of exper-
iments, the trends of calculated heat input
and EPE have good agreement.
Welded samples were sectioned trans-
versely and polished using standard met-
allographic techniques. For more accurate
results, all tests were repeated two times,
and at least 12 sections from each weld
were examined.
Kallings etchant was used for optical
metallography, and electroetching (12 mL
H
3
PO
4
+ 40 mL HNO
3
+ 48 mL H
2
SO
4
so-
lution at 6 V for 5 s) was used for scanning
electron microscope (SEM) studies. The
microstructures of the as-cast and welded
samples were examined and analyzed using
a Nikon optical microscope equipped with
Clemex image analysis software and a
JEOL 5900 SEM equipped with an Oxford
ultrathin window energy dispersive spec-
trometer (EDS) and INCA analyzing soft-
ware. The HAZ liquation crack susceptibil-
ity of welded samples was evaluated by
measuring the total length of cracks per sec-
tion area. Initiation of cracking in several
conditions was considered as a susceptibil-
ity to cracking.
Base Metal Microstructure
The microstructure of the as-cast base
alloy is presented in Fig. 1. Primary
(Ni
3
(Ti, Al)) precipitates were observed in
the as-cast samples, which had an og-
doadically diced cube morphology. The
microstructure exhibited many phases,
such as eutectic, Ni-Zr intermetallic
phase (possibly Ni
7
Zr
2
(Ref. 5)), Cr-Mo
boride (possibly M
3
B
2
(Ref. 5)), and MC
carbides (M being Ti, Ta, and Nb).
Microstructure of the Welded Alloy
The microstructure of the welded
samples showed a fusion zone and HAZ
cracking; however, this study is focused
on the HAZ cracking. Figure 2 presents
examples of typical intergranular HAZ
cracking in welded samples. Some of the
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Fig. 3 The effect on the weld profile and penetration of a varying heat
input by varying the pulse energy.
Fig. 5 Variations in the HAZ cracking index with increasing heat
input in conduction mode welds.
Fig. 4 Typical weld cracking in conduction mode welds.
HAZ cracks extended to the fusion zone.
The liquated grain boundaries and reso-
lidified products observed along crack
paths confirm that the HAZ microfissur-
ing was liquation cracking. Liquation
cracking usually occurs along constitu-
tionally liquated grain boundaries during
weld cooling that generate tensile
stresses. The presence of a liquid film at
lower temperatures within the generated
tensile stresses at the grain boundary in-
creases the propensity to liquation crack-
ing (Refs. 2123). The microstructure
showed that the terminal solidification
products, such as MC carbides, borides,
eutectics, and Ni-Zr intermetallics,
were significantly liquated during weld-
ing at the HAZ grain boundaries. In the
next section, the effects of heat input on
liquation cracking are discussed.
Heat Input and HAZ Cracking
The effects of heat input on liquation
cracking were studied using two different
approaches. In set (A) experiments, the
heat input increased with increased laser
power. Macrostructural examination re-
vealed that an increase in heat input and
peak power caused significant changes in
the weld pool shape Fig. 3. The weld
penetration measurements (Fig. 3) show
that the fourth welding condition (i.e., 4A)
changed the welding mode from conduc-
tion to keyhole.
In set (B) experiments, the heat input
increased with decreasing weld velocity at
a fixed peak power; thus, keyhole mode
welding occurred in all four conditions.
The required mechanical driving force
that causes liquation cracking comes from
stress generation due to the thermal gra-
dient in the weld HAZ (Ref. 6) and man-
ner of heat flow during the welding
process. The liquation cracking behavior
in the conduction and keyhole modes
should be studied separately because the
thermal gradients for heat transfer and
stress generation are different in these two
modes of welding.
Conduction Welding
Most of the HAZ cracks in the con-
duction mode welds (A1A3) were ob-
served in the weld root regions Fig. 4.
Figure 5 shows the HAZ crack length
measurements for the conduction mode
welding samples (crack index = total
HAZ crack length/total weld surface
area). The HAZ cracking decreased with
an increase in heat input, and the HAZ
cracking was not observed in sections
welded with a 25 J/mm heat input, despite
extensive grain boundary liquation.
The liquation of grain boundaries dur-
ing the heating cycle of the welding
process reduces the required tensile stress
for HAZ cracking because the solid-solid
interfacial bond of grain boundaries is re-
placed with a weaker solid-liquid bond
(Ref. 6). Weld tensile stress is usually gen-
erated from a thermal gradient in the
HAZ, and the magnitude of generated
stresses depends on the sharpness of the
thermal gradients. The heat input can also
affect the steepness of the thermal gradi-
ent and extension of grain boundary li-
quation. The thermal gradient decreases
when heat input increases because higher
heat input can decrease the weld cooling
rate (Refs. 6, 11, 24), reducing the magni-
tude of generated stresses at liquated
grain boundaries.
Keyhole Welding
Microstructural examination of the
welded samples in set (A) in the keyhole
mode (A4 and A5) revealed that the HAZ
261-s
WELDING JOURNAL
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Fig. 6 A SEM micrograph showing the HAZ cracking of the key-
hole welding in the weld neck zone.
Fig. 7 Variation of the HAZ cracking index with increasing heat
input (A4 and A5).
Table 2 Laser Welding Parameters
Sample Average Power Frequency Pulse Peak Overlap Velocity Linear Heat Input F EPE
No. W Hz J kW % mm/s J/mm J
A1 140 20 7 1.16 75 8 17.5 3 21
A2 180 20 9 1.5 75 8 22.5 3 27
A3 200 20 10 1.7 75 8 25 3 30
A4 240 20 12 2 75 8 30 3 36
A5 260 20 13 2.2 75 8 32.5 3 39
B1 160 12 13.3 2.2 10 17 9.4 0.84 11.21
B2 160 12 13.3 2.2 25 14 11.4 0.96 12.8
B3 160 12 13.3 2.2 50 10 16 1.44 19.15
B4 160 12 13.3 2.2 75 8 20 1.8 23.94
cracking occurred in the neck zone (shoul-
der area) of the weld pool, which is usually
located in the first third of the weld depth
Fig. 6. Additionally, results of the crack
measurements showed that the tendency
to undergo liquation cracking decreased
when the heat input and peak power in-
creased. Figure 7 shows the crack index
decreases with an increase in heat input in
the keyhole mode welds.
Figure 8 shows the results of crack
measurements in samples welded with a
fixed average power (i.e., set (B)). The
HAZ cracking did not change significantly
with increased heat input.
As discussed in the conduction mode
welding section, the weld cooling rate de-
creases as the heat input increases. The
shallower thermal gradient results in both
lower tensile stresses in the HAZs and re-
duced HAZ liquation cracking. This phe-
nomenon is the same in both the conduc-
tion and keyhole welds.
Another factor that can affect the
alloys susceptibility to intergranular HAZ
cracking is the thickness of grain boundary
liquid in the HAZ. According to Miller
and Chadwicks theory (F = 2
L
/h, where
F is a required tensile stress to cause
cracking,
L
is the surface tension at the
solid-liquid interface, and h is the liquid
film thickness), thicker liquid films need a
lower level of tensile stresses to rupture.
The implication of this statement on weld-
ing means that an increase in heat input
that increases the liquated film thickness
should increase its susceptibility to liqua-
tion cracking (Refs. 25, 26). Conversely, a
thicker liquid film is expected to have
more stress relaxation, generating a lower
stress at the welds HAZ grain boundaries.
Therefore, increasing the heat input can
decrease the HAZ cracking by reducing
the generated stresses in the HAZ. Fur-
thermore, several researchers have re-
ported that the HAZ cracking usually de-
creases with an increase in heat input
because a thicker liquid film resulting
from a higher heat input would be better
able to accommodate stress/strain than
the thin liquid films in the lower heat input
conditions (Ref. 6).
Additionally, the HAZ cracks in the
keyhole welds were located around the
weld shoulder area where the higher stress
concentration can facilitate grain bound-
ary fissuring. Luo et al. have reported that
the width liquation temperature range
(WLTR) increases in the neck zone in key-
hole laser welding in addition to increas-
ing with decreasing neck radius, whereas
the neck radius increases with increased
heat input (Ref. 17). They also found that
the shape of the penetration plays a vital
role in the alloys susceptibility to HAZ li-
quation cracking. The shoulder-like re-
gion has a high tendency to undergo HAZ
liquation cracking. Increasing the curva-
ture of the neck radius at this area can de-
crease the cracking (Ref. 18). Based on
these previous observations, in set (A) ex-
periments, the weld penetration and neck
radius increased with an increase in the
weld peak power. Therefore, a lower ther-
mal gradient and a bigger neck radius re-
duced the susceptibility to HAZ liquation
cracking. In set (B) experiments, the weld
penetration did not change significantly
because the peak power was fixed. Be-
cause there were no significant changes in
weld penetration, susceptibility to HAZ
cracking did not change significantly.
The results of liquation cracking
showed that the conduction mode welds
show greater susceptibility to HAZ crack-
ing than the keyhole mode welding for the
same heat input range. Several concepts
should be considered in discussing the
basic differences in weldability between
the keyhole and conduction mode welds.
The decreased cooling rate during in-
creased heat input shows larger effects in
the lower heat input levels, where the con-
duction mode occurs, meaning that when
the weld heat increases, the susceptibility
to HAZ liquation cracking decreases
more rapidly in the conduction mode
welding than in the keyhole welding.
The main visible difference between
these two welding modes is the weld
depth/width aspect ratio, which is smaller
in the conduction mode than in the key-
hole mode (see Fig. 3). According to pre-
vious studies, the conduction mode weld
with a low weld depth/width (D/W) ratio
exhibits three-dimensional (3D) heat
transfer, but the keyhole weld transfers a
negligible amount of heat in the z direc-
tion, so it can be modeled as two-dimen-
sional (2D) heat flow. The thick plate so-
lution usually assumes 3D heat flow,
whereas the thin plate solution assumes
2D heat flow in heat transfer calculations.
Therefore, the keyhole and conduction
welding modes could be interpreted as
thin plates and thick plates, respectively
(Refs. 10, 13, 26, 27).
Figure 9 shows a schematic of the heat
transfer models for the conduction and
keyhole welding modes. The different
heat transfer models generate different
types of weld stress in the weld HAZ. The
3D heat transfer mode (conduction mode
weld) increases the cooling rate and ther-
mal gradient in the HAZ and generates
more complex 3D stresses that could in-
crease the susceptibility to HAZ cracking.
Additionally, the weld pool becomes
deeper when the heat input/peak power
increases, changing the heat transfer
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Fig. 8 Variation in the HAZ cracking index with heat input in set (B) experiments.
Fig. 9 Schematic heat flow model. A Conduction; B keyhole welding.
A
B
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model from 3D to 2.5D and 2D with an in-
crease in heat input and subsequently
changing the thermal gradient model
(Ref. 26). However, in the keyhole weld
mode, the increased heat input decreases
the cooling rate but cannot change the
heat flow model significantly, in contrast
to the conduction mode welding. Thus, a
heat input increase in conduction mode
welding results in a decrease in the HAZ
cracking susceptibility because the de-
crease in cooling rate changes the stress
generation model more effectively in the
conduction mode than the keyhole mode.
It was also observed that the weld
cracking in the conduction mode was pri-
marily located in the weld root regions
along the fusion zone centerline, whereas
the cracking occurred in the shoulder area
of keyhole welded samples. The fluid flow
model in the fusion zone is influenced by
the combination of several types of forces
generated during the welding process,
such as the buoyancy force, electromag-
netic force, and surface tension force
(Refs. 13, 2831).
Buoyancy forces are generated as a re-
sult of density variations within the weld
pool due to the spatial temperature gradi-
ent. The density variations cause the fluid
to rise in the weld centerline region, which
is hotter, and sink in the cooler region of
the weld pool. This force moves the fluid in-
ward up to the surface and outward to the
sides and causes the weld pool to expand in
length and remain shallow in depth. This
force is more effective when the heat input
and penetration are lower, and it induces a
lateral force on the weld pool that facili-
tates the centerline decohesion of the fu-
sion zone and solidification cracking. Elec-
tromagnetic forces, which usually act
counter to buoyancy forces, are not created
in laser beam welding because there are no
electrical currents or magnetic fields in
laser processing. Therefore, the buoyancy
forces in laser welding are more effective
than in other fusion welding processes.
The surface tension force is created by
a spatial surface tension gradient, also
known as the Marangoni force (Refs. 13,
29, 32). This force is directly influenced by
the thermal coefficient of surface tension
(/T), which is usually negative, and the
radially directed outward fluid flow, mak-
ing a shallow and wide weld pool. The
thermal coefficient of surface tension is
positive when there is a significant amount
of sulfur or oxygen in the alloy. This force
most significantly affects the top horizon-
tal plane because it is directly influenced
by the spatial surface tension gradient.
However, buoyancy and surface tension
forces can generate lateral tensions.
Therefore, in conduction mode weld-
ing, the HAZ in the weld root regions can
be influenced by weld lateral tensions be-
cause of the lower penetration of the weld
pool. This effect is decreased with an in-
creased weld depth. However, the pres-
ence of recoil pressure can reduce or elim-
inate the effects of buoyancy and surface
tension forces at deeper penetration
depths and within the keyhole mode weld-
ing process.
However, on the basis of these obser-
vations, the extension and location of
HAZ liquation cracks in the laser welding
process are affected by a combination of
several forces generated during welding.
Increasing heat input reduces the effects
of buoyancy and surface tension forces in
conduction mode welding, whereas in key-
hole mode welding, this increased heat re-
duces the stress concentration by increas-
ing the neck radius. In both welding
modes, the higher heat input resulted in a
shallower thermal gradient and slower
cooling rate. Moreover, the conduction
welds were more susceptible to weld HAZ
cracking than keyhole welds for the same
heat input condition.
Summary and Conclusion
The effects of heat input on the sus-
ceptibility of IN738LC to HAZ liquation
cracking in low-power pulsed Nd:YAG
laser welding was carefully studied. Both
the conduction and keyhole modes were
examined to better understand the exact
effects of heat input variations. The results
showed the following:
1. The HAZ cracking in both the con-
duction and keyhole welds decreased with
an increase in heat input and peak power.
2. The weld profiles played a significant
role in the materials susceptibility to
HAZ liquation cracking; thus, an increase
in heat input in the fixed peak power con-
dition with the same weld penetration
level did not significantly influence the
HAZ crack susceptibility.
3. For the same weld heat input, a con-
duction mode weld is more susceptible to
HAZ cracking than is a keyhole weld.
4. In conduction mode welding, the
HAZ cracking occurred in the weld root
regions, whereas keyhole welds showed
cracking in the weld shoulder region.
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to acknowledge
help from the University of Manitoba for
providing the required research facilities.
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Introduction
BlastAlloy 160 (BA-160) was devel-
oped at Northwestern University based on
a theoretical computational materials de-
sign concept. It has high yield strength of
1100 MPa (160 ksi) and impact toughness
of 176 J (130 ft-lb) at 25C and was de-
signed as a blast-resistant steel for use in
naval surface ships (Ref. 1).
The chemical composition and mi-
crostructure of BA-160 steel are shown in
Table 1 and Fig. 1, respectively. The
strengthening of BA-160 results from the
combined effects of a martensite/bainite
matrix, M
2
C carbides (where M repre-
sents Cr, Mo, and V), and copper precipi-
tates. The optimal size of the M
2
C car-
bides and copper precipitates for effective
strengthening is designed to be in the
range of 35 nm. High toughness results
from the presence of finely dispersed, Ni-
stabilized austenite. The austenite will
transform to martensite in the stress field
at the crack-tip, and can inhibit crack
growth by delay of microvoid shear local-
ization during ductile fracture leading to
very high impact toughness (Ref. 2).
In order to achieve the carefully de-
signed strengthening and toughening for
BA-160, multistep tempering treatment is
employed, as shown in Table 2. The sam-
ple is solution treated at 900C for 1 h fol-
lowed by a water quench and liquid nitro-
gen hold, in order to ensure complete
martensite transformation with no re-
tained austenite. The first tempering
treatment at 550C for 30 min is used to
nucleate a fine, uniformly dispersed in-
tralath austenite and suboptimal size
strengthening precipitates. The second
tempering treatment at 450C for 5 h is
then used to enrich the austenite with Ni,
thus stabilizing the austenite. At the same
time, the precipitation of copper and M
2
C
carbides are completed, therefore a peak
aging condition is achieved (Ref. 3).
Some aspects of BA-160s weldability
have previously been studied by Caron et
al. (Refs. 4, 5). It was found that BA-160
exhibits a moderate heat-affected zone
(HAZ) liquation cracking susceptibility as
determined by hot ductility testing. In
other testing, BA-160 was found to be re-
sistant to reheat cracking in the tempera-
ture range of 450 to 700C. Susceptibility
of HAZ hydrogen-induced cracking
(HIC), which is usually a big problem
when welding high-strength steels (Refs.
68) was not included in this study.
One of the main objectives of the de-
sign of BA-160 was to develop a weldable
high-strength, high-toughness steel.
Therefore, in the design stage, the carbon
content of BA-160 is intentionally con-
strained at 0.05 0.01 wt-% to locate the
steel in Zone I of the Graville diagram, as
illustrated in AWS D1.1/D1.1M:2010
(Ref. 9), as shown in Fig. 2. Steels located
in this zone are typically resistant to HIC
based on carbon content and its effect on
the hardness of the martensite that forms.
However, Caron et al. (Ref. 10) reported
that high-hardness martensite can form
over a wide range of cooling rates in the
simulated HAZs investigated using the
Gleeble. Prior austenite grain size can
exceed 100 m under simulated high-heat-
input welding conditions, which is consid-
erably larger than that of HSLA-100 (~50
m) (Ref. 11). It is therefore logical to ex-
pect that the formation of martensitic mi-
crostructure of high hardness of 360 HV in
the coarse-grained (CG)HAZ (Ref. 10)
might render BA-160 susceptible to HAZ
HIC.
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KEYWORDS
Implant Test
Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ)
Hydrogen-Induced Cracking
Coarse-Grained HAZ
(CGHAZ) Microstructure
Fracture Behavior
BA-160
HY-100
HSLA-100
ABSTRACT
The implant test was used to compare a recently developed blast-resistant steel
(BA-160) to two existing naval steels, HY-100 and HSLA-100, in order to assess po-
tential susceptibility to heat-affected zone (HAZ) hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC).
Based on the implant test results of applied tensile stress vs. time to failure, the lower
critical stress (LCS), normalized critical stress ratio (NCSR), and embrittlement index
(EI) were determined in order to make a quantitative comparison. In all cases, fail-
ure during implant testing occurred in the coarse-grained HAZ (CGHAZ). The mi-
crostructure of the CGHAZ was characterized using optical and transmission elec-
tron microscopy. It was found that martensite is the predominant microstructural
feature in the CGHAZ of BA-160 and HY-100, while a mixture of martensite and bai-
nite are observed in HSLA-100. The fracture behavior was characterized and related
to microstructure and cracking susceptibility. Based on both NCSR and EI values, it
can be concluded that BA-160 is more susceptible to HAZ HIC compared to HSLA-
100, but more resistant than HY-100.
X. YUE (yuexinosu@gmail.com), X. L. FENG,
and J. C. LIPPOLD are with the Welding Engi-
neering Program, The Ohio State University,
Columbus, Ohio.
Quantifying Heat-Affected Zone
Hydrogen-Induced Cracking in
High-Strength Naval Steels
The implant test was used to compare BA-160 with HY-100 and HSLA-100
with regard to the HAZ HIC resistance
BY X. YUE, X. L. FENG, J. C. LIPPOLD
In the present investigation, the im-
plant test is used to evaluate the inherent
HAZ HIC susceptibility of BA-160. For
the purpose of comparing BA-160s per-
formance with existing high-strength
naval steels, implant testing was also con-
ducted on HY-100 and HSLA-100 naval
steels. In order to relate HAZ HIC sus-
ceptibility to microstructure, the CGHAZ
was characterized using optical and trans-
mission electron microscopy, and fracture
behavior was determined using the scan-
ning electron microscope (SEM). The ob-
jective is to qualify the alloy design for BA-
160 with regard to HAZ HIC resistance.
The research results are used to develop a
weldability database for these steels,
which can be used as a benchmark for
evaluating the performance of future
high-strength steels.
Materials and Experimental
Procedures
Table 1 summarizes the chemical com-
positions of the three steels evaluated in
this investigation. BA-160 was provided in
the form of 34.9-mm- (1.375-in.-) diame-
ter barstock by QuesTek Innovations LLC,
Evanston, Ill. It was heat-treated follow-
ing the procedure in Table 2. HY-100 and
HSLA-100 were provided in the form of
12.7-mm (0.5-in.) rolled plate by the Naval
Surface Warfare Center, Carderock Divi-
sion, West Bethesda, Md.
The implant test, which was originally
developed by Henri Granjon (Ref. 12), is
used in the present investigation to evalu-
ate the HAZ HIC susceptibility. It is an ex-
ternally loaded cracking test, in which the
external load level can be varied inde-
pendently from the welding parameters in
contrast to self-restraint cold cracking
tests such as Y-groove and controlled
thermal severity tests, where the stress
cannot be quantified and a critical stress
below which cracking does not occur can-
not be determined. The implant test has
been shown by many investigators (Refs.
1317) to be an effective means to quanti-
tatively evaluate the HAZ HIC suscepti-
bility of steels and provide consistent as-
sessment. It has also been shown to be an
excellent tool for alloy development, since
it uses very little material.
The details of the implant test are
shown in Fig. 3AD. The implant speci-
mens were machined from the respective
base metals along the forging or rolling di-
rection, with dimensions shown in Table 3.
One end of the specimen is 0.5 in. long
with a 10-32 UNF thread and is fitted into
a clearance hole in the center of the spec-
imen plate, with the top of the 10-32 UNF
thread section flush with the specimen
plate surface. The other end of the im-
plant specimen is 0.5 in. long with a
1
4-20
UNC thread, and is threaded into a con-
nection rod of The Ohio State University
Modified Implant Testing System (OSU-
MITS) so that the hydraulic system of the
OSU-MITS can apply the tensile load on
the specimen after welding.
A weld bead is deposited using the gas
metal arc welding (GMAW) process with
0.047-in. (1.2-mm) SuperArc LA-100 wire
(AWS: ER100S-G) on the surface of the
specimen plate directly over the 10-32 UNF
thread and the hole. Welding parameters
used are as follows: voltage, 30 V; current,
215225 A; and travel speed, 12 in./min (5.1
mm/s). This corresponds to a heat input in
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Fig. 1 Microstructure of the BA-160 base metal. Fig. 2 Zone classification of BA-160, HY-100, and HSLA-100 according
to AWS D1.1/D1.1M:2010. Note Graville diagram is with extended abscissa.
Table 1 Measured Chemical Composition of the Three Steels
Element (wt-%) BA-160 HY-100 HSLA-100
C 0.059 0.18 0.051
Mn 0.001 0.28 0.90
Si 0.015 0.21 0.25
P <0.005 0.008 0.008
S <0.001 0.002 0.002
Cu 3.39 0.15 1.17
Ni 6.80 2.32 1.58
Cr 1.90 1.37 0.60
Mo 0.61 0.26 0.37
V <0.001 <0.01 <0.01
Nb <0.001 <0.01 0.017
Ti 0.016 <0.01 <0.01
Table 2 Heat Treatment Procedure for BA-160
Step Temperature/C Duration Post step procedure
1. Austenitization 900 1 h Water quench
2. Liquid nitrogen hold 196 30 min Air warm to room temp.
3. Tempering 550 30 min Water quench
4. Tempering 450 5 h Air cool to room temp.
the range of 32.25 to 33.75 kJ/in. (1.27 to
1.33 kJ/mm). Ar+15%H
2
shielding gas at a
flow rate of 45 ft
3
/h (21.2 L/min) was used to
introduce sufficient hydrogen into the weld
pool to allow diffusible hydrogen in the
HAZ to cause cracking. Using Ar+15%H
2
shielding gas to introduce hydrogen, instead
of the method of applying lubricant oil uti-
lized in the earlier research (Ref. 18), aims
to ensure the testing method had better op-
erability and repeatability. More impor-
tantly, in future research, varying the dif-
fusible hydrogen content can be easily
realized by adjusting the H
2
content in the
Ar+H
2
mixture shielding gas.
A HAZ is created in the 10-32 UNF
thread region of the implant specimen after
welding. After 2 min from completion of
welding, the implant sample is subject to a
static tensile load. The tensile stress is de-
termined by the load divided by the cross-
sectional area of the root diameter of the
10-32 UNF thread. The implant sample is
free of bending, torsion, or shock loading as
a result of the specific design of OSU-
MITS. The stress concentration caused by
the 10-32 UNF thread forces cracking to
occur in the susceptible HAZ region instead
of the fusion zone. A computer equipped
with a data-acquisition system was con-
nected to the OSU-MITS to monitor the
load and measure the time to failure. In
order to generate the implant test curve,
multiple samples were run with the same
welding parameters and different loads in
order to generate a tensile stress vs. time to
failure relationship. The highest stress at
which no failure occurred after 24-h loading
is defined as the Lower Critical Stress
(LCS) (Refs.12, 19), which was taken as an
index to determine susceptibility to HIC.
Test runs to determine the LCS were re-
peated twice to verify the accuracy of the ex-
perimental results.
Metallographic samples were sectioned
perpendicular to the welding direction
along the axis of the implant specimens.
Then they were mounted, ground, polished,
and etched with 5% nital and examined
using optical microscopy. The TEM sam-
ples were evaluated in a Philips CM200
TEM operated at 200 kV. The fracture sur-
face of the implant samples was examined
under a Philips XL30F ESEM. Vickers
hardness measurements were conducted on
the as-polished samples using a 1-kg load, in
accordance with ASTM E 384-10.
Weld Macrostructure
All welding was carried out on the im-
plant specimen/specimen plate with the
same welding parameters. The
macrostructure of a representative weld
perpendicular to the welding direction
sectioned along the axis of the implant
specimen is shown in Fig. 4. The width of
the HAZ in the implant specimen is ap-
proximately 3.5 mm, which is much wider
than that in the adjacent specimen plate as
a result of the difference in heat flow in the
implant specimen, which creates a shal-
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Fig. 3 The implant test system (OSU-MITS) and specimen. A Schematic drawing of the implant
test; B full view of the OSU-MITS; C close-up view showing an implant specimen under loading
and an unloaded one on the top-right corner; D the implant specimen.
Table 3 Specimen Plate/Implant Specimen Dimensions
Specimen Plate
Material A36 steel
Plate thickness in. (mm) 0.5 (12.7)
Plate width in. (mm) 2 (50.8)
Plate length in. (mm) 4 (101.6)
Length of test bead in. (mm) 3.5 (88.9)
Hole diameter in. (mm) 0.201 (5.1)
Implant Specimen
Material BA-160, HY-100, and HSLA-100
Total length of implant specimen in. (mm) 1 (25.4)
Type of thread 10-32 UNF
Pitch in. (mm) 1/32 (0.79)
Major diameter in. (mm) 0.1900 (4.83)
Minor diameter in. (mm) 0.1517 (3.85)
Thread length in. (mm) 0.5 (12.7)
Thread angle 60 deg
Thread root radius in. (mm) 0.004 (0.1)
A
B
C D
lower temperature gradient. Porosity can
be observed in the fusion zone near the fu-
sion boundary that results from the hy-
drogen that is intentionally introduced
into the weld pool through the use of
Ar+15%H
2
shielding gas.
After welding, the implant specimen is
subjected to tensile loading and held until
fracture occurs up to a maximum of 24
hours hold time. A representative frac-
tured weld sectioned to reveal the HAZ
HIC fracture path is shown in Fig. 5. It can
be seen that cracking initiates from the
root of the first unfused thread and prop-
agates in the CGHAZ of the implant spec-
imen. This is because of large prior
austenite grain size, and the presence of
high hardness in the CGHAZ provides the
most susceptible microstructure. This lo-
cation for fracture initiation and propaga-
tion was consistent for all three steels.
Vickers Hardness Test Results
Vickers hardness measurements were
taken along the axis of the implant speci-
mens of the three steels, starting in the fu-
sion zone and running through the HAZ
to the unaffected base metal, as shown in
Fig. 6AC. The hardness variation across
the HAZ is a direct indication of forma-
tion of different microstructures. For the
three steels, the fusion zone hardness is in
the range of 250 to 280 HV. It is shown in
Fig. 6A that in the HAZ of the BA-160 im-
plant specimen, the Vickers hardness in-
creases from the CGHAZ to the fine-
grained HAZ (FGHAZ) and into the
intercritical HAZ (ICHAZ). The
CGHAZ hardness is in the range of 350 to
376 HV, which is even lower than that of
the base metal, representing a softening
in the HAZ. This phenomenon was inves-
tigated by Yu et al. (Ref. 20), and it was at-
tributed to different lath martensite mor-
phologies and Cu precipitation behaviors
due to different thermal cycles experi-
enced in different HAZ regions. However,
even though the CGHAZ has a lower
hardness than other HAZ regions, it is the
most HIC-susceptible region, which is due
to the formation of the HIC-susceptible
microstructure of martensite with coarse
grain size (Ref. 6). It is shown in Fig. 6B
that the hardness of HY-100 CGHAZ is in
the range of 440 to 464 HV, which is much
higher than both the fusion zone and the
base metal. For HSLA-100, the CGHAZ
hardness is in the range of 293 to 329 HV,
which is slightly higher than fusion zone
and base metal. It should be noted that the
location of the CGHAZ, as shown in Fig.
6AC, is determined by metallographic
observation and the red dotted line is only
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Fig. 4 Typical implant test specimen sectioned near the implant axis. BA-
160 implant specimen. 5% nital etch.
Fig. 5 Macrostructure of a typical fractured implant specimen after load-
ing showing the fracture path. HY-100 implant specimen. 5% nital etch.
Table 4 Implant Test Results
Steel CGHAZ Max CGHAZ Tensile Lower Critical Nominal Yield NCSR
(b)
Embrittlement CE
AWS
(d)
Hardness Strength
(a)
Stress Strength Index
(c)
(HV) ksi(MPa) ksi(MPa) ksi(MPa)
BA-160 376 173 (1192) 91 (627) 160 (1102) 0.57 0.53 1.24
HY-100 464 225 (1550) 55 (379) 100 (689) 0.55 0.24 0.75
HSLA-100 329 150 (1034) 102 (703) 100 (689) 1.02 0.68 0.62
(a) The CGHAZ tensile strength is converted from the CGHAZ max hardness using the ASTM hardness conversion chart.
(b) NCSR stands for Normalized Critical Stress Ratio, which is the ratio of lower critical stress to nominal yield strength.
(c) Embrittlement Index is the ratio of lower critical stress to the CGHAZ tensile strength.
(d) AWS carbon equivalent: CE
AWS
= C + (Mn + Si)/6 + (Cr + Mo + V)/5 + (Ni + Cu)/15.
Fig. 6 Vickers hardness measurements taken along the axis of the implant specimen. A BA-160; B HY-100; C HSLA-100.
C A
B
the approximate boundary between the
CGHAZ and the adjacent FGHAZ. The
maximum CGHAZ hardness is 376, 464,
and 329 HV for BA-160, HY-100, and
HSLA-100, respectively.
Microstructure Characterization of
CGHAZ of the Three Steels
Since the CGHAZ is the most HIC-
susceptible region, the CGHAZ mi-
crostructure of BA-160 was characterized
by means of optical microscopy and TEM,
as shown in Fig. 7. It can be seen in Fig. 7A
that martensite is the predominant mi-
crostructural feature. The microstructure is
further investigated at higher magnification
under TEM, as shown in Fig. 7B. Marten-
site laths can be observed in Fig. 7B and the
dark film between adjacent martensite laths
is retained austenite. The presence of re-
tained austenite is a result of the high nickel
addition (6.8 wt-%) in BA-160, which is an
effective austenite stabilizer depressing the
Ms temperature. In addition, a heavy dislo-
cation network exists within the martensite
laths, which is a feature of low-carbon lath
martensite. The BA-160 CGHAZ marten-
sitic microstructure has maximum Vickers
hardness of 376 HV.
For the purpose of comparing BA-160
with HY-100 and HSLA-100, the CGHAZ
microstructures of the latter two steels have
also been studied, as shown in Figs. 8 and 9,
respectively. From Fig. 8A, it is apparent
that the HY-100 CGHAZ microstructure is
also primarily martensitic. Packets of
martensite laths with dislocation networks
can be observed in Fig. 8B. The HY-100
CGHAZ martensitic microstructure has
maximum Vickers hardness of 464 HV,
which is much higher than that of BA-160.
The CGHAZ microstructure of HSLA-
100 is shown in Fig. 9. Because of lower
hardenability than HY-100 (Ref. 11), the
microstructure of the HSLA-100 CGHAZ
is not fully martensitic. Light-etching nee-
dle-like bainite can be observed in Fig. 9A,
which nucleates from the prior austenite
grain boundaries and grows into the grain
interior. In the lower-left part of the TEM
microstructure shown in Fig. 9B, a group of
parallel laths free of precipitates is ob-
served, which are the martensite laths.
While in the upper-right corner of Fig. 9B,
intralath platelet-like cementite precipi-
tates can be seen oriented at approximately
55 deg from the primary lath growth direc-
tion, confirming the presence of lower bai-
nite. Therefore, the CGHAZ microstruc-
ture of HSLA-100 is a mixture of martensite
and bainite, with maximum Vickers hard-
ness of 329 HV, which is the lowest among
the three steels.
Implant Test Results
The implant test results for the three
steels are shown in Fig. 10AC. The de-
layed nature of HIC can be clearly seen
from the implant test curves. All three
curves show a general trend that a longer
incubation time is required before frac-
ture occurs under lower applied stress lev-
els. The implant test results for the three
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Fig. 7 CGHAZ microstructure of BA-160. A Optical; B bright-field TEM.
Fig.8 CGHAZ microstructure of HY-100. A Optical; B bright-field TEM.
A B
A
B
steels are summarized in Table 4. The LCS
(from lowest to highest) is determined to
be 55 ksi (379 MPa), 91 ksi (627 MPa), and
102 ksi (703 MPa) for HY-100, BA-160,
and HSLA-100, respectively.
Two indexes are used in the present
study to compare BA-160 with HY-100
and HSLA-100. The first is the normalized
critical stress ratio (NCSR) (Ref. 17),
which is the ratio of LCS to nominal yield
strength of the test steel. Yield strength is
an important index for evaluating a steels
mechanical properties, and in highly re-
strained welds, the residual stress can even
reach the yield strength level. By taking
the ratio of LCS to nominal yield strength,
the percent HAZ strength degradation
(under the influence of diffusible hydro-
gen) from the nominal yield strength can
be determined. The higher the NCSR, the
better the performance of the steel. As the
nominal yield strength is 160 ksi (1102
MPa), 100 ksi (689 MPa), and 100 ksi (689
MPa) for BA-160, HY-100, and HSLA-
100, respectively, the NCSR is determined
accordingly to be 0.57, 0.55, and 1.02 for
BA-160, HY-100, and HSLA-100,
respectively.
Another index used in this paper is the
embrittlement index (EI), which is the
ratio of LCS to the CGHAZ tensile
strength. However, it is difficult to meas-
ure the CGHAZ tensile strength directly
from the implant test. A convenient means
to obtain an approximation of the
CGHAZ tensile strength is to do the con-
version from the maximum CGHAZ Vick-
ers hardness according to the ASTM hard-
ness conversion chart. The EI is proposed
herein aiming to evaluate the steels
CGHAZ inherent susceptibility to HIC.
That is, if EI is higher, the degradation of
the CGHAZ strength because of dif-
fusible hydrogen is lower, which means a
better CGHAZ inherent resistance to
HIC. By doing the conversion, the ap-
proximate CGHAZ tensile strength is 173
ksi (1192 MPa), 225 ksi (1550 MPa), and
150 ksi (1034 MPa) for BA-160, HY-100,
and HSLA-100, respectively. The EI is de-
termined accordingly to be 0.53, 0.24, and
0.68 for BA-160, HY-100, and HSLA-100,
respectively. The result shows that BA-160
CGHAZ has less inherent HIC suscepti-
bility than HY-100, but is more suscepti-
ble to HIC compared with HSLA-100.
Fracture Behavior
Representative SEM fractographs of
the implant specimens of the three steels
are presented in Figs. 1113. Figure 11A
shows the general fracture appearance of
the BA-160 implant specimen, and regions
in Fig. 11A with different features are
shown in Fig. 11BD at higher magnifica-
tion. Cleavage type failure can be ob-
served at the crack initiation site (Fig.
11B), which is near the root of the first un-
fused thread, and no large area of inter-
granular (IG) mode can be observed. As
the crack further propagates, the fracture
mode is quasi-cleavage (QC), as shown in
Fig. 11C. Microvoid coalescence (MVC)
is observed near the final failure region, as
shown in Fig.11D.
For the HY-100, Fig. 12A shows a large
area of IG fracture, which is in sharp con-
trast to BA-160. Cracking initiates from
the stress concentration area and propa-
gates intergranularly (Fig. 12B) for a cer-
tain distance, and then transitions to QC
and MVC, as shown in Fig. 12C and D, re-
spectively.
Similar to HY-100, all the three frac-
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Fig. 9 CGHAZ microstructure of HSLA-100. A Optical; B bright-field TEM.
Fig. 10 The implant test curves of the following: A BA-160; B HY-100; C HSLA-100.
C
A
B
ture modes, IG, QC, and MVC, can be ob-
served on the HSLA-100 implant speci-
men fracture surface, as shown in Fig.
13AD. However, the grain size observed
in the IG region is smaller for HSLA-100
compared with HY-100, and the area of
IG fracture is less than that of HY-100.
Quasi-cleavage and MVC are observed in
sequence as the crack propagates.
The sequential occurrence of IG, QC,
and MVC on the fracture surface was ex-
plained using Beachems model (Ref. 21) in
an earlier publication (Ref. 18). Much of
Beachems theory is based on the fact the
fracture behavior is dependent on the inter-
action of stress intensity and hydrogen level.
For the present study, when the implant
sample is subjected to tensile loading, a
crack will not initiate immediately due to
the lack of sufficient diffusible hydrogen at
the stress concentration area. An incuba-
tion period is thereby required so that
atomic hydrogen can continuously diffuse
to the triaxially stressed region, and when it
reaches the critical level, a crack will initi-
ate. As the crack propagates, the crack
length increases and the stress intensity fac-
tor will increase and the hydrogen level will
decrease. The fracture mode will therefore
change to QC and MVC.
As discussed in the previous section, the
CGHAZ is the most susceptible to HIC
among the HAZ regions. Therefore, the
fracture behavior and CGHAZ mi-
crostructure must be taken together to ex-
plain the difference in HAZ HIC suscepti-
bility of the three steels. The BA-160
CGHAZ microstructure consists of
martensite with some retained austenite,
with maximum Vickers hardness of 376 HV.
For HY-100, the CGHAZ microstructure
is also martensite but with a much higher
maximum hardness of 464 HV. The
CGHAZ grain size of BA-160 and HY-100
are similar, in the range of 7080 m, while
the CGHAZ microstructure of HSLA-100
is a mixture of martensite and bainite,
which has the lowest maximum hardness of
329 HV among the three steels and also the
lowest CGHAZ grain size, in the range of
5060 m. It is known that a martensitic mi-
crostructure with high hardness and coarse
prior austenite grain size is detrimental to
HIC resistance (Ref. 22). Therefore, HY-
100 CGHAZ is the most susceptible to HIC
among the three steels. In addition, it is
found that no large area of IG failure can
be observed on the fracture surface of BA-
160 while a large area of IG exists on that
of HY-100. Since IG involves the least
amount of plastic deformation compared
to QC and MVC modes, occurrence of a
large area of IG on the fracture surface in-
dicates a high potential for HIC. Charac-
terization of the CGHAZ microstructure
and fracture behavior supports the implant
test results. If taking both NCSR and EI
into consideration for HAZ HIC suscepti-
bility evaluation, BA-160 shows a better re-
sistance to HAZ HIC than HY-100 but is
more susceptible to HAZ HIC compared
to HSLA-100.
Conclusions
1. Under the welding conditions used
for implant testing, the maximum Vickers
hardness of the CGHAZ is 376, 464, and
329 HV for BA-160, HY-100, and HSLA-
100, respectively.
2. The CGHAZ microstructure of BA-
160 consists of martensite with retained
austenite. For HY-100, the CGHAZ mi-
crostructure is also martensite while for
HSLA-100 a mixture of martensite and
lower bainite forms in the CGHAZ.
3. Under the implant test conditions
used in this study, the Lower Critical
Stress (LCS) was determined to be 55 ksi
(379 MPa), 91 ksi (627 MPa), and 102 ksi
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C D
A B
Fig. 11 Fracture morphology of BA-160 implant specimen under a stress of 118.9 ksi (819MPa) with failure after 13 min of loading. A General fracture
appearance (white arrow indicates the direction of crack growth); B crack initiation; C quasi-cleavage; D microvoid coalescence. B, C, and D are ob-
served in sequence along the crack propagation path.
(703 MPa) for HY-100, BA-160, and
HSLA-100, respectively. The lower values
of LCS indicate higher susceptibility to
HIC.
4. The Normalized Critical Stress
Ratio (NCSR) is determined by normaliz-
ing the LCS using the nominal yield
strength of the base metal. The NCSR was
determined to be 0.55, 0.57, and 1.02 for
HY-100, BA-160, and HSLA-100,
respectively.
5. The Embrittlement Index (EI) is de-
termined by normalizing the LCS using
the approximate tensile strength of the
CGHAZ. The EI for these steels was 0.24,
0.53, and 0.68 for HY-100, BA-160, and
HSLA-100, respectively.
6. Fractographic analysis revealed that
IG, QC, and MVC fracture modes are ob-
served on the fracture surface of HY-100
and HSLA-100 implant specimens. Cracks
initiate in the CGHAZ stress concentra-
tion region and grow intergranularly for a
certain distance before transitioning to
QC and MVC in sequence as the crack
propagates with an increase in stress in-
tensity factor and decrease in hydrogen
level.
7. No large area of IG fracture modes
could be found on the fracture surface of
BA-160. Among the three steels, the
largest area of IG failure with the coarsest
grains was found on the fracture surface of
HY-100, indicating the most serious
degradation due to effect of diffusible
hydrogen.
8. Taking both NCSR and EI into con-
sideration for HAZ HIC susceptibility
evaluation, BA-160 showed better resist-
ance to HAZ HIC than HY-100 but more
susceptibility to HAZ HIC compared to
HSLA-100. This is because with similar
CGHAZ grain size, the martensitic mi-
crostructure in the BA-160 CGHAZ is of
a much lower hardness compared with
HY-100. HSLA-100 shows the highest re-
sistance to HAZ HIC than BA-160 and
HY-100, as a result of formation of lower-
hardness bainite and martensite mixture
with smaller grain size in its CGHAZ.
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge
the financial support of the Office of
Naval Research, Award No.
N000140811000. Its grant officers are Dr.
Julie Christodoulou and Dr. William
Mullins. The authors would like to thank
Johnnie DeLoach, Matthew Sinfield, and
Jeffrey Farren with the Naval Surface
Warfare Center Carderock Division, West
Bethesda, Md., for providing the HY-100
and HSLA-100 steels used in this study
and for valuable discussions regarding the
weldability of these steels. Thanks are ex-
tended to Prof. Gregory Olsons research
group at Northwestern University for col-
laboration on this research project and
QuesTek Innovations LLC for providing
the BA-160 steel. Dejian Liu and Geoffrey
Taber are acknowledged for their con-
structive ideas and assistance with build-
ing the implant testing system.
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Fig. 12 Fracture morphology of HY-100 implant specimen under a stress of 107.9 ksi (743MPa) with failure after 9 min of loading. A General fracture ap-
pearance (white arrow indicates the direction of crack growth); B coarse intergranular; C quasi-cleavage; D microvoid coalescence. B, C, and D are
observed in sequence along the crack propagation path.
C
D
A
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W. F. 1974. Modified implant test for studying
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Fig. 13 Fracture morphology of HSLA-100 implant specimen under stress of 113.5 ksi (782 MPa) with failure after 45 min of loading. A General fracture
appearance (white arrow indicates the direction of crack growth); B intergranular; C quasi-cleavage; D microvoid coalescence. B, C, and D are ob-
served in sequence along the crack propagation path.
C D
A
B
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Introduction
Automotive manufacturers are faced
with increasing pressure to reduce vehicle
weight, improve fuel economy, reduce
emissions, and enhance vehicle safety and
performance. Therefore, an increasing
number of vehicle structures are built
using joints of dissimilar materials such as
steel, aluminum, and magnesium. Al-
though the advantages in mass savings are
potentially huge, this hybrid fabrication
approach raises substantial technical chal-
lenges to the design of vehicle structures
and the associated joining processes. Con-
ventional fusion welding of magnesium al-
loys to steels produces joints with brittle
MgO particles that degrade the joint
strength significantly (Ref. 1).
Cold metal transfer (CMT) technology
for joining similar and dissimilar materials
has been developed by Fronius Interna-
tional (Ref. 2). The method has been
shown to be a feasible alternative to adhe-
sive bonding and mechanical fastening for
joining dissimilar materials, e.g., particu-
larly for aluminum to galvanized steel
(Ref. 3). The key feature of this process is
that the motion of the wire has been inte-
grated into the joining process and into
the overall control of the process. The wire
retraction motion assists droplet detach-
ment during the short circuit, thus the
metal can transfer into the welding pool
without the aid of the electromagnetic
force. Then the heat input and spatter can
be controlled. As a result, the heat input
can be properly controlled and , conse-
quently, sound joints can be produced.
While a great deal of effort has been fo-
cused on CMT joining of aluminum alloy
to steels (Refs. 46), there is a need to join
magnesium to steel (Refs. 79). Magne-
sium alloys have been widely used in the
automotive industry for their low density,
high strength-to-weight ratio, good casta-
bility, and being easily recycled (Refs.
1012). However, there are specific chal-
lenges to joining magnesium to steel. The
maximum solid solubility of Fe in Mg is
0.00043 at.-%, and that of Mg in Fe is nil
(Refs. 13, 14). The melting points of Mg
and Fe are 649 and 1539C, respectively.
This huge difference in melting points
makes it difficult to melt both metals in a
welding pool required for a fusion welding
process. Moreover, both metals are im-
miscible in a liquid state due to density dif-
ferences, and they do not react to form any
congruent molten phase(s). Therefore, it
is extremely difficult to join magnesium al-
loys to steels through conventional fusion
welding.
Recently, Liu et al. (Ref. 1) made a
joint of Mg AZ31B alloy to 304 steel in a
lap configuration with AZ31B on the top
by a hybrid laser-gas tungsten arc welding
(GTAW) technique. Their results indi-
cated the weld fractured at the Mg-Fe in-
terface with a poor joint strength. The au-
thors attributed such low mechanical
strength to the severe oxidation at the
Mg/Fe interface. In later work, Liu et al.
(Refs. 15, 16) joined the magnesium alloy
and steel by hybrid laser-GTA welding
with Ni foil as an interlayer. With the ad-
dition of a Ni interlayer in a lap joint con-
figuration, AZ31B Mg alloy and mild steel
were successfully joined using a hybrid
laser/GTA welding process. The joint is
produced by the formation of two inter-
mediate phases between Mg and Ni, and
the solid solution of Ni in Fe. The strength
of the joints reached approximately 176
MPa, i.e., 110% that of the base Mg alloy,
which has a strength of 160 MPa (Ref. 15).
The addition of a Ni interlayer altered the
bonding mode of the magnesium alloy to
steel joint from a mechanical interlock
without metallurgical reactions to that of
semimetallurgical bonds, which improved
KEYWORDS
Magnesium AZ31
Mild Steel
Cold Metal Transfer (CMT)
Weld-Braze Process
ABSTRACT
Automotive manufacturers are faced with increasing pressure to reduce vehicle
weight, improve fuel economy, reduce emissions, and enhance vehicle safety and per-
formance. Therefore, an increasing number of vehicle structures are built using com-
binations of dissimilar materials such as steel, aluminum, and magnesium. Though the
advantages are potentially huge, this hybrid fabrication approach raises substantial
technical challenges to the design of vehicle structures and the associated joining
processes. Differences in chemical and physical properties and the fact that neither
solid solutions nor intermetallics exist between Mg and steel make the joining of Mg
alloys to steels through conventional fusion welding impossible.
In this study, fusion welding of 1-mm-thick Mg AZ31 to 1-mm-thick galvanized
mild steel lap joints was investigated. A cold metal transfer (CMT) fusion joining tech-
nique was adopted. Extensive welding tests with Mg wire were conducted and mi-
crostructures and element distributions were characterized. Based on the experi-
mental results, it was found that CMT welding of Mg to steel is possible if the steel
has a zinc coating because the zinc, which has a lower melting temperature than the
steel, interacts with the molten Mg alloy to provide a braze joint. The brazing inter-
face between the Mg weld metal and galvanized mild steel primarily consists of Al,
Zn, and Mg intermetallics and solid solution, such as Mg solid solutions, MgFeAlO
4
,
Fe
2
O
3
, and Mg
2
Zn
11
. The strength of the CMT weld-brazed, lap-shear, 1-mm-thick
Mg AZ31-galvanized mild steel joint is comparable to the strength of a lap-shear
1-mm-thick Mg AZ31-Mg AZ31 welded joint.
R. CAO, J. Y. YU, and J. H. CHEN are with
Lanzhou University of Technology, Lanzhou,
Gansu, China. PEI-CHUNG WANG is with the
General Motors Manufacturing Systems Research
Lab, Warren, Mich.
Feasibility of Cold-Metal-Transfer Welding
Magnesium AZ31 to Galvanized Mild Steel
Test results showed that zinc coating on the surface of the steel is critical
to obtaining a sound CMT weld
BY R. CAO, J. Y. YU, J. H. CHEN, AND PEI-CHUNG WANG
the joint strength in the interlayer fusion
welding process. However, the addition of
an interlayer adds additional cost and
cycle time and so an alternative route to a
fusion joint is required.
Other than fusion welding, a few studies
in friction stir welding (FSW) indicated the
ability to join magnesium alloys to steel
(Refs. 1720). Watanabe et al. (Ref. 17) first
studied the feasibility of joining a magne-
sium alloy to steel in a butt-joint configura-
tion. Maximum joint strength was noted to
be 70% of the strength of the magnesium
base metal. Chen and Nakata (Ref. 18)
studied the effect of tool geometry on the
microstructure and mechanical properties
of a friction stir lap-welded Mg alloy and
steel joint. S. Jana (Ref. 19) has studied
FSW of a Mg alloy to steel in a lap configu-
ration. A friction stir weld that could
achieve 80% of the base metal strength was
fabricated. Joints were found to be me-
chanical in nature since the Mg/steel
bonded interface directly under the tool tip
was mostly free from any new Zn-Mg phase.
The top Zn coating melted as a result of the
process heat and subsequently dissolved the
magnesium from the top sheet to form Zn-
Mg liquid alloy. The thin Zn coating could
not act as a brazing alloy.
The purpose of the current study is to in-
vestigate the feasibility of using the CMT
welding process to join Mg AZ31 to mild
steel. There are three main parts in this
paper. The first presents the experimental
procedure, including material, sample fab-
rication, microstructural observation and
analysis, mechanical testing, and fracture
analysis. The next section presents the re-
sults and discusses
the feasibility of
CMT joining mag-
nesium to steel and
optimization of
welding variables.
Finally, we discuss
microstructure of optimized welded joints
and bonding mechanism of the welded Mg
AZ31 to galvanized mild steel joints.
Experimental Procedure
Materials
One-mm-thick Mg AZ31B alloy sheet
with a nominal composition of Mg-3Al-
1Zn-0.2Mn-0.1Si (wt-%), and 1-mm-thick
hot-dipped galvanized mild carbon steel
sheets with nominal composition of Fe-
0.01C-0.01Si-0.39Mn-0.03P-0.025S (wt-
%) were used in this study. The thickness
of the Zn coating was 8.5 m. Al 4043 wire
with a diameter of 1.2 mm and AZ61Mg
wire with a diameter of 1.6 mm were used.
Per the manufacturers datasheet, Table 1
lists the wire compositions.
Joining Strategy
Figure 1 is the Mg-rich portion of the
Mg-Fe phase diagram having a maximum
solid solubility of 0.00043 at.-% Fe in Mg.
Neither solid solutions nor intermetallics
form. Furthermore, the melting points of
the Mg and Fe are 649 and 1539C, re-
spectively. This huge difference in melting
points makes it very difficult to melt both
in a welding pool. Therefore, in this study
a welding-brazing process is proposed to
join the Mg AZ31 to mild steel in a lap
joint configuration. During the joining
process, while welding occurs between the
melting Mg AZ31 base metal and molten
wire, brazing develops between the
molten wire and zinc coating on the sur-
face of the steel. As a result, a weld-braze
joint is formed for Mg AZ31 to galvanized
mild steel. To achieve this welding-brazing
process, cold metal transfer (CMT) join-
ing technology was adopted.
Sample Fabrication
The lap-shear joint configuration,
shown in Fig. 2, was selected for this study.
The joints were fabricated from 200 mm
50 mm 1 mm sheets. A fillet weld was lo-
cated on one edge of a 10-mm overlap re-
gion. A fixture was used to ensure consistent
weld placement. Prior to welding, the Mg
AZ31 sheets were degreased with acetone
then polished with an abrasive cloth. The
mild steel sheets were only degreased with
acetone. As shown in Fig. 2, the Mg AZ31
sheet was placed on the top of the steel in a
lap configuration with an overlap distance
of 10 mm. The deviated distance (D) is de-
fined as the deviation from the welding
torch to the edge of the lapped weld joint. If
the steel is placed on the top of the Mg
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Fig. 1 Phase diagram of Mg-Fe (Ref. 13).
Fig. 2 Schematic of lapped magnesium-to-steel sheet: A Plane view;
B side view of the welding torch with respect to the sample (dimensions in
mm).
Table 1 Chemical Compositions of Wires (wt-%)
Wires Si Fe Cu Mn Zn Ti Be Ce Ni Mg Al Other
Al4043 4.5~6.0 0.80 0.30 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.05 Bal.
MgAZ61 0.05 0.005 0.05 0.150.5 0.41.5 0.0006 0.005 Bal. 5.87.2 0.3
A
B
AZ31 sheet, most of the Mg element in the
Mg AZ31 alloy would have been vaporized
as the mild steel becomes molten and a
sound weld could not be formed. The angle
between the welding torch and lap joint was
45 deg from the normal to the sheet metal
in the direction of the weld Fig. 2B. The
welding direction is parallel to the lapped
joint. In this arrangement, while the top Mg
AZ31 becomes molten, the mild steel un-
derneath would re-
main unmelted. The
molten magnesium
AZ31 spreads and
contacts the galva-
nized steel and, as a
result, a weld-braze
joint is formed.
Orthogonal
Experimental
Design
The Taguchi DOE
technique (Ref. 21)
incorporating or-
thogonal arrays was
utilized for the sys-
tematic evaluation
of the welding vari-
ables. Table 2 shows
the orthogonal array
corresponding to five factors and four lev-
els. L
32
with the subscript 32 denotes the
number of experiments to be performed.
The L
32
orthogonal array has been shown in
Table 3. Each column in Table 3 represents
a test parameter whereas each row repre-
sents a test condition that is formed by a
combination of different levels of the inves-
tigated parameters.
The design of orthogonal experiments
can greatly reduce the time and increases
the accuracy of assigning proper columns
for interaction effects (Ref. 21). In the cur-
rent design, wire feed speed (parameter A)
has been assigned to the 1st column, and
weld speed (parameter B) to 2nd column.
The interaction factor between parameters
A and B is assigned to the 3rd column. Fac-
tor C (deviation distance) was assigned to
the 4th column and interaction between fac-
tors A and C (A C) to column 5, and fac-
tor D, voltage, and E, Zn coating thickness,
to column numbers 6 and 8, respectively.
Based on the output response, the tensile
load, in all the 32 investigated cases, Taguchi
experimental design was analyzed using
Matlab software (Ref. 22).
Analytical Analysis
The metallographic cross sections of
the specimens were prepared and exam-
ined. The ground and polished specimens
were etched using 5 g picric + 10 mm dis-
tilled water + 50 mL ethanol + 5 g acetic
acid for Mg AZ31 and by Nital (4 vol-%
HNO
3
+ 96 vol-% ethanol) for the mild
steel. The microstructures of the weld
were observed by scanning electron mi-
croscope (SEM 6700F) equipped with an
energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometer
(EDS). The analyses of element distribu-
tions of the welds were carried out by elec-
tron probe microanalysis (EPMA).
Mechanical Testing
The specimens shown in Fig. 3 were
machined from the weldment. Quasi-
static tests were performed by loading
each specimen to failure in a tensile tester
to minimize bending stresses inherent in
the testing of lap shear specimens, filler
plates were attached to both ends of the
sample using masking tape to accommo-
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Fig. 3 Specimens machined from CMT welded Mg-steel sheets (dimensions
in mm).
Fig. 4 A Appearance of CMT welded magnesium AZ31 to galvanized mild
steel with wire Al4043; B EDS elements analysis results of cracking locations
shown in Fig. 4A.
Fig. 5 Appearance of the CMT weld of magnesium AZ31 to galvanized mild
steel using welding wire Mg AZ61.
Fig. 6 Cross section of the welded Mg AZ31 to galvanized mild steel joints.
A
B
Table 2 Experimental Factors and Levels
Control Factors Levels Units
I II III IV
Wire feed speed (A) 3 4 5 7 m/min
Welding speed (B) 7 8 9 10 mm
Deviation distance (C) 0 1 2 4 mm
Voltage (D) 10 14 18 22 Volt
Thickness of zinc coating (E) 4 5.3 11.6 6 m
date the sample offset. Load vs. displace-
ment curves were obtained as the speci-
mens were loaded at a stroke rate of 1
mm/min. Three to four replicates were
performed, and the average peak loads
were reported.
Fracture Analysis
The fracture location and fracture sur-
face was analyzed by scanning electron mi-
croscope (SEM 6700F).
Feasibility of CMT Joining Mg AZ31
to Mild Steel
To determine the proper welding wire,
the Fe-Mg phase diagram, shown in Fig. 1,
was reviewed for potential stable room-
temperature compounds. As indicated in
Fig. 1, because neither solid solutions nor
intermetallics form between iron and
magnesium, a wire should include ele-
ments that have significant solid solubility
for magnesium. According to Ref. 14, the
solid solubility of Mg in aluminum reaches
a peak value of 11.8 at.-%. Furthermore,
the Al element would react with the Mg as
well as iron. Therefore, feasibility tests of
CMT welding of Mg AZ31 to galvanized
mild steel with commercially available
Al4043 wire were performed.
Magnesium-steel CMT tests by Al
4043 wire were performed with the
process variables shown in Table 4. Figure
4A shows the welded Mg AZ31 to galva-
nized mild steel. As shown, significant
cracks were observed in the weld metal for
both cases even though a large solid solu-
bility exists between Al and Fe, and Al and
Mg. Figure 4B shows EDS analysis result
on the regions where cracks are produced
in the welds. Results have presented that
the cracks are caused by a significant
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Fig. 7 Phase diagrams of the following: A Al-Zn (Ref. 14); B Mg-Zn (Ref. 13).
Table 3 Input Parameters of Orthogonal Array
Column
Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Exp. A B AB C AC D CD E
1 3 7 1 0 1 10 1 4 1
2 3 8 2 1 2 14 2 5.3 2
3 3 9 3 2 3 18 3 11.6 3
4 3 10 4 4 4 22 4 6 4
5 4 7 1 1 2 18 3 6 4
6 4 8 2 0 1 22 4 11.6 3
7 4 9 3 4 4 10 1 5.3 2
8 4 10 4 2 3 14 2 4 1
9 5 7 2 2 4 10 2 11.6 4
10 5 8 1 4 3 14 1 6 3
11 5 9 4 0 2 18 4 4 2
12 5 10 3 1 1 22 3 5.3 1
13 7 7 2 4 3 18 4 5.3 1
14 7 8 1 2 4 22 3 4 2
15 7 9 4 1 1 10 2 6 3
16 7 10 3 0 2 14 1 11.6 4
17 3 7 4 0 4 14 3 5.3 3
18 3 8 3 1 3 10 4 4 4
19 3 9 2 2 2 22 1 6 1
20 3 10 1 4 1 18 2 11.6 2
21 4 7 4 1 3 22 1 11.6 2
22 4 8 3 0 4 18 2 6 1
23 4 9 2 4 1 14 3 4 4
24 4 10 1 2 2 10 4 5.3 3
25 5 7 3 2 1 14 4 6 2
26 5 8 4 4 2 10 3 11.6 1
27 5 9 1 0 3 22 2 5.3 4
28 5 10 2 1 4 18 1 4 3
29 7 7 3 4 2 22 2 4 3
30 7 8 4 2 1 18 1 5.3 4
31 7 9 1 1 4 14 4 11.6 1
32 7 10 2 0 3 10 3 6 2
A B
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amount of intermetallic compound
Mg
2
Al
3
between the Al6061-T6 and Mg
AZ31. As a result, it is not feasible to join
Mg AZ31 to galvanized mild steels with
welding wire Al4043.
As described in Refs. 2325, sound
joints between the Mg wire and Mg alloy
base metal can be produced using gas
metal arc welding (GMAW). In our tests,
Mg AZ61 wire was selected next in our ex-
perimental trials.
Welding tests were conducted, and
Table 5 lists the process variables. Figure 5
shows the appearance of the Mg AZ31 to
galvanized mild steel weld. For the Mg
AZ31 to galvanized mild steel welded
joint, the sound weld, shown in Fig. 5,
composed of the weld metal, fusion zone
on the Mg sheet and the brazing interface
between the weld metal and nonmelted
galvanized mild steel sheet was obtained.
Examination of the cross section shown in
Fig. 6 showed that although sound bonds
formed between magnesium and steel, a
large wetting angle of about 70 deg and a
high weld reinforcement of 4 mm were ob-
served on the steel surface, which indi-
cates that the wetting of the molten
droplet on the steel substrate is poor. Poor
wetting would constrain the brazing area
between the magnesium and steel. Since
the strength of the Mg-steel joints is
closely related to the brazing area of the
molten droplet on the steel, poor wetting
(i.e., large wetting angle) would lead to
poor joint strength. Thus, further study to
improve the CMT joining of Mg AZ31-
galvanized mild steel is needed.
Improvement of CMT Joining of Mg
to Steel
To improve the wetting of the molten
Mg AZ61 wire on the zinc-coated steel, we
examined the phase diagrams of Al-Zn
and Mg-Zn (Ref. 14) shown in Fig. 7A and
B, respectively. Because the solid solubil-
ity of Zn in Al is high (66.5% at 382C) and
Zn in Mg is relatively low (3% at 325C),
the potential exists for the brazing inter-
face to be produced by forming the Al and
Zn solid solution and thereby improving
the wetting angle.
Experimental results of the Al-steel
welding-brazing process showed the pres-
ence of the zinc coating improves the wet-
ting angle (Refs. 26, 27). In our work, it was
necessary to limit the arc heat input to avoid
vaporization of the zinc coating by using Mg
wire that contained Al content. To achieve
this, the welding torch, shown in Fig. 2, was
positioned at a sufficient distance from the
lap joint so that molten magnesium was in
contact with the zinc-coated steel during
welding, and consequently the zinc coating
could react with the Al and Mg in the weld-
ing wire yet not vaporize. As a result, the sol-
ubility and wettability of weld metal on the
zinc-coated steel would be improved. In the
following sections, process optimization,
microstructure, bonding mechanism, effect
of the torch location on the weld appear-
ance, fracture location, and strength of the
Mg to galvanized steel joints are discussed.
Optimization of the Welding Variables
To optimize the welding variables, a
quadratic regression analysis of various
variables was performed. Table 6 presents
the process parameters of orthogonal
Fig. 8 Combined effects of the following: A, B Welding voltage and deviation distance; C, D wire
feed speed and deviation distance; E, F wire feed speed and welding speed on the strength of a Mg AZ31
to mild steel weld joint.
Fig. 9 A Appearance; B cross sections of optimized CMT welded Mg AZ31-galvanized mild steel
joints.
A
C
E
F
D
B
A
B
array and the characteristics. The peak
load to fracture of the joints (i.e., joint
strength) was the metric used as the basis
for the process optimization.
Table 7 shows the analysis results on
the rank of the process parameters using
the Taguchi method. As shown in Table 7,
the delta value was estimated for each
parameter from the difference of the max-
imum and minimum mean tensile load
values at different levels. The rank of each
parameter generated by the Taguchi
method was determined from the delta
values of all the parameters. The rank of
the parameters signifies their relative im-
portance in terms of their influence on the
output response, i.e., tensile peak loads in
this investigation. As shown in Table 7, the
variables in the order of importance are as
follows: wire feed speed (A) > welding
speed (B) > thickness of zinc coating (E)
> the interaction effects of wire feed
speed and welding speed (A B) > weld-
ing voltage (D) > deviation distance (C)
> the interaction effects of wire feed
speed and deviation distance (A C) >
the interaction effects of deviation dis-
tance and welding voltage (C D). When
a single factor is considered, optimized
welding variables can be obtained, i.e., a
wire feed speed of 4 m/min, a weld speed
of 7 mm/s, and a voltage of 18 V.
A statistical analysis of variance
(ANOVA) was performed to determine the
statistical significance of the process pa-
rameters (Ref. 28). It helps to determine the
effect of an individual input parameter on
the output parameters. Table 8 shows the
results of the ANOVA analysis. Based on
these results, the coating thickness was
found to be the most influential process pa-
rameter with a 20.45% contribution fol-
lowed by welding voltage (17.33%), weld
speed (16.7%), and wire feed speed
(15.14%). The combined main effects of
various process variables on the joint
strengths pertaining to the ANOVA analy-
ses are shown in Fig. 8. From Fig. 8, the red
region indicates the maximum load, so the
optimized welding window (i.e., welding
voltages of 14 to 16 V, deviation distances of
2 to 3.5 mm, welding speeds of 7 to 8 mm/s,
and wire feed speeds of 4.5 to 6 m/min) were
developed by combining the results shown
in Fig. 8 and Table 6.
Weld Appearance of Optimized Mg AZ31-
Mild Steel Joint
Cold metal transfer welding of Mg
AZ31 to galvanized mild steel was per-
formed with the optimized welding vari-
ables shown in Table 9. The weld appear-
ance and cross sections of the optimized Mg
AZ31-galvanized mild steel welded joints
are presented in Fig. 9. As shown in Fig. 9,
a sound weld was composed of the weld
metal, fusion zone on the Mg AZ31 sheet,
and the brazing interface between the weld
metal and nonmelted galvanized mild steel.
Examination of the cross section showed
the wetting angle and weld reinforcement
were improved compared with the nonopti-
mized results shown in Fig. 6.
Microstructure of Optimized Mg AZ31-
Mild Steel Joints
To understand the material properties of
CMT welded Mg AZ31 to galvanized mild
steel with magnesium AZ61 welding wire,
the weld microstructures were analyzed.
Figure 10 and Table 10 present the detailed
microstructures and detailed EPMA analy-
ses of three regions (i.e., weld metal center,
weld metal near the brazing interface, and
fusion zone) shown in Fig. 9B. Since Region
1 in Fig. 10A contains 93 at.-% Mg and a
small amount of O and Zn, the phase in Re-
gion 1 is -Mg solid solution. Region 2 in
Fig. 10A contains 65.23 at.-% O, 25.81 at.-
% Mg, and a small amount of Al and Zn,
and, consequently, the corresponding
phase is likely an oxide inclusion. For Re-
gion 3, it contains 54.38 at.-% Mg and 36.22
at.-% Al, which is consistent with the -
Al
12
Mg
17
intermetallic. Based on these
analyses, the microstructure at the center of
the weld metal is composed of an -Mg
solid-solution dendritic structure (denoted
by Region 1), which contains a few oxide in-
clusions (refer to Region 2), with the eutec-
tic structure along the grain boundaries
consisting of -Al
12
Mg
17
mesh intermetal-
lic (denoted by region 3). The microstruc-
ture of the weld metal near the combined
interfaces is composed of -Mg solid solu-
tion (denoted by Region 4 in Fig. 10B), a
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Fig. 10 Cross-section microstructure of CMT
welded Mg AZ31 to mild steel joints at the follow-
ing: A Middle of the weld metal; B weld metal
near the brazing interface; C fusion zone.
Table 4 Process Variables for CMT Welded Mg AZ31 to Galvanized Mild Steels with
Al4043 Wire
Material Wire Diameter Wire Feed Speed Current Voltage Welding
(mm) (m/min) (Amp) (Volt) Speed
(mm/s)
Mg AZ31 to 1.2 3 45 12 4.17
galvanized mild
steel
Fig. 11 Results of line analysis across the interface of Mg AZ31 to galvanized mild steel joint fabri-
cated with optimized welding parameters: A Cross section; B element distribution along the red
line in Fig. 11A.
A
B
C
A
B
few oxide inclusions (denoted by Region 5),
and coarse -Al
12
Mg
17
eutectic (denoted by
Region 6) and MgZn intermetallic com-
pounds (denoted by Region 7 in Fig. 10B).
The fusion zone that is formed by weak met-
allurgical reactions between the magnesium
alloy and the weld metal is narrow and the
grains are small due to a relatively higher
cooling rate as a result of the steel substrate
acting as a heat sink.
Bond Mechanism of Mg-Steel Joints
As described in Refs. 1, 15, and 16, the
strength of dissimilar Mg-steel joints is
mainly determined by the brazing interface
between the melted Mg weld metal and
nonmelted galvanized steel sheets. To un-
derstand the bond mechanism at the braz-
ing interface, EPMA was employed to ana-
lyze the brazing interface of the welded Mg
AZ31-galvanized mild steel joints. Figure
11A, B shows the cross section of a weld and
the line analysis results for an optimized
joint, respectively. As shown in Fig. 11A, the
bright image on the left-hand side is the
steel and the weld metal on the right-hand
side, and the gray zone between the steel
and weld metal is the brazed interface.
EPMA line analysis results shown in Fig.
11B indicate the narrow interface zone is
composed of Al, Zn, and Mg elements. The
Al and Zn content is higher than the Mg
content in the brazing interface although
the Mg Alloy AZ61 was used as the welding
wire. Thus, the brazed zone between the
weld metal and steel sheet was formed by a
combination of Al, Zn, and Mg. Because
the Al content at the interface was greater
than the Mg content, we conclude that the
Al alloying element within the AZ61 wire
and Mg sheet in combination with the Zn
content from the coating play an important
role for enhancing the wettability of the Mg
on Fe. The line analysis results in Fig. 11B
also highlights the eutectic -Al
12
Mg
17
within the weld metal on the right-hand side
of the picture.
In order to confirm the bonding mech-
anism of the brazed joints, X-ray analyses
of the interface of the specimens fractured
along the interface between the weld
metal and Zn-coated steel were con-
ducted, and the results are presented in
Fig. 12. It was found that the interface is
mainly composed of the Mg-Al eutectic
structure and various intermetallics
MgFeAlO
4
, Fe
2
O
3
, and Mg
2
Zn
11
.
Examination of the bonding mechanism
for the joints made with the weld torch de-
viated by 1 mm was also performed, and the
results are presented in Fig. 13. The frac-
tured interface of a specimen shown in Fig.
13A indicates a shear tear fracture feature.
Similar fracture features were observed for
the joints without the torch deviation. Fig-
ure 13B shows the element content of
marked red regions shown in Fig. 13A. Fig-
ure 13C shows the element distributions. It
was found that there is a significant amount
of Al and Zn elements in addition to the Mg
and Fe elements observed on the fracture
surface. All these results imply that Al and
Zn elements can improve the wettability of
the brazing interface. Aluminum plays an
important role in improving the wettability
of a Mg-rich weld metal on Zn-coated steel
sheet. The effect of Al on the formation of
the Mg AZ31-galvanized mild steel brazing
joint needs to be studied further.
Strength of Mg-Steel Joints
Static testing of optimized CMT weld-
ing-brazing Mg AZ31-galvanized steel
joints was performed, and the results are
presented in Fig. 14. For the purposes of
the comparison, test results of CMT weld-
ing-brazing Mg AZ31-Mg AZ31 joint with
the same dimensions were also included in
Fig. 14. For the sake of clarity, only one
representative result was presented. As
shown, CMT welding-brazing Mg AZ31
galvanized mild steel joint has a compara-
ble strength to CMT welding-brazing Mg
AZ31-Mg AZ31 joint.
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Fig. 12 X-ray analysis at the brazed Zn-coated
mild steel/weld metal (with Mg AZ61 welding wire)
interface.
Fig. 13 A Fractography of a tested specimen; B distribution of the element; C element analy-
sis of a square region shown in A.
Fig. 14 Load-displacement of lap-shear tests of
CMT joined Mg AZ31-galvanized steel and Mg
AZ31-Mg AZ31 specimens.
Table 5 Process Variables for CMT Welded Mg AZ31 to Galvanized Mild Steel with AZ61 Magnesium Wire
Material Wire Diameter Wire Feed Speed Current Voltage Welding Speed
(mm) (m/min) (Amp) (Volt) (mm/s)
Mg AZ31 to 1.6 3 50 10 5.5
galvanized mild steel
A
B
C
Conclusions
The present study provides a feasible
fusion method for joining of magnesium
AZ31 to hot dipped galvanized mild steel
for automotive applications. Extensive
tests conducted on the CMT welding of 1-
mm-thick lap-shear Mg AZ31 sheet to 1-
mm-thick mild steel sheet concluded the
following:
1. Cold metal transfer (CMT) welding
of 1-mm-thick lap-shear Mg AZ31 sheet
to 1-mm-thick galvanized mild steel sheet
with welding wire Mg AZ61 has been de-
veloped. Test results showed that zinc
coating on the surface of the steel is criti-
cal to obtaining a sound CMT welded Mg
AZ31 to coated mild steel joint.
2. Cold metal transfer welded Mg
AZ31 to galvanized mild steel joints were
composed of the fusion zone of the Mg
AZ31 sheet and Mg AZ61 welding wire,
the Mg weld metal, i.e., combined welding
wire and Zn coating, and the brazing in-
terface between the Mg weld metal and
galvanized mild steel sheet. The brazing
interface consists of Al, Zn, Mg inter-
metallic compounds and oxides (i.e.,
MgFeAlO
4
, Fe
2
O
3
, and Mg
2
Zn
11
) and a
magnesium solid solution. Aluminum in
the welding wire magnesium AZ61 en-
hances the wettability of a Mg-rich weld
metal on Zn-coated steel sheet.
3. The strength of CMT welding-braz-
ing Mg AZ31 to galvanized mild steel is
determined primarily by the strength of
the brazing interface.
4. The strength of the CMT welding-
brazing lap-shear 1-mm-thick Mg AZ31-
galvanized mild steel joint is comparable
to the strength of lap-shear 1-mm-thick
Mg AZ31-Mg AZ31 welded joint.
Acknowledgments
This work was financially supported by
the National Nature Science Foundation of
China (No. 51265028), and GM Research
and Development Center, Warren, Mich.
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Table 6 Input Parameters of Orthogonal Array and the Output Characteristics
Column 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Joint Strength
Number
Exp A B AB C AC D CD E (kN)
1 3 7 1 0 1 10 1 4 1 2.8
2 3 8 2 1 2 14 2 5.3 2 0
3 3 9 3 2 3 18 3 11.6 3 0
4 3 10 4 4 4 22 4 6 4 0
5 4 7 1 1 2 18 3 6 4 4.7
6 4 8 2 0 1 22 4 11.6 3 1.9
7 4 9 3 4 4 10 1 5.3 2 0
8 4 10 4 2 3 14 2 4 1 4.4
9 5 7 2 2 4 10 2 11.6 4 4.8
10 5 8 1 4 3 14 1 6 3 4.0
11 5 9 4 0 2 18 4 4 2 0
12 5 10 3 1 1 22 3 5.3 1 0
13 7 7 2 4 3 18 4 5.3 1 0
14 7 8 1 2 4 22 3 4 2 0
15 7 9 4 1 1 10 2 6 3 0
16 7 10 3 0 2 14 1 11.6 4 0
17 3 7 4 0 4 14 3 5.3 3 0
18 3 8 3 1 3 10 4 4 4 0
19 3 9 2 2 2 22 1 6 1 0
20 3 10 1 4 1 18 2 11.6 2 0
21 4 7 4 1 3 22 1 11.6 2 0
22 4 8 3 0 4 18 2 6 1 5.1
23 4 9 2 4 1 14 3 4 4 0
24 4 10 1 2 2 10 4 5.3 3 0.5
25 5 7 3 2 1 14 4 6 2 3.3
26 5 8 4 4 2 10 3 11.6 1 4.0
27 5 9 1 0 3 22 2 5.3 4 0
28 5 10 2 1 4 18 1 4 3 0
29 7 7 3 4 2 22 2 4 3 0
30 7 8 4 2 1 18 1 5.3 4 4.5
31 7 9 1 1 4 14 4 11.6 1 4.3
32 7 10 2 0 3 10 3 6 2 4.2
Table 7 Ranking of Influential Process Parameters by Taguchi Method
Corresponding
No. A B AB C AC D CD E
Delta 6.6 4.1 3.4 2.4 1.3 3.1 1.1 4
Rank 1 2 4 6 7 5 8 3
A: wire feeder speed, B: welding speed, C: deviation distance, D: welding voltage, E: thickness of zinc coating
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17. Watanabe, T., Kagiya, K., Yanagisawa,
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characteristics and metal transfer behavior of
cold metal transfer and its use in joining alu-
minum to zinc-coated steel. Materials Science
and Engineering A 499: 111113.
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Table 8 Analysis of Variance for Tensile Strength Using SS (Sum of Square) for Tests
Source SS DOF Variance F F Contribution
(Sum of Square) (Critical) (%)
A 15.5 3 5.2 0.276 6.590 15.14
B 17.125 3 5.7 0.306 6.590 16.73
C 7.4 3 2.5 0.132 6.590 7.23
D 17.74 3 5.91 0.317 6.590 17.33
E 20.933 3 6.98 0.374 6.590 20.45
AB 4.176 3 1.39 0.075 6.590 4.08
AC 1.7 3 0.57 0.030 6.590 1.66
CD 1.316 3 0.44 0.024 6.590 1.29
Error 16.88 4 16.49
Total 102.35 31 100
Table 9 Welding Variables and Tensile Load of Optimized Mg-Steel Weld Joint
Specimen Welding Speed Voltage Current Deviation Wire Feed Load
No. (mm/s) (V) (A) Distance (mm) Speed (m/min) (kN)
9 7 10 55 2 5 5.5
Table 10 EPMA Analysis Results of Various Zones Shown in Fig. 10
Regions in Atomic Content in Percentage (at.-%)
Fig. 10 O Fe Mg Al Zn
1 4.44 0 93.00 0 4.44
2 65.23 0 25.81 5.69 1.24
3 2.90 0 54.38 36.22 6.50
4 4.41 0 90.09 1.51 1.65
5 65.23 0 25.81 5.69 0
6 2.30 0 63.03 29.26 5.41
7 6.35 3.90 23.11 11.49 51.32

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THIS VIEW MADE

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