Siauliai univerSity

9
th
International JTEFS/BBCC Conference
SuSTaInaBlE DEvElopmEnT.
CulTurE. EDuCaTIon
BBCC Mission reorientation of teacher education
and research in education for
Sustainable Development
Conference proceedings
may 18-21
Siauliai university
lithuania
V iauli universiteto leidykla
2011
9
th
International JTEFS/BBCC Conference
SuSTaInaBlE DEvElopmEnT. CulTurE. EDuCaTIon
BBCC Mission reorientation of teacher education and research
in education for Sustainable Development
Editorial board:
Ilga Salte (Daugavpils University, Latvia)
Dzintra Iliko (Daugavpils University, Latvia)
Anita Pipere (Daugavpils University, Latvia)
Astrida Skrinda (Daugavpils University, Latvia)
Ilona Miule (Daugavpils University, Latvia)
Svetlana Ignatjeva (Daugavpils University, Latvia)
Rima Bakutyt (iauliai University, Lithuania)
Lidija Ueckien (iauliai University, Lithuania)
Edita Musneckien (iauliai University, Lithuania)
Walter Leal Filho, (Hamburg University of Applied Sciences, Germany)
Yesudas Choondassery, Berkely College, USA)
Helen P. Gerretson (University of South Florida, USA)
Ulla Hrknen (University of Joensuu, Finland)
Peter Purg (Institute and Academy of Multimedia, Slovenia)
language editors
Inga Gedne (Daugavpils University)
Ginta Gedne (Daugavpils University)
iSBn 978-609-430-077-6
3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
rESErCH For EDuCaTIon For SuSTaInaBlE DEvElopmEnT ........... 6
Holistic and sustainable behavioural change through means of teaching
and learning Evidence from an Austrian case study ................................... 6
Lukas Scherak
Increasing individual creativity by students integrative collaboration in a
professional secondary school ..................................................................... 18
Nataja van Gejeka, Svetlana Ignatjeva
Educational empowerment of adult sustainable development education .... 29
Jurgita Bonkeviit
School network optimisation consequences for social mobility
of rural children: Problems and challenges in the context
of sustainable development ......................................................................... 40
Rasa Poceviien, Daiva Malinauskien
Interrelation between adults perception of self as feld professional
and their participation in in-service training .................................................. 48
Lidija Ueckien, Rima Bakutyt
TEaCHEr EDuCaTIon For EDuCaTIon For SuSTaInaBlE
DEvElopmEnT ............................................................................................. 61
Principle of sustainability in developing teachers musical culture ............... 61
Jeena Badjanova, Daugavpils University, Latvia
Exploring pre-service teachers frames of reference and their orientation
towards inclusion or exclusion: educational action research journey........... 80
Ginta Gedne, Inga Gedne, Ilga Salte, Dzintra Iliko
Professional development priorities of principals educational
establishments ........................................................................................... 103
Olga Archipova
Constructivist approach as the methodological basis for acquisition of
future musicians improvisation skills ......................................................... 122
Jevgeijs Ustinskovs
Teachers ecological competence in the context of sustainable
development............................................................................................... 137
Svetlana Krugija
4
Primary school learners research activities within the project week.......... 150
Elga Drelinga, Dzintra Iliko, Elfrda Krastia
Teachers engagement with the research: the case study ......................... 163
Dzintra Iliko, Ilona Miule, Svetlana Ignatjeva
EDuCaTIon For SuSTaInaBlE DEvElopmEnT In HIgHEr
EDuCaTIon ................................................................................................. 171
Some developments on education for sustainable development
in higher education institutions ................................................................... 171
Walter Leal Filho
Student design culture formation as the element for sustainable
development of an educational system ...................................................... 197
Tatyana Stenina
Re-thinking marketing university education for sustainable
development: the case of Kenya ................................................................ 205
Jonah Nyaga Kindiki
Education and training of pharmacists in Lithuania and Italy:
a comparative analysis............................................................................... 217
Vilija Grinceviien, Nora Grinceviit, Jonas Grinceviius
organIzaTIon oF lEarnIng anD rESEarCH EnvIronmEnT
In EDuCaTIon For SuSTaInaBlE DEvElopmEnT
(prE-SCHool, prImary, anD SEConDary lEvEl) ............................ 231
Use of experiential marketing technologies in teaching at higher
education institutions.................................................................................. 231
Natlija Sotikova, Marina Gunare
Development of competence (excellence) centre for the improvement
of the quality of vocational education ......................................................... 244
Eriks Grinbergs, Ieva Margevica
EDuCaTIon For SuSTaInaBlE DEvElopmEnT anD SoCIal
Work ........................................................................................................... 258
School NET reorganisation policy in Lithuania: a social-cultural
context and fnancial-economical priorities ................................................ 258
Audron Juodaityt, Erika Masiliauskien
Work options for mentally handicapped youth ........................................... 276
Ilona Sidorovica

EDuCaTIon For SuSTaInaBlE DEvElopmEnT anD

E-lEarnIng ................................................................................................ 286
The impact of a holistic implementation of Moodle at secondary school
Gimnazija Bezigrad (GIMB) in didactic and pedagogical attitudes ............ 286
Alenka Budihna, Tanja Mastnak
E-learning environment for sustainability in educational action
research ..................................................................................................... 297
Janis Kapenieks
6
rESEarCH For EDuCaTIon For
SuSTaInaBlE DEvElopmEnT
Holistic and sustainable behavioural change through
means of teaching and learning Evidence from an
austrian case study
lukas Scherak, phD candidate,
University of Exeter, Hannover, Germany
Abstract. This study reports on the use of cognitive maps and the personal
ecological footprint. The aim of this study was to identify if communicating
the concept of sustainability within teaching, expressed by the different
stakeholders cognitive maps, leads to behavioural change, indicated by
the individuals ecological footprint. The hypothesis presupposes that
knowing and understanding the principles of sustainability, demonstrated
through cognitive mapping, would result in a greater likelihood of living
more sustainably, indicated by a smaller ecological footprint. This research
analysed both cognitive maps and ecological footprints through a survey,
which was conducted at two Austrian universities and one Austrian school
in order to evaluate these two analyses. One part of the survey assessed
the perception of sustainability by classifying the words semantically.
The other part examined the personal ecological footprint through an
ecological footprint questionnaire. Each was conducted separately and
then relationships between these two approaches were identifed. It was
concluded from the results that a wider perception of sustainability can
lead to a smaller personal ecological footprint and that there is a direct
link between cognition and behavioural change. This article presents new
and original understanding on the direct relationship of cognitive maps
and ecological footprints.
Key words: education for sustainable development, cognitive mapp-
ing, ecological footprint, environmental education, Austria.
Introduction
the current debate on sustainable behaviour is an academic
agenda that has evolved since the Brundlandt report was published
in 1987 (UN, 1987). During the 1980s and early 1990s policy makers
7
and academia have focused primarily on industrial production and the
issue of its sustainability (Spaargarden & Mol, 2008). During the 1990s
a shift in the agenda from producers towards consumers, in particular
expressed as citizen-consumers, can be identifed. As people are driven
by consumptive patterns and lifestyles serve as social conversations,
in which people differentiate themselves from other people, signal their
social position and psychological aspirations, (UN, 2008: 1) academia
and politics, through policy intervention and regulative instalments, have
altered their foci of analysis. People are also driven by their needs, which
stand in close relation to their consumption and production patterns
(UN, 2008: 2). As Clark (1994: 181) highlights, certain needs ought to
be met if our lifestyles and our life itself becomes again (?), or for the
frst time (?), sustainable. Since 1992 the Agenda 21 (UN, 2008) has
been trying to create new concepts within the neo-liberal democracies.
these ideas shall allow high standards of living by taking into closer
consideration the Earths fnite resources (UN, 2008).
the present discussion on pro-environmental behaviour within
western democracies and how state affairs and policies can be applied
to tackle these issues seems to be misleading or at least short-sighted.
The sudden increase of popularity within scientifc research of exploring
the citizen-consumer concept (Spaargaren & Mol, 2008) and their
respective unsustainable lifestyles has not led to a broader investigation
as to why these lifestyles are unsustainable in the frst place. Although
concepts such as quality of life, economic growth, pursuit of happiness
and consumption patterns are explored, the deeper causes and their
roots of unsustainability are not considered.
Sustainability and education for sustainability are two concepts that
have been discussed in recent research (WCED, 1987; Becker, 2001;
Sterling, 2001; Warburton, 2003; Ashford, 2004; Ben-Eli, 2004; Adomssent
et al., 2007); and there has been international efforts (UNESCO, 1972;
UNESCO, 1990; Jucker, 2002; Wright, 2002; Bell and Morse, 2003; Orr
2004; Thomas, 2004; UN DESA, 2004; UN, 2005; Austrian UNESCO
Commission, 2007; Bell & Morse, 2008) to fnd measures to introduce
the concept and ideas behind sustainability within teaching. Therefore,
the aim of this study was to identify if a broader understanding of the
concept of sustainability leads to a behavioural change of the different
stakeholders of the Austrian education system. The research hypothesis
asserts that when sustainability is communicated in teaching, then
through the reduction of their ecological footprint (EF) the behaviour
of different stakeholders of the austrian educational system towards
8
living a more sustainable life is changed. The perception of the concept
of sustainability is expressed by the different stakeholders cognitive
maps.
Recent educational research has analysed these two methods,
cognitive mapping (Lourdel, 2005, 2007) and EF analysis (Ryu &
Brody, 2006). On the one hand there have been vast analyses on the
cognition of sustainability within the education sector and on the other
hand, there has been research on the change of the personal EF
enabled through teaching the concept of sustainability. The results of
research on cognitive mapping and eFs have shown that the cognitive
perception of sustainability can change through teaching. It has also
been demonstrated that the eF does vary depending on the degree of
expertise in sustainability. However, research in the feld of education
so far has not compared these two methods demonstrating that there
is a direct link between changing a persons cognition and behavioural
change.
method
the method behind this research is based on the following
hypotheses:
research hypothesis:
When sustainability is communicated in teaching, then through
the reduction of their eF the behaviour of different stakeholders of the
austrian educational System towards living a more sustainable life is
changed.
null hypothesis:
Communicating sustainability in teaching has no infuence on the
behavioural change of different stakeholders of the austrian educational
System to live a more sustainable life by reducing their EF.
Objectives for the method
The frst objective of this research is an analysis and a better compre-
hension of the cognitive maps of different stakeholders of the austrian
educational System concerning their understanding of the concept of
sustainability. For this analysis three key groups have been identifed:
Group 1 (University of Natural Resources and Applied Life
Sciences later referred to as BOKU) that has dealt with the term
sustainability in teaching;
Group 2 (University of Vienna later referred to as Uni Vienna)
that might have come across the term sustainability in teaching or
through other resources and
9
Group 3 (Nurses Training School Baden) that has not come
across the term sustainability in teaching at all.
the second objective is the analysis and better understanding
of living habits of different stakeholders of the austrian educational
System through an EF questionnaire. And the third and fnal objective
is the examination and demonstration of a potential correlation between
cognitive maps and EFs.
Research design
the aim of this research was to identify interconnections between
the understanding of the concept of sustainability and the EF. Therefore
a survey (which if interested can be retrieved from the author) was
conducted at two Austrian universities (BOKU and Uni Vienna) and
one school (Nurses Training School Baden later referred to as School).
Pupils, students, researchers and teachers not only identifed their EF by
calculating and answering given questions but they also had to draw
their concept of sustainability based on their cognitive map. The idea
behind the cognitive maps was to comprehend their perception of this
concept and to allow interpretations of their cognitive maps. 46 people
from the BOKU, 65 people from the Uni Vienna and 44 people from the
School completed the survey. The test group of the BOKU has either
been teaching or studying the concept of sustainability. The people of the
University of Vienna have come across the term sustainability, but have
not specifcally been taught on that subject. The group of the School
have not been taught the concept nor have the majority of them come
across the terminology of sustainability through other resources.
the method on cognitive mapping applied for this research is
partly taken from Lourdel et al. (2005, 2007), who conducted a survey
on cognitive maps with third year graduate students at the ecole des
Mines St. Etienne, France. The approach taken for the analysis of these
cognitive maps is by grouping the words into six categories. Category 1
deals with social and cultural aspects (Lourdel et al., 2005: 259; Lourdel
et al., 2007: 171). Category 2 classifes all words linked to environmental
aspects (Lourdel et al., 2005: 259; Lourdel et al., 2007: 171). Category
3 groups all connotations related to economic, scientifc and technical
aspects (Lourdel et al., 2005: 259; Lourdel et al., 2007: 171). The other 3
Categories are concerned with the abstractive understanding of students,
including the complexity of the sustainability concept. Category 4 analyses
the cognitive maps according to complexity, temporal relations and
spatial dimensions (Lourdel et al., 2005: 259; Lourdel et al., 2007: 172).
10
Category looks at the procedural and political approaches (Lourdel
et al., 2005: 259; Lourdel et al., 2007: 172). The last Category groups
the words related to actors and stakeholders (Lourdel et al., 2005: 259;
Lourdel et al., 2007: 172).
the second method utilised within this research is the calculation of
the target groups EF. The questionnaire used for this calculation was
taken from the Royal Society of Chemistry (2007) and was translated into
German. This questionnaire includes questions related to the amount of
water used per person, the buying, living (including heating, electricity),
spending and travelling habits of people, the paper usage and the amount
of waste accumulated (including recycling methods).
the further approach for this research is the comparison of the different
eFs in relation to the cognitive maps designed by the target group and
the verifcation of the hypothesis by conferring the result of the EF with
the complexity of the cognitive maps. The complexity of these cognitive
maps is illustrated and measured by the amount of words used within
each category and through the employment of the different categories.
results of cognitive maps and ecological footprinting analysis
and discussion
the analysis of the conducted survey can be separated into three
parts. The frst section of the analysis looks at the perception of
sustainability, which was evaluated through the cognitive maps drawn by
the participants of the survey. This evaluation looked at the six categories
of sustainability, which were adopted from Lourdels et al. analysis
(2007). The three groups, which were identifed during the survey, will
be compared by the percentage of maps, which contain at least one
word in each given category, by the average number of words in each
category and the standard deviation of the average number of words.
Furthermore, two groups identifed by their EF (calculated through the
mean of the entire group equalling 5.23 gha, one group referred to as
Small EF, one group Big EF), two groups identifed by their academic
status (one group: University, one group: School) and two groups
identifed by the degree to which they have dealt with sustainability (one
group: Sustainability; one group Unsustainability) will be compared. The
second part evaluates and compares the eF of these above-mentioned
groups. The method chosen for the validation of these two analyses is
the statistical Students t-test. This test will show possible signifcant
variances within the given samples. A signifcant variance is given,
if the probability, assuming the null hypothesis that the two observed
11
groups are different, is lower than 5% (0.05). A probability above 5% is
scientifcally seen as non-signifcant (Salkind, 2004). The results of the
Students t-test for all 6 categories, if interested can be retrieved from
the author. Finally, the interrelationship between cognitive maps and EFs
is examined in order to show whether these two evaluations have any
overlapping similarities and conclusions can be drawn from there.
Cognitive maps analysis
Within the given six categories four of them showed signifcant
variances throughout the comparison of all the different samples: category
2 and 4 never demonstrated any signifcant difference. One relationship
that can be drawn from this is that people from the group BOKU have
a more complex understanding of sustainability and thus a signifcant
smaller eF than people from the group uni vienna and people from
the group School, as was demonstrated before. The reason why it is
argued that these test persons have a more complex understanding is
the fact that within the six given categories these students had within four
categories the highest percentage of maps containing at least one word
associated to this category. Within categories 2 and 4, as illustrated in
Chart 1, test persons from Uni Vienna showed slightly higher percentages
than people from the group BOKU. This can be explained through the
fact that people who have come across the term sustainability but have
not been taught the concept of sustainability mostly associate ecological
issues and the multidimensional aspects of sustainability, as suggested
by Kagawa (2007). Multidimensional aspects of sustainability can be
understood as terms associated to issues of sustainability related to
time and space. This also underlines the probability that people from the
group BOKU that have either taught or been educated on the concept
of sustainability have established a wider understanding of sustainability.
Therefore, the percentage from categories 2 and 4 is slightly smaller
than from the group uni vienna and has shifted to categories 1 and
3, creating a difference of 16% within category 1 and even 36% within
category 3. Chart 1 demonstrates these above-mentioned differences.
12
Chart 1. Cognitive maps of group BOKU vs. Uni Vienna vs. School
this argument can also be supported through the average number of
words in each category where the group BOKU scored higher average
number of words in categories 1, 3, 5 and 6. Here it is interesting to see
that people from the group School gave an average of 3.5 words that
was classifed as category 2 and 2.95 words were stated by the group Uni
Vienna, leaving group BOKU third in this category. The group BOKU
compensated this by stating 1.61 words within category 1 in comparison
to the group School, more than an average of one word less. So again
it can be assumed that, because the group BOKU has a more complex
understanding of the term sustainability, the words used within the
cognitive mapping part of the survey were associated with all categories,
especially categories 1 to 4 and even 5 and 6. The group Uni Vienna
associated sustainability mainly with the terms classifed as category 1,
2 and 4. Categories 3, 5 and 6 play a marginal role to this group. For
the group School, words that can be classifed as categories 2 and 4
were mostly associated with the concept of sustainability, indicating the
above-stated argument that people who have never studied or taught the
concept of sustainability tend to associate sustainability with ecological
issues or multidimensional aspects of sustainability.
13
Ecological footprint analysis
the following comparison analyses the differences within the groups
EF. For this reason, the group Small EF vs. Big EF is not essential to
evaluate, as it is obvious that one group having a smaller EF than the
given mean of 5.23 gha and one group having a bigger EF than 5.23 gha
will show a high variance within the Students t-Test.
The only fact worthy of note is the breakdown of the group Small vs.
Big EF. The group Small EF constitutes almost 72% of people from the
group BOKU, 49.2% of people from the group Uni Vienna and 45.5%
of people from the group School. In comparison the group Big EF only
comprises only about 28% of people from the group BOKU, 50.2%
from the group Uni Vienna and 54.5% from the group School. Chart 2
validates these arguments.
Chart 2. EFA: groups BOKU vs. Uni Vienna vs. School
Discussion
Relationship between cognitive maps and EF
the last analysis looks at the relation of the eF of the three groups
(BOKU, Uni Vienna, School) and their cognitive maps. This was
evaluated in three steps by measuring the average EF, where no words in
categories 1-6 were used, where one or two words were stated, or where
three and more words were employed. With this analysis, a certain trend
can be seen that demonstrates a close interlinking between the personal
EF and the cognitive maps of sustainability given by the three groups.
But there are also trends in this analysis that cannot be explained.
First, we will look at the trend that highlights the connection between
EF and cognitive maps. The average EF of the group BOKU decreases
in categories 1, 3, 4, 5 and 6 throughout the three subdivisions as
illustrated in Chart 3. In subdivision 1 (marked as Average Ecological
Footprint where no words in this category were used), the average
14
EF equals 5.27 gha. In subdivision 2 (marked as Average Ecological
Footprint where one or two words in this category were used), the average
EF decreases to 5.07 gha and in subdivision 3 (marked as marked as
average ecological Footprint where three or more words in this category
are used) the average EF decreases again to 4.48 gha. The average EF
of the group Uni Vienna declines in categories 1, 4 and 6 throughout the
three subdivisions; e.g., in category 1 the average EF equals 5.35 gha
in subdivision 1, 5.23 gha in subdivision 2 and 4.91 gha in subdivision
3. The average EF of the group School decreases in categories 3, 4, 5
and 6 throughout the three subdivisions; e.g., in category 4 the average
EF amounts to 5.61 gha in subdivision 1, 5.58 gha in subdivision 2 and
5.24 gha in subdivision 3. There is an obvious disharmony in category 2
for all three groups, which can be explained for the group BOKU and the
group Vienna by the fact that only fve (BOKU) or three (Uni Vienna)
people used no words that were classifed as category 2 and, therefore,
it is not representative as there is no evenly distributed variance. For the
group School this can be explained in the same way as in step 2 only
six people stated one or two words. The same applies to category 1 for
the group School because in step 3 only two people stated three or
more words. And it is also relevant to categories 3 and 5 for group Uni
Vienna, where only three people (category 3) or one person (category
5) used three or more words. Although there is a certain trend within the
relationship of cognitive maps and EF, it would be necessary to evaluate
this tendency with a bigger test-group since category 2 showed this
disharmony most likely caused by an insuffcient amount of answers.
Chart 3 validates the above-mentioned arguments by highlighting the
different average EF in dark grey (higher EF), grey (medium EF) and
light grey (lower EF).
Although Chart 3 substantiates this a trend, it is questionable as to
what extent a better understanding reduces the personal eF in the long
run. The variations of the various average EFs is marginal and, as it was
highlighted before an average EF of 4.48 gha (category 1 group BOKU),
which is the lowest average EF within the Chart 3, is still more than twice
as high as the ideal EF of 1.8 gha.
to sum up this analysis it can be said that there is an interrelationship
of ones personal eF and the cognitive understanding of sustainability
as it does reduce the EF, but the reduction is mainly so marginal that
the question needs to be raised, whether it is reduced by an unknown
factor or it is the awareness raising caused by teaching and studying the
concept of sustainability that reduces the EF.
1
Chart 3. Ecological footprint vs. cognitive maps: groups BOKU vs.
Uni Vienna vs. School
key:
lowest eF
Medium eF
Highest EF
Conclusion
the objectives of this study were to analyse the cognitive maps and
the EFs of different stakeholders of the Austrian education system,
which was accomplished through the survey conducted at two austrian
universities and one Austrian school. It was also an objective to examine
the potential relationship between cognitive maps and EF, which was
achieved through a comparison study. The following section concludes
the outcome of these objectives.
One of the key results of this study is that the group BOKU had the
smallest mean EF (4.95), whereas the group Uni Vienna had a mean
EF of 5.23 gha and the group School a mean EF of 5.53 gha. This
demonstrates that the group that has either taught or studied the concept
16
of sustainability has the smallest mean EF. This argument is supported by
the fact that the group BOKU had an overall high percentage within the
different categories of their cognitive maps. This group had the highest
percentages in category 1, 3, 5 and 6. The percentages of category 2
and 4 were slightly smaller than the ones of the group Uni Vienna. This
is substantiated by the proposition that the groups BOKU perception
of sustainability is more systemic and holistic since all categories were
identifed.
the conclusion that can be drawn from this study is that there is a
possibility that education about sustainability does achieve a reduction of
the personal EF. The margin between those taught and those not taught
is very narrow (0.58 gha). This leads to the question whether education
alone or other factors initiate this behavioural change. Therefore it is
recommended to further investigate which other factors infuence this
alteration.
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Increasing individual creativity by students integrative
collaboration in a professional secondary school
Nataja van Gejeka
Riga Construction College, Latvia
Svetlana Ignatjeva
Daugavpils University, Latvia
Abstract. The purpose of this article is to show some evidence for the
benefts of the suggested method of students integrative collaboration.
This evidence is based on a research within the special technical discipline
Building Constructions at Riga Construction College. Quantitative data
analysis methods were applied for analysing the change in the learning
environment and the students creative abilities modelled upon a previous
pedagogical experiment Vector Modelling by Jasvin and tests of creative
abilities by Torrance. Signifcant increase in the students creativity in the
experimental class was inferred from the data.
Key words: learning environment, professional school, creative
abilities, students integrative collaboration.
Introduction
Modern construction needs specialists who are able of using a wide
range of knowledge and skills acquired in a professional constructional
school. Therefore, the task of a professional school is to educate school
graduates and adapt them to the changeable processes of designing,
production, work management and control. However, there is a
discrepancy between the demand for highly-qualifed skilful basic level
construction managers and their real qualifcation and capacity. So, the
question arises where to look for the reasons for this and how to address
this gap.
Therefore, the necessity of an investigation into learning environment
has been dictated by the following reasons.
Firstly, there is a vivid dissatisfaction on the part of Latvian employers
with the school graduates low professional competence level, their
limited ability to work as a team with other professions and organise
team work (Grabis, 2006).
Secondly, there is an assumption about the pedagogical competence
of the teachers who mainly are building engineers by their basic
education. Riga Construction Colleges teachers were invited to express
19
their opinions on the issue by the means of interviewing and discussions.
The study (van Gejeka, 2006) proved that the technically educated
teachers, while highly competent within their building expertise, lacked
some appropriate pedagogical competence.
Thirdly, there is a notorious public image of college students regarding
their attitude and decorum. They often exhibit aggressive behaviour
amongst themselves and with the faculty, which results in a very
destructive and unproductive learning atmosphere. Fourthly, the urgency
of the investigation is also predicated upon the fact that psychological
pedagogical researchers studying learning environment severely
underline the fndings that among the state educational institutions of
certain countries a dogmatic learning style prevails (Nikiforovs, 2008;
Uzole, 2007; , 1998; , 2001). Therefore, a students
personality developed in such a learning environment is featured by an
almost complete passivity and a feeling of dependence, which is not
likely to be accepted in a democratic society or a workplace that looks
for creativity, initiative and teamwork.
Following these needs, the author suggests an investigation into the
reorganisation of learning environments in latvian technical schools in
the context of developing the students creative abilities.
The aim of this study is to defne the impact of learning environment
reorganisation on the students creativity in juvenile groups while
teaching profle technical subjects in a secondary professional school
by introducing a particular form of students integrative collaboration (a
team project), which should assist sustainable development in class.
the object of this research is creative interaction of juvenile learners
in a professional technical school who are solving a practical team task
in a project.
Therefore, the research hypothesis is that the students achievement,
measured in terms of creativeness, will rise as a result of learning
environment reorganisation by introducing students integrative colla-
boration while working on a team project, with an aim to organise
a creative learning environment, which in turn will assist sustainable
development.
One of the four thrusts of education for sustainable development
as described by UNESCO is access and retention in quality education.
Hence, the premise of such reorganization is that the essence of
sustainability can be introduced; also, the more students graduate with
such appropriate skills, the greater is the chance of latvia moving in the
direction of sustainability. This secondary premise is the object for further
research.
20
the study has been carried out in the context of education for
sustainable development and is a response to Steinemanns invitation to
put understanding of sustainable development into practice (Steinemann,
2003). The Students Integrative Collaboration method is also based on
the social component of the reorganisation of learning environment as
suggested by Selby (2006). Our study corresponds with the conclusion
of McKeown (2002) and Selby (2006) that reorienting existing education
and improving basic education are the two leading priorities of education
for sustainable development (UNESCO Education Sector, 2005).
Theoretical background
Various authors defne the ability to create in different ways. However,
a common theme or concept is that creativity is perceived as developing
and designing new and original ideas or approaches. (Fromm, 1957,
1976; & , 2000; & , 2001; ,
2004). A criterion to creativity according to Fromm (1957) is not the quality
of the product but the characteristics of an activity and the processes
contributing to creative productivity namely, this may be called creativity.
Barron (1979) states that creativity should include cognitive abilities,
feelings, target actions and memory. Another author emphasizes the
fact that cognitive activity is based on an orientation instinct. Creativity is
often associated with the process of the development of cognitive activity,
inquisitiveness, targeted interest, an awareness of self-education, a
search for novelty values and a striving for truth (, 2002, 2006).
Guilford frst proposed the concept of divergent thinking in the
1950s, when he noticed that creative people tend to exhibit this type of
thinking more than others do. He thus associated divergent thinking with
creativity, appointing it several characteristics:
1. fuency (ability to produce great number of ideas or problem
solutions in a short period of time);
2. fexibility (ability to simultaneously propose a variety of approaches
to a specifc problem);
3. originality (ability to produce new, original ideas);
4. elaboration (ability to systematise and organise the details of an
idea in ones head and carry it out).
Later on, Guilford who had already named six parameters of creativity,
added two more: ability to detect and state a problem and ability to refne
an object by elaborating details.
Torrance, in keeping with Guilford ideas, regarded the phenomenon
of creativity as ability to give up some stereotypical ways of thinking
21
(Torrance, 1972). Eysenk and some other researchers proposed
another understanding of creative abilities as the highest level of general
intellect. This differs from Torrance and Guilford who distinguish between
these terms of creativity and intellect (Eysenk & Eysenk, 1985; Raipulis,
2010).
Torrance also perceives an ability of comprehending /perceiving
ones own drawbacks, gaps in knowledge, a feeling of disharmony, etc.
as components of creativity. He believes that the act of creating can be
divided into perceiving a solution, appearing and formulating hypotheses,
checking hypotheses, modifying them and fnding out a result (Torrance,
1998). Torrances vision of creativity formed the basis of the designed
method of integrative students collaboration in class whose aim is to
stimulate education for sustainable development within students by
enhancing their scientifc thinking.
another factor considered for the designing of the methodology for
arranging practical cooperation amongst the students (a team project
method) is justifed by Johnsons (1973) ideas that creativity is the
result of an unexpected productive act completed spontaneously by
individuals in a distinct situation of social cooperation rested on their
own opportunities and knowledge. An analogous defnition for creativity
is proposed by some other Latvian scholars (Davidova & Kokina, 2007;
Dirba, 2008; Tauria, 2010; Pre, 2010; Lieeniece, 2010).
In the present study, the author proposes to use the defnition of
creativity suggested by (1998), which entails understanding it as
the totality of mental and personal features of a student that are crucial
for creativity development.
methods
Quantitative data analysis methods were applied: for analysing the
change in learning environment after the pedagogical experiment (pilot-
study) vector modelling by and tests of creative abilities by
Torrens.
The method of vector modelling by (2001) was adapted
earlier by the author (van Gejeka, 2009), and entails building up a
coordinate system which consists of two axes: activity-passivity and
independency-dependency that make four areas (Figure 1). A micro-
analysis of the learning environment was carried out on the basis of the
students responses to six simple questions. The frst three questions
were designed to identify the availability of opportunities for students
control in the development of the learning environment and the other
22
three questions were formulated to elicit particular opportunities for
developing student personal activities. The method supposes creating
a coordinate system which consists of two axes: activity-passivity and
independency-dependency and is comprised of four areas (Figure 1).
activity
creativecareeroriented
learningenvironmentlearningenvironment

libertydependency

nonchalantdogmatic
learningenvironmentlearningenvironment
passivity
Figure 1. Spectrum of the possible vector models of learning
environments
an answer for each question permits us to plot it on the corresponding
vector. Therefore, the indicators of states in the learning environment
represent the inner or subjective awareness or the state of the learners
during the lesson, which is refected in their answers to the questionnaire
items.
Nowadays, the tests by Torrance, the tests by and the
questionnaires by Guilford are most frequently used for detecting the
creativity level in young learners. In this research an adapted test
variant by Torrance was used for investigating the students creativity. In
particular, the adapted test attempted to evaluate the creative potential of
a personality as ingenuity and originality, and fexibility of thinking.
Being a follower to the teaching of Guilford, Torrance was working
out his tests while running a practice-bound methodical investigation
into developing the creative abilities in children. In Torrances test the
following scheme is used for scoring the points. If an analogous reply
comes up in less than 1% of all the possible answers, it scores 4 points
if in less than 2%, it scores 3 points and so on. When an analogous
reply occurs in over 6% of all cases, 0 points are given. In this way, the
ingenuity is frequency-bound according to a standardised selection and
is evaluated as a minimally frequent reply in a homogenous group.
The following criteria are marked (Figure 2): originality (O), creative
thinking (D), inquisitiveness (Z), imaginativeness (V), intuition (I),
emotionality, empathy (E), a sense of humour (H) and creative relation to
profession (P). It is important to underline, that the experience of using
Torrances test has demonstrated that the infuence of the characteristic
23
features of a group, which was used as a basis for elaborating the
statistic norms, is essential. A formal transition of the norms upon another
analogous sample can result in severe mistakes, and this awareness
should be taken into account during similar pedagogical experiments.
results
the results of an investigation into the students creative abilities in
experimental groups (G1, G2) and control groups (G3, G4) are presented
in Figure 2 and Table 1.
In accordance with Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, the dispersion of
the characteristics D, Z, O, V, I, E, H, P in both groups does not differ
essentially from the norm neither before nor after the experiment (One-
Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test, p>0.05), which enables using
parametrical criteria in the present research.
T1 beforetheexperiment T2aftertheexperiment
Figure 2. Students creative abilities: statistical data results
Table 1. Students creative abilities: statistical data results
D
creative
thinking
z
inquisiti-
veness
o
originality
v
imagi-
nati-
veness
I
intui-
tion
E
emo-
tionality
H
hu-
mour
p
creative
relation
to profe-
ssion
T1
before
p 0.035 0.191 0.001 0.002 0.441 0.001 0.271 0.004
F 3.026 1.622 5.902 5.253 5.763 0.909 1.331 4.729
T2
after
p 0.006 0.078 0.174 0.248 0.535 0.060 0.222 0.040
F 4.470 2.361 1.700 1.406 .734 2.582 1.498 2.911
24
at the beginning of the experiment some differences can be observed
between the groups in the parameters D, O, V, E, P (ANOVA, p<0.05).
At the end stage of the experiment a signifcant difference between the
groups is retained only in the characteristics D, P (ANOVA, p<0.05),
on the behalf of which it is possible to conclude that the characteristics
(indexes) O, V, E turned out to be the most responsive to the experiment
from the point of view of their equalisation.
If combined, the experimental groups (G1, G2) and control groups
(G3, G4) do not exhibit any signifcant differences in the characteristics
(Independent Samples Test, p>0.05). At the end stage of the experiment,
its participants crucially differ from the respondents not having taken part
in the experiment by a higher D average level (Independent Samples
Test, p=0.,041). Higher E and H average levels among the participants of
the experiment can also be regarded as a tendency (0.05<p<0.1).
When compared, the groups (builders and architects) participating
in the experiment essentially differ from each other in D, O, V, E, P
characteristics (Independent Samples Test, p<0.05), whose average
level is the highest in the second group (architects). At the end stage
of the experiment, crucial differences among the groups are retained in
D and O characteristics. Their average level stays higher in the second
group. However, during the experiment no signifcant changes occurred
in the second group in none of the characteristics (Paired Samples Test,
p>0.05) whereas in the frst group the V, E and H levels have increased.
the control groups are only distinguished by the characteristics e and
P. In the fourth group their average levels are higher. At the fnal stage of
the experiment these differences are retained.
the results of research into learning environment before and after the
experiment are shown in Figure 3. At the beginning of the experiment,
the groups are essentially distinguishable (Chi-Square Tests, p=0.005).
There are no crucial variations between the groups. The situation does
not change substantially at the end stage either. Substantial differences
are observed only between the groups which are acting as control
groups at the beginning of the experiment. At the end of the experiment,
no differences among the four groups are relevant (Chi-Square Tests,
p=0.459).
In the course of experiment, the situation changes signifcantly in
the frst and third groups (Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test, p=0.05., In the
frst group the number of the respondents who perceive the learning
environment as dogmatic decreases from 65% to 20% and the number
of those who regard it as creative increases from 5 to 15%.
25
Conclusions
the research hypothesis that modelling of the learning environment
can infuence the creativity of students has been proved.
an investigation into the changing of students individual creativity
by using the method of integrative students collaboration in class has
initiated a signifcant rise in the level of creative thinking (D) followed
by a higher level of emotionality (E) and even a sense of humour (H) in
comparison to the control groups.
Figure 3. Professional school learning environment:
statistical data results in groups 1, 2, 3 and 4 before
and after the experiment
Types of learning environment in Figure 3:
1 career oriented (light grey),
2 creative (white),
3 unonchalant (greyish dark),
4 dogmatic (dark).
26
the practical meaning of the research results is that the approach of
integrative students collaboration was introduced into the instructional
process of technical disciplines. An additional advantage of integrative
cooperation is the fnal understanding by the learners that solving of
a given task individually and during a very limited time (one lesson) is
impossible without achieving social norms and relationships within the
team. Collaboration is imperative.
On the sample of the course Building Constructions, basic content
elements of the method of integrative students collaboration were
defned, The method develops and shapes the following skills:
acquisition of knowledge and methods for designing strong and
stable building constructions according to the requirements of
current European standards;
acquisition of skills to operate with normative documents;
development of critical thinking and research skills;
acquisition of team collaboration skills necessary for a potential
specialist/leader.
the main pedagogical experiment was successful and its results
permit to hope for possible improvements in the academic output of the
professional technical school. However, there may be a long distance
between the experiment and provable positive systemic changes since
a lot of steps should be taken: frstly, to create and establish new-
style manuals for students and methodical instructions for teachers in
technical disciplines; secondly, to break the established ways of teaching
and reorganise the learning environment in general.
In the future, it is intended to widen the frame of the experiment upon
the entire discipline course Building Construction.
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29
Educational empowerment of adult sustainable
development education
Jurgita Bonkeviit
Kaunas University of Technology, Lithuania
Abstract. Sustainable development education (SDE), which covers
global economical, ecological, multicultural, political and health aspects,
faces the challenge of sustainability ideology integration into everyday
practice of every individual. Theoretical presumptions have formed, which
are revealing the role of science, education and learning in formation of
the meaning of sustainable development and creation of its demand in
all society levels. The critically important role is falling on the adults who
are consciously and busily acting in society. Non-formal education is
occupying a particularly important place in adult education. Therefore the
question is: How to empower adults to pursue sustainable development
goals? Scientifc problem of adult SDE educational empowerment is
being solved in the article. In the frst part of this article, the essence
of sustainability, sustainable development, and sustainable development
education is being discussed. In the second part, the particularity of
adult SDE is being analysed. Possibilities of adult SDE educational
empowerment for sustainable development are being discussed in the
third part. The article has been prepared using the method of scientifc
literature analysis.
Key words: sustainable development, sustainable development
education, adult education, educational empowerment.
Introduction
When striving for adult sustainable development, essential question
arises: how is it possible to achieve substantial and clearly noticeable
sustainability? The answer lies in ability and empowerment of each
person to solve problems, existing in surrounding environment, holis-
tically, when striving at the same time to change the world towards better,
i.e. more sustainable future. What abilities must gain an adult who is
consciously setting sustainable development goals and with the help of
what educational means is it possible to reach all that?
Sustainable development is a hard to reach and complex phenomenon
because for a human it is diffcult to perceive situations covering three
and more dimensions and interaction happening within multidimensional
system (Dresner, 2008). Currently the need for each person to be
30
involved into sustainable development - learning and participation,
common understanding about sustainability and spreading ideas for
sustainable development - is being emphasised. Adequate approach and
implementation of sustainable development conception is very important
in the aspect of adult lifelong learning. Different educational and learning
environments in formal and non-formal structure of education must open
broad possibilities of options for adult self-directed learning. Importance
of education and learning in striving to empower adults for sustainable
development has been revealed by Ryden (2007), Dresner (2008),
Burkien & Juceviien (2010).
Different authors emphasise certain values in striving for sustaina-
bility: Jepson (2001) coordinated unlimited need of humankind for
growth and limited environment resources; Nocon(2004) fexibility
and responsibility in fulflling changes; Hargreaves (2007) constant
improvement, using that much of resources as is required in order to
adapt to changes, not doing harm to the environment; Martin (2010)
ability to foresee future perspectives; Sheate & Partidario (2010)
multidimensional aspects, linking humankind and biophysics, present
and future, locality and globality, activeness and cautiousness, critic and
alternative vision, concept and practice, versatility and specifcity; Dietz,
Rosa & York (2009) effectiveness of activity. Values of sustainability
can reach adult after he/she perceives their meaning through knowing
and experiencing that sustainable development helps to solve particular
problems of their lives. Processes of adult sustainable development and
adaptation to changes must be coordinated and proceed in the way that
they will not be slower than environmental changes.
the purpose of this article is to reveal possibilities of adult educational
empowerment for sustainable development. The article has been
prepared using the method of scientifc literature analysis.

Essence of sustainable development education
In the end of the 20th century, transition from environmental education
towards sustainable development education (SDE) was happening. SDE
is more extensive than environmental education and is oriented towards
transformational role of education, when it is possible to distribute
resources properly, and economical, ecological and social sustainability
is passed from generation to generation (Pepper, 1998). Environmental
education, which involves problematic aspects of environment protection,
remains the essential sphere of sustainable development education.
Yet in the year 1987, the Chair of the United Nations World Commission
on Environment and Development Gro Harlem Brundland emphasised
31
that conception of sustainable development is basic when discussing
cohesion between environmental and economical development.
Sustainability is described as meeting the needs of present generation
without compromising the ability for future generations to meet their needs
in the future. When investigating the differences between sustainability
and sustainable development, Burkien & Juceviien (2010) revealed
that after reaching sustainability sustainable development would have
to remain as a process, helping to retain this state. Importance of
sustainable development as a process, which is needed for reaching
a goal of sustainability, was also emphasized by Martin (2010). Dietz,
Rosa & York (2009) revealed that not only sustainability, but also
sustainable development could serve as a goal. In this discourse, trans-
forming development into sustainable one arises as an important goal.
After reaching it, sustainable development is converting into a dynamic
process, helping to seek for sustainability. Referring to Nocon (2004),
Dresner (2008), Martin (2008), Dietz, Rosa ir York (2009) and Sheate
(2010), sustainability was defned by Burkien & Juceviien (2010)
as ability of humankind to predict long-term future and to develop in
time, adapting to happening changes and materialising those, seeking
for effectiveness of activity for satisfying needs, fexibly and responsibly
coordinating them in a multidimensional context. iegis et al. (2008) is
defning sustainability as correlation between dynamic systems in which:
existence of people can continue unlimited; individuals can fourish;
cultures can develop; but activity of humans remains limited, striving not
to damage variety, complexity and functionality of ecological systems.
According to convictions of Gray (2007), sustainability means preservation
of the Earth for present and future generations, therefore our needs must
be based on existing recourses of natural system, not coming to the end
of those, and retaining the possibility for future generations to satisfy
their needs.
When talking about the objective of sustainability, Porter and Cor-
doba (2008) emphasised the importance of correlation between three
dimensions: economical, social, and environmental. Yet, arising challen-
ges are highlighting not only the importance of the mentioned sustainable
development dimensions, but relevance of other, no less important
dimensions: cultural (Pepper, 1998), political (Jepson, 2001), and health
(OConnor, 1998; Macer, 2004). The more successfully we are able to
synchronise actions of nature preservation, economical development,
and striving for social equality, the greater extent of sustainability we can
reach (Jepson, 2001).
Springett & Kearins (2000) emphasise the role of human as an active
32
creator in the process of sustainable development. Referring to earlier
expressed thoughts of scientists about the importance of sustainable
development, we have to strive for sustainability, learn it, and improve
our thinking abilities when learning. Only political decisions are not
suffcient for sustainable development. Therefore, according to Plass
and Kaltenegger (2007), for sustainable development, as a process of
complex changes, it is necessary to accept integrated solutions. Dresner
(2008) revealed that learning could be successfully used for solving
conficts among different approaches to sustainable development, and
for generating common knowledge of sustainable development. In order
for sustainability to become a valuable basis and objective for sustainable
behaviour, not only political priority is necessary, but intellectual challenge
as well (Sheate, 2010). Burkien & Juceviien (2010) emphasised
importance of learning when integrating sustainable development as an
idea and as a conception into practice of human lives. Sterling (2001)
emphasised the important role of sustainable development education
in pursuance of spreading sustainable development ideas in different
spheres of public life, and presented several approaches to relation
between education and sustainability:
education about sustainability this is when changes of content
and knowledge are happening in existing educational paradigm.
Training programs are revised and improved. The elements of
sustainability, however, are fragmental and inconsistent. Knowledge
is systematised and transferred through separate things.
education for sustainability this approach is covering reforms in
existing paradigm and is thoroughly refecting ideas of sustainability.
Especially important in this context is learning for change. Although
it is understandable what knowledge and abilities are needed,
there is a lack of critical and refective thinking.
Education as sustainability this is a transformational, epistemic
learning approach in educational paradigm that is an empowering
implementation of SDE. This position includes the frst two
approaches, yet it emphasises the process and quality of learning,
refectivity and involvement in activities, ability to work with
ambiguities and uncertainties, time and place of leaning, enabling
creativity to unfold. Knowledge is approached as relative and
temporal, and learning is continuing research in practice. Learning
as a change involves the individual together with the whole learning
institution.
SDE shows itself as multidimensional, having variety of implementation
levels and with differences of learners in interests and age. Therefore
33
important are observations of Paden (2000), indicating to what it is
necessary to focus attention in pursuance of effective sustainable
development education: the content must cover social, political, and
economical contexts, it must dynamically proceed from local to global
problem-solving; learning in formal and non-formal structures must
continue lifelong; multi-subject methods, oriented towards learning, and
learning from experience must be applied; investigations must be based
on different interactive techniques; it is important to cooperate with the
government, business and non-governmental organisations; to develop
independence, systematic thinking; to implement the basics of sensitivity
to environment, social justice, economic prosperity and value.
According to Gray (2007), SDE has no particular formula. This is a
process, a way of thinking, which is requiring certain understanding,
assumptions, convictions and values both from the educator and the
learner.
particularity of adult SDE
a new approach to human lifelong learning determined transformation
of educational paradigm from traditional teaching paradigm into
contemporary paradigm of learning. Paradigm of learning is exceptionally
important to informal education of adults, and mostly to learning from
experience, seeking for implementation of the goals of sustainability and
sustainable development.
Knowles (1980), referring to insights of adult education originator
E. C. Lindeman, states that: adults feel motivation for learning when
certain needs and interests emerge which can be satisfed by learning;
their learning is directed to real situations; experience of adults is very
different and exactly experience itself is the best source of learning; and
the most important thing is that adults seek for self-directed learning.
The constantly changing environment, economical, ecological, and
social challenges require new ways and means of sustainable develop-
ment, and that in turn require new knowledge and skills from adults. The
processes of adult sustainable development and adaption to changes
have to be coordinated and proceed in the way that they would not be
slower than a speed of environmental changes. The most important in
striving for sustainability and sustainable development is that an adult
would understand the meaning of all this, would have a need for it,
an interest and wish to act (Burkien & Juceviien, 2010). SDE can
be implemented only after forming the need of an adult to strive for
sustainability and sustainable development. Summarising these thoughts
of scientists, it becomes evident that for SDE an objective arises to react
34
to changes happening in the environment as quickly as possible, when
striving to spread ideas and values of sustainability and sustainable
development, to motivate adults for learning, showing the meaning and
signifcance of it, and responding to interests of each individual.
ideas of sustainability and sustainable development can reach an adult
through formal, non-formal and informal education. Formal education
usually can be rendered for adults in institution of professional training,
non-university studies, and universities. Content, goals, methods, learning
time and learning means are strictly structured. Learners are completely
dependent on the system, having to learn what is presented to them, and
have not much power to change foreseen goals, content, forms, methods
and means (Juceviien, 2007). Strict structure of formal education is
not the most favourable medium in striving for implementation of SDE.
non-formal education is closely related to conception of lifelong
learning and is mostly rendered beyond the boundaries of formal
education: in work places, non-governmental organisations (Rickinson,
2001). Adults choose themselves what knowledge and skills they need
to gain and educator helps them to reach goals of learning, using
organised activity: seminars, lectures, courses. Non-formal education,
according to many scientists (Mitford, 2000; Calder & Clugson, 2005),
can signifcantly add to implementation of SDE. Fordham (1993) revealed
that non-formal education takes place in open social environment,
can be short-term, individualised in its content, supported by methods
of training practical skills, distinguishes for deliberate decision of the
learner to participate in activity (striving for individual expression), and for
seeking of learning progress. Referring to insights of Juceviien (2007)
and earlier mentioned scientists, it is possible to make assumptions that
in non-formal education environment adult learners can choose goals,
content, methods, forms and means of sustainability and sustainable
development, relevant for them; when communicating and cooperating
interactively, they can change roles with educator; use their knowledge
about sustainability and experience of sustainable development; they
can choose when and where it is the best for them to learn.
Adult learning is mostly happening in non-formal environment, in
everyday activities. This kind of learning is called informal education
and involves adult learning in different environments that are available
and acceptable for the leaner. Learning can happen spontaneously or
can be initialised by the learner himself. Experiential learning and self-
directed learning of adults have been revealed by Juceviien (2007).
When striving for SDE goals, it is important to pay attention to learning
objectives set by an adult. Some orient themselves towards particular
3
goal in order to fulfl clearly defned tasks; others focus on activity, yet
others strive for knowledge to the beneft of knowing.
Particularity of adult SDe can be reasoned referring to the following
assumptions (Knowles, Holton & Swanson, 2007):
The need for knowledge;
Self-image of the learner;
The role of experience;
Preparation for learning;
Focus on learning;
Motivation.
Swanson and Arnold (1996) noted that adults are seeking to control
learning and, because of this reason, the learning quality is improving.
Adults which are regulating their learning needs, creating goals and
learning strategies, implementing and valuing learning, have high level
of motivation and therefore can actively realise the goals of sustainability
and sustainable development. When education of adults is transferred to
some institution, responsibility is also partly transferred to the institution
where the adult is learning. Regulation of the learning process, however,
mostly depends on the learner him-/herself.
In the context of sustainable development education, deliberate lear-
ning initiated by an adult, is a crucial factor in striving for implementation
of sustainability goals.
adult Educational Empowerment for Sustainable Development
non-formal learning form is most acceptable for adults and they often
choose self-directed learning which, according to Juceviien (2007),
is a consciously organised process of perfection, being implemented
in different environments of human life. In the context of educational
empowerment, it is important to reveal what and how can infuence adult
learning in striving for sustainability and sustainable development goals.
Referring to scientists who were investigating empowerment, it is
revealed that sustainable development competencies and independence,
openness and tolerance, confdence, responsibility, inner motivation and
self-expression, control and delegation of needed resources must be
refected in the result of adult educational empowerment (Walker, 2000;
Juceviien et al., 2010). Means and resources, support and information
are also needed in order to empower an adult for independent activity.
When striving for adult educational empowerment for sustainable
development, frst of all, competencies and features of empowerment
that educators posses must be evaluated. In terms of educators
features, it is important that he/she would be conductive and attentive to
36
the adult learner, seriously considering particular problem of sustainable
development, helping, supporting and encouraging, hearing with open
ears, understanding and reacting, and also confdent in adult ability
to plan and implement learning goals (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson,
2007).
In the context of educational empowerment, Reay (2008) emphasises
democratic relations between educator and learner. Another important factor
of adult empowerment for sustainable learning is content, empowering
sustainable development, which must be created by educator and adult
learner together. Adult learner, having a power to form sustainable
development content by motivation (because one sees a meaning of this)
and understanding the need of knowledge, is already being empowered
to strive for sustainable development goals. Also very important factor
is empowerment of learning. Since sustainable development process
is infuenced by different dimensions and is constantly changing, in the
context of lifelong learning an adult will have to face ever new learning
challenges. Therefore, referring to Juceviien et al. (2010), it is evident
that educational empowerment has two dimensions: a) empowerment in
education, which means providing organisational power in educational
institution, implementing its mission; b) empowerment by education
providing adult with knowledge, meanings, abilities, and competencies,
necessary to implement sustainable education.
Referring to Longworth (2000) and Juceviiene (2007), adult learning
environment andempowering for sustainable development can be
described as constantly changing and therefore at a particular moment
identifed by a particular adult; accommodating and communicating
data, information and knowledge about sustainable development in
different ways; involving interaction of educator and adult. Learning
environment can be natural or emerge from specially organised education
environments; however both of them, however, must have educational
impact on the adult who is striving for sustainable development goals.
Different learning environments can form from the same educational
environment (Juceviien et al., 2007). When creating fexible learn-
ing environments, empowering adult sustainable development, is also
necessary to consider individual differences of learners - initial compe-
tence, attitude towards learning, learning demands, motivation, individual
learning style, learning strategies, typical for the person.
Referring to Knowles (1995), the father of andragogical science,
when empowering an adult for sustainable development, the following
elements of the process are important: preparing of learners (supplying
information, indisposing towards participation and thinking of sustainable
37
development content, helping to form realistic expectations), atmosphere
(relaxing, instilling confdence, based on common respect, non-formal,
warm, open and sincere, promoting cooperation), planning (based
on the common planning of educator and adult), determination of
demands (after common evaluation), formulating of goals (after common
negotiations), creating of plans for learning (considering preparation of
adult to solve a particular problem related to sustainable development),
learning lessons (based on experiential methods and initiative of adults,
and extensive variety of human and material resources), and evaluation
(common evaluation, newly determined demand for sustainable
development). This process is periodic and never ending because after
reaching sustainability as a state sustainable development would have to
remain a process, helping to retain this state in environmental changes
(Burkien & Juceviien, 2010).
Swanson & Arnold (1996) revealed four levels of adult learning planning
important for educational empowerment of sustainable development:
demand (the kind of knowledge needed in order to achieve a goal of
sustainable development is determined), creation (strategy of sustainable
development is created and resources for achievement of sustainable
development goals are found), implementation (learning is fulflled in
accordance with created strategy, and chosen resources are used),
assessment (the level of achievement of sustainable development is
assessed and learning process is critically overviewed). After overcoming
all four mentioned levels, an adult would have to gain knowledge and
competence for achieving the goal sustainable development. However,
as Burkien & Juceviien state (2010), it is not possible to talk about
sustainability and sustainable development as a process or as a goal
without revealing demand or wish to develop sustainably or to strive for
sustainability. Demand is forming starting from initial idea, which can
come from political, ecological, economical or other dimensions. Mature
idea or desire to strive for sustainability per different procedural aspects
(communication, education, learning, formation of attitudes and values)
leads towards the goal of sustainability. Therefore, science, education and
learning inevitably compose in evolution of sustainability and sustainable
development.
Conclusions
SDE has to involve correlated economical, ecological, social, cul-
tural, political, and health dimensions, pursue interdisciplinary
integrity, spread moral values and encourage cooperation, learn-
ing, critical thinking and responsibility, multi-cultural features and
38
globalism, empower people to adapt to constant changes and act
effectively in order to ensure prosperity for all time.
adult SDe is based on the lifelong learning paradigm and can
be implemented in formal, non-formal and informal educational
environments, is oriented towards the needs and interests of
adults, their self-image and readiness to learn, is directed towards
solving real problems, motivation, learning from experience and
self-directed learning.
adult educational empowerment for sustainable development is
a process based on conscious learning in different educational
and learning environments, supported by the educator in planning
of learning, determining needs, creating plans, implementation
and evaluation of strategy. Successful educational empowerment
of sustainable development can be such in the result of which
adult learner acquires frm attitudes and values of sustainable
development, the need for sustainable development and the goal
to reach such sustainable development as a process which would
lead to sustainability as a goal.
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Technology. Kaunas: Technologija, 4(70), pp. 20-30.
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40
School network optimization consequences for social
mobility of rural children: problems and challenges in
the context of sustainable development
Rasa Poceviien,
Daiva Malinauskien
iauliai University, Lithuania
Abstract. An analysis of school network optimisation documents
and a secondary analysis of empirical data in the context of sustainable
development create assumptions to state that the main aims of sustainable
development, especially in the social area, were not realised in respect of
rural children, especially in the area of their social mobility. Optimisation
of school network was more orientated to fnancial economical effect
rather than the social welfare of the main target of the reform. No study
of possibilities was made before the optimisation began, no basket of
social services was formed, no preparatory work was done, such as
road network transformation, development of teachers and other staffs
(for instance, drivers of school buses) competencies, which is crucial
for successful work with rural children transferred to larger schools. Not
enough attention was paid to non-formal education of rural children,
despite it being very appropriate for encouraging rural childrens social
mobility. The differences of the learning culture of rural children were not
taken into account and so on. In other words, no harmony was ensured
between social and education policy, and the main target of the reform
children became victims.
Key words: rural children, social mobility, harmony of social and
education policy, sustainable development, rural schools closing.
The present article aims to confrm the necessity of wide-scale
educational research before and during any educational reform, because
only harmony among all the parts (economic, social and environmental)
could ensure sustainable development.
Sustainable development is a pattern of resource use that aims to
meet human needs while preserving the environment so that these needs
can be met not only in the present, but also for the generations to come.
Since the 1980s sustainability has been used more in the sense of human
sustainability on the planet earth and this has resulted in the most widely
quoted defnition of sustainability and sustainable development, that of
the Brundtland Commission of the United Nations of March 20, 1987. As
mentioned in Brundtland Commission, a sustainable development is the
41
development that meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. (United Nations,
1987). Sustainable development ties together concern for the carrying
capacity of natural systems with the social challenges that the humanity
faces.
At the 2005 World Summit, the need was noted for the reconciliation
of environmental, social and economic demands the three pillars of
sustainability. (United Nations General Assembly, 2005). It was stressed
that, conceptually, sustainable development consists of three parts:
environmental, economic and sociopolitical sustainability. (Forestry
Commission of Great Britain. Sustainability, 2009). This could be
visualised in a simple diagram:
Scheme of sustainable development: at the confuence of three
constituent parts (Forestry Commission of Great Britain. 2009)
According to the content of sustainability, sustainability for humans
is the potential for a long-term maintenance of wellbeing, which has
environmental, economic, and social dimensions.
Healthy ecosystems and environments provide vital goods and ser-
vices to humans and other organisms. Major ways of reducing negative
human impact and enhancing ecosystem service are the following:
environmental management and management of human consumption
of resources. This approach is based largely on information gained
from economics. Sustainability interfaces with economics through the
social and ecological consequences of economic activity. Sustainability
economics involves ecological economics where social, cultural,
42
health-related and monetary/fnancial aspects are integrated. Moving
towards sustainability is also a social challenge that entails international
and national law, urban planning and transport, local and individual
lifestyles and ethical consumerism. More sustainable ways of living
can take many forms from reorganising living conditions, reappraising
economic sectors or work practices and using science to develop new
technologies, to adjustments in individual lifestyles that conserve natural
resources. (Sustainability, 2011). The environmental dimension includes
environmental management, atmosphere, freshwater and oceans,
land use, management of human consumption, energy, water, food,
materials, toxic substances and waste. The economic dimension include
decoupling environmental degradation and economic growth, nature as
an economic externality, economic opportunity. The social dimension
includes peace, security, social justice, human relationship to nature,
and human settlements. The relationship between human rights and
human development, corporate power and environmental justice, global
poverty and citizen action, suggests that responsible global citizenship
is an inescapable element of what may at frst glance seem to be simply
matters of personal consumer and moral choice. (Sustainability, 2011).
Social sustainability encompasses human rights, labour rights and
corporate governance. In common with environmental sustainability,
social sustainability is the idea that future generations should have the
same or greater access to social resources as the current generation
(inter-generational equity), while there should also be equal access
to social resources within the current generation (intra-generational
equity). Social resources include ideas as broad as other cultures and
basic human rights. In the human development paradigm, environment
and natural resources should constitute a means of achieving better
standards of living just as income represents a means of increasing social
expenditure and, in the end, well-being. (Social Sustainability, 2011). The
different aspects of social sustainability are often considered in socially
responsible investing. Social sustainability criteria are the following:
community, diversity, employee relations, human rights, product safety,
reporting, and governance structure. (Social Sustainability Information,
2011).
according to the Western australia Council of Social Services
(WACOSS) (Partridge, 2005), social sustainability occurs when the
formal and informal processes; systems; structures; and relationships
actively support the capacity of current and future generations to create
healthy and liveable communities. Socially sustainable communities
43
are equitable, diverse, connected and democratic, and provide a good
quality of life.
The main principles of social sustainability could be mentioned:
equity the community provides equitable opportunities and
outcomes for all its members, particularly the poorest and most
vulnerable members of the community.
Diversity the community promotes and encourages diversity.
Interconnected/Social cohesions the community provides proces-
ses, systems and structures that promote connectedness within
and outside the community at the formal, informal and institutional
level.
Quality of life the community ensures that basic needs are met
and fosters a good quality of life for all members at the individual,
group and community level (e.g. health, housing, education, em-
ployment, safety).
Democracy and governance the community provides democratic
processes and open and accountable governance structures.
Maturity individuals accept the responsibility of consistent
growth and improvement through broader social attributes (e.g.
communication styles, behavioural patterns, indirect education
and philosophical explorations). (Social Sustainability, 2011).
Over the past decade, Lithuania has adopted a series of strategic
decisions in order to combat poverty and social exclusion at a national
level. In 2002 Lithuanian Seimas approved the Long-Term Development
Strategy, which distinguishing three priorities in Lithuanian (a European
Union members) development: knowledge society, secure society and
competitive economy. The role of education is of key importance in
bringing about such development. Lithuanian social education issues
are a very sensitive and important topic: although the country became a
full member of the European Union and fnally opened European social
standards, the post-Soviet social transformations and the effects of stock
are still felt (Mikutaviien, 2009). If Lithuania is to establish itself in the
Western Area, education should help to strengthen the creative power
of society to preserve and develop the identity of the people and nurture
civil society, improving peoples employability and competitiveness of
the economy, reduce poverty and social exclusion (National Education
Strategy 2003-2012, 2003).
In recent years, one of the largest educational reforms was the school
improvement programme the largest lithuanian state investment in
education. It was launched in 2002 to improve the 5-10 grade students
44
achievements in the modernisation of general education and to ensure
effective and rational use of funds for education. School Improvement
Programme consists of fve main components: teaching and learning
for the improvement of education, quality management, framework for
energy costs reduction and improvement of sanitary conditions, school
network optimisation and programme coordination.
the fourth component of the Programme the school network opti-
mization raises a lot of discussion. This component consists of three
parts: development of school reform methodology and its implementation
by the municipalities, organisation of safe and effective students
transporting, effective utilisation of fnancial resources to save.
An analysis of school network optimisation documents (School Impro-
vement Programme, School Reform Methodological Recommenda-
tions, etc.), a secondary analysis of empirical data (School Reform and
Students Transporting Status: A Quantitative and Qualitative Research,
2003; Teachers Need to Change Careers and Characteristics of School
Network Optimisation, 2004; School Reform Social Impact of the Pilot
Project in Participating Municipalities, 2005; Transporting Pupils to
Monitor the Subject of Education: Study Design Characteristics, 2006,
etc.) in the context of sustainable development create assumptions to
state that the main aims of sustainable development, especially in the
social area, were not realised in respect of rural children, especially in
the area of their social mobility. Optimisation of school network was more
orientated to fnancial economical effect rather than the social welfare of
the main target of the reform.
No study of possibilities was made before the optimisation began, no
basket of social services was formed, no preparatory work was done,
such as road network transformation, development of teachers and
other staffs (for example, drivers of school buses) competencies, which
is crucial for successful work with rural children transferred to larger
schools. Not enough attention was paid to non-formal education of rural
children, despite it being very appropriate for encouraging rural childrens
social mobility. The differences of the learning culture of rural children
were not taken into account and so on. In other words, no harmony was
ensured between social and education policy, and the main target of
the reform children became victims. The need to explore all these
issues in advance could be confrmed by the experience of other countries
which has shown that the effciency which was expected from the small
school closing was not achieved. Contrary to that, there are numerous
problems which have been raised in this case, such as wasted time;
4
huge wasted portions of human lives spent on school buses; children too
tired to perform well in schools or pursue higher-level work; children left
out of extracurricular activities and accompanying benefts; lost family
time that affects family relationships; health and safety of children during
long, sometimes hazardous, bus rides (Spence, 2000).
In this context the following questions arises. What are some more
of the long term effects of closing this school? The issue of how the
community continues when their centre school is closed is important
and deserves further study. How do the students and parents balance
their lives with their school being so far away? How have these students
done academically and socially at the town school? How does having the
social capital of the rural environment affect the students in the town
school? (Robinson & Rud, 2010).
Studies in Lithuania have highlighted the following specifc issues
that should draw the attention of local governments, schools and other
institutions involved, in the school reform process: school activities and
employment of students transported, safety, health, school fatigue and
stress prevention, nutrition, hygiene, transporting, control of social and
educational processes, reinforcement of partnership by the development
of a network of organisations interested in the students transporting
(Merkys, 2003).
in spite of the fact that the majority of the survey respondents were in
favour of school reform, some unresolved issues were mentioned. It is
noted that transportation to school is much smoother than transportation
to a hotel. Social, educational and managerial control of the transporting
aspect (that is the students assigned to this residence) are much
weaker. There are objective reasons for this differences in school-age
children that do not permit them to come together in an organised way.
The lessons and after school activities run very differently, so the system,
naturally, is not working. Transportation to school entails transparent
educating all participants students, teachers, and administrators. Any
dysfunction of these services (a delay, absence, and so on) have all been
immediately noticed and decisively eliminated. The positive moment,
unfortunately, does not take place in the case of the students assigned
to this residence case. Pupils have a long wait for transportation;
hotel building in general is not so smooth and, like arrival, it is not fully
guaranteed (Merkys, 2005).
Creation of the yellow retracing system is still used on average only
with every ffth student. All others take local public transport and intercity
buses that transporting the pupils to their parents. It should be noted that
46
since 2003, when the Ministry of Education carried out the frst massive
transportation study of quality of service, this situation has not changed,
primarily because the partial system is not growing and still covers,
fguratively speaking, only one ffth of the market, and its scope is only
20% of all the transported students (Merkys, 2005).
researchers also highlighted other problems in the network trans-
formation. Priority will be given to formal education and training develop-
ment. What remains are the relatively neglected issues of children and
youth socialisation, meaningful leisure and vocational training. We are
lacking an integrated approach to education in the region as a unifed
whole. A modern, complex approach to the development of education
hinders traditional approaches to education, essentially in training as well
as agency, occurring both at national and local levels (Merkys, 2005).
Lithuanian and foreign researchers, on the basis of studies, suggest
that the necessary preliminary studies of the situation in the context of
sustainable development be carried out and coordinate the various general
departments and agencies, and the efforts of scientists from different
felds. These studies should be based on sustainable development as
regards the methodology, and results presented for the general public
and made the basis of further reform progress.
references
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forestry.gov.uk/forestry/edik-59fmzf.
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12.doc.
48
Interrelation between adults perception of self
as feld professional and their participation
in in-service training
Rima Bakutyt,
Lidija Ueckien
iauliai University, Lithuania
Abstract. The article presents the material based on the research
with 1013 adult Lithuanian people of different age, labour experience and
different level of intelligence. The aim of the article is to reveal the infuence
of perception of self as feld professional and in-service training. Several
tasks were formulated to realise this aim: 1) to disclose the peculiarities
of self perception as felds professional; 2) to reveal some peculiarities
of their participation in in-service training (frequency, satisfaction with
in-service training courses and lecturers, respondents willingness to
learn in the future); 3) to disclose the infuence of perception of self as
felds professional on the respondents participation in in-service training.
Research methods: analysis of psychological and pedagogical literature
on the theme of the research; correlation analysis and other.
The results of this study disclosed: 1) the majority of respondents
perceive themselves as rather good professionals in their feld. The
level of education does not affect very much their perception of self as
professionals. The older people feel a little bit better professionals than the
younger; 2) the majority of respondents are attending in-service training
courses; most of them are satisfed with them as well as with the lecturers
teaching them; the majority of them are willing to take part in in-service
training in the future; 3) the adults which perceive themselves as good
felds professional are much satisfed with in-service training than others,
they are much motivated to take part in formal and informal education in
the future.
Key words: adult education; in-service training; perception of self as
professionals.
Introduction
in the changing society in-service training has become popular in
adulthood which helps a person in particular in professional growth
as well as to develop his or her cultural interests and creative powers,
enables a person to upgrade his or her current qualifcation and helps
to become an active citizen of a democratic society. The growing need
49
for knowledge has become important not only for an individual but for
organisations, communities and the state. Therefore the development
of in-service training system and process has gained a particular
importance in the world as well as in Lithuania. In-service training is
usually seen as part of non-formal, continuing education. In this context
we can fnd a lot of scientifc theoretical and empirical works on the
problems of adult continuing education which discloses the factors
which have infuence on adult learning. Some of them are important
for our survey. Aslanian (2001) found that participation in higher and
continuing education is largely due to a life transition. Houles (1988)
analysis of interview data discloses three separate learning orientations
held by the adults. The now-famous typology consists of goal-oriented
learners, who use education as means of achieving some other goal;
activity-oriented learners, who participate for the sake of the activity
itself and for the social interaction; and learning oriented participants,
who seek knowledge for its own sake. Other fndings are directed to
disclose the barriers to participation in continuing education. As Merriem,
Caffarella & Baumgatner (2007) conclude from other fndings, the most
often cited reasons for nonparticipation are lack of money and lack of
time. Johnstone & River (1965) clustered ten potential barriers into two
categories: external, or situational, and internal, or dispositional barriers.
External barriers are such as cost of the programme. Internal barriers
refect personal attitudes. Later researches were focused more strongly
on the investigation of the infuence of external factors but less on the
psychological backgrounds. Nevertheless, Hall & Donaldsons (1997)
study of women without a high school diploma who chose not to participate
provides examples of how the social and the psychological interact. In
such a picture it is interesting to look deeper into the inner factors which
can affect participation in continuing education and, on the other hand,
can help educators to foresee the possible ways of improvement in adult
education.
The aim of the article is to reveal the infuence of perception of self
as felds professional on taking part in in-service training. Several tasks
was formulated to realise this aim: 1) to disclose the peculiarities of
self perception as felds professional; 2) to reveal some peculiarities of
the research participants participation in in-service training (frequency,
satisfaction with in-service training courses and lecturers, respondents
willing to learn in the future); 3) to disclose the infuence of perception of
self as feld professional on peoples participation in in-service training.
0
methodology
research methods: analysis of documents and psychological
literature; questionnaire for the subjects of the investigation, correlation
and graphic evaluation of the data.
The sample. 1013 men and women of employable age from various
parts of the country, living both in rural or urban areas were questioned
during the research. Because according to the demographic index the
distribution of the subjects of the study does not refect the existing
situation, it was decided not to analyse the received data in these
aspects. When analysing the data refecting the record of service, age
and education level it has been found that these factors correspond
to general tendencies in Lithuania. This is the reason to analyse the
received data in these aspects.
The level of education of the research levy is diverse: 377 people have
higher education, 303 are graduates of further educational institutions,
a big part of the subjects of the research have acquired special higher
education (135) or general high education (179), 4 people have not
fnished general high school, 15 respondents have not pointed out the
level of their education.
Having analysed the age distribution of the subjects of the research,
it has been found that the majority of them (409) are 25-35 years old.
Fewer respondents (261) are 18-25 years old. Even fewer people under
the research are in the group of 36-45 (190) and 45-55 years old (111).
The smallest group of the polled is over 55 years old (38). The reason
for this group being so small is that the main interest was the attitude of
employable people.
While analysing the respondents record of service, it has been
noticed: the majority of people (325) have little work experience (up to
5 years). A bit smaller parts of people have the record of service from 6
to 10 years (259) and people who work from 11 to 20 years (237). Even
fewer respondents were in the group of those having record of service of
21-30 years (111), and the least group of those under the research who
work more than 30 years (53).
results
During the time of the research special interest was taken in how
the respondents view themselves as professionals of their feld. The
respondents were asked if they considered themselves to be good
specialists in their feld. The following situation has been defned (Figure
1):
1
5%
11%
73%
10%
1%
noresponse
verygood
rathergood
goodenough
poor
Figure 1. Peoples of employable age perception of self as feld
professionals
the results demonstrate that almost three fourths of the respondents
think they are suffciently good specialists in their feld. Only one tenth of
them claim to be very good or not suffciently good professionals. Some
respondents believe that they are poor performers in the feld. Every
twentieth respondent does not point out how they view themselves as
feld professionals. Such people most often were unemployed during the
research time.
Further in the research it has been attempted to defne how the
respondents professional self-satisfaction depends on their age,
education and experience in labour market. It has been found out that
more educated respondents slightly more often than people of lower
educational level feel to be good specialists in their feld ((2=73.23;
p<0.000; df=20). It has been noticed that 59.8% of the respondents
who have general high school education consider themselves to be
suffciently good professionals. 77.3% and correspondingly 76.1% of
those who have further or higher education consider themselves to be
good professionals in the feld.
a similar tendency has been observed while correlating professional
self-satisfaction results with the respondents age. It turned out that not
only the level of education but also the respondents age affects their
perception of self as professional (2=59.22; p<0.000; df=24) in their
feld. It has been deduced that the respondents under the age of 25 feel
the least good professionals in their feld. Meanwhile senior respondents
who were at least 25 years old more often claimed to be good enough in
their professional feld. 75.8% who were 26-35 years old, 77.4% -of36-
45 year olds and 77.5% of 46-55 year old respondents pointed out they
are suffcienty good professionals in their feld. Thus, education and age
infuence a persons perception of self as professional in their feld.
However, the respondents experience in the labour market is a major
factor of self-estimation in their feld. (2=262.39; p<0.000; df=20). In
52
this case an interesting tendency has been noticed. The people whose
experience in labour market is not less than six years, but does not
exceed 30 years consider themselves to be suffciently good specialists
in their feld. A more detailed analysis disclosed that the respondents
with 6-10 year long professional experience (76.5%) regard themselves
as suffciently good specialists, those whose work experience is 11-20
years make 77.6%; and active work experience of 81.1% of respondents
is 21-30 years. 69.5% of the respondents whose work experience is only
several years view themselves as suffciently good specialists, meanwhile
those who have worked longer than 31 years constitute only 58.5%.
the tendency that the respondents who have only recently joined the
labour market do not have such a high feeling of estimation as compared
to those having longer work experience can be considered natural.
While commenting on lower self-satisfaction in the professional feld
of more experienced respondents, it is useful to employ psychological
investigation based on the age aspect. E.g.:, Kite & Johnson (1988)
ascertain that society exposes a more negative attitude towards senior
people. The possibilities to get a job or to be promoted are limited for
such people because of public stereotypes (Wahler, 1997).
Otherwise, lower professional self-esteem of the people having longer
work record could have resulted from their own or others awareness
about their inadequate ability to process information. E.g., Craik &
Jennings (1992), Salthouse (1991) deduce that senior people are not
able to perform memory involving tasks as effciently as younger ones.
Thus, senior people inevitably make more mistakes, their performance is
slower and work results are worse. By the way, these changes have been
traced investigating the respondents under the age of 65 (Salthouse,
1985; Verhaegen & Salhouse, 1997).
a much lower professional self-esteem could have been conditioned
by a rapid technical expansion in Lithuania. Senior citizens are not able
to master and handle new technologies so fast because of the above
mentioned psychological age shifts. Meanwhile during the last decade
under the countrys economic expansion employees are supposed to
use more advanced technologies or equipment than before. Intensive
changes in labour market and educational problems could condition
lower feelings of professional self-satisfaction. After the restoration of
Lithuanian Independence a lot of people had to change their qualifcation
or to expand it intensively. Educational services, however, have not yet
been adjusted to meet the needs. To be more precise, it could have been
the case that andragogues (their preparation has started only during the
3
last decade) failed to concentrate on educational peculiarities of this age
group in the study process their lower learning motivation as compared
to younger people (Warr, 1994; Warr & Birdi, 1996); worse ability to
master the material and necessary time output to study teaching material
(Kubeck, Delp, Haslett, McDaniel, 1996) and etc.
During the research it was taken into account how the respondents
participate in in-service activities, their contentment with the process itself
and lecturers expertise. While investigating the respondents attendance
of in-service training events, the respondents were asked how frequently
they participated in in-service training activities in the last 5 years. The
following situation has been defned (Figure 2).
35%
7%
9%
29%
20%
1-3times
4-6times
7andmoretimes
never
noresponse
Figure 2. Participation frequency in in-service activities
the results of the research convince that one third of the respondents
have raised their qualifcation not more than three times during the
last 5 years. One ffth of the respondents have not given the response
to the question. Presumably, they have not attempted to raise their
qualifcations.
almost one-third has pointed out that they have not attended any
in-service activities throughout the period of last 5 years. Only 16% of
the respondents try to raise their qualifcation. Thus, it makes it possible
to admit that in-service training has not become a need for the majority
of the respondents. Being in this situation and having in mind that
rapid economic expansion requires constant knowledge renewal, it is
presumable that low striving to raise ones qualifcation can impede the
countrys further economic development in the future.
During the research the interest was taken in how frequently in-
service training correlates with the respondents education, age and
experience in labour market. It has been discovered that the frequency
of in-service training is slightly determined by the respondents age
(2=161.43; p<0.000; df=20), education (2=139.83; p<0.000; df=20)
and work record (2=181.14; p<0.000; df=20). It turned out that the
4
people who have less education more frequently never participated in
in-service events, that is, 38.5% of the respondents having general high
school education, 41.5% special general high school education. Only
29.7% of the respondents with further educational background and fewer
respondents with higher education (20.2%) have not attended in-service
activities. As far as the age aspect is concerned, it has been identifed
that the majority of the respondents who have not participated in in-
service activities during a 5-year period are young people less than 25
years old or older people over 55 years old. A similar situation occurred
investigating the results concerning the aspect of work record. 37.3%
of the respondents have never attended in-service. Their work record
is less than 5 years. 33.9% respondents whose work record is over 30
years have not participated in in-service training either. Poor participation
of the younger generation could be explained that they still study or
have just fnished some kind of educational institution. Meanwhile the
reluctance of the senior respondents to take part in in-service training
could be accounted for by the fact that their realisation that they are
approaching the end of their professional career and that is why they lack
professional motivation.
then we followed how frequently the respondents feel contented with
the provided courses or seminars. To this, the respondents were asked
if in-service activities meet their needs. The following tendencies have
been determined (Figure 3).
14%
44%
32%
10%
needsarefullymet
needsaremet
needsarepartialymet
needsarenotmet
Figure 3. Conformity of courses and seminars with needs of people of
employable age
the information indicates that the majority of the respondents claim
that the in-service activities offered meet (44%) or fully meet their needs
(14%). About one-third of the respondents admit that in-service activities
only partially meet their needs. The ones who consider the offered
courses or seminars hardly useful make only 10%. Thus, the majority of

the respondents are satisfed with in-service training.

Further research data disclosed that the need for in-service training
is hardly linked with age, work record or educational background.
the research investigated if the respondents appreciate the lecturers
expertise in in-service training activities. Thus in the questionnaire the
respondents were asked how often they are satisfed with in-service
training lecturers work. Such situation has been encountered (Figure
4).
16,5
19,6
42,9
17,3
3,7
0
10
20
30
40
0
noresponse
almostalwayscontended
moreoftencontendedthannot
onlysometimescontended
hardlyevercontended
Figure 4. Frequency of lecturer appreciation by people
of employable age
It is obvious that the respondents are most often satisfed with the
lecturers who conduct in-service courses or seminars. Only less than
one-ffth of them pointed out that they appreciate the course lecturers
only sometimes. Those who most often feel negative about lecturers
make only 3.7%
Correlation analysis has demonstrated that satisfaction with course
or seminar lecturers is mostly linked not with the respondents age or
work record, but with the respondents education (2=60.79; p<0.000;
df=20). It has been defned that the majority of those who almost always
view lecturers positively are the respondents with higher education
background (39.2%), the least positive attitude has been expressed by
the respondents of general high school education (19.4%).
the research has helped to see if the respondents of employable age
in Lithuania intend to improve their qualifcations and in what ways they
are going to do this. The following situation has been disclosed (Figure
5):
6
12,2
37,9
22
14,4
4,4
42,2
0
10
20
30
40
0
donetplan
thgoughindependent
studies
Bachelor'sdegree
Master'sdegree
Doctoraldegreestudies
participationinseminars
Figure 5. respondents intention to participate in in-service training
the results have demonstrated that only every tenth respondent
does not intend to participate in in-service training. The majority of
the respondents are prone to select general in-service training ways
attendance of seminars or self-education, because more than two-thirds
of them pointed out they are planning to use these study ways, that is, they
prefer not organised learning. A big part of the respondents, however, is
going to study in the formal educational system about one-sixth of the
respondents is going to study in post-graduate programs, one-fourth in
undergraduate programs and several even in tertiary programs leading
to doctoral degree.
Further analysis disclosed that there exists a bond among the
intention to continue studying, the selected form of ones studies and
the respondents age, education and work record. It has been found out
that the respondents with lower educational background more frequently
than better educated respondents do not intend to study at all (2=29.51;
p<0.000; df=5). 15.1% of the respondents who have acquired general
high school certifcate state that they are not going to study altogether.
The same answer has been submitted only by 8.7% of the respondents
having higher education. It is interesting that the respondents with
special further education make the largest group of those not intending
to continue studies. They amount even to 22.2%.
The level of education infuences the form of further education. It
emerged that the respondents who have not gained higher education
(2=107.76; p<0.000; df=15), are prone to select their studies in
formal educational system to study for Bachelors degree), because
every third person having fnished only general high school or further
educational institution is going to take up this form of studies. Meanwhile
only every sixth respondent with vocational school certifcate and
7
only every eleventh respondent with more education intend to pursue
Bachelors degree. Not organised studies are more often preferred by
the people having better educational background, because the link
between education and the respondents intention to raise qualifcation
in seminars (2=99.56; p<0.000; df=10) or through independent studies
(2=4.95; p<0.000; df=10) has been disclosed. It has been found that
59.4% of the respondents having higher education will seek further
perfection, whereas only 17.8% of general high school graduates intend
to participate in seminars. Such in-service training form in the future
sounds to be acceptable for about one-third of the respondents obtaining
further or special further education. Independent studies are preferred
by half of the respondents with higher education background and only
by 26.3% of those with general high school education. Again, such form
of informal learning is acceptable only for one-third of the people who
fnished special or further educational institutions.
the analysis of correlation between age and intention to raise
qualifcation has displayed that, while ageing, Lithuanian respondents
tend to raise their qualifcation less often (2=44.38; p<0.000; df=6). It
is obvious that every third respondent being 55 years old or above, in
general does not seek to raise qualifcations. Besides, almost one quarter
of 45-55 year olds do not intend to improve their qualifcations. This
striving is most common among those of fewer than 25, because it has
been found that only 6.2% of the respondents are not going to improve
their knowledge in the future. The informal way of studying is pursued
similarly by the respondents of various ages, because the statistically
signifcant realtion between the intention to study independently and
participate in in-service seminars has not been noticed. Meanwhile
young respondents are intending to begin Bachelor degree studies
(2=72.48; p<0.000; df=18), because it turned out that even 31.9% of
the respondents who are under 25 years old wish to study at high school,
among those who during the research time were 26-35 years old, 26.3%
want to start Bachelor study programs. The respondents who were 36-45
make 14.7%. The ones between 46-55 make only 2.7%. The respondents
which were years old and above did not intend to continue studying
further. A similar tendency has been revealed when analysing the links
between the respondents age and plans to study for Masters degree.
a similar situation has developed analysing the data in the aspect
of work record point of view. It has been found that the longer ones
work record is, the weaker a persons striving for in-service training is in
general (2=37.49; p<0.000; df=5). Because only 8% of lately employed
8
do not seek further mastery, while the percentage among those having
work record of 21-30 years is already 22.5%; and the respondents
having work record of more than 31 years make even 33%. Informal
studies (seminars and independent studies) are selected similarly by the
respondents having different work record. At the same time, Bachelor
or Master Degree studies are projected in the future by the respondents
having shorter work record (2=64.39; p<0.000; df=15 and 2=75.93;
p<0.000; df=10).
ascribing the awareness of oneself as a specialist participating in
in-service training, it became obvious that the frequency of in-service
training needs is closely connected to the respondents opinions
and appreciation of themselves as professionals (2=97,89; p<0.01;
df=20). A more detailed analysis revealed that less than one-third of
the respondents who consider themselves to be very good or good
enough specialists, have never attended in-service activities. Meanwhile
38.6% of the people who think they are not enough good in their feld
have never attended any in-service events, and the majority of those
who admit being quite poor specialists in the feld have not raised their
qualifcations in any events.
the perception of oneself as a professional is linked to the respon-
dents satisfaction with in-service courses. It has been deduced that
the respondents who consider themselves to be good specialists in the
feld more often than others are contented with in-service courses they
attend (2=114.83; p<0.000; df=20), it has been found that 23.4% of
the respondents who are happy with themselves as professionals are
absolutely pleased with the suggested in-service courses. Meanwhile,
only 5.9% of the respondents admitting to be poor specialists in the feld
say they are quite contented with in-service courses.
the perception of oneself as a specialist affects the respondents
appreciation of the lecturers work (2=52.07; p<0.000; df=16). It has
been established that only every tenth respondent who considers
himself/herself to be a very good specialist only rarely is satisfed with the
lecturers work, almost every ffth respondent viewing herself/himself as
very good in the feld pointed out that they are only sometimes satisfed
with the lecturers work at seminars. It has emerged that the perception of
oneself as a professionals is related to further striving to pursue learning.
it has been determined that the people who see themselves as very
good or not good enough, or poor specialists more rarely than those who
think they are good enough in the feld, plan to participate in in-service
seminars (2=35.08; p<0.000; df=8), yet, the respondents striving to
9
raise qualifcations independently are not linked with the perception
of themselves as feld professionals. Thus, it enables us to thin, that
the perception of oneself as a specialist hardly infuences the objective
to educate oneself in an organised way. Moreover, it has also turned
out that the persons self-sensation as a professional hardly affects
the respondents objective to participate in the activities of organised
education. A statistically signifcant link has not been established in this
case.
Conclusions
Appreciation and estimation of oneself as a specialist is a signifcant
factor determining the frequency of lithuanian peoples of employable
age participation in in-service training, satisfaction with in-service training
seminars, the lecturers work. Self-estimation as a feld specialist very
slightly infuences the respondents intentions to learn in a formal or
informal ways in the future, but determines the intention to participate in
learning in general.
the majority of lithuanian respondents consider themselves to be
suffciently good specialists in their feld. The respondents with better
education, as compared to the respondents with less education, more
often feel to be good in their feld. Respondents of younger age (under
25) more often than others feel they are not good enough in their feld.
The people whose work record is not less than 6 years, but not longer
than 30 years in the labour market, think that they are good enough. The
previously mentioned tendencies could have been determined both by
public attitudes, the peculiarities of self -perception and the peculiarities
of andragogues work.
the majority of lithuanians of employable age seldom raises their
qualifcations in organised in-service training events. People of lower
educational background, young (under 25) or pre-retirement age people,
the respondents who got employed only recently or have work record of
more than 30 years most rarely raise their qualifcations.
The respondents of different age span, educational background and
work record admit that they are contented with the organised in-service
training events. The majority of the people are satisfed with lecturers
performance during seminars, yet, Lithuanian respondents with higher
education feel more contented with lecturers work as compared to the
respondents of lower educational background.
the majority of the respondents are planning to perfect and educate
themselves in the future. Striving for education in the future is more
60
characteristic to more educated respondents. Besides, better educated
people more often than people of lower educational background tend to
select informal education, meanwhile, the less educated prefer studies at
higher schools. Younger respondents having longer work record, much
more often than young ones intend to further educate themselves.
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61
TEaCHEr EDuCaTIon For EDuCaTIon
For SuSTaInaBlE DEvElopmEnT
principle of sustainability in developing
teachers musical culture
Jeena Badjanova
Daugavpils University, Latvia
Abstract. Taking into account contemporary tendencies, Latvia will
get more and more closely involved in the world cultural process. Culture
appears to be as many-sided as human beings who produce it and who
are its main products. Each personality may be regarded as a bearer
of culture. Latvian people have an ancient tradition that is necessary
to sustain in the future as well. In this respect, great signifcance is
attributed to musical culture, as national traditions are closely related
to folk songs. Sustainable education contributes to the development of
the cultural identity concordant to spiritual human values through the
environment and generational continuity. Hence, the author of the present
article makes an attempt to analyse the orientation toward sustainable
development in musical culture developed within the higher education
preparing preschool and elementary school teachers. The author of the
article theorises the notion of musical culture in the context of social and
sustainable development and tries to bring together conceptions of other
authors as well as to describe her own approach in relation to the problem
investigated.
According to questionnaire results, a part of the students do not pay
any attention to musical culture having sustainable character.
Key words: culture, musical culture, perception, spiritual values, folk-
lore, sustainable development, teacher education, synthetic paradigm.
Introduction
Taking into account the tendencies of globalisation, Latvia is going
to be involved into the world cultural process more and more. Along
with that, the necessity of keeping up the national identity is growing in
62
importance. In this regard, musical culture plays a signifcant role. The
latvian nation has ancient and strong traditions of folk music and different
musical forms. In teacher training process, it is necessary to preserve
these traditions as a component of teachers pedagogical culture.
In order to develop mental needs, a person has to develop the sense
of aesthetic delight. At present, the superiority of material world upon the
spiritual one is quite evident. Hence, it is all more important to facilitate
a positive attitude of university students toward traditional values and
traditional culture as well as encourage them to develop their musical
culture throughout their lifetime.
On the basis of classic ideas about the musics functional regularities
in the culture, we have made an attempt at systemising various forms of
introducing a personality to musical culture.
Music is usually viewed in the context of general culture. The
phenomenon of musical art is seen as an organic part of spiritual life
both of personality and society, as a harmonic unity of person, nature,
and society (Jenks, 1993; Slastenin, 1997; Kagan, 1996; Sohor, 1975;
Zemcovsky, 1989; Gurevich, 2002, etc.). However, the above-mentioned
authors do not consider musical culture in the context of sustainable
development, neither do they offer specifc methods to promote this
aspect while preparing preschool and elementary school teachers. The
author of this article produces theoretical analysis of musical culture,
discerning those aspects that allow the extension of musical culture in
the context of sustainable development.
the Faculty of education and Management of Daugavpils university
offers two programmes:
pre-school teacher training program;
elementary school teacher training program;
Musical education is included in the curricula of these study program-
mes. The tasks of musical education are both local (development of
musical skills) and global (attitude to musical culture) ones.
these study programmes of musical education were designed to use
creative action forms, as well as to use the appropriate teaching and
learning environment with the aim to reorient the students awareness
towards of spiritual values of musical culture in the context of sustainable
development, namely:
sustaining the values of musical culture in the ecological context;
learning traditions and folklore;
keeping and transmitting traditions from generation to generation.
the article offers an approach to the use of these theses in the context
63
of musical culture development. Thus, the aim of the present research
is to determine the necessity to develop musical culture in the context of
sustainable development.
Theoretical analysis of the notions culture and musical cul
ture
The frst and the basic meaning of the notion culture is development
and growth. For thousands of years, people have been developing and
carefully keeping what was considered to be valuable and necessary
in two main spheres of their life and existence spiritual and material
life. However, the notion culture has many meanings, which are noted
by the modern authors: Jenks (1993), Certeau (1980), Gurevich (2002),
Kogan (1993), etc.
Taylor (1996) defnes culture as the set, comprising knowledge,
traditions, which a person has accepted as a member of the society (cit.
in Kagan, 1996:13).
Klackhon describes culture as a way of nations life, social
inheritance received by a person from his/her group (cit.in Kagan,
1996:13). Russian philosopher Kagan defnes culture as the frst step
to understanding self-consciousness, self-appraisal (Kagan, 1996: 11)
Zlobin emphasises that culture is persons creative activity refected in
the values of culture and developing persons historic wealth, personal
qualities (cit. from Slastenin & Podimova, 1997: 27).
the russian teacher Slastenin believes that culture is always a
creative activity comprising all characteristics of creative work; it has
got an addressee, dialogue; however its comprehension is a process
of self-realisation, formation of the cultural world inside the person,
going through experience and cooperation, where each newly acquired
element accepts and doesnt exaggerate or deny the previous layer of
culture (1993: 13).
Such a variety of defnitions of the notion culture can be explained
by the fact that culture is as rich as its creator; however, culture is also as
contradictory as any person creator of culture and its main creation.
Every person is the bearer of personal culture and spiritual wealth.
Personal culture differs from the culture in general, partly because it
always carries ideas, means, aims, motives, and needs characteristic of
the particular person, the certain moment, and the specifc society. There
is a need for permanent communication and interconnection within the
culture of the society and culture on the personal level. In this regard, it is
important to consider the relations between innovations and traditions.
64
traditions are constant elements of culture passed on from one
generation to another by way of legacy (inheritance). Traditions help
to establish a dialogue between generations, to create and develop
spiritual values, to discover patriotic feelings, which form national
consciousness.
the notion of spiritual culture is interrelated with the notion of spiritual
values.
Explaining the notion of culture, Sohor defnes the following elements
of particular values created by people:
ways of formation of these values (skills, experience);
means and system of passing on all kinds of spiritual values (1975:
195).
The author offers the notion of culture as a variety of cultures (sub-
cultures).
For example, aesthetic culture is one of the parts of spiritual culture;
art culture is the world of art works created by people, personal abilities,
and artistic skills applied in order to create works of art. The notion of
aesthetic culture includes all forms of the surrounding reality. As music
has a connection with the aspects mentioned above, it is possible to
distinguish musical culture. Besides, this is the way musical culture as a
part of aesthetic culture develops (1975: 198).
Therefore, different kinds of arts can refer to various kinds of culture
(as subculture). For instance, artists refer to artistic culture, philologists
to the culture of speech, athletes to physical culture, etc.
Modern science offers a variety of approaches to the notion of musical
culture. Aliyev (Beloborodova & Aliyev, 2002) suggests that the musical
culture of a personality conceals individual social-artistic experience,
which causes the appearance of noble musical needs. This notion is
also connected with the interactive qualities of a personality, the indicator
of which is musical development: love for the art of music, emotional
relationship and musical observation, mastering of skills, musical activity,
artistic education, development of musical taste. Telcharova (cit. in
Beloborodova & Aliyev, 2002) distinguishes two defning components of
musical culture: musical activity and musical consciousness.
Musical culture in the social context
analysis of different theories on the relationships between the society
and musical culture (Nettle, 1983; Blacking, 1976; Jenks, 1993) shows
that the level of musical culture depends on the social situation and
interests prevailing in the society. So, in his book Sociology and Musical
6
Culture, Sohor (1975) describes the structure and main defnitions of
musical culture in the society. He also tries to fnd out the correlation
of social phenomena and musical art. Sohor studies the link between
the development of musical culture and social-cultural changes and
connects musical culture with the social and cultural life of the society.
As sociology of culture represents the culture of the society, sociology of
music studies the process of general functioning of musical culture under
the particular social conditions. Therefore, sociology of music includes
the following aspects:
principles of functioning of musical culture and historic typology of
musical culture;
structure and forms of musical life in the society, including musical
activity of different social groups (so called musical behaviour);
peculiarities of perception and transmission of music in different
social conditions;
social functions of music and musicians, forms of their realisation;
conditions and factors of the formation of musical needs and
interests, aims and tastes of the society and separate social
groups;
types of listeners;
aspects of mastering and presenting art, their popularity.
these aspects can be analysed as the problem of perception of music
of different kinds and character. Sohor (1975) made an investigation
into music preferences of different social groups of people. According
to Sohor (1975), huge majorities apparently prefer popular music. As
tastes of people greatly depend on changing fashions in music, popular
music cannot be regarded as a sustainable kind of music for generations.
Therefore the author of the article, basing on Sohors investigations,
provides the analysis of musical culture within the context of sustainable
education. To be specifc, folklore as a treasure of musical culture is
viewed as a sustainable kind of music handed down from generation to
generation.
Next, it is important to consider Zemcovskys (1989) synthetic
paradigm as a revelation of musical culture. In his cultural anthropologic
research works, the author considers several branches of American
anthropologic music. Zemcovsky analyses the defnition by Nettle. In
1983, Nettle emphasised three ways of studying interrelationships of
music and culture:
studying music in its cultural aspect;
studying music in a culture in general;
66
studying music as a culture, i.e. ways of refecting social values in
music.
Following Nettle, musical culture was analysed in its social context
by Feld (1987) and Seeger (1987). These researchers considered social
life as musical performance. However, they denied the concept of music
as the fnal product of humans behaviouristic activity and conceived it
as a relatively static thing represented by culture. This kind of musical
anthropology arose from understanding art as a part of culture. Next
model was developed by Blacking who articulated the culture-in-music.
The appearance of the model opposite to the model music-in-culture
was natural. John Blacking describes this model in his book Culture
and Society in Music (1976). The author perceives music as a model
of social life and patterns of culture. Culture reveals itself in action,
i.e. in persons behaviour during musical presentation. The term musical
context denotes music rich in content, but rich in content denotes
culturally defned through musical thinking.
However, Hoods ideas turned out most productive (1989). He
combines the study of music in personal limits and socio-cultural
context. Returning to the paradigm of Zemcovsky, Hood complements
this paradigm with the new meaning. The concept elaborated by Zem-
covsky shows that the synthetic paradigm does not deny all the above-
mentioned views. Its role is just to make some additions, absorb different
ideas, and evaluate their possibilities in making different types of links
(correlative, supplementary, etc.). In this way, the synthetic paradigm
allows to consider the history of musicology from different points of view.
thus the conception indicates that music fosters culture development in
society. As culture is the indicator of sustainable development, musical
culture as a part of aesthetic culture contributes enormously to the culture
of society.
To make it more concise, this is the concept of text-culture-person
or the concept of three basic phenomena in the study of music, musical
intonation playing the role of text. Here the term intonation does not
denote the quality of musical performance that may be either true or
false.
It denotes thought and its place in the persons consciousness. In
this sense, intonation contains varied information about culture, such
as the type of culture, historical aspect, the function of genre, etc. It is
even possible to say that intonation represents culture in totality. Music
is called folded culture in each moment of its existence. Therefore, it
is a peculiar symbol of a particular culture for the representatives of the
whole world. This point of view allows considering and studying music as
a model of a particular culture.
67
Hence, the issue of text in music is always the issue of culture and
person. For instance, the musical text of a magic song can go unnoticed;
however, the attitude to it as causing something magic is noticeable in
the perception of this text by the particular culture. In other words, it is
important to have faith in its effciency. The sound becomes sonorous
not only due to acoustics but also due to socially perceptible reasons.
Culture creates not only sounds but also musical sense, intonation.
Psychoacoustics of a particular sonority plays the role of a factor of
culture (in its total meaning, together with everyday and religious aspects
of the persons life).
In this way, person as an object of musical anthropology plays a special
role in the synthetic paradigm. It is not only that of creator-performer-
listener, but also of a mediator between people, between generations,
individual and nature, individual and space, individual and God. Music
is considered here as religion, as one of the ways of communication
between a person and eternity, the way of introducing a person to the
eternity. This explains the endless necessity to repeat the particularity
of musical acts again and again in any society. This is performing and
listening to the well-known musical works, folk songs, and the wish to
enjoy them again and again.
However, there are still many unresolved issues and problems
concerning the development of musical culture. The next part of the
article is devoted to the peculiarities of musical culture in the context
of sustainable development and research conducted with the future
teachers.
Sustainable development and contemporary musical culture
At frst, it is important to consider different approaches to the
interpretation of the notion of sustainable development. Lately, the notion
of sustainable development has been connected with a systematic
and careful attitude and the use of natural resources. The problem of
sustainable education is identifed as one of the global problems and
is viewed in the context of human-nature relations as well as nature
protection (UNESCO: The Committee of Sustainable Development). It
can be viewed as a consequence of work of previous generations in
relation to ecological problems or even to the situation of ecological
crisis.
A number of notions, which are used in this regard, e.g. sustainable,
long term development oriented towards the future, now are used as
synonyms for a better comprehension of the problem of sustainable
68
education. Initially, the problem of sustainable development was diffe-
rentiated as one of the global problems and was treated in the context
of human relations with nature and nature protection. The versatility of
this concept in the 21
st
century is connected with harmonious, coherent,
lenient, and long-term development directed towards the future.
Sustainable education is oriented: towards the harmony in relationships;
towards preserving ones own identity, culture, environment; towards
creating the consciousness of sustainable education and relationship
between generations (Salte, 2002: 5).
Therefore, on the grounds of above-mentioned ideas, musical culture
in the context of sustainable development could be defned as:
formation of individuals long lasting positive attitude to the existing
musical cultural values;
the need for constant development and maintenance of the
individual experience by self-education engaging in any musical
activity;
preservation and transmission of cultural values from generation
to generation;
acquirement and appreciation of the knowledge and skills related
to musical culture;
internal changes of individuals spiritual world: learning and holding
the values of the musical culture for entire life.
it is also impossible to develop a cultural environment without preserv-
ing and nurturing of cultural traditions.
traditional culture is playing an important role in ones cultural environ-
ment. Krastin differentiates three stages of culture, namely:
1. the existence and maintaining of ancient traditions;
2. the development of forms of culture;
3. acquiring of separate elements of professional culture (Krasti,
1996:12).
At present, family, any of educational institutions and persons them-
selves have a right to form their own system of values. The choice of
values determines ones view of life, knowledge, experience and ideals.
According to researchers, instead of choosing infuences, an individual
is infuenced by the specifc environment, to which he or she is bound
(Kagan, 1996). Thus, the peculiarities of a certain society determine the
persons development. However, the choice of values is individual for
each person.
Thus, the most diffcult problem of our time is to fnd the most effective
ways of forming musical culture, by including the student in the system of
69
social relationships. It is also impossible to develop a cultural environment
without preserving and nurturing of cultural traditions.
Music in the context of sustainable development can be referred to
the following aspects: music and society, music and culture, musical
culture and personality. In other words, culture is considered as part of
environment created by people, as a system designed to solve problems
encountered by people and society. Values connected with musical culture
(folklore and folk traditions) promote a constant spiritual development of
a personality and society. Consequently, music and culture represent a
system of spiritual processes (formation and development of aesthetical
taste of a person, perception of norms and ideals of society in the context
of values) and the state of mind, forms and types of activities, serving
to unite people and nature by studying, preserving, and developing
knowledge of folklore (texts and melodies of folk songs). However, the
activity depends on the qualities of a particular person as well as on the
development of persons knowledge and skills produced by culture and
chosen, developed and transmitted from generation to generation.
It is necessary to consider the specifc situation of musical culture
in the 21
st
century. The main characteristic features of the 21
st
century
individual are rationality and decent fnancial well being as the main value
of life. Changing fashion styles form a bright picture; however, in their
innovative and clashing symbolism, they lack deep gist. It is possible to
extend the modern cultural life exclusively by borrowing and renovating
the values of preceding generations: making civilisation activate the
process of perceiving and sustaining the folklore values of the 18
th
-20
th

centuries.
Nowadays, civilisation is trying to reach the life which has everything
for a comfortable existence and almost nothing for spirit. What is this
life for then? Does it have any aim and sense? When spiritual culture
and individual consciousness are considered only as the means of
strengthening techniques of life, the ration between aims and means
gets merged and perverted. Does the break with the religious and
spiritual truth and striving for enjoying life mean the end of culture and
beginning of civilisation? Civilisation gives rise to the cult of life, as
nothing is considered to be value-in-itself any more. No moment, no
feeling of life have any depth or connection with eternity, with sustainable
development. However, there is mutuality between civilisation and
musical culture: civilisation with its ruling rationalism is destroying the
perception of folklore; and yet, the creator (culture) is in search for new,
special ways to infuence the audience, which would be approved by the
contemporaries.
70
The theory of perception was initially elaborated by the German
psychologist Lipps (1909). FollowingLipps, emotional reaction of a
person who perceives the music is the response to the impulse arisen
by a particular piece of music: personalities take their own stance
on this music. Positive attitude to music depends crucially on the
initial preparatory stage and artistic disposition of each personality.
lipps concludes that interest in listening to music is stirred up by the
expectations for something usual.
In this context, the following example could serve as an adequate
illustration. Since 1873, Song and Dance Festivals have been organised
in Latvia. Besides, the festival of folklore Baltica attracts the public by
untraditional methods of spreading traditional culture within society. On
the one hand, every festival contains both conditional and unconditional
features, expressed in its structure and ceremonial. On the other hand,
a festival can create a really unconditional situation for a person giving a
chance to improvise. Such states are the results of a great interest and
anxiety towards the process. The role of emotions and interest is vital in
the process of the perceptive and cognitive development of a person.
The interlinks between the interest, functions of mind and memory are
so diverse and close that lack of affective support on the part of interest
is a warning for the development of intellect, almost in the same way
as physical damage for brain fbres. In other words, in order to think, it
is necessary to feel and experience (Thomson, 1990). Consequently,
interest plays an important role in the cognitive development and
intellectual activity of a person. It is impossible to be engaged with some-
thing if there is no interest for that. In case understanding the peculiarities
of an object becomes vital or a way of life, then crossing the edges of the
existing knowledge is like an exciting adventure. So, we can suggest that
the interaction of emotional interest and pleasure creates a motivating
basis for the formation of musical culture in the context of sustainable
development.
the mood of the festival is not simply transmitted to a person by
various peculiarities of artistic text; it is also being developed and role-
played by itself. A festival is an ideal world, which for a moment becomes
a reality. It gives the person a chance to feel the essence of the tradition
of musical culture, which is transmitted from generation to generation.
it is possible to create conditions for the learning environment which
would encourage the development of musical culture in the study courses
designed for pre-service pre-school and elementary teachers.
Hence, we may conclude that it is interest that could refocus the
71
students to sustainability of musical culture and sensitise them to musical
culture as a component of pedagogical culture. To bring out the opinions
of Daugavpils university students about the necessity of the development
of musical culture, an interview was carried out (see Appendix).
research instrument and participants
To learn about the attitude towards musical culture, an interview was
conducted with 60 students: full-time students and part-time students
who acquire pre-school and elementary school program of the Faculty
of Education and Management at Daugavpils University. Data have
been acquired in the practical classes. the participants of the research
have been selected during a three-year period (2007-2010) according
to the following criteria: age 20-25 years, type of activity (the same
professional programme), residence and belonging to the culture of
Latvia. The participants were also involved in discussions about singing
classes, childrens musical literature and folklore, musical ABC.
The tasks of the research were as follows:
to discover the students present attitude to the musical culture as
a whole;
to analyse the meaning of the musical culture in the context of
sustainable development;
to defne the actuality of the development of sustainable musical
culture for preschool and elementary school teachers;
to work out the strategy for the formation of the musical culture of
students in the context of sustainable development.

results of research and their interpretation
At frst the questions concerning general understanding of musical
culture were asked. The questions brought a wide scope of answers:
Table 1. results of the interview about musical culture
Musical culture was explained as
number of
students (%)
One of the components of culture 10
Global and social culture 10
inheritance and preservation of folk traditions 17
Musical creativity: songs, dances, etc. 12
Stage of the intellectual development 23
Perfection of the human spiritual world 28
72
Students answered that musical culture could be developed by the
following methods:
Table 2. results of the interview
methods of Developing musical Culture
number of students
(%)
need for informative events 1
every small country village has to have its own musical classes 8
using songs in professional practice and in personal life 3
rise of interest in children and teachers 1
integration of music in other school subjects 12
Development of aesthetic taste since the early childhood 1
Increase the support from state for musical events, projects 8
inclusion of music listening classes in teacher training curriculum 11
Perception of music lessons as equally signifcant to the other
lessons at comprehensive school and university
27
to analyse the main aspects featuring the perception of the respon-
dents, the guidelines of the interview have been designed: stability,
awareness, dominating, principality. It was interesting to discover the
respondents attitude towards folklore as a value of musical culture.
One of the frst aspects in this regard is stability, which is the feature
describing the ability for long existence preserving the quality and quantity
of object:
Musical culture as an important element of human life was
described by 25 students.
Musical culture as a component for the intellectual development
was described by 22 students.
Folk music as a topical aspect of the contemporary society was
described by 13 students
According to the results of the research, the students do not
distinguish folklore as a value of musical culture, irrespective of its
signifcant role in life.
the answers connected with the concept of awareness (understanding
and therefore conscious attitude) shows the following picture: there is a
need for the development of personal musical culture only10 students
out of 60.
analysing the dominating idea toward the musical culture in society,
the interview showed that neutral attitude toward the musical culture in the
society was characteristic of 10 students, while three students remained
unconcerned with music. At the same time, 18 students concluded that
73
they would like to develop their musical culture (feature of principality).
Therefore, we can conclude the problem is signifcant.
46% of respondents think that musical culture determines the
development of persons spiritual world. In this context, the existing norms
and ideals of society, aesthetical taste, positive attitude, perception and
preserving of values of musical culture, as well as formation of good
habits, were considered important for this development. 11% of students
think that folk music has a global aspect in a society, 28% of students
think that each person needs to develop culture of music in the context
of sustainable education, and 15% students want to sing folk songs.
However, students do not consider folk music to be the main component
in the development of society; they stress that musical culture is the main
component in the spiritual development of a person.
the basic feature of the interview was the idea of sustainable
development and the results were as follows:
83.3% of students did not consider it necessary to use folklore in
the process of childrens education in preschool and elementary
school;
16.6% of students could not fnd a link between the notion of
musical culture and the idea of sustainable development.
Thus, musical upbringing is an essential part of the process of cultural
education, which helps to develop both thinking and feelings. The result
is better understanding of the national culture of music. The culture of
Latvia cannot exist without art, which indicates the origins of peoples
spiritual life and demonstrates moral and aesthetical values and the
artistic taste of the previous generations.
the peculiarities of national culture are mainly determined by the
history and the characteristics of the nation, represented in folk songs,
dance and art, music, literature, and science. Language, culture, and
the mentality of people characterise the cooperation that exists between
representatives of one ethnic group.
the answers of Daugavpils university students were motivated by
their lack of knowledge of traditions as well as the way of their practical
application. They showed lack of interest to integrate folklore into different
subjects of the academic programmes. Besides, students interpreted
musical skills as professional musical education. However, the results
changed after the author had introduced and presented untraditional
methods of teaching. The author of the research offered different methods
of developing musical culture in the context of sustainable education.
the strategy of the development of students musical culture is directed
74
onto the skill of using and preserving the values of musical culture in a
long term, as well as the development of motivation and perfection of
knowledge and skills all life long.
methods of developing sustainable musical culture of students
this section of the article will explore the methods of active perception
and the ways of creative activity, which encourage the students musical
culture.
The most widespread musical material comprises score and rhythm,
but it is not connected with music as an inner experience (neither
with theory). The score and rhythm can be easily used, well taught,
methodologically easily arranged; the success can be easily checked
and assessed.
Yet, in music we speak about something else: about the experience of
making one happy (not achieving rigorous discipline), about the richness
of fantasy and creativity, free (uncontrolled) regression of the feelings,
identifcation with the personal matters, the study of known and unknown
regions, about adventures and beauty.
Listening to music takes up about 1/3 of the lesson time. The aim of
listening is understanding. Understanding goes further than the horizon
that is determined by traditional theories and analysis according to
schematic, purely formal categories.
The lesson oriented towards activity is based on: activity as
background of the lesson (anthropological preconditions, experience
of playing music, evaluation resulting from individual and social kinds
of activity); activity as constituent part of the lesson personal musical
practice, refection, interpretation of perception, etc.; activity as an aim:
the lesson develops the skills to deal with music better in the individual
and also the social aspect.
Most important personal musical meanings are created not only by
purely musical features and structures, but in a more powerful way by
everyday activities, signifcant personally meaningful learning may help
to enrich and change these meanings.
listening may be considered as a possibility of perception through
the unconscious experiences and our attempts at understanding and
explaining music in a verbal form.
the criteria of the active perception in the process of listening are
based on the following aspects:
To raise physiological processes to consciousness (breathing,
pulse, skin, touch, spatial experience, sight, smell);
7
On the basis of it, to yield to ideas, to enjoy and evaluate them (to
verify sudden unexpected ideas);
To follow the impulses coming from outside;
To transform them into a graphic form;
To verbalise experience and compare it with others remarks;
to understand perception as a process how sudden experience
changes listening consciously and in a concentrated way, and how
does it change with repeated perception?
To allow music in all its essence overtake: it is possible to have
intellectual and sincere attitude towards any kind of music at
different levels of understanding to create curiosity, to follow it to
search for meditation in music, going deep into it, relaxation, even
nausea to immerse into activity in order to achieve adventures,
to make fruitful the impulses of the lessons coming from the social
environment.
In the process of listening it is possible to create the environment,
which activates the perception of music. For example, this may entail
organising free premises by rearranging the location of seats in the
classroom, standing up from chairs or desks, lying, down, closing eyes,
walking around, moving or being restless; spending some time without any
given material, without aims and pressure of test works and evaluation.
Audio laboratory should be arranged for the lessons and at the lessons.
It should be orientated towards the person on the whole, but in no case
only on cognitive aims. The most benefcial starting point is the impact
experienced by everybody. Its objective is drawing everybody closer to
music in all its most essential aspects. Emphatic listening coincides with
brooding listening to music. Dialectically, it relates to distanced, critical
listening. Until now, we have observed little effort in involving empathic
listening into the lesson on the same level as the cognitive approach
to music. Its aims are to create interest about life consequences, to
determine direction also outside the University, to provide the basic
information, to use motivation of genuine experiences, to refect them at
the lesson, and to transform it for future cognition.
However, we would like to emphasise some statements and, at the
same time, point out important contradictions:
Though the teachers personality is important, it depends on the
ability to present information. The very world of experience should
help to motivate students interest and attention when dealing with
music for a longer time. In pedagogical relations, honesty is as
necessary as an open and trustful atmosphere.
76
intensive listening includes good classes and general pedagogical
opportunities. Here we add also interest in new experiences, open
mind to the unknown and tolerance towards the tastes of the
others.
Intensive listening to music is valued as very signifcant, frst of all,
due to therapeutic reasons. Listening calmly, the music lessons
have a therapeutic function. Opposite to it, we have the real
material of the lesson, teaching objectives, science, success, and
pressure of time (especially at primary school).
The contradiction appears in the alternative question: is intensive
perception better achieved with the help of clearly formulated
task or outside the teaching objective? It becomes clear when we
particularise the function of the lesson: cognitive teaching/learning
objectives hinder putting forward the therapeutic objective; the
music lesson is perceived as any other subject. It follows that it is
essential to keep to the aims of the educational process.
Thus, the approach to the development of musical culture within the
framework of sustainable development has been adopted: the active
perception generates interest about the recorded piece of music and the
theoretical information is effciently committed to the long-term memory.
Thus, in the course of the formation of the students music culture,
unconventional teaching methods had been used. Defnite conditions
in the process of acquisition of musical culture values, as well as in
the process of listening to the pieces of music according to the criteria
mentioned above encouraged active perception of music. Having used the
particular teaching methods, the second interview had been conducted
by the author. The results of the interview revealed considerable changes
in the attitude towards musical culture in the context of sustainable
development:
Table 3. results of the interview about musical culture
Musical culture was explained as number of students (%)
One of the components of culture 17
Global and social culture 1
inheritance and preservation of folk traditions 23
Musical creativity: songs, dances, etc. 13
Stage of the intellectual development 1
Perfection of the human spiritual world 17
to analyse the main aspects featuring the perception of the respon-
dents, the guidelines of the interview have been designed: stability,
77
awareness, dominating, principality. It was interesting to discover the
respondents attitude towards folklore as a value of musical culture.
One of the frst aspects in this regard is stability, which is the feature
describing the ability for long existence, preserving the quality and
quantity of object:
Musical culture as an important element of human life was
described by 40 students.
Musical culture as a component for the intellectual development
was described by 30 students.
Folk music as a topical aspect of the contemporary society was
described by 47students
the answers connected with the concept of awareness (understanding
and therefore conscious attitude) show the following picture: there is a
need for the development of personal musical culture only 3 students
out of 60.
analysing the dominating idea toward the musical culture in society,
the interview showed that neutral attitude toward the musical culture in
the society was characteristic of seven students, while three students
remained unconcerned with music. At the same time, 48 students
concluded that they would like to develop their musical culture (feature
of principality).
The respondents expressed their interest towards more sophisticated,
advanced, and self-regulated acquisition of musical culture values.
Interest, in its turn, encourages further development of the students
musical culture.
Conclusions
the results of the research show the necessity to develop a positive
and creative attitude towards musical culture. Having analysed historically
formed values of art and social environment of the past and present, the
students perceive a block of information in creative work, i.e. there is no
automatic, aimless perception of culture in the context of sustainable
development.
Art conquers any personalitys heart and creates beauty around.
Therefore art is to be regarded as a means of sustainable development.
the teachers should take a positive attitude towards music not only
as a means of entertainment, but also as a value of culture. Unders-
tanding of musical culture presupposes the perception of music, which is
considered as an active or a passive way of activity. It is an emotionally
and intellectually intensive process as a profound and thorough compre-
78
hension of different kinds of music is beyond the perception of emotional
character of a particular piece of music, as well as the knowledge
concerning the pragmatic content.
The practice shows that deeper understanding permits to think, to
evaluate, to compare, to remember, to imagine and to make prognosis.
this is the main aim in the course of sustainable development of musical
culture.
references
Blacking, J. (1976). How Musical is Man. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul,
38-40.
Certeau, M. (1980). De La Culture au Plurie. Paris: Press.
Feld, S. (1987). Sound and Sentiment. New York: Seabury.
Hood, X. (1989) Baltimore: progress report in ethnomusicology. Music from
Galileo to Einstein, Vol.1,2 (8), 3-15.
Jenks, C. (1993). Culture. New York and London: Collier Macmillan.
Krasti, V. (1996). Latvieu tautas pedagoisks kultras izmantoana skolnu
nacionls paapzias veidoan [The use of Latvian folk culture in the
process of the formation of national self-consciousness of students]. Rga:
University of Latvia, summary of doctoral dissertation, 45.
Nettle, B. (1983). The Study of Ethnomusicology: Twenty-nine Issues and Con-
certs. New York: Seabury.
Salte, I. (2002). Ilgtspjgas izgltbas mris skolotju skatjum [Aim of
sustainable education through the eyes of teachers]. Skolotjs [Teacher], 5,
5-7.
Seeger, A. (1987). A Musical Anthropology of Amazonian People. Why Suya
Sing. Cambridge: Mass. Harvard University Press.
Thomson, R. (ed.). (1990). Nebraska symposium on motivation. Socioemotional
Development, London, 1-56.
, ., , . (2002).
[Methodology of teaching music in
public schools]. : .
, . (2002.) [Culturology]. : .
, . (1989) K
[Social context in literature]. : -
.
, . (1996). K [Philosophy of culture]. --
: , .
, . (1993). K [Theory of culture]. .
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, ., , . (1997). : -
[Pedagogy: Innovational activity]. : .
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cal culture]. : .
79
Appendix
Interview
Stage 1
1. How do you understand the notion musical culture?
2. In your opinion, is it necessary to relate the development of
personality to the context of music?
3. Do you ever analyse your musical culture?
4. What factors interfere with the development of musical culture?
5. Is musical culture in need of sustainable character/content?
6. What are the best ways of furthering the development of musical
culture?
Stage 2
Stability
1. Do you treat musical culture as an essential element of life?
2. In your opinion, in knowledge about music necessary for the
intellectual development?
3. Is folk music topical in contemporary society?
4. Is music attributed an important place in your life or you could do
without it?
awareness
1. Does the musical culture of a personality need to be developed?
Dominance
1. Does music mean anything to me?
2. Am I after leaving school, no more interested in any music genre,
except for popular music (rave, house, techno, etc.)?
3. Am I neutral towards musical culture in society?
principality
1. Is it principally important for you to be competent in any direction
of music?
80
Exploring pre-service teachers frames of reference
and their orientation towards inclusion or exclusion:
educational action research journey
Ginta Gedne,
Inga Gedne,
Ilga Salte,
Dzintra Iliko
Daugavpils University, Latvia
Abstract. This study was undertaken with an aim to engage pre-
service teachers in an educational action research journey leading
towards exploration of their frames of reference personal paradigms
for perceiving and making sense of the world, which can be oriented
towards inclusion in or exclusion from the social and natural world. We
specifcally addressed pre-service teachers views on their interaction
with nature. Through journeying with each other in cooperative inquiry
into participants experiences, we encouraged generation of personally
meaningful knowledge based on multiple ways of knowing. It was argued
that holism as the underlying principle of learning fosters full engagement
in cooperative inquiry and exploration of ones frames of reference with
their orientation towards inclusion or exclusion. Becoming aware of ones
assumptions through educational action research is the frst step towards
transformation of pre-service teachers frames of reference to be applied
in their future pedagogical activity to help pupils become responsible
members of a sustainable world, concerned about the fourishing of
individuals, communities and the entire planet.
Key words: educational action research, pre-service teachers, frames
of reference, interaction with nature, cooperative inquiry.
Introduction
We live in a world where everything is mutually interrelated (Ryland,
2000; Salite, 1998; Dwivedi, 1988) even if individuals sometimes fail
to be aware of this complex and balanced interdependence. We live in
relationships with one another humans and other forms of life, life and
its support system, the human and the natural world, the former being
an integral part of the latter. In this world that we are sharing with one
another, two ways of positioning oneself are possible: (1) orientation
towards closeness, cooperation, respect and mutually supportive
interaction (inclusion), and (2) orientation towards egoism, alienation,
81
discrimination and rejection of those who are different, dominance over
others, their use for satisfaction of ones needs and fulflment of ones
purposes (exclusion) (Gedne & Gedne, 2010b; Salte, Gedne, &
Gedne, 2009). These orientations or attitudes can be applied to both
the natural world and the social one. In fact, it is a particular existential
stance since the way we position ourselves towards others largely
determines who we are and how we think of others and ourselves in this
world. In this respect, Buber (2002) distinguishes between two kinds of
attitudes towards the world: I/it attitude and I/thou attitude. I/it attitude
envisages a subject-object relationship where the subject dominates
the object, considers it a resource for satisfaction of ones needs and
whims, feels the right to manipulate it and positions oneself higher on the
hierarchical ladder (Ashman & Lawler, 2008). Conversely, I/thou attitude
is manifested in subject-subject relationship, which is characterised by
closeness, equality, celebration of differences and admitting the value
and worth of the other in open and pure dialogue (Rofrano, 2007; DeLue,
2006).
inclusion and exclusion can occur in both the natural and the social
world (i.e. with people around us and other forms of life and its support
system), determining the quality of relationship we have and the ways
we interact with one another. Orientation towards exclusion is a sign of
deterioration in our relationships. It may lead to serious consequences
in different spheres of interaction between members of the human and
natural world. Socially, exclusion is a topical problem in educational
contexts. A recent study by Gedne and Gedne (2010b) focused
on how pre-service teachers view exclusion in educational settings. It
was established that they are highly aware of this issue and consider
it one on the manifestations of educational unsustainability. In pre-
service teachers opinion, exclusion in education derives from moral
considerations, notably, our lack of such humane and ethical values as
compassion, mutual respect and supportiveness (ibid.).
a similar study examined pre-service teachers views on inclusion and
exclusion in a broader context as belonging to the wider community of
life. It revealed that future teachers realise the mutual interconnection
of everything in the life system and persons responsibility that derives
from it to comprehend, value and respect this link and live in such a
way so as not to harm nature, other people, the world in general and,
consequently, ourselves (Gedne & Gedne, 2010a). The authors of
the study concluded that the ecological context identifed in research
participants views about inclusion is closely related to sustainability and
82
its core values respect towards life and its support system, thoughtful
action and interaction, bearing in mind our responsibility before nature,
the community of life and future generations. The study by Gedne and
Gedne (ibid.) confrms that pre-service teachers recognise inclusion in
the life system as a precondition for persons sustainable life activity and
belonging to the broader community of life. In fact, in this instance we
can speak of the extension of ecological self beyond our separate egos
by encompassing more and more phenomena from the life world (Macy,
1995, as cited in Ryland, 2000). It is what deep-ecologist Naess (1989)
regards as deep identifcation between humans and the planet Earth.
Daloz (2000) calls it social responsibility or capacity to identify ones own
sense of self with the well-being of all life.
We believe that such a deeply inclusive perspective should be
adopted in nowadays education to help orientate it towards achieving
sustainable relations between person and environment and raising a
generation of thoughtful and responsible members of a global community
of life. We consider this task particularly pertinent to teacher education
and training since it is they who are entrusted with the care for children
and youth the future of our planet. Teachers should be encouraged to
refect on the meaning of inclusive and sustainable living and develop the
ability to relate these overarching conceptual, philosophical and ethical
issues to their everyday practices and experiences if we want them to
be able to communicate the idea of inclusion and sustainability to their
pupils and encourage the younger generation to adopt it as the guiding
motif of their life journeys. These considerations lie at the heart of our
research conducted with pre-service teachers at the frst year of their
professional university studies. The two following sections will briefy
outline the theoretical and conceptual framework of our study which was
aimed at engaging pres-service teachers in refexive exploration of their
experiences of interaction with nature to uncover the underlying frames
of reference and trace their orientation towards inclusion in or exclusion
from the social and natural world.
Transformative learning for facilitating inclusion in education
it is argued that contemporary education requires a new way of thinking
and understanding, which entails that people perceive themselves as
part of our common world and planetary family (OSullivan, 1999). In
effect, it is a call for inclusion that regards this phenomenon in its broader
socio-ecological and cosmological context. This appeal for inclusive
thinking and action calls for a radical transformation of current ways of
83
thinking, away from orientation to the money or market paradigm (Moore,
2005; Ryland, 2000) where money is considered the basic value while
life and its support system are regarded as resources for buying, selling
and profting from. Reason (2007) seconds this opinion by declaring that
contemporary crisis of sustainability, with its deteriorated relationship
between the inhabitants of the global community of life, is in fact a crisis of
the mind that requires a complete change of perspective from emphasis
on consumerism, individualism and rights to emphasis on citizenship,
care and responsibility.
Such transformation of the way of perceiving the world, thinking about
it and acting within it is what Mezirow calls transformation of peoples
frames of reference (Aalsburg Wiessner & Mezirow, 2000; Mezirow,
2000) personal paradigms through which people perceive and make
sense of the world, containing codes and categories that we use to interpret
our diverse experiences (Ahteenmaki-Pelkonen, 2002). Put differently,
frames of reference are complex webs of assumptions, expectations,
values and beliefs that act as a flter or screen through which we view
the world and ourselves within it (Cranton, 2000). Transformation refers
to the moment when individuals experience changes in their frames of
reference new codes and categories help them make sense of a much
wider range of experiences (Kitchenham, 2008; Ahteenmaki-Pelkonen,
2002; Mezirow, 2000). It thus follows that learning nowadays should
be focused on transformation of learners frames of reference towards
inclusion and responsible membership in the global community of life.
Central to the notion of a frame of reference and its transformation is
the concept of experience, which is gained through individuals interaction
with the environment (Webb, Metha, & Jordan, 2003). Pragmatist
philosophy regards experience as the source of knowledge construction.
According to Dewey, one of the leading pragmatists, experience is not
a fxed phenomenon, but a changing, fuent process (Burchell, 2010).
Likewise, knowledge is also regarded as emergent, and we arrive at it
by constant assessment, inquiry, questioning and doubt (Webb, Metha,
& Jordan, 2003). Hence, education is a process by which persons
construct personal meaning out of their experiences (Noddings, 1998;
Dewey, 1966). This constantly evolving nature of knowledge constructed
from experience resonates with the basic standpoint of transformative
learning theory that people interpret their experiences or try to uncover
their meanings by examining them through the prism of their frames of
reference in an attempt to reach the best tentative judgement (Mezirow,
2000). Mezirow (ibid.) underscores that the best tentative judgment (or
84
knowledge derived from interpretation of experience) is always temporary
and bound to change with acquisition of new experience.
Transformative theory views learning holistically, regarding it as a
process that involves whole person (Ahteenmaki-Pelkonen, 2002) stirs
our emotions and feelings (Moore, 2005; Taylor, 2000) and causes
holistic changes in how persons affectively experience and conceptually
systematise their experience of the world (Yorks & Kasl, 2006). The role
of holism in education and the idea of taking the learner as a whole
are likewise supported by Reason (2007) who argues that nowadays
we need a different kind of education that would integrate aesthetical,
emotional and spiritual dimensions with intellectual understanding.
Mezirow (2000) believes transformative learning is able to provide it. In
his view, transformative learning is a process through which we examine
our frames of reference critically and refectively to gain new insights for
interpreting our experience of the world as well as new impetus for acting
within it. Substantiation of new insights occurs through discourse about
the new perspectives that become open to the learners (Cranton, 2000).
It is an emotionally charged and frequently disturbing experience (Moore,
2005; Cranton, 2002; Taylor, 2000), which requires a particular kind of
learning environment that combines safety, challenge and capacity for
liberation (Dirkx, 1998). In such environment learners and teachers work
together to rid themselves of former limiting conceptions and construct
visions that are more meaningful and holistic; this enables them to
establish deeper and more meaningful connections with the surrounding
world (ibid.).
In this respect, Yorks and Kasl (2006) speak of the necessity to create
an emphatic feld (p. 52) that permits to develop emphatic relations
among the participants of the learning process. This way, it is possible to
promote identifcation with others and their ways of knowing as well as
learning together in mutually supportive relationships. The authors suggest
using stories as the basis for refection to enrich discourse and enhance
communication, overcome the barriers of difference and build a climate
of trust in the learning group (ibid.). Others (e.g. Hyland, 2009; Newton &
Goodman, 2009; Gay Wicks & Reason, 2009; Gustavsen, 2001) refer to
this process as opening of communicative space. Regardless of the term
we use, the message remains the same. Notably, by organising learning
in a holistic (emotionally charged, cooperative, open and inclusive)
way, we strive to help learners overcome exclusion and become more
open, inclusive and sensitive towards others, appreciate diversity and
personally experience mutual interrelatedness, interdependence and
interaction, thus developing more inclusive frames of reference.
8
Action research for exploration of participants frames of refe-
rence
One way to organise learning in such a holistic way is to engage
learners in educational action research (Davis & Morrow, 2010; Salite,
2008). Action research is a complex endeavour that is variously termed
a globally signifcant paradigm open for different methods, perspectives
and outlooks on the nature of knowledge and practice (Shostak, 2010);
a methodology for researching and sustaining change (Somekh, 2008);
an approach to inquiry (Brydon-Miller, Greenwood, & Maguire, 2003)
and generation of knowledge that permits to unite theory and practice
(Gustavsen, 2003) by revisioning our understanding of the world and
transforming practice within it (Reason, 1999). Bradbury argues that
action research is best described as an orientation towards generation
of knowledge that emerges in the context of practice and envisages
researchers work with people rather than on people (Bradbury Huang,
2010; Bradbury & Reason, 2003). It means that action research
is characterised by respect towards people, their knowledge and
experiences that they bring into the research process (Brydon-Miller,
Greenwood, & Maguire, 2003).
an action research paradigm is compatible with pragmatist philosophy
in that the latter concedes that learning is best achieved by doing, i.e.
engaging in meaningful action. Dewey (1966) argues that participation
in a joint activity is the best way to encourage learning and help learners
develop particular dispositions, in other words promote transformation
of their frames of reference. Dewey (ibid.) believes that ideas emerge
in action and to be implemented in further action. Participation in joint
activity provides learners with opportunities to become aware of and,
consequently, evaluate and potentially even transform their previously
taken-for-granted habits of mind that guide their actions (ibid.).
these accents of active participation and transformation are compatible with
such participative form of inquiry as cooperative inquiry (Reason, 1999), which
belongs to the action research family (Gay Wicks & Reason, 2009; Cassell &
Johnson, 2006; Bradbury & Reason, 2003). Reason (1999) considers cooperative
inquiry as a process where people with similar concerns work together to make
sense of their world and life, develop new and creative ways of looking at things,
as well as learn to act in order to change their situation for the better. Dewey (1966)
highlights that learning is based on cooperative or joint activity participation in
action that is personally signifcant and meaningful for all the persons involved.
Deweys views on the process of education and reasons conception of cooperative
inquiry underscore action and cooperation, support, immersion in own experience,
and gaining new personally meaningful insights through critical refection on it and
its discursive evaluation.
86
These aspects of cooperative, refective and discursive learning in
action research align with Mezirows (2000) theory of transformative
learning. Several authors suggest that one of the outcomes of action
research is transformation in the way participants view the world and
themselves in interaction with it (e.g. Goodnaugh, 2010; Tsafos, 2010;
Volk, 2009; Reason, 2007, 2006, 1999; Cassell & Johnson, 2006;
Pipere & Salite, 2006; Ballard, 2005; Price & Valli, 2005; Gravett, 2004;
Brydon-Miller, Greenwood, & Maguire, 2003; Chandler & Torbert, 2003).
In other words, they speak of learning from experience in cooperation
and of consequent changes in persons frames of reference. Such
transformations are mentioned among the outcomes of action research
even in cases when transformative learning or pragmatist philosophy
is not explicitly declared as the theoretical or philosophical basis of the
above-mentioned studies.
As stated above, cooperative inquiry is focused on generation of
knowledge through collective investigation of participants lived experience
in relationship with others (Bradbury & Reason, 2003). Reason (1999)
believes that in this process group members generate four different
types of knowledge based on four distinctive ways of knowing. It is what
he calls an extended epistemology (p. 211) or theory of how we know
things. These ways of knowing include (Reason, 2006, 1999; Yorks &
Kasl, 2006):
experiential knowing that appears in direct face-to-face encounter
with persons, places or things and is accessed through empathy
and resonance;
presentational knowing that grows out of experiential knowing and
is expressed through images in story, dance, sculpture, movement
etc.;
propositional knowing expressed in ideas, concepts, theories,
informative statements that follow the rules of logic and proof;
practical knowing or knowing how to do something that is expressed
in a skill or competence.
Reason (1999) explains that these ways of knowing are mutually
dependable and interactive. Notably, our knowing is primarily grounded
in our experience, expressed through stories we tell and images we
use, understood through ideas that make sense to us and manifested
in action in our life activity. By drawing on our propositional knowledge
and engaging in in-depth examination of our experience, we can develop
alternative theories critical of taken-for-granted assumptions and ways of
seeing the world (Reason, 2006). Thus, engaging with our experiential,
87
presentational, propositional and practical knowing, which other authors
have termed creation of informed personal theories of practice from
experience (Gravett, 2004, p. 263), holds a transformative potential. It
is especially relevant for pre-service teacher education aimed at helping
future professionals become facilitators of their pupils learning, capable
of engaging them in constant examination and evaluation of their personal
frames of reference and their orientation towards inclusion or exclusion.
By emphasising the holistic nature of (transformative) learning, Yorks
and Kasl (2006) argue that we cannot focus solely on the cognitive aspect
of learning and disregard or neglect feelings, emotions and knowledge
derived from them. In their opinion, the learning process should engage
a person as a whole in all the fullness of being as affective, intuitive,
thinking, physical and spiritual self. To achieve this, Yorks and Kasl (ibid.)
suggest explicitly addressing the so-called expressive ways of knowing
(p. 47) or the forms of expression that involve learners in imaginative
and intuitive processes. The authors conception of expressive ways
of knowing is based on Reasons (2006, 1999) extended epistemology
and, more specifcally, on presentational knowing. One cannot disregard
the fact that emotions, imagination and intuition are signifcant sources
of knowledge that need to be addressed when developing an inclusive
and ecological frame of reference. Nature and life in all their diversity
speak to us in various ways, and listening to their call, affective (intuitive,
emotional and feelings-based) understanding with them can become a
step towards forging deeply inclusive relations with life and its support
system on our planet (Reason, 2007).
Thus, it becomes clear that the action research paradigm holds a
very specifc view on the nature of knowledge and the process of its
generation, which differs considerably from the perspective embraced
by traditional positivist research. This distinction is succinctly captured
by Fisher and Phelps (2006):
action research is not about testing preconceived hypotheses or generalizing
about research fndings. It is about depicting the context, change processes,
resultant learning and theorizing of individuals or groups in a process of mutual
change and inquiry. (Fisher & Phelps, 2006: 155)
the way this process is depicted and communicated to others is also
important. Several scholars embrace the idea of portraying the processes
of gradual learning and discovery inherent in action research by using
metaphors since it permits to reveal the personal meaningfulness of the
action research process to its participants by means of bright imagery and
colour (Bradbury Huang, 2010; Fisher & Phelps, 2006). In his writings on
88
action research, Reason (2003) highlights the importance of developing
a talent for speaking differently and articulating what we do with new
metaphors rather than being caught in entrenched vocabularies (p. 106)
and affrms his belief in metaphor and artistic forms of expression as
sources of deep wisdom (2007). The metaphor of a journey is considered
particularly relevant for framing action research (Kelly, 2006; Brydon-
Miller at al., 2003; Leitch & Day, 2000; Reason, 1999) since it captures
the idea of taking small and cautious steps in a frequently unfamiliar and
unknown terrain, refectively exploring issues of pressing and personal
concern, either in a solitary meditative walk or accompanied by fellow
travellers.
these standpoints resonate with our deeply felt perception that
inquiry into research participants lived experiences is a personally
meaningful and emotionally moving learning experience that envisages
taking a pathway through the unknown, mapping previously uncharted
territories, tracking your gradual progress, recording accompanying
feelings and emotions and exploring new gradually emerging insights.
Our study is therefore framed as a potentially transformative educational
action research journey focused on leading pre-service teachers onto a
heretofore unfamiliar ground engaging in cooperative inquiry into their
personal experiences and encouraging them to draw on their multiple
ways of knowing to identify the orientation of their frames of reference to
inclusion in or exclusion from the social and natural world, community of
life and its support system.
research methodology
The refective educational action research journey depicted in the this
paper constitutes a part of a greater four-year odyssey future teachers
gaining their Bachelor degree in education and a pre-school and primary
school teachers qualifcation at Daugavpils University. The context of
the journey reported in the present paper is related to the implementation
of an action research based study course Environmental Pedagogy,
which is taken by all future pre-school and primary school teachers in the
frst year of their studies at Daugavpils University. In this action research
case the proposed quest of collective inquiry united 39 fellow travellers
four researchers (course teacher, her two postgraduate assistants
and a fellow researcher) and 36 frst year students (all of them female)
of the above-mentioned bachelor level programmes. The meta-aim of
the travel envisaged to take place during the acquisition of this action
research based study course is to help students create their personal
89
practical theories of environmental pedagogy, which would be based on
the insights gained from inquiry into personal experience and discourse
and guide them in their future pilgrimage along the road of pedagogical
activity.
Research activity, or the participants inquiry into their experiences and
underlying frames of reference, was integrated in the process of course
acquisition. The two learning groups (one being comprised of future
primary school teachers and the other comprised by future pre-school
teachers) met regularly with their professor and her two postgraduate
assistants during weekly lectures or seminars, held on alternating
weeks. The time between the lectures and seminars was conductive to
research with respect to the participants independent refections on their
exploration of new learning pathways through engagement in inquiry and
on the new insights that gradually opened to them.
The content of this action research based course is not fxed, but
emergent through the journey into refexivity on the research participants
experiences. Over the 20 years of study course implementation and its
gradual evolution, several intersecting pathways have been explored:
ecological values and ecological culture, the ecological dimension in
peoples attitudes, manifestations of ecophilia and ecophobia in students
own and others attitudes and behaviours towards own and other species.
This paper will focus on the research cycle of the autumn 2010 that
engaged the participants in journeying with each other in cooperative
inquiry into their various experiences of interaction with nature. We
will qualitatively analyse the data from students written refections that
followed oral discussions and attempt to uncover students underlying
frames of reference and determine their orientation towards inclusion
in or exclusion from the relationships and processes of the natural and
social world as constituent parts of the joint community of life and its
support system.
the described research activity was considered cooperative inquiry because
the action research process that participants engaged in meets the criteria derived
from reasons description of the underlying principles of action research in general
and cooperative inquiry in particular (Reason 2006, 1999; Bradbury & Reason,
2003), as depicted in Table 1.
90
Table 1. Criteria for applying the term cooperative inquiry to this
study
principles of action research and
cooperative inquiry
Corresponding aspects of the action
research based study course
participants have similar concerns gaining new insights on persons relation and
interaction with the social and natural world
research is grounded in partici-
pants lived experience, helps them
understand and make sense of it
experiences of different ways of interaction
with nature
research is developed in
partnership
course content is not pre-determined
but emerges naturally from participants
refections on their experiences
research addresses signifcant
problems
the impending ecological crisis caused by
the unsustainability of relationship between
person and nature
research is focused on working with
people rather than simply studying
them
helping students become aware of their
experience-based beliefs and assumptions
that constitute their frames of reference and
assisting them in gaining new insights for their
personal practical theories of environmental
pedagogy
research develops new creative
ways of seeing/theorising the world
potential for changes in research participants
frames of reference
research leaves infrastructure in
its wake and reveals new ways of
doing things better
new insights for organisation of the study
course and participants personal practical
theories to be implemented in their future
pedagogical career
The students refections on their interaction with nature were
facilitated by the researchers who performed the role of travel guides and
suggested the following point of departure (a question for consideration
and dialogical refection along the pathway of inquiry): in what way/
what language do I interact with nature? The pre-service teachers who
participated in the study embraced this idea and refected on this question
in two consecutive ways: (1) by flling in an expert evaluation sheet
individually (frst communication phase or the frst solitary, meditative walk
across a previously unexplored terrain) and, after a weeks refection, in
pairs (second communication phase or returning to the site accompanied
by a fellow traveller), (2) created brief stories that recounted their lived
experiences of interaction with the environment, frst individually and
after a weeks refection in pairs (creating a travel story).
The use of story, for inquiry into the research participants experiences
of interaction with nature and the language used in this process, was
selected because it draws on what is known as extended epistemology
91
(Reason, 2006, 1999; Yorks & Kasl, 2006) or multiple ways of knowing
with particular emphasis on presentational or expressive ways of
knowing. As stated in the previous section of the paper, creating and
refecting on stories about our lived experiences permits to draw on
emotions, imagination and intuition as signifcant sources of knowledge
(Bradbury & Reason, 2006), develop alternative theories critical of taken-
for-granted assumptions and ways of seeing the world (Reason, 2006),
i.e. transform our frames of reference.
the use of expert evaluation sheet envisages that the participants at
frst list ten examples or manifestations of their interaction with nature
and the kind of language used for it. Then they compare every item with
each of the others and decide which they consider the most important
one. The activity, frst done individually and then, after a weeks refection
on the obtained results, in pairs, permits to get a picture of the ways
of persons interaction with nature that are personally meaningful to
research participants. It allows for expression of immediate reactions
(experiences that frst came to mind) to the suggested topic and for
refnement and deepening of the perspective through dialogical refection
and pair discussions. The obtained data were used for analysis of the
nuances in the research participants underlying frames of reference and
their orientation towards inclusion in or exclusion from the natural and
social world.
the obtained research data from expert evaluation sheets and jointly
created stories were analysed qualitatively. The following procedures
were observed. The submitted written forms and story texts were frst
read for general comprehension to determine their general orientation
and look for common patterns. It was discovered that the research
participants generally describe their experiences of interaction with
nature by focusing on what they like about it. Thus, we began our analysis
by tracing this pattern and proceeded to look for the content units that
refect the most signifcant in what the research participants like in their
interaction with nature. Gradually we arrived at three broad themes
(frames of reference) that refect the research participants experience of
interaction with nature. In order to enhance the credibility of the obtained
fndings, the analysis was performed in two stages, separately for each
communication phase. Having established the three main frames in the
data from the frst communication phase (frst analysing the statements
from expert evaluation sheets and then the pre-service teachers stories),
we repeated the procedure with the data from the second communication
phase and compared the obtained results, determining if the tendencies
observed in the frst phase are repeated in the second. This allowed for
92
determining the key focus and content of each frame of reference.
the following section of the paper presents the insights gained from
the analysis of research data. Special emphasis is laid on the frames of
reference that appear in students experience-based refections on their
interaction with nature, and the orientation of these frames of reference
towards inclusion in or exclusion from the community of life and its
support system.
Findings from the research journey
In this section, we will present three typical frames identifed in
research participants refections to illustrate the shared aspects in their
experiences, which are nevertheless marked by unique nuances (Box
1, 2 and 3). The sentences in italics illustrate direct quotes from the
research participants written refections.
Box 1. Natural-social context extensive frame of reference
First communication phase
Evaluation of experiences seeking for the shared. Direct emotional
experiences related to interaction with (a) natural objects, (b) natural
phenomena.
I like sitting on the beach and listening to the murmur of the sea.
I like listening to the birds singing.
Identifcation of positive associations (individually differing or diverse)
based on emotions and also related to beliefs and feelings.
Its an unforgettable feeling to walk barefoot in a meadow early in
the morning.
We both like sunset, probably because we are both romantic
persons and it is very close to our heart.
Identifcation of the shared emotional, belief- and feeling-related expe-
riences (focused on children, family, signifcant others, experienced
feelings of love).
Children are the most important to us: their smiles and laughter.
They shake our souls, they are our future and bring a warm feeling
to our hearts.
We understand that love is something we both really need.
Second communication phase
Identifcation of positive associations (individually differing or diverse)
based on emotions and also related to beliefs and feelings.
I like springtime, when everything around wakes up.
I like walking on yellow leaves that lie under my feet in autumn.
93
Identifcation of the shared elements by evaluating the emotional, belief-
and feeling-related experiences (focused on children, family, signifcant
others, experienced feelings of love).
My soul sings when I hear childrens laughter and see their smiles.
We both need to have people around who would love us: relatives,
friends, beloved.
The frst frame illustrates that, when examining their experiences
of interaction with nature, the pre-service teachers frst evaluate their
experiences of interaction with nature and natural phenomena, which
evoke positive associations that include emotions, beliefs and feelings.
These, by context extension, lead to expressions of the awareness of
the research participants ties and relationships with people (children,
family, loved ones) and their manifestation in highest human feeling of
love. Such emotional reactions associated with feelings and beliefs that
characterise the research participants social relationships were retained
and re-emphasised in the second communication phase.
Box 2. Inclusion oriented frame of reference
First communication phase
Evaluation of experiences seeking for the shared. Direct emotional
experiences related to (a) seasonal natural phenomena, (b) persons
inclusion or presence in the seasonal natural phenomena
I like it when snowfakes melt in my palm.
I admire the patterns of frost on the windowpanes.
Identifcation of the interconnectedness of emotions and feelings in
experience
Rays of sunshine trying to break through the clouds bring me joy.
I am worried if I see a frog jumping across the road, it is so
unprotected.
Focus of emotions and feelings persons inclusion in the natural
seasonal cycles.
We love to pick summer fowers in the meadows.
We like to observe little birds learning to fy and the buds shooting
out because nothing is more beautiful than watching the nature
grow.
Second communication phase
Identifcation of the experiences of interaction with nature by focusing on
the rare, unusual phenomena, grounded in belief that the habitual does
not excite and in the wish to encounter the unusual more frequently
We both like rainbows.
I like a beautiful starry night.
94
Identifcation of the interconnectedness of emotions, beliefs and feelings
in experience
We watch with joy how the ants work or the small birds learn to fy.
We take from nature what it gives us and use it as we can.
The thing most important for us is that we can observe that part of
nature, which grows and develops.
Focus of emotions, beliefs and feelings the rare, special natural
phenomena.
We both like a starry night, there are so many stars that we want to
count them. We can study stars for several hours.
We both like to watch raindrops falling bravely on the surface of a
lake, a river...
The second frame illustrates that, when exploring their experiences
of interaction with nature, the pre-service teachers frst took the road
leading to the evaluation of their direct experiences of encounter with
seasonal natural phenomena and their personal presence in them. In
other words, the research participants focus on their personal inclusion
in the cycles of seasonal change in nature. In the second communication
phase, after a weeks refection, the pre-service teachers again choose
the same pathway that nevertheless takes an unexpected turn and leads
them in a new direction. Notably, the pre-service teachers begin with
examining their sensory experiences in nature, yet this time the object of
their focus is exceptional and rare phenomena. This orientation of inquiry
is determined by the research participants belief that what is typical does
not excite, but they expect to experience excitement from encounter with
the unusual in nature.
Box 3. Self-exploration oriented frame of reference
First communication phase
Evaluation of experiences seeking for the shared. Direct emotional
experiences related to (a) natural objects, (b) natural phenomena
I like to wait for the frst snow in autumn and for the frst snowdrops
in spring.
I like to lie in the grass and watch the skies.
Focus of emotions realisation that experiences of interaction with
nature facilitate self-understanding (focus on ones inner world).
We like peace, and the rustle of running water gives us peace and
helps to understand ourselves.
We both agree that it is beautiful to expect something from nature
and really come to experience it. Something that not only brings the
nature alive, but enlivens our senses and soul within.
9
Second communication phase
Mutuality and complementarity of natural objects and phenomena in
emotional sensory experience
I like the smell of freshly-mown grass.
For greater joy we like the jumping frogs which are happy that the
rain has ended.
Realisation that being in nature and experiencing its infuence excites
feelings
Changes in nature affect us, too, so our concern about it is justifed.
We are worried about natural catastrophes, deforestation, killing of
animals. We would like to help to renew the natural resources as
much as we can.
We really like to walk along the seaside. In our opinion, it is very
romantic and exciting to be there, and watching water stirs up
wonderful feelings.
The third frame illustrates that, when journeying in exploration of
their experiences of interaction with nature, the pre-service teachers
frst evaluate their direct emotional experiences, which insofar makes
the present frame similar to the frst one. Yet the crucial difference
between the two is that in this case the research participants emotions
are directed towards realisation that direct contact with nature and
being in nature helps to understand oneself and ones inner world and
gain self-knowledge. Nature thus becomes a catalyst that urges one to
access ones inner world as well as make sense of it. The experience of
being in nature facilitates creation of personally meaningful knowledge
about oneself. The second communication phase highlights the research
participants awareness of the mutuality and complementarity of natural
objects, processes and phenomena. At this stage, the pre-service
teachers express their belief that nature-related experiences are strongly
related to feelings excited by ones presence in nature.

Discussion and conclusions
in the Handbook of Action Research, Reason & Bradbury (2001, as
cited in Chandler & Torbert, 2003) argue that action research starts from
everyday experience and is concerned with the development of living
knowledge. The present study was therefore focused on engaging pre-
service teachers in a refective journey focused on exploration of their
experiences of interaction with nature because, as Reason (2003)
argues, experiential encounter with the world is the ground of our being
and knowing. The fndings indicate that research participants ground their
96
discourse on this issue in many ways of knowing, particularly experiential
knowing that appears in direct encounter and presentational knowing
that grows out of experiential knowing and is expressed through images
in stories (Reason, 2006; 1999; Yorks & Kasl, 2006). By using vivid
images of natural phenomena and objects, pre-service teachers inquired
into their experience and underlying frames of reference that reveal their
relationships with nature.
The research participants refections on their experiences of
interaction with nature reveal that, in their frames of reference, inclusion
in the natural world is inseparable from inclusion in the social world,
which is a part of the former. One leads to and nurtures the other. We
can thus conclude that the pre-service teachers who joined the proposed
action research journey acknowledge the interrelation of the human
(social) and natural worlds, the mutuality and interdependence of their
participants. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that in the three identifed
frames of reference and research participants refections on experience
of interaction with nature no orientation to exclusion has been detected.
this leads us to a tentative conclusion that the frames of reference of the
pre-service teachers involved in the present study are oriented to valuing
and sustaining inclusive relationships with the surrounding community of
life.
Journeying with each other in cooperative inquiry was focused on
exploration of pre-service teachers experiences of encounter with
nature in order to access their deeper frames of reference with their
characteristic nuances, which permit to think of them as being oriented
towards inclusion in the activities and processes of the social and natural
world. We believe that this pathway deserves to be explored even more
thoroughly, for instance, by conducting a deeper and more thorough
analysis of the data from research participants stories about the ways
of their interaction with nature. In particular, the stories generated by the
pre-service teachers from refections on their lived experience could be
examined to uncover the use of poetic expression a particular level of
refection about the individuals experience where it is described as if
from within them, with an emphasis on words that reveal the freshness
of experience in a way that is authentic to the individual (Burchell, 2010).
the story that contains poetic expression of experience permits to retain
a long-term connection with it and reveals the experience as a holistic
phenomenon with its cognitive, imaginative and feelings dimension
(ibid.). This leads to generation of personally signifcant insights and
opens new possibilities for action that were previously hidden from
access.
97
In the educational action research cycles reported in this paper, it
was considered crucial to frame the action research journey in an I/thou
mode (Ashman & Lawler, 2008; Rofrano, 2007; DeLue, 2006; Buber,
2002) in an open communicative space (Hyland, 2009; Newton &
Goodman, 2009; Gay Wicks & Reason, 2009; Gustavsen, 2001) an
open, democratic dialogue among equal peers with minimum teachers
interference or pressure. We argue that engaging in such a process has
a potential to enhance I/thou attitude towards the surrounding human
and more than human world.
Exploration of the surfacing frames of reference that were identifed in
pre-service teachers refections on their experiences of interaction with
nature indicates that the participants recognise the interrelatedness of
emotions, feelings, attitudes and beliefs towards the natural and social
world. Pooley and OConnor (2000) admit that environmental attitudes,
which have the power to infuence environmental behaviour, can have a
cognitive (beliefs) as well as affective (emotions and feelings) basis. The
authors of the above-mentioned study advocate a synergetic interrelation
between attitudes, emotions, feelings and beliefs, to conclude that they
all need to be explicitly addressed in environmental education process
(ibid.). Leitch and Day (2000) underscore the role of emotions in refection
as one of the key components of educational action research, having
the potential to develop meaningful self-refexive processes across
the teaching profession. Transformative learning, which is focused on
critical exploration and, potentially, transformation of learners frames
of reference, views learning holistically and involves learners as whole
persons by arousing their emotions and feelings and bringing about
holistic changes in how learners affectively experience and conceptually
systematise their experiences of the world (Yorks & Kasl, 2006; Moore,
2005; Ahteenmaki-Pelkonen, 2002; Taylor, 2000). It is recognised that
emotions are part of conscious experience, related to sensory experience
and are stirred by it (Reisenzein & Drin, 2009). This idea was identifed
in the research participants frames of reference. Reisenzein and Drin
(ibid.) also state that emotional experience is always object-directed.
the object-directedness of emotions was a typical characteristic in the
research participants frames of reference in the present study, be they
oriented towards natural objects or phenomena or the loved ones (natural-
social context extensive frame of reference), persons inclusion in the
natural seasonal cycles (inclusion oriented frame of reference), or self
in nature and accompanying self-examination process (self-exploration
oriented frame of reference).
98
We therefore argue that holism, in taking the learner as a whole (a
social, emotional, cognitive and physical being) as the underlying principle
of learning in educational action research, fosters full engagement
in cooperative inquiry and examination of ones underlying frames of
reference and their orientation towards inclusion or exclusion. Becoming
aware of ones assumptions in educational action research is the frst
step towards transformation of pre-service teachers frames of reference
and ensuing life activity towards inclusion, which may be regarded as a
precondition for sustainable fourishing of individuals, communities and
the planet. In other words, it calls for widening of our experience to see
ourselves as a part of a community of all beings (Berry, 1999, as cited
in Reason, 2003).
the action research journey depicted in this paper reveals how
metaphor can be used as a powerful vehicle for framing refective
processes of inquiry inherent in action research. We believe that
embracing the metaphor of a journey as the guiding motif of action
research renders it more personally meaningful both for the persons
involved in the process of inquiry and for the readers of the research
report. The present paper may be considered a sample instrument
that can be used for encouraging pre-service teachers refections on
their lived experiences of interaction with nature, and through this for
discovery and exploration of research participants frames of reference
and their orientation towards exclusion or inclusion in the natural and
through it in the social world. We strongly believe that an action
research paradigm (Shostak, 2010; Bradbury & Reason, 2003; Leitch
& Day, 2000) emphasises not so much the product of research as an
unfolding research journey along a winding path of inquiry (Fisher &
Phelps, 2006) developing a disposition towards inquiry, an inquiring
approach to life or an inquiring mindset (Kinsler, 2010; Gay Wicks &
Reason, 2009; Reason, 2006; Bradbury & Reason, 2003; Chandler &
Torbert, 2003), engagement in constant critical refection on research
participants lived experiences (Leitch & Day, 2000), acquiring insights
and searching for the ecological wisdom (Salte, Gedne, & Gedne,
2009), through uncovering and, consequently, taking steps towards
transforming teachers frames of reference towards a more inclusive
perspective.
acknowledgement
this work has been supported by the european Social Fund within
the project Support for the implementation of doctoral studies at
Daugavpils university Agreement Nr. 2009/0140/1DP/1.1.2.1.2/09/
IPA/VAA/015
99
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103
professional development priorities of principals
educational establishments
olga arhipova
Daugavpils University, Latvia
Abstract. The evolving nature of school environment has placed
new demands on educational leaders. Where knowledge of school
management, fnance, legal issues and state mandates was once the
primary focus for the preparation of school leaders, education reform has
created an urgent need for a strong emphasis on the development of
instructional leadership skills to promote good teaching and high level
learning. Educational leaders must recognise and assume a shared
responsibility not only for their students intellectual and educational
development, but also for their personal, social, emotional and physical
development. The increasing diversity of school communities places a
premium on school leaders that create a vision of success for all students
and use their skills in communication, collaboration and community
building to ensure that the vision becomes a reality.
Key words: development programmes, module, school leadership,
professional development, principals.
Introduction
todays school environments have become more complex and
diverse where all children are expected to learn and where high learning
standards set the vision of educational success for all students. In a
rapidly changing and more technologically oriented society, students will
need to acquire the knowledge and skills that will help them achieve
success in school and in life.
When we talk about a changing environment for the principals the
danger is that this may sound too abstract. Briefy, as we see the main
shift towards new principalship in Europe, it basically means that the
principals will move from solely being managers towards becoming more
of educational leaders. The term manager is practically synonymous
to administrator, although manager implies having decision-making
authority. The emphasis lies on administrative and routine tasks, such
as distributing resources, enforcing rules, etc.
The concept of a leader concentrates on:
Having a strategic vision about the direction the school should
go.
104
Having the ability to share the vision in such a way that others in
the school are actively pursuing this strategic vision.
the principal function of leadership is shaping and directing the
organisations culture. The leader must have insight in the ways in which
the culture of the school can hinder the fulflment of the vision and mission,
and which skills are needed to make the desired changes happen.
Effective leadership is at the core of every successful organisation.
effective leaders collaboratively create a vision and establish a climate
for people to reach their highest level of achievement. They communicate
the vision and direct all actions toward achieving the vision. They mobilise
resources and promote collaborative activities among partners to achieve
the organisations goals. Effective leaders recognise their own strengths
and attract competent people to enhance the organisations capabilities.
they cultivate and focus the strengths of colleagues to achieve the
shared vision. they welcome change as an opportunity for growth rather
than an obstacle to be overcome, and they lead people through the
uncertainty of a changing society. Effective leaders seek counsel and
advice to learn from the knowledge and experiences of others while they
freely offer their expertise to those who seek it. High quality leadership
is widely acknowledged to be one of the most important requirements
for successful schools (Bush & Jackson 2002). However, much less is
known about what forms of leadership development produce enhanced
leadership that leads to school improvement.
The contemporary context
Crow (2001) states that the nature of work is changing signifcantly
in post-industrial society and that this change affects the role of the
headteacher:
Work in the 21st century emphasises complexity rather than routi-
nisation. The dynamic nature of organisations, such as schools, where
numerous individuals without close supervision make multiple decisions
working directly with children, requires a different kind of leader. The
acknowledgment of the changing demographics of schools, the explo-
sion of technology, and the rapid growth and change in knowledge
require individuals who can live with ambiguity, work fexibly, encourage
creativity, and handle complexity (p. 2).
Neill and Lewis (1997) contend that leadership in the post-modern or
post-information age is characterised by lifelong learning, learning to
learn and just-in-time learning. Their report shows the impact of culture,
philosophical approaches, hierarchical structures and, particularly,
technology, on leadership development.
10
Taylor et al, (2002) argue that the global changes now occurring
demand approaches to leadership education that are profoundly different
from those that have served well in the past (p.366). They contend (p.353)
that these changes require reversing the six traditional priorities:
from theory to practice
from parts to systems
from states and roles to processes
from knowledge to learning
from individual action to partnerships
from detached analysis to refexive understanding
The content of school leadership development programmes
the content of school leadership development programmes has
considerable similarities in different countries, leading to a hypothesis
that there is an international curriculum for school leadership preparation
(Bush & Jackson, 2002, pp. 420421). They identify the following com-
mon elements:
leadership, including vision, mission and transformational leader-
ship
learning and teaching, or instructional leadership
human resource management and professional development
fnancial management
management of external relations (Bush & Jackson, 2002, p.
421).
Murphy and Schwarz (2000) provide a wide-ranging review of
the american principalship within a context of a scarcity of capable
106
educational leaders and claim that school systems must reinvent the
principalship (p. 1) to defne the role in terms of leadership for student
learning:
instructional leadership: strengthening teaching and learning
community leadership: big-picture awareness of the schools role
in society
visionary leadership: energy, commitment, entrepreneurial spirit,
values and conviction that children will learn at high levels (p. 4)
Mestry & Grobler (2002, p. 34) claim that there is an urgent need
to train and develop principals in four main components:
management of the curriculum
management of organisational structures
management of educators
management of fnancial and physical resources
Based on their earlier review of the leadership literature, Bush
and Glover (2003) argue that training should include elements of
both management and leadership. The reviewed literature offers no
consistency in the attention to these themes. Some references incorporate
both management and leadership themes, whilst others focus on only
one. The research literature offers little that explores the relationship
between management and leadership and its signifcance for leadership
development provision.
lessons from beyond education
there is a large body of material on leadership development in
other sectors and those pieces selected for inclusion in this report are
intended to be illustrative rather than defnitive. Day (2001, p. 582)
defnes leadership development as expanding the collective capacity
of organizational members to engage effectively in leadership roles
and processes. He adds that leadership development means capacity
building: expanded capacity provides for better individual and collective
adaptability across a wide range of situations. A leadership development
approach is oriented towards building capacity in anticipation of
unforeseen challenges (p. 582).
The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD) produced a wide ranging review of leadership development in the
public sector (2001), including chapters on the UK, the USA, Germany,
Sweden, Norway and Mexico. It points to seven general trends across
its member countries:
developing systematic strategies for leadership development
setting up new institutions for leadership development this
point is illustrated by reference to Swedens national Council for
107
Quality and Development. Englands National College for School
Leadership (NCSL) also fts this trend
linking existing management training to leadership development
defning a competence profle for future leaders this is consistent
with the approach taken by the english national Standards for
school leadership and the National Professional Qualifcation for
Headship (NPQH)
identifying and selecting potential leaders
encouraging mentoring and training
ensuring sustainable leadership development this places emp-
hasis on managers time being utilised to develop other leaders, an
approach consistent with NCSLs distributed leadership models.
these seven trends resonate strongly with patterns of leadership
development within education, notably in England.
Theoretical background
Emerging concepts. Personalised and contextualised learning
Drawing on empirical research into middle leadership development in
North Carolina, Pettitt (1999) argues that training and learning should be
situated in the context and experiences of the midlevel managerno
one can simply train for the position of leadership he or she must do
the job to know the job (p. 57). He adds that training should be situated
in the context and experiences of the leader and be problem-solving in
nature. He advocates mentoring, action-learning projects and reality-
based case methods as appropriate training formats for middle level
leaders.
model of leadership effectiveness
108
Career-long learning
Mole (2000) provides a useful distinction between training, education
and development in his discussion of management development:
the focus of training is the employees present job
the focus of education is the employees future job
the focus of development is the organisation. Development
programmes prepare individuals to move in the new directions
that organizational change may require. (p. 22)
James and Whiting (1998) address the neglected subject of leadership
development for deputy headteachers. Following a survey of all 366
deputy headteachers in two LEAs, one in England and one in Wales,
they conclude that:
There [is] a need for all deputy headteachers to receive professional
career guidance such as mentoring and involving, where appropriate,
those with comparative experience and frameworks for networking.
(p. 361)
Based on substantial empirical research, this paper provides
powerful underpinning for nCSls decision to develop the established
Leaders programme for deputy headteachers, as part of the leadership
development opportunities provided across fve stages of leadership
from emergent to experienced consultant leaders.
Distributed leadership learning
Much of the literature on leadership development examines the work
and needs of headteachers and principals. This section focuses on
development for those working as middle level, subject or teacher leaders.
Lashway (2002) stresses the importance of distributed leadership and
points to changes in the national Council for accreditation of teacher
Education (NCATE) standards in the United States. He advocates the
following approaches to leadership development:
cohort programmes where people work with peers
case studies and problem-based learning
extended internships (p. 4).
Lambert (1998) includes distributed leadership, or participation, as
one of fve critical features of a successful school:
broad-based, skilful participation in the work of leadership
inquiry-based use of information to inform shared decisions and
practice
roles and responsibilities that refect broad involvement and
collaboration
109
refective practice/innovation as the norm
high student achievement (pp. 1617)
The inclusion of inquiry and refection are distinctive features of
Lamberts approach. Renewal processes include refection, dialogue,
question posing, inquiry (including use of data), construction of new
meaning and knowledge, and action (p. 18). Rutherford (1999) outlines
the development of a course arranged jointly with the teacher training
Agency and Birmingham LEA to meet the defned needs of subject
leaders. It is based on the English National Standards with an audit-plan-
do-review approach that encourages the students to become aware of
their personal development needs. The programme evolved in response
to these articulated needs.
Leask and Terrell (1997) surveyed the development and work of middle
managers, and argue that middle level leadership should be developed
through staff coaching and mentoring, consultancy, observation and
feedback.
Crowther and Olsen (1997), from an Australian perspective, broaden
the notion of leadership beyond those with formal leadership positions.
they use the concept of lead teachers who constitute a new cadre of
professional educators (p. 7). These teacher leaders operate in three
ways:
mentoring and coaching other teachers
professional development and review of school practice
school-level decision-making
Stoll (2001) sees teacher leadership as part of a wider process of
enhancing capacity in schools. Frost and Durrant (2002) argue for a
greater focus on teacher leadership for four reasons:
school improvement
school effectiveness
improvement of teacher morale and retention
democratic values.
they emphasise that the focus of teacher leadership is learning and that
both external and internal support are required to aid their development.
In particular, senior managers have a crucial role to play as mentors of
teachers who are prepared to exercise leadership (p. 15).
Gronn (2000) links leadership to the fow of infuence in schools and
argues that distributed leadership is an idea whose time has come
(p. 333). He points to the need for a revised set of role expectations
among future cohorts of aspiring educational leaders but is not specifc
about their development needs.
110
leadership for learning
a survey of the training needs of 436 middle leaders shows that eight
of the top 10 items relate to teaching and learning:
taking action to address problems in teaching quality and
competence
monitoring and evaluating the work of all staff teaching the
subject
monitoring and evaluating the progress of all pupils
taking action to address the problems in pupils progress
long-term planning for the development of the subject
promoting effective teaching of the subject
developing assessment, recording and reporting policies and
practice
ongoing development of own teaching methodologies.
Watkins et al (2002, p. 6) claim that leaders of learning are likely to:
make learning a visible, central element
talk publicly about learning
promote inquiry into learning
support learning exchanges and forums
ensure fuid organisation
reward and support staff learning
ask of every action and every policy, what do we learn from
this?
encourage others to do the above.
The school as a learning organisation
Within education there is an emerging emphasis on the learning
organisation (Senge & McLagan, 1993). Leadership development is
increasingly related to the promotion of collaborative approaches to
organisations within which distributed leadership is the dominant mode
of professional organisation (Hannay & Ross, 1999). The impact of this
on individual, group and whole-school leaders is that their development
opportunities are increasingly linked to leadership for learning, through
transformational philosophies (Crowther & Olson, 1997).
Harris (1999) examines the problem of ineffective departments in
schools and attributes them, in part, to weak leadership and lack of vision.
She claims that effective leadership essentially involves guiding and
supporting staff, particularly those who are having diffculties (p. 21).
Davies (1996) argues that school improvement depends on a different
approach to leadership that involves coaching rather than control, and
111
stands for encouraging the dispersal of leadership and management
widely within the organisation. Bierema (1997, p. 38) concludes that
learning organizations have the advantage of turning their learning upon
themselves in an effort to improve their process and structure.
Hopkins et al (2000, 1997) argue that school leadership and therefore
leadership development needs to be differentiated to take account of the
different stages of the school improvement journey.
methods and approaches
Thomson et al (2001, p. 218) draw on large-scale empirical research
with managers and companies beyond education to rank nine leadership
development methods on the basis of their perceived effectiveness:
1. Time off for courses
2. External courses
3. On-the-job training
4. In-house training
5. Coaching managers
6. Use of consultants
7. Formal induction
8. Mentoring
9. Job rotation
Green (2001) stresses the importance of leadership rather than
management and refers to Rajans (1996) study of leadership in 500
organisations beyond education. This shows fve development modes
ranked according to how valuable they were perceived to be:
1. Coaching and mentoring
2. Sideways moves
3. Challenging assignments that stretched their capability
4. Networking with peers
5. Formal training
Green (2001, pp. 45) considers the implications of these fndings
for school leadership: there are lessons from this study for those of us
working in schools and with school leaders, not least the low ranking
of formal training. We should be considering strategies to increase
opportunities for the top four at all levels: within and between schools,
regionally and nationally.
112
Matrix of Professional Profle for School Principals
Strategic
manage-
ment
Educational
management
personnel
manage-
ment
Communica-
tion manage-
ment
Financial
manage-
ment
Facility man-
agement
Knowledge
1. National
develop-
ments
2. Petrs-
pectives
of develop-
ment of
region and
community
3. Legisla-
tion
4. Market of
educational
services
1. Basic
knowledge
about educa-
tion including
leadership
styles
2. Most
important
tendencies of
the (national)
education
system
3. Knowledge
and trends in
science and
education
4. Real needs
of students
1. Peda-
gogy and
psychology
of adults
2. Legisla-
tion and ad-
ministration
concerning
personnel
manage-
ment
3. Schooling
techniques
and meth-
odology
4. Labour
market
5. Motiva-
tion theory
1. Theories of
communica-
tion, culture
and conficts
2. Public rela-
tions
3. Other cul-
tures, interna-
tional educa-
tional systems
and projects
4. Formal gov-
ernmental and
public organi-
sations
5. Basic level
of english as
a useful global
language
1. Basic
level of
fnancial
economic
and admin-
istrative
knowledge
2. Knowl-
edge about
existing
and possi-
ble fnancial
recourses
3. Financial
legislation
4. Planning
and control
systems
1. Legislation
on facility and
safety
2. Regional
resources,
and services
3. Knowledge
about the
schools real
needs and
perspectives
4. Product
information
Skills
1. Create a
vision with
perspec-
tives
2. Defne
priorities
3. Make
prognoses
4. Make a
planning
1. Transform
general goals
into concrete
objectives
and plans
2. Use qual-
ity cycles of
planning and
control
3. Analyse
problems
4. Decision
making
1. Monitor-
ing activities
of personnel
2. Select
personnel
3. Organise
schooling
for person-
nel
4. Del-
egate and
coordinate
responsibili-
ties
5. Use legis-
lation
1. Use mod-
ern commu-
nication tech-
nologies
2. Public
speaking
3. Commu-
nicate with
parents and
children
4. Create suc-
cess factors
5. Encourage
and inspire
people
1. Plan
and control
budget
2. Using
computer
and soft-
ware
3. Bench-
marking
1. Recognise
and use op-
portunities
2. Create and
use a plan-
ning and con-
trol system
and iCt
3. Coordinate,
delegate and
organise help
or assistance
4. Judge the
quality and
safety of the
inventory
113
Professional attitude
1. Analys-
ing attitude
2. Creativity
3. Refec-
tive thinking
1. Ambition
2. Willpower
3. Open
mindedness
4. Optimism
1. Leader-
ship quali-
ties and
authority
2. Wanting
to be a team
player
3. Emotional
intelligence
4. Respect
1. Mobility
2. Tolerance
3. Diplomacy
4. Learning
attitude
1. Entrepre-
neurship
2. Decency
3. Account-
ability
4. Being
economic,
prudent
and calcu-
lating
5. Convinc-
ing
1. Initiative
2. Not being
wasteful
3. Accuracy
4. Responsi-
bility
Matrix was redesigned as result of a discussion with school principals in Latvia.
Work-based learning
The Scottish Qualifcation for Headship (SQH) involves a collabora-
tion between universities and partner-employing authorities in providing
a programme that combines academic coursework with work-based
learning demonstrated via a portfolio and supported by a colleague
(usually the head) within the participants school. Based on a survey of
32 local authorities and interviews with local co-coordinators, Murphy
et al (2002) report that the SQH was deemed successful in terms of its
impact on professional learning and on schools. More than 80% of those
participating in the survey agreed or strongly agreed that this work-based
programme had moved management and leadership forward and that
they could see an impact on schools.
Internships are often linked with mentoring programmes (Bush &
Chew, 1999) and involve the aspiring leaders spending time in the
mentors school. Crow (2001) provides a detailed review of the litera-
ture on internships and shows that they can differ across a range of
dimensions, including duration, characteristics of the host school and
balance of outside and inside infuences. He stresses the importance
of the socialisation process and states that the mentor generally has
a strong infuence. Other leaders and teachers may also help with this
process. A major variable in the success of internships is the status
accorded to the mentee. Empowerment increases both their learning
and socialisation.
needs analysis and diagnostics
Males (2001) suggests that to be better prepared than others
headteachers require the following nine skills:
114
putting vision into words
ensuring that all people with an interest in the school are involved
in the school mission
working with under-performing teachers
using student performance data to plan the curriculum
conducting a meeting
forming and working with teams
assuming responsibility for school management
organising school administration
using information technology and other tools in the management
process
Gunraj and Rutherford (1999) report on a small-scale research
with those attending a Headteachers Leadership and Management
Programme (HEADLAMP) run jointly for new headteachers by the
National Association of Headteachers (NAHT) and the University of
Birmingham. Most participants took part in a needs analysis but this
aspect received a mixed response for two reasons:
Headteachers needs are constantly changing as they respond to
new challenges within their schools (p. 149).
There are problems in establishing whose needs (headteacher,
chair of governors, LEA offcer, etc) should be met.
this review suggests that there is only limited data on needs analysis
informing professional development. The argument for basing leadership
development on needs analysis seems powerful but leaves unresolved
the issue of whose needs are to be met and at which point in the career
trajectory. The literature does not explore the variable nature of the
needs analysis process itself, or its relative effectiveness in supporting
the leadership development of school leaders.
360-degree feedback is a diagnostic process that has become popular
in leadership development programmes. 360-degree feedback draws on
the views of colleagues about the performance and development needs
of leaders.
Alimo-Metcalfe (1998), drawing on extensive empirical research,
states that 360-degree feedback promotes self-awareness through a
more accurate insight into ones own leadership behaviour related to
ones performance and potential (p. 37).
action learning
McGill and Beaty (1995) provide an extended and detailed guide
to action learning, based on practice beyond education. This provides
11
for continuous learning and refection by a set of people using an
experiential learning cycle. These authors show how action learning
can contribute to management development through the development of
the individual manager and the organisation as a whole (p. 209).
Smith (2001) focuses on the use of action learning in leadership
development. Writing from a Canadian perspective, he states that action
learning embodies an approach based on comrades in adversity learning
from each other through discriminating questioning, fresh experience
and refective insight. It is a form of learning through experience based
on the premise that we can only learn about work at work (p. 35).
Most of the participant headteachers value this dimension as the
following comments illustrate:
The most powerful process.
The Action Learning sets are challenging: you have to explain your
problems to others, they listen and discuss and fnally feedback
suggestions to alleviate your area of diffculty.
mentoring
Mentoring has become increasingly important as a mode of leadership
development in many countries, including Australia, England and
Wales, Singapore and the USA. Hobson (2003) states that mentoring
is generally used to refer to a process whereby a more experienced
individual seeks to assist someone less experienced (p. 1) while Daresh
(1995, p.8), in reviewing the literature from an American perspective,
points to the experienced professional, as a mentor, serving as a wise
guide to a younger protg.
Mentoring is often highly successful in promoting the development of
practising and aspiring leaders. Hobson (2003, p. 2) says that all major
studies of formal mentoring programmes for new headteachers have
concluded that such mentoring work was effective. Pocklington and
Weindling (1996) argue (p. 189) that mentoring offers a way of speeding
up the process of transition to headship.
Petzko et al (2002) surveyed 1,400 middle school principals in the
USA. Most of them had no specifc preparation to lead middle schools,
being trained for either secondary or elementary schools. When asked
to identify the person who infuenced them most during their frst year as
principal, 44% indicated another principal while 22% said it was a central
offce administrator. These authors advocate the provision of trained
mentors for new principals.
116
narrative methods
Thody (1997) describes how storytelling techniques are used as
a basis for leadership development, by providing a stimulus to vision,
gaining information in familiar formats, the acquisition of knowledge from
stimuli, and using transferable learning growing from oral learning. She
argues that the ability to listen contributes to consultative management
and interpersonal relationships through management by sharing refection
and the development of a climate for understanding (p.336).
E-learning for leadership
The review of research literature by McFarlane et al (2003) describes
a range of indicators of effective practices in e-learning for leadership
that include:
providing pre-programme diagnoses to ascertain
personal goals and aspirations
learning style preferences
competences with information and communication techno-
logies
time management capabilities
ease of access to computers
providing opportunities for the professional learners to get to
know one another
prior to the commencement of programmes in order to optimise
peer-to-peer and
reciprocal learner-to-facilitator communications
encouraging the professional learners to develop a group
dynamic in order to
promote collaborative working within the e-learning environ-
ment
delivering leadership development by both online and offine
offerings
ensuring the availability of fast and reliable internet connec-
tions
building in systems that guide/pressure learners to complete
the programme
assessing the e-learning activities so that their quality becomes
an essential part
of the successful completion of the programme
ensuring that the programme has high status in the relevant
community
117
variety module system (school principals professional develop-
ment)
Strategic management module:
visionary leadership
identifying the need for systematic change
visionary planning
Building a shared vision in the school management team
understanding the nature of internal and external political systems
and environment
Development of effective interactive community public relations
1. collecting information and analysing the role of school as part
of society
2. clearing up (revealing) educational programme and its
modifcation
3. planning
4. choosing an educational programme (syllabus, curriculum)
5. working out a perspective plan for reaching the goals
6. cooperation with parents
Educational management module:
defning educational goals and objectives
planning
holding meetings with teachers
introducing new methods of teaching
monitoring quality of education
adjusting the syllabus to the needs of the school
leadership and Human resource management module:
understanding recruitment.; selection and maintenance of a
qualifed staff
understanding labour relations and cooperation
Understanding theories, principles and best practices of profes-
sional development and improved professional practice
1. hiring and dismissing the staff
2. working out a system of awards (given a bonus) to all the staff
and distributing the bonus money among all staff members
3. creating conditions for raising the professional qualifcation of
teachers
4. concluding contacts and collective agreements.
118
Innovation and quality management module:
identifying the common coherent components of the change
processes
Selecting the examples of organisational conditions and leadership
actions that create positive attitudes towards the change
Knowledge how to organise planning
Differentiating between long-term and short-term planning
Knowledge of decision making processes
Financial management module:
identifying major funding components of the total state school
fnance programme
Knowledge and application of school fnance concepts, fnancial
accounting, auditing and reporting
1. looking for new sources of fnance
2. distributing the bonus money among the staff
3. cooperation with Parents Council on spending the budget
4. concluding agreements with other institutions
5. reports to the parents about all the expenses
6. teachers salaries and their constituents (sick leaves, time-
board, substituting for the missing teachers)
7. making an inventory
8. making up an estimate of income and expenditure
Communication management module:
welcoming everybody to school every morning
meeting, individual tasks
participation in various contests and projects
introducing Ethics into school curriculum
cooperation with NGOs, mass media
close links with other schools, also abroad
participation in the activities initiated by local government
Facility management module:
Current building alterations and repairing
Supplying modern equipment
Maintaining the building
Schoolyard maintenance and decoration
Safe school
119
Jurisprudence. public relations. Coaching in culture changes.
Conclusion
the relationship between management and leadership elements of
leadership development requires further exploration.
the literature suggests that there is only limited differentiation in the
leadership development provision for different categories of leaders. There
is a need to establish both the specifc and the generic developmental
needs of different categories of leaders, including headteachers, middle
level leaders and teacher leaders. It would be valuable to research which
approaches are effective with each group.
there is also a need to establish the leadership development needs
in relation to the different stages of school development.
there is a particularly strong case for research to establish the
developmental needs of teacher leaders. This should be exploratory as
teacher leaders are not easy to identify and their roles are both varied
and context specifc.
it is widely recognised that individual needs analysis is an important
dimension of leadership development. The nature and effectiveness of
the needs analysis process requires further study.
there is some support for apprenticeship models in the literature and
this approach also accords with grow your own modes of school-based
leadership development. Exploratory research with schools committed to
distributed leadership and explicit leadership development policies would
be helpful in assessing the effectiveness of such approaches. International
research to examine how apprenticeship models work in other countries,
notably Singapore and the USA, would also be valuable.
There has been more research on mentoring. The fndings are almost
always positive, suggesting that this is a powerful means of developing
school leaders. Given its proven benefts, how should it be incorporated
within existing and future leadership development programmes? This
is by no means straightforward as some of the literature suggests
that mentoring is most effective when it does not form part of formal
programmes. An evaluation of the role and benefts of mentoring within
existing programmes would be a valuable frst step.
the literature shows the many and wide-ranging methods used to
promote leadership development. There is only limited evidence of their
relative effectiveness and of how they work in combination. Research on
the effectiveness of the main methods is essential if informed decisions
are to be made on which should be used in planning and delivering
leadership development programmes.
120
the literature provides strong evidence from many different contexts
of the positive relationship between effective leadership and school
improvement (e.g. Bush & Jackson 2002). However, much less is known
about which modes of leadership development are most likely to lead to
school improvement. Exploratory research focusing on the leadership
development experience of headteachers in successful schools would
be a valuable starting point.
The evidence base regarding the nature and effcacy of collaborative
leadership learning and networked learning needs considerable atten-
tion.
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122
Constructivist approach as the methodological
basis for acquisition of future musicians
improvisation skills
Jevgeijs Ustinskovs
Daugavpils University, Latvia
Abstract. Improvisation is a suitable means for activating the learners
creative abilities. The objectives for the subject of improvisation in a
musical secondary school are the following: (1) to develop the learners
creative skills and their individuality and (2) to create conditions and lay the
basis for the learners future creative activity, independent formation and
development of knowledge, skills and abilities. The issue of improvisation
is relevant to the context of sustainability because it allows for lifelong
learning, improvement and development. By applying the method of
literature analysis, the present study aims to explore the constructivist
approach as the methodological basis for the acquisition of future
musicians improvisation skills. Having performed a thorough analysis
of literature as well as compared the core principles of constructivism
with the peculiarities of the learning process in musical improvisation, we
argue that the constructivist approach is most appropriate for designing
a didactical model of improvisation for a musical secondary school. The
following core topics of constructivist philosophy can be identifed in the
process of learning improvisation: activity, order, being, socially symbolic
link, lifelong development.
Key words: musical improvisation, constructivism, education, musical
thinking, didactical model.
Introduction
the crucial role of music making in developing a persons intellectual
and emotional abilities as well as in the process of personality formation
is recognised by many psychologists and pedagogues (,
1965; , 1982; Gardner, 1993; Campbell, 1997; Overy, 2000;
, 2002; Birzkops, 2008, etc.). Improvisation is a suitable
means for activating the learners creative abilities (, 1975;
, 1982; Torgns, 1983; Birzkops, 2008). Birzkops (2008)
argues that creative activity is one of the best means for enhancing
intellectual development and acknowledges the importance of musical
improvisation in the development of a creative personality. Other
researchers also emphasise the role of musical improvisation in fostering
123
the development of personality:
improvisation helps develop a free and creative personality
(, 1975);
improvisation increases creative attitude and opens opportunities
for expression of both the composers and the performers talent
(Torgns, 1983);
musicians who are capable of improvising are endowed with
creative initiative, a highly developed sense of style and a good
memory (, 1982).
the objectives for the subject of improvisation in a musical secondary
school are the following:
to develop the learners creative skills and their individuality
to create the conditions and lay the basis for the learners future
creative activity, independent formation and development of
knowledge, skills and abilities.
the issue of improvisation is relevant to the context of sustainability,
because it allows for lifelong learning, improvement and development.
Research aim: to explore the constructivist approach as the
methodological basis for the acquisition of a future musicians improvisa-
tion skills.
research method: literature analysis.
peculiarities of musical improvisation process
analysis of various authors conceptions permits to distinguish the
following peculiarities of improvisation process (Ferand, 1957; Riemann,
1967; Thompson, 1975; , 1982; Kernfeld, 1988; ,
1990; , 1990; , 1991; , 2008):
during this creative process music is being composed at the
moment of performance;
the performer is the author of improvisation since it is necessary to
play the self-created musical material;
it is a creative process which has several variants of solution;
it is often impossible to clearly predict the course of improvi-
sation.
During improvisation process the musician often needs to act accord-
ing to the situation, for it is hard to clearly predict the course of improvi-
sation. The improviser must be ready to introduce corrections into the
performance, frequently acting completely against the pre-set plan.
Such corrections must take place at the moment of execution when
the performer momentarily reacts to the changes in the situation. It is
124
thus impossible to be fully prepared for any changes in the course of
improvisation. The improviser therefore ought to be able to adapt to the
given situation and be aware of the possible pathways of solutions.
Thus, improvisation requires a well-developed creative personality,
an individuality who is able to crate new musical material and quickly,
adequately and creatively react to the changing course of the improvisation
process.
The essence of constructivism
the constructivist philosophy is based on the insights of humanistic
philosophy. The French philosopher Descartes is considered to be
one of the founders of constructivist philosophy (, 1999). As
noted by Panarin, Descartes opposed nature to spirit, which promoted
the emergence of constructivism. Cartesian thesis Cogito ergo sum
ontologically replaced feelings with rationality and served to justify the
minds ability to create moral and new world proceeding from its internal
characteristics (, 1999). Constructivism is grounded in cognitive
development theory developed by Piaget who believed that the learners
construct their own knowledge (, 1969). Constructivist philosophy
is based on a practical orientation and action-oriented, performing and
transformative disposition (, 1969; Mertens, 1998; Ryan, Cooper,
2004; Znuti, 2004; Mahoney, Granvold, 2005; Strode, 2010).
Constructivism (from Latin constructivus construction) is an
educational philosophy which is grounded in the idea that knowledge
cannot be transmitted to the learner read-made, but it is possible to create
pedagogical conditions for successful self-construction and self-increase
in the learners knowledge (, 2002). We can thus speak of an
activity, self-determination and self-development. Knowledge is socially
constructed through persons activity where experience plays the
crucial role (Mertens, 1998).
In the 1970s constructivism developed as an independent branch.
It was infuenced, on the one hand, by the sociology of knowledge and,
on the other hand, by post-positivist philosophy. Nowadays various
disciplines are being synthesised which has lead to the increase in cross-
disciplinary studies. It is thus possible to conclude that the sciences
about nature and spirit will be transformed into community sciences
(, 2003).
Constructivism is widely used in the humanities. It is used in sociology
and applied linguistics (discourse analysis). Radical constructivism is
also used in biology.
To construct means to organise and to structure in a particular order.
125
Constructivism emphasises the dynamic structure of persons experience.
Persons life and consciousness are not static; they are processes. One
of the key categories of constructivism is process (Mahoney, Granvold,
2005).
Mahoney and Granvold (2005) distinguish the following themes in
constructivism:
a) activity
Accumulation of persons experience envisages constant activity.
new knowledge and skills are developed on previously acquired grounds
(, 1969). Persons actively feel their experience. Self-effcacy and
self-understanding are emphasised (Bandura, 1986, 1997; Bruner, 1990,
2002).
b) order
People need order. They create their own worlds, and their activity is
chiefy oriented towards ordering their experiences. People fnd models
and create meanings almost unawares (Frankl, 1959, 1985, 1997).
c) Being
The organisation of personal activity is to a great extent recursive.
It turns body into a centre where the lived experience is concentrated.
this promotes a deeper phenomenological sense of individuality and
personal identity. The organisation of the world occurs through personal
organisation (Piaget, 1970). Every persons unique nature is emphasised.
One of the aims of constructivism is a self-directed expansion of persons
self-perceptions. On a conceptual level, it occurs in ways that will increase
the persons well-being.
d) Socially symbolic connection
the human organisation occurs through social connections and the
system of symbols. People live in mutual relations. These relations are
being realised with the help of language and a system of symbols. The
order to which a person aspires and the meaning he or she creates
develops from emotional experiences related to other people. A person
is being born, learns and works in relations (Bandura, 1986).
e) lifelong development
Constructivism emphasises developmental processes (Piaget,
1970). Every persons life refects the principles of dynamic dialectic
development. Cyclic and spiral experiences are characteristic to the
dynamics of lifes development.
According to constructivist theory, people are purposeful individuals
who strive for knowledge and who have a developed ability to understand
and process information (Noddings, 1990). Every person in the course
of their life constructs their worldview in interaction with the surrounding
126
environment (Reich, 1996; Mertens, 1998). Everything that a person
senses is compared to previously received knowledge. New knowledge
is strengthened if it is possible to use it in other situations. Every person
is unique and, because of this unique nature and their individual beliefs,
is interesting to other people. That is why it is important to have and retain
ones own style, handwriting and unique individuality. People construct
new knowledge in cooperation with the surrounding world. Everything
that a person sees, hears, reads and touches is compared to previously
acquired knowledge and experience. If new knowledge correlates with
the existing one, such new knowledge can be constructed which the
person will be capable of retaining. Knowledge is strengthened if it is
successfully used in other contexts.
a person initiates constructive processes regarding the information
which is encountered in the surrounding environment. These processes
are either the result of internal structures or develop in interaction with
the environment.
Constructivism is a combination of loosely related insights that are
grounded in the belief that knowledge can be perceived, accumulated
and retained, but the deepest and strongest knowledge develops in
the process of active construction in interaction with the physical and
social environment. In this respect, constructivism is universal because
it is related to everything that is meaningful and experienced by people
(Geids & Berliners, 1999).
Researchers hold an opinion that in constructivism the scientifc
activity is construction rather than insight, the discovery is evaluated
according to its effectiveness rather than truthfulness (van Fraassen,
1980; Reich, 1996; , 2007). It is relevant in improvisation since the
rapidly changing improvisation process, unlike the process of composing,
lacks the time for lengthy search for truth and only allows for an effective
solution of a given problem.
Constructivism in education
One of the basic tenets of constructivism is the following: the learner
only needs to be helped in the process of self-realisation (Maslow, 1954;
, 1991). Professor Rudenskis considers socially cognitive
constructivism a pedagogical philosophy and distinguishes several core
concepts (conceptus notion) of constructivist didactics at the heart of
professional education:
a) cognitive construction the subjective form of the learners
inquiring activity in the learning process;
127
b) competence a cognitive construct: the aim and outcome of
cognitive construction the basis of educational content;
c) cognitive teaching the socialisation mechanism of the learners
intellect, induced through cognitively constructive activity;
d) interaction system pedagogical management of cognitive compe-
tence construction as the organisational-pedagogical mechanism
of the aim of professional education;
e) social interaction the pedagogical instrument (tool) for pedagogical
induction of the learners constructive activity;
f) socially psychological refection the pedagogical instrument
(tool) for the management of competence construction;
g) subjective refection subjectifcation of the knowledge of socia-
lising intellects as the cognitive mechanism of competence the
basic element of the cognitive construct;
h) social-psychological interpretation the pedagogical instrument
(tool) for the management of competence construction;
i) cognitive cooperation the pedagogical instrument (tool) for the
management of competence construction;
j) cognitive integration the cognitive mechanism for constructing
the composition of competence;
k) refexive construction the cognitive mechanism for a subjective
validation of competence;
l) pedagogical induction the pedagogical mechanism that activates
the learners cognitively-constructive activity and initiates the
process of competence construction. (, 2010)
The author (, 2010) points out the peculiarities of the
socially cognitive constructivist pedagogical philosophy:
the subjects cognitive activity is the main condition of effectiveness
in the learning process;
socialising knowledge is the basic element of the cognitive
construct of professional or social competence;
the cognitive construct of professional competence is a dynamically
developing system;
the dynamics of this system is ensured by interpretation of kno-
wledge and refection;
the system of criteria and evaluation requires specifc understanding
(, 2010).
The specifcs of socially cognitive constructivism (activity, socialising
knowledge, dynamically developing system, interpretation of knowledge,
refection, specifc understanding of the system of criteria and evaluation)
is topical for acquisition of musical improvisation in a musical secondary
128
school, and it is taken as a basis for the design of our didactic model of
improvisation.
Klafki (1999) proposed a critically constructive model based on a
combination of three abilities:
self-determination,
co-determination,
solidarity
the basic elements of Klafkis (1999) theory are the following:
learners, independently and with the teachers assistance, learn
to acquire various knowledge and develop an ability to understand
historical processes in the society;
practically-oriented subject matter;
creative acquisition of subject matter;
learners participation in planning the learning process;
addressing the learners interests;
teacher has a chance to act according to the situation;
productive implementation of the learning process.
The model proposed by Latvian pedagogue Maslo (1995) is centred
around:
learners self-development,
learners individuality,
learners activity,
summarising learners personal experience,
learners independence.
Both Klafkis (1999) and Maslos (1995) conceptions are relevant to
the process of learning improvisation because their core elements are
crucial in the process of learning improvisation.
Other pedagogues also believe in the necessity to maintain a close
link with the society, in solving real life related tasks, in the need to
actualise the learners individualisation, involve them in decision making
and provide an opportunity to assume responsibility for their work (Kolb,
1984; , 1991; , 1991; Ross, 2003; ,
2010).
Russian professor Choshanov (, 2002) summarises the
core principles of constructivism in education:
a) Knowledge cannot be put into the learners head ready-made; it
is only possible to create appropriate pedagogical conditions for
successful self-construction and self-increase of the learners
knowledge;
b) Motivation to learn through involving learners in research, quest
and solving issues of pressing concern that are closely related to
129
the surrounding reality, the real ecological, economic and other
kinds of situations in the particular school, district, town;
c) Formation of the educational content on the basis of general
conceptions, systematised knowledge and integrated skills;
d) Stimulation of the learners intellectual activity with motivation to
think aloud; promoting declaration of hypotheses, assumptions
and speculations; organisation of interconnections meaningful
for the learners and exchange of ideas among the learners both
frontally and in small groups;
e) Creating such conditions (selection of methods, teaching forms,
evaluation means) that accentuate the learners intellectual worth,
the value of their viewpoints, individual approach to problem
solving, an individual perspective on the situation, individual style
of thinking.
Coshanov (, 2002) describes the role of a teacher-construc-
tivist in the learning process:
The teacher-constructivist performs the functions of counsellor,
organiser and coordinator;
The learner becomes an equal participant of the learning process,
sharing the responsibility for the learning outcomes with the
teacher;
the teacher creates favourable conditions for the development of
the learners independent critical thinking;
In the learning process, the teacher tries to use real life problems
rather than invented ones;
For stimulation of the learners creative intellectual thinking, the
teacher, when setting the aims for learning, attempts to generalise,
analyse, research, classify and justify. Such formulations of the
learning aims, problems and objectives motivate the learners for a
deeper acquisition of the subject matter;
the teacher must perfectly know the subject matter and be a good
improviser to be able to fexibly direct the lesson, from time to time
allowing the learners to assume the guiding function;
The teacher stimulates the learners natural inquisitiveness.
On the basis of the above-mentioned considerations, Chosanov (-
, 2002) identifes the differences between constructivism and
traditional teaching:
teaching the curriculum according to the didactic principle from
general to particular;
Flexibility of the learning process with a chance to vary the
curriculum;
130
The textbook is not the dominant source of information, priority is
given to original sources and real objects and phenomena;
the learner with his or her personal beliefs and ideas is a full-
fedged participants of the learning process;
the teacher does not impose his or her knowledge and beliefs on
the learners, but is the organiser of the learners inquiry;
The teacher highly appreciates the learners independently-made,
though not always correct, conclusions and questions, as well as
the learners consciously corrected mistakes;
All the results of the learners inquiry are appreciated, including
those that reveal not only the learning outcomes, but also the
learners progress and effort.
Constructivism in music and musical thinking
Constructivist approach in music, musical thinking and music pedagogy
ought to be differentiated from the notion constructivist music or musical
constructivism. The latter concept emerged in the frst half of the 20
th

century and denoted a trend in music. This trend is mainly related to the
industrialisation of Europe and the refection of this tendency in music,
for instance, Prokofevs ballet The Steel Leap, Honeggers symphonic
pieces Pacifc 231, Rugby.
Constructivist approach in music is viewed from another perspective
related to the essence of constructivist philosophy. Ukrainian philosopher
Dacyuk (, 2010), similarly as van Fraasen and other constructivists,
believes that knowledge does not correspond to and does not refect
the objective reality, because individuals themselves construct this
reality in the process of inquiry. This occurs in natural (with the help of
consciousness or body) or artifcial (with the help of various appliances)
conditions.
Dacyuk (, 2010) believes that a musician needs multi-process
thinking which comprises such processes as reading the music script,
performing and coordinating ones performance with other musicians.
The author emphasises counter-fection and counter-refection as
characteristic for musicians. Counter-fection involves initiating, norming
and setting of such thinking processes which accompany real processes.
Counter-refection is a counterpoint in thinking observation, evaluation
and management of various counter-refexive processes.
Analysis of Dacyuks (, 2010) theory permits to conclude that
improvisation is accompanied by various thinking processes:
strategic and tactical composition of new musical material;
performance of the imagined musical material, often executing
131
various musical lines with both hands (but occasionally also with
feet and voice);
analysis of and refection on the performed musical material;
listening to other performers and coordination of actions (in
collective music making).
Thus, counter-refection occurs in improvisation setting counter-
fection and refection. The improviser must master multi-process think-
ing and counter-refection, and possess a generally well-developed
personality.
Constructivist approach for acquisition of future musicians
improvisation skills
Having performed a thorough analysis of literature as well as compa-
red the core principles of constructivism with the peculiarities of the
learning process in musical improvisation, we argue that the constructi-
vist approach is most appropriate for designing a didactical model of
improvisation for a musical secondary school.
Self-construction and self-increase of knowledge, skills and
abilities.
Knowledge, skills an abilities acquired during improvisation lessons
allow for development, self-construction and self-increase of the learners
knowledge, abilities and skills. One of the teachers tasks is to develop the
learners ability and willingness to practice improvisation independently,
thereby constantly improving relevant knowledge, skills and abilities.
application of the deductive principle.
Students of musical secondary school come to improvisation lessons
with their baggage of knowledge and experiences (in musical theory and
history, instrument playing, harmony, polyphony, form studies, practical
music making, etc.). It allows for acquiring the peculiarities of the art of
improvisation in a deductive manner proceeding from general knowledge
in music.
relation to the real life and real problems.
Improvisation studies are closely related to the real life, the real
practical process of music making. The knowledge, skills and abilities
acquired in improvisation lessons can be used in the practice of music
making, as well as pedagogical, musicological and composing activity.
Depending on the learners wishes and practical needs, it is possible to
direct the learning process in the vein of the learners real interests and
needs, thus increasing their motivation and creating opportunities for the
construction of new knowledge.
132
activity.
improvisation envisages active creative activity that results in
accumulation of experience. New knowledge is used in practical music
making. The greater the improvisation experience, the richer the set of
improvisers techniques and the more diverse his or her improvisation.
Flexibility of improvisation learning process and individual
approach.
Improvisation learning process requires fexibility, because during
improvisation lessons it is often necessary to change the course of the
lesson and the applied methodical techniques. This might be related both
to the learners personal characteristics and to the relative unpredictability
of improvisation process. Therefore, work with every learner requires an
individual approach.
Diversity and stimulation of the learning process.
the supreme aim of learning improvisation is the learners involvement
in the process of improvisation. In this creative activity there is no single
correct solution to a given problem or one correct answer. Rather, many
action variants and approaches to solving the problem are possible. In
the process of improvisation, it is possible to be mistaken and also to
correct ones mistakes. The teacher ought to stimulate and support the
learners creative activity.
Striving for the development of learners individuality.
improvisation essentially requires creative thinking and creative
approach. What matters in improvisation lessons is the learners individual
vision, his or her unique interpretation and original approach. The learner
has an opportunity to fnd his or her own way, his or her individual style
and personal improvisation techniques.
Equality in teacher-learner relationships.
In improvisation lessons, the learner is a personality who creates new
music material, a full-fedged participant of the learning process because
the course of it fully depends on the actions the learner takes and the
improvisations he or she creates.
Teachers organising function.
In improvisation lessons, the teachers task is to organise the learners
inquiry process, direct their creative activity and stimulate creative
quest.
Information exchange and mutual cooperation.
In improvisation classes, mutual information exchange is frequent
the teacher enriches his or her set of techniques with the learners
experiences or inventions.
133
value of the results of the work.
the most important thing for the teacher is the learners involvement in
creative process, his or her creative effort and development. The outcome
of the learners activity improvisations is always valuable, because it
is the result of the learners creative activity and development.
Conclusions
The following core topics of constructivist philosophy can be identifed
in the process of learning improvisation:
activity,
order, being,
socially symbolic link,
lifelong development.
the latter theme is relevant to the context of sustainability, because it
allows for lifelong learning, improvement and construction of knowledge,
skills and abilities.
Having performed a thorough analysis of literature as well as compared
the core principles of constructivism with the peculiarities of the learning
process in musical improvisation, we argue that constructivist approach
is most appropriate for designing a didactical model of improvisation for
a musical secondary school. Its core principles include
self-construction and self-increase of knowledge, skills and
abilities;
application of the deductive principle;
relation to the real life and real problems;
activity;
fexibility of improvisation learning process and individual ap-
proach;
diversity and stimulation of the learning process;
striving for the development of learners individuality;
equality in teacher-learner relationships;
teachers organising function;
information exchange and mutual cooperation;
value of the results of the work.
We believe that these core principles are topical and can be used as
the methodological basis for the acquisition process of improvisation.
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137
Teachers ecological competence in the context
of sustainable development
Svetlana Krugija
Latvia University of Agriculture
Abstract. A sustainable development of todays society can be
promoted by providing educational sustainability. Already at the end of
the 20th century, the substantiation of the concept ecological perspective
in education was found, which provides opportunities for promoting the
formation and further development teachers ecological competence.
The main aim of the present research is to substantiate the teachers
ecological competence in the context of a sustainable development
of local community and school as an integral part of the communitys
educational and cultural environment.
Key words: teachers ecological competence, sustainable develop-
ment, ecological perspective in education.
Introduction
Sustainable development and sustainability are concepts, which
emerged in modern science at the end of the 20th century. At that time,
a conclusion was reached that education should become a precondition
and a guarantee for sustainable development. Already at the end of the
20th century, the substantiation of the concept ecological perspective
in education was found which, provides opportunities for promoting the
formation and further development teachers ecological competence.
nowadays the problem of the preservation and sustainable develop-
ment of balanced and diverse cultural environments and educational
environments has become more and more topical. It is particularly topi-
cal in relation to the sustainability of the cultural environment of rural
community, as well as that of the educational environment of a rural school.
An ecological approach has generated new conceptions, models for the
teachers education, and the positive experience of higher educational
establishments gathered regarding the professional preparation of
new teachers. At the same time, many school sin Latvia lack teachers
of different subjects. Therefore, when educating prospective teachers,
particular attention should be paid to their readiness to adapt to the
cultural environment of a city or rural school in any of latvias cultural
138
and historical regions (Kurzeme, Latgale, Vidzeme or Zemgale), where
the community is looking forward to welcome the new teacher.
ecological competence provides the teachers readiness to the
professional activity and ability to successfully integrate in the cultural
environment of various schools, considering their specifcs. The teachers
ecological competence is characterised by motivation, purposefulness,
and his or her psychological condition in all its entirety, which enables the
teachers independent work in the context of the local environment.
Ecological Competence
The concept of ecology comes from the Greek word oikos household
and logos science, study. Ecology is the the study of the household
(of nature), which is a sub-sector of biological science. This concept was
introduced in 1866 by a biologist Ernst Haeckel who defned it as the
study of the relationship of organisms with their environment (Ekoloisk
kompetence, 2003).
ecology as a multidisciplinary science concerns not only natural
ecosystems, but also the total biosphere research. People are a part of
nature as well as the operators, formers and agents of environmental
processes.
Ecological competence is an integrated set of knowledge, skills and
attitudes on the social interaction between a human being and environ-
ment, and the regularities of the structures of ecological systems.
Unfortunately, in pedagogical literature the concept of ecological
competence may be found but rarely, except in works which concerned
with the research of bioecological issues. Therefore, it is very important
to substantiate ecological competence in pedagogy.
the main aim of ecological competence is conception of the human
relationship and interaction with environment, and also the explanation
and assessment of these relations.
ecological competence characterises human ability to handle with
care things and other people... (Negt, 1986 as cited in Ekoloisk
kompetence, 2003).
ecological competence means to link the existing cooperation with
interpersonal communication, making up interaction, and provide changes
in communication, making up desired cooperation (Roga, 2008).
139
Teachers ecological competence in the context of sustainable
development
teachers ecological competence is not so much the result of learning
as an integrated indicator of the general culture. Ecological competence is
related to the teachers ability to independently apply knowledge and skills
in designing and organising environmentally safe professional activity
in various situations in accordance with the principles of sustainability,
human health and safety of life. It is important to emphasise that such
an understanding of ecological competence is focused not only on the
teachers ability to apply ready knowledge and skills, but also the ability
to independently modify them and use different combinations thereof.
the teachers ecological competence is based on a holistic insight into
the developmental ecology of human behaviour and the preconditions
of a social situation. The teachers ecological competence can be
developed by deepening the prospective teachers insight into their role
in the improvement of communitys life through their pedagogical work
at school, as well as by offering to co-operate with different community
groups (colleagues-teachers, parents and other groups), thus creating
a participation mechanism for the development of local community
devoting time, skills, ideas and other resources (Roga, 2008).
The teachers ecological competence is an integrated set of knowledge,
skills and attitudes about human and environment interaction, ecological
structure of the systems interdependencies, which ensure the readiness
and ability to successfully incorporate and launch ones professional
activity in the cultural environment of different schools, considering their
specifcs. The teachers ecological competence is based on a holistic
understanding of personal and environmental interaction and factors
infuencing this interaction.
The teachers ecological competence is characterised by motivation,
purposefulness, and psychological condition in its entirety, which enables
the teachers independent work in the context of a local environment.
The teachers ecological competence includes: natural environment
competency, social competency, educational environment competency,
cultural environment competency (Figure 1). The totality and interaction
of these competencies form the teachers ecological competence.
140
Natureenvironment
competency
Culturalenvironment
competency
Socialenvironment
competency
Educationalenvironment
competency
Figure 1. Structure of teachers ecological competence (Krugija)
Social Environment Competency. Franzoi et al. described the
teachers ecological competence as transaction, interaction and bilateral
relationships, which contains a set of social systems in the environment
(Franzoi, Davis, , & Vasquez-Suson 1994, as cited by Roga, 2008). A
person is perceived as a system, which is in continuous interaction with
the environment.
ecological competence means to link the existing cooperation with
interpersonal communication, making up interaction, and provide chan-
ges in communication, making up desired cooperation (Byram, 2005;
Gonzalo, 1999; Roga, 2008).
teachers social competency is a key instrument for ensuring a succes-
sful pedagogical process because teachers speech style and content,
gestures, intonation, and bearing infuence students state of mind and
attitudes. Understanding and learning a mechanism of communication
helps the teacher in different educational situations to act purposefully
and effectively. Teachers should collaborate with each other, be able
to work as a team, collaborate with parents and provide the necessary
support both in the educational process and different pedagogical
situations (, , 2002).
Ability to clearly express own opinion, to ensure a supportive learning
environment and be a paragon demonstrating high culture of communi-
cation to the students is one of the most important tasks of the teacher.
The culture of communication in school is strongly infuenced by
141
the culture of communication in the family and society, and vice versa.
School, family and the surrounding society are the pillars whose
interaction guarantees successful education of the new generation
(Bronfennbrenner, 1984; , 1982; , 1948).
the teacher should assume the role of a democratic leader and
promote students need for deliberate choice. The relationships between
the teacher and other participants of the educational system are based
on mutual trust and respect (Geids, Berliners, 1999; Ievia, 2005; -
, 2000).
Teachers interaction (Katane, 2005) is a process
which expires on the expiration of a certain time, therefore it is
recommended systematically and purposefully to plan ahead;
in which two or more partners are participating;
which is associated with particular teachers job;
which focuses on the relation between theory and practice in the
educational process.
the task of colleagues interaction is to help each individual teacher
fnd the relationship between values, theory and practice, based on
his/her thinking and behaviour in specifc situations (Crule, 2000). The
main function of interaction is to clarify the motivation of the teachers
professional activity and to encourage its critical analysis and evaluation
(, 1974).
Readiness of pedagogical interaction, which is essential for the
teachers ecological competence, is based on (Krugija, 2008; Roga,
2008):
interests, motivation, contribution;
peoples attitude;
perception specifcs of the surrounding world (cultural specifcity of
the defned community);
modifcations of case and persons.
Interaction also means experience, and it enriches all interaction
partners (Crule, 2000; , 1967).
interaction promotes teachers professional growth and increases his
or her competence.
interaction strategy is a set of situations and models of conduct
that develop teachers understanding of the balance of knowledge and
experience, and contribute to the professional growth.
Collaboration between teachers and parents is a necessary prere-
quisite for a qualitative educational process (Tabun, 2007).
Gonzalo (1999) views the social reality as a process which is a
142
complex political philosophical perspective. Social reality of the circums-
tances and conditions affects the formation of societys social patterns
and communitys activities. Goznalo (1999, as cited by Roga, 2008)
points out that every social community worker should be perceived as
a professional.
Mann (Clancy 1995, as cited by Roga, 2008) names an individuals
mutual relations with the community and the formal and informal
relationship between differential social groups as signs of a major ecolo-
gical orientation .
Educational Environment Competency. ecological education
today is based on values and the natural principles of sustainable
development. Topical subjects of research into environmental education
for sustainable development are the problems connected not only with the
natural environment, but also with the socially problematic environmental
situation and ecologically oriented educational social practice aimed at
solving them.
the subject of ecological education for sustainable development
is ecologically safe human activity, its designing and organisation of
educational socio-ecological problem situations. In this approach, the
natural systems issues of the ecology of traditional ecological education
are viewed through the prism of human activity, which affects its stability
(Disinger, 1993).
Development of teachers ability to plan and organise an ecologically
safe activity is based on a readiness to accept personal responsibility for
the results of their activity.
Summarising the explanations of the concept competence, it should
be noted that in all papers it comes to be perceived as a didactic tool that
would allow, as objectively as possible, to assess the suitability of each
person in his future professional activities. In the European qualifcation
system of competencies, competence is an integrated concept which
expresses the human ability independently to use a variety of skills and
knowledge elements of a given context (, ,
2008). It is understood that, possessing an educational environment
competency, people independently apply knowledge and skills in new
situations.
Meanwhile, the managing activity is regarded not only as an instrument
to promote the development of ecological competence, but also as its
using object. This means that the ecological competence develops not
only on the basis of teacher leadership activities, but also, for instance,
on the grounds of socio-ecological problems which result from action.
143
Therefore, the teachers ecological competence ensures the ecological
safety of an activity and increases its effciency by optimising the personal
and intellectual self-development process.
Managing activity is based on an established ecological competence
that allows implementing in practice the principles of environmental
education for sustainable development: the transition from abstract
ecological problems to real, from global environmental problems to a local
scale, from environmental ecological problems to personal environmental
security problems (Boyatzis, 1998).
Ecological competence in the feld of ecological education ensures
the teacherss ability to develop and organise his/her professional activity,
taking into account the time and place of the implementation conditions,
the relationship between education subjects, state education standards
and programmes, teacher resources, individuals, etc. (,
, 2008).
the most important concept in relation to the teachers interaction is
balance of theory and practice.
Balance between theory and practice is a persons professional
capacity, an individually developed, continuously variable transmission
of theoretical knowledge, practical experience and professional value
correlation system that, at a particular period, is signifcant for the
professional activity of this person (Crule, 2000).
Each teacher has his/her own understanding of the proportion of
theory and practice.
interaction is a pedagogical activity whose aim is to promote the
teachers understanding about the balance of practice and theory,
experience and knowledge consolidation and further development
(Crule, 2000; , 1959).
Colleagues interaction promotes acquisition of new knowledge and
expands each individual teachers understanding about the balance of
theory and practice in professional activity. Colleagues interaction is
forming when people are discussing common practice and giving advice
to each other.
Cultural Environment Competency. Each teacher, regardless
of what he/she teaches, tries to understand the culture of each pupil.
teachers should strive to create such classroom culture which would
help students to succeed in the dominant national cultural environment,
without confict with the cultural specifcity and traditions of the school,
other pupils and their families. The main precondition for this is teacher
education.
144
Ecological competence, in implementing the cultural, self-education
and self-development processes of interaction, leads to accumulation
of:
knowledge of human life in the implementation of the regularities
in the environment;
skills to structure own activities in relation to environmental safety
(installation view, planning, organisation and assessment of
environmental safety risks).
Key concepts that promote the formation of ecological competence
are: sustainable development, activity, eco-safe activity, project, manage-
ment, sustainable development indicators, resource requirements
(environmental, legal, ethical), ecological risk, environmental endanger-
ment, ecological damage, environmental monitoring, vigilance (ethical
principle), environmental health and prevention of life injury.
ecological competence is affecting all the key competencies such as a
students ability to use the values of sustainable development, ecological
thinking and behavioural styles in different situations that arise in various
areas of human activity. However, the student does not lose his or her
own independence and it is the main result of cultural education.
Successful childrens mutual relations, the relationship between
pupil families, and different generations mutual relations in the family
decrease or even complete.ly eliminate several key problems in the
sphere of intercultural education (Byram, 2005).
Cultural competency refers to the ability to interact effectively with
people from different cultures and backgrounds. Cultural competency
can be identifed by four components: an understanding of own culture,
attitudes towards cultural differences, knowledge of the peculiarities
of different cultures and world views, and intercultural skills (Koehn &
Rosenau, 2002).
For understanding the cultural competency, it is important to recognise
the meaning of culture. Culture is the values, norms and traditions that
affect specifc groups perception, thinking, cooperation, behaviour and
debate about the world (Martin & Vaughn, 2007).
Diversity Training University International (DTUI) distinguishes four
cognitive components of cultural competence: awareness, attitudes,
knowledge and skills (Martin & Vaughn, 2007).
it is clear that cultural education is necessary both for practicing
teachers and those who implement teacher education.
A culturally-competent teacher is aware of cultural diversity, accepts
differences, is able to recognise and understand the differences of cultural
14
dynamic in the school and adapt them to the educational process, being
also prepared to deal with the problems in local school culture based on
its specifcs.
Natural Environment Competency. Today, ecologisation of the
educational process is necessary, which in turn will ensure an increase
inthe teachers responsibility towards the surrounding natural environ-
ment. The issue of interaction between an individual and the surrounding
natural environment is of key importance. The main aim of the natural
environment competency is eco-cultural development in the context of
ecological competence.
eco-cultural development is based on a sense of responsibility for
the natural environment and conservation of the biosphere as a whole,
which provides for raising the teachers need for activities associated with
nature-oriented activity (Karopa, 2001, as cited by , 2009; Katowice,
1995, as cited by , 2009; Lavrenenko, 1996, as cited by , 2009;
Bolscho & Seybold, 1996, as cited by , 2009).
the nature environmental competency is connected with a persons
life style and the existence of life which is closely connected with the
surrounding natural environment.
Vernansky (, 1991 as cited by , 2009) and Rogova
(, 1996 as cited by , 2009) underscore that the human
ecological way of life is an essentially cultural supportive plan of life
activity that gives people an opportunity to fully realise themselves as
highest creatures who are looking after the welfare of the surrounding
natural environment.
natural environment competency is consciousness of human role in
the context of the natural environment, as well as autoregulation of this
consciousness.
An effcient formation of ecological competence is dependent on its
inclusion in practical nature-oriented activities (, 2004). In this
case, nature-oriented activities may be respectful of nature and natural
cognitive, related to direct teachers-environment interaction.
Consolidation of cultural environment and nature-oriented activities
develops an experience of ecological activity, which also constitutes the
basis of natural environment competency.
a person possessing natural environment competency is someone
with experience that enables self-dependent activity.
the teachers natural environment competency development during
the studies is directly related to the methods that promote the teachers
professional, self-dependent oriented activities directly in the natural
146
environment where the teacher is not only an educator, but also a
researcher and a discoverer. Due to that, the project method takes a
special place in the development of the teachers natural environment
competency. This method is focused on the teachers self-dependent
activities within the group, which is directed to ways of solving the
problem.
in the natural environment competency four components can be
identifed (, 2009): the cognitive component, the operational compo-
nent, motivation of needs, relevance of values.
the cognitive component establishes knowledge of the natural
environment, cogitation in the context of natural environment, ability to
operate with the concepts and attitudes towards the world, and own a
place in it. A particular feature of the natural environment is the ability
to foresee the consequences of own actions in the world of nature, i.e.
forecasting capabilities.
the operational component implies the ability to apply ecological
knowledge in practice and daily life. This component is the basis of
ecological activities that determine nature conservation, nature-friendly
and innovative skills of activity.
the motivation of needs component is a persistent desire for
harmonious living with the surrounding natural environment, the needs
and wishes to preserve the natural environment and its components.
the relevance of values component forms the basis for the persons
representations of the world where the value of the natural environment,
its beauty and protection is the meaning of human life. These values are
based on subjective attitudes towards nature; love of nature and of all
living things, and an aesthetic perception of nature. This is the natural
environment for future generations.
an ecologically competent teacher knows the environmental speci-
fcity and is able not only to integrate into the system of a particular
environment, but also facilitates sustainable development of both the
school and local community by exhibiting his competences through
carrying out professional activities, because an ecologically competent
teacher knows the social situation and needs, and harmonises them with
the resources within a particular environment and with the developmental
perspectives (Palmer, 2001). The activities of an ecologically competent
teacher ensure wider focus of professional activities than if such activities
are performed traditionally. According to the author point of view, an
ecological perspective in education, including teachers education,
offers new opportunities for the facilitation of a sustainable and balanced
development of the diverse cultural environment of Latvia.
147
Conclusions
Ecological competence is an integrated set of knowledge, skills and
attitudes pertaining to the social interaction between a human being and
the environment, the regularities of the structures of ecological systems.
the teachers ecological competence is an integrated set of know-
ledge, skills and attitudes about human and environment interaction and
the ecological structure of the systems interdependencies, which ensure
the readiness and ability to successfully incorporate and launch ones
professional activity in the cultural environment of different schools,
observing their specifcs. The teachers ecological competence is based
on a holistic understanding of personal and environmental interaction,
and factors infuencing this interaction. The teachers ecological
competence includes: natural environment, social environment, educa-
tional environment and cultural environment competencies. Ecological
competence promotes the teachers readiness to perform his/her
professional activity and an ability to successfully integrate in the cultural
environment of various schools, considering their specifc.
If the teacher has developed ecological competence and he/she
is motivated to work as a teacher, it is easier for him/her to adapt to
and to integrate into the cultural environment of a school and the local
community. Ecological competence will help the teacher to realise that
the school he/she will work or is already working at is an integral part of
a particular communitys cultural environment and promote a sustainable
and balanced development of educational and cultural environments.
The teachers ecological competence includes: natural environment
competency (consciousness of human role in the context of the natural
environment as well as autoregulation of this consciousness), social
competency (a key instrument for ensuring successful pedagogical
process), educational environment competency (human ability to
independently apply knowledge and skills in new situations), cultural
environment competency (ability to interact effectively with people from
different cultures and backgrounds).
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10
primary school learners research activities
within the project week
Elga Drelinga,
Dzintra Iliko,
Elfrda Krastia
Daugavpils University
Abstract. The project week has been introduced in Latvia since
1997/1998 to ensure the research activity in contemporary schools in
Latvia. The aim of this article is to evaluate the experience of research
activity during the project week in the experimental schools in Latgale,
as well as the contribution of children and teachers by ensuring and
managing the research process and creating environment favourable
for the research activity. The article is based on the understanding that
research process is an essential part of formal education. The author of
the article offers a comparative study about the process of the research
in the control and experimental grade in one of the schools in Latgale
region. In the group of children who participated in the experimental group,
particular attention has been paid to the needs and prior experience of
students by ensuring childrens independence in formulating the research
theme and conducting a research in all the stages of the research. The
author evaluates the context of carrying an independent research activity
and how this increases participation of children in the research process.
The authors point to the diffculties and advantages of conducting research
with children.
Key words: project week, teacher as a mentor, independent research
activity, learning environment.
Introduction
to encourage school learners and teachers to use research activities
in learning, since 1997/1998 project weeks have been introduced
in school curricula in Latvia (National Standard of Basic Education,
1998). According to the results of National survey report, it is diffcult
to judge about the learners ability of independent assessment of their
work process and outcomes, skills and opportunities of scheduling their
learning and research activities. This issue should be explored in relation
to the practical school experience in Latvia (Drelinga, Iliko, 2010). The
aim of the present article is to provide an assessment of the experience
11
of one school in latgale region in organising and managing project week
as well as to study the contribution of both learners and teachers in this
process. The article is based on the theoretical concept of integrated
learning and research process as a compulsory prerequisite of formal
education. It provides a comparative study about the research process.
Observations at school and in a control form have been compared
to those in an experimental form in which a project was developed in
consideration with learners prior experience and interests, providing
learners with maximum independence in the selection of the research
topic and in the course of the project execution. The article provides an
assessment of the situation stated within the project and concludes that,
in case learners are allowed maximum independence in their research
activities in the learning environment, their participation and responsibility
in the research process and outcome considerably grows.
The method of the project
Project method (K, 1994) entails a predictable and planned
outcome, stages of project planning and implementation, as well as
refection on its outcomes. Project work is a common cognitive and
creative activity of groups of learners having common goals and coor-
dinated activities in order to reach a common outcome. Project outcomes
are reached by using research activities as well. Until 1998, research
activities were used by learners in Latvia episodically, depending on
the readiness and wilfulness of individual schools and teachers. The
necessity of project work was determined by the social demand, the
need to work by cooperating and forming team-work for the fulflment
of a task, the need to acquire creative work experience, introduction of
non-traditional methods of learning to create cooperation-based relations
between teachers and learners (Drelinga, Iliko, 2010). A certain time
period has passed during which practical experience of organising
project weeks has accumulated. Cognitive development requires social
interaction (, 1987). Getting introduced to the basic principles
of social constructivism (Dewey, 1990, Lieeniece, 1999), parallels may
be drawn with the process of learning during a project week.
152
Table 1. Project week and social constructivism
Social constructivism Learning during a project week
learning is based on the assessment
of human life experience, acquisition of
knowledge, cognition of the world.
learners get familiar with and actualise
their experience in relation to the topic of
the project week and, facing the unknown,
plan acquisition of new knowledge.
Learning is searching for answers, a child
searches for answers to his/her questions.
In the ideal case, learners ask questions
themselves and then search for answers
to them.
in case the existing knowledge is
insuffcient for the solution of the problem,
learners are motivated to gain new
knowledge. Problem tasks urge to gain
new knowledge.
To fnd answers to the questions of a
project topic, additional knowledge is
necessary.
By stating a hypothesis, planning the
outcome, learners set their assumptions
that are debatable and lie on the verge
between the known and the unknown.
Substitution of standard programs by
individual development programs of
learners in which new knowledge is gained
in relation to experience.
the topic regarded by applying prior
knowledge for acquiring new knowledge
is more important than the standard
programs.
the assessment of the outcomes and the
process involves active participation of
learners.
learners assess the process and
outcomes of the project week.
research activity
research activity is connected to the childs natural striving for
world cognition in which the priority is set on the cognitive action of the
child (K, 1995, , 2002). Discerning a problem, asking
questions, setting a hypothesis, defning concepts, classifying, observing,
experimenting, drawing conclusions and judging, proving ideas and
defending them, presentation and assessment are the necessary, yet
not the suffcient skills that are used by learners in their research activity.
the integrated process of learning and research can be conducted by
a specially prepared teacher, teacher-researcher who has acquired
research skills and competences and is able to assist children in their
learning of these skills and competences. This process is exemplifed in
the model of research activity (see Figure 1). The task of learning is set by
using the content of learning and the learners needs, interests, attitudes,
and experience as well as their teachers pedagogical competence
and scope of interests. Initially, a teacher plans and organises learning
situations in which the learners acquire the skills of research work. The
learners act according to the schedule set by the teacher and creatively
apply their research skills acquired by them using the algorithms of
13
research activity set by a teacher. Cooperative action of the teacher and
the learners produces outcomes that are assessed for planning the next
research in which the learners act much more independently.
Idea,goal,task
Contentoflearning
Researchactivity
Assessment,analysis
Outcome
LEARNER
(needs,interests,attitude,
experience)
Learningactivity
TEACHER
(pedagogical
competence)
Creatinglearning
situations
Figure 1. research activity model
Maximum profundity and understanding of the external environment
will be reached if a child acquires this information independently. Skills
and competences gained by experiment, observation and investigation
are more pertaining (, 2000).
research activity and motivating learners to learn
For learning to be productive, learners must be motivated to learn.
Effcient learning is based on inner motivation (Dewey, 1990). A number
of authors have studied the prerequisites for creating a learning
environment for motivating learners to learn. The learning environment
must be supportive, entailing organised, goal-oriented action, providing
learners with a respective mood and an opportunity of situation analysis,
14
free choice of tasks that match the childs experience and interests
(Dewey, 1990; , 2006).
Research activity provides an opportunity to feel the personal signif-
cance if it is based on the childs prior experience and related to his/her
interests and needs (Dewey, 1990).
research activity is related to an opportunity of free selection of a
task and thus investing efforts in its fulflment. When learners are free
to choose what they will learn, they show a greater readiness to do it,
greater endurance, effort, and independence.
The set tasks should not be either too easy or too diffcult. If a child
must make an effort to reach an outcome, she/he will get more satisfaction
out of it (, 1983).
Children who monitor themselves reach better results; they are more
active in searching for answers and explanations (Pipere & Krastia,
2004).
Cooperation is also signifcant in research activity. Children stimulate
each others thoughts, suggest new ideas, give motivation for talks and
discussions as well as drive each other for cooperation (Kraukle, 2010).
research process
Project week in latvian schools is a special time that children are
looking forward to the entire academic year. Each school schedules this
week in its curriculum in line with the rest of the school activities. The
aim of the present research is to evaluate the experience in organising
and conducting the project week at school, to study the contribution of
learners and teachers in this process in order to locate an opportunity
for designing the learning environment for learners independent
research activity. Testing by means of experiment or boosting learners
independence during the project week makes it possible to achieve greater
involvement of learners in the project procedure and its outcomes. In
the course of the research, we studied the experience of primary school
classes in a particular school in Latgale in organising the project week.
Project week is carefully planned in all forms for learners to participate
in activities aimed at reaching one or several goals. Differences appear
in learners involvement in organising the process, its proceedings and
assessment.
1
Table 2. Characteristics of the research base
Selection of
a topic
planning of
the research
work
process
presentation,
assessment
School C
460 learners
teacher teacher and
learners
learners
implement,
the teacher
supervises
Presentation by
learners under the
teachers supervision
Control form
(n=23)
teacher teacher and
learners
adjust it
learners
implement,
the teacher
supervises
Presentation by
learners under the
teachers supervision
experimen-
tal form
(n=24)
learners
agree on the
topic, ask
questions
on it
Learners,
the teacher
consults and
advises
learners
implement, the
teacher consults
and provides for
secure work
learners present
to one another the
outcomes of group
work, prepare the fnal
presentation under the
teachers supervision
School C plans the topic of the project week at staff meeting; the form
teacher selects the subtopic, sets the goal and tasks to be fulflled. The
learners are informed about the topic of the project, a month in advance
so that they may follow it and submit their suggestions. The children
know what is usually done during the project week and why it is needed;
however, the leading role in the project week belongs to the teacher who
mentors many stages of work instead of letting the learners to take over
the initiative.
An experiment was carried out in one of the forms of school C. Its aim
was to show that, by getting the learners involved in planning and trusting
them, greater enthusiasm and responsibility on their part is achieved. The
experimental form had already participated in diverse projects related
to the investigation of learners research activity. The learners of this
form had acquired different skills necessary for conducting independent
research. The project week in this form was scheduled so that both the
pedagogical competence of the teacher and the learners interests, needs,
experience, and attitudes were respected and the content of learning
seemed exciting for the learners and did not go beyond the scope of
interests of the teacher. Both the teacher and the learners were involved
in selecting the topic, goal and activities of the project, scheduling the
process of the project week with elements of research activity. They were
supposed to cooperate in reaching the outcomes, presenting their work
outcomes and analysing them.
16
another form of the same school C was selected as a control form
that worked in the usual, teacher-controlled manner.
in the course of the project week we observed the learners actions
in the control and experimental forms. The learners of both forms were
invited to investigate the development of their research skills and the
teachers of these forms were interviewed to fnd out their perspective
of the proceeding of the project week. The learners were given an
opportunity to comment on their replies.
analysis of the research outcomes
Locating the problem
In the experimental grade, the topic of the research was selected
together with the learners. The choice seemed surprising at frst as this
topic had been so much discussed before that it seemed that nothing
new could be added. The children chose to discuss friendship. They
thought that misbehavior and misunderstanding were very often caused
by the situations when people did not understand each other; then
disagreement is usually settled by means of physical or psychological
abuse. In a brainstorm session, the learners expressed their opinion
and located a problem that they thought had to be addressed.
The control form teacher just introduced Friendship as the project
week topic to her learners and they agreed in a serious discussion that it
was an urgent topic for them.
Setting a hypothesis
The experimental class learners formulated their expectation that,
having learned more about friendship, the form would become friendlier
and there would be few arguments and less disagreement.
The teacher of the control form set the goals, tasks and outcomes for
her learners to reach.
Posing questions
the learners express their interest and reveal their needs by asking
questions. Unless the learner asks questions, there is no meaningful
learning (Salte, 1998). All researchers need to develop skills of asking
questions as questions represent the starting point of the cognition of the
unknown (, 2006).
In the experimental grade, the learners asked the questions about
the new things they were willing to learn about the topic. The teacher
put them down on the board. The questions revealed that the learners
interest was deep. The question posed by children were the following:
Are there only friends in sports teams? What rules must be observed in
17
public places where there are strangers? Who was my Mums friend at
school, how long would they quarrel, how did they make it up?
When talking to the children from the experimental grade, we found
out that the learners of her form were glad that they asked so many
different questions, this was a surprise to her as well, and that it was hard
to predict the next step in project planning. Besides, working together with
learners caused certain insecurity for a teacher. The learners admitted,
however, learners admitted that each question had to be thought through
if one wished to be understood and to get a response from others. 54%
of children from the experimental form reported that it was not easy to
pose questions.
56% of learners from the control form admitted that it was hard to ask
questions, they were not encouraged to ask questions within the project,
they searched for answers to the questions posed by the teacher (see
Figure 2).
Classifying
Discerning essential similarities and differences in external events
and objects, the skill of classifying objects and phenomena by using
essential features are a basic trait of human personality (, 1995).
Learners cope with this task according to their level of development. The
whole creates a context without which our knowledge about a part is
limited (Salte, 1998).
While discussing with the learners, the authors have found out that
all questions may be divided into certain contexts (Clark, 1997): the
subjective context entailing our relations with ourselves and others when
we search for answers by cognising our own and external experience; the
symbolical context entailing our attitude towards the world of information
and knowledge when we search for answers in books, internet, ask
experts; the context of time entailing our relations with the present, past
and future when we ask our grandparents, parents, observe the present
situation, dream about the future; the ecosystem context entailing our
relations to the world and the way our topic of research affects what
happens around us. The children classifed their questions according
to these contexts and the teacher found it hard not to intrude into this
process and trust the childrens intuition.
the project week in the control form proceeded according to the
plan set up by the teacher. They studied their experience, learned new
information, tried to work out alternatives for solving the problem. They
did not study the development of the problem in the course of time that
did not facilitate cooperation with their family members during the project.
18
the teacher told us that she felt more secure when guiding the learners
work according to her own plan.
Planning and the process of the project week
the questions of each context were written on a separate sheet of
paper and together with children activities were planned to fnd answers
to the questions. They showed a surprising imagination suggesting
original and interesting activities. The teacher asked for the permission to
participate in this work and the children agreed to this. Thus, the teacher
could suggest activities necessary for more complete investigation of the
topic. Each day of the week one of the contexts was investigated, fnding
answers to questions that children found troubling. The teacher started
each day by saying: today we will search for the answers to questions
set by Jnis, Oskars, Elise, etc. Each day learners worked in different
subgroups so that a different role in the group could be assumed: one
day leading the group works because the respective activity had been
set by him/her, another day just participating in the group as an assistant
or executive. Switching the groups reduced the possibility of remaining
inactive, hiding behind others backs. 71% of the experimental form
learners expressed an idea that it was hard to cooperate as others
opinions had to be respected and ones own opinion had to be proved and
one had to cede before others as well. The teacher also told us that the
children were engaged in arguments in the course of work, sometimes
got offended because their work seemed important for them. Despite
the diffculties, they admitted having liked to work in groups and helped
others to assume responsibility, to tell about the group work outcomes to
other children. They came to the conclusion that their form was a good
team and they enjoyed working in groups.
46% of the control form learners stated that cooperation caused
diffculty for them. In their comments children wrote that during the
project week they could have a rest, get home earlier, and come to
school later. More active learners wrote that they had to do the whole
group work alone. The control form worked according to the plan made
by the teacher and fulflled the tasks set by the teacher. In some cases
the learners suggested their own ideas which the teacher put on the
common agenda (see Figure 2).
Defning notions
When talking about unknown and less known things, the learners tried
to express their similar and different features in their own words. The
teacher on her part suggested to set on the agenda and investigate the
options of settling conficts in a peaceful way by talking to an inspector
19
of childrens rights protection; this activity was also closely related to
the questions asked by the children: people of which professions are
concerned with relations among people? In what way can arguments be
peacefully resolved? In the discussion with the inspector of childrens rights
protection, the learners asked questions, role played different everyday
life situations and thus learned to resolve problems of mutual relations
in a peaceful way. The learners together worked out a defnition for the
word blackmail. Their frst idea was that the word sounded bad, it was
not associated with anything good, aroused anxiety and concern. Others
told from what they had heard or seen that those were dishonest people
who got engaged in blackmail, who knew something bad about another
person and did not tell it openly but threatened to reveal it if the guilty one
did not give them money or did them a favour. Examples were mentioned
when the children themselves or their peers had faced a blackmailer.
The defnition worked out in this way was clear to the children. In the
experimental form, defning notions was organised so that the learners
had to formulate the defnition on their own. They expressed their ideas,
listened to others, learned to cede in case another explanation was more
appropriate. Probably for this reason 94% of learners admitted that this
was a diffcult process that needed certain effort.
71% of the control form learners who had an opportunity to receive
a ready-made answer from their teacher recognised this task as compli-
cated (see Figure 2).
Observation
the learners were given a task to observe what was going on at
school: in the refectory, gym, halls, classrooms, library, etc. During
several days they did this and wrote down their observations. Having
completed their observation, the learners talked about it stating that
many did not know what was allowed and needed to do in the refectory,
gym, classroom, etc. Hence they agreed on placing reminders in all of
these places. They created very nice reminders, stating that they should
wash their hands before a meal, eat without making noise, clear up after
fnishing their meal. These reminders were highly appreciated not only
by other learners but also by the teachers and the kitchen staff. 63%
of the experimental form learners admitted that observation demanded
quite a lot of effort.
the learners from the control form told about their observations
during the academic year. It was a conversation that was based on their
experience and was not related to any additional activity, thus, only 61%
of learners replied that observation and experimenting required effort
(see Figure 2).
160
Data structuring
the children collected data about their parents, organised an
exhibition of their parents and their school friends photographs, made
descriptions of the collected information. The collected information was
very vast, therefore it needed to be structured. The children found out
the frst name and family name of their parents school friends, the event
in the respective photograph, how long their friendship had lasted. As
a result of this action, the information was made easy to perceive. 63%
of the experimental form learners stated that it was hard to discern the
similar features in the descriptions of their parents friends and not all of
the features could be found in all descriptions. Nevertheless, they were
glad about the outcomes achieved and the ability of agreeing among
themselves.
the control form learners structured all materials according to a
careful layout of the teacher; therefore the task was completed in a short
time and very well. 57% of the control form learners stated that effort was
needed to complete the task (see Figure 2).
Proving and grounding of ideas
The learners admitted in their assessment of the project week that,
despite the fact that their form was friendly and they liked working in
groups and pairs, it was hard to argue for ones idea and prove that at
a particular moment one should take a certain course of action. It was
not easy to listen to others either. 97% stated that they still had to learn
this.
61% of the control form learners admitted that it was diffcult to
convince other learners (see Figure 2).
Presentation
the learners together with the teacher made a presentation in the
form of a TV news programme in which everybody had a certain role. The
texts had partially been prepared in advance but the learners also spoke
freely answering questions on the project proceedings, each of them
being able to tell about the work they had done. 90% of the experimental
form learners stated that it was a hard and responsible job to present the
outcomes of their common work. The jury of teachers noticed that the
learners felt free during the presentation. There were very many visual
materials: a house of rules, a newsletter about friendship, best friends.
The jury of learners liked the unusual form of the presentation, situations
played out by the learners and their solutions.
70% of the control form learners stated that they felt anxiety and great
responsibility while making the presentation (see Figure 2).
161
Assessment
the experimental form learners highly evaluated the outcomes of
the project week. In their reviews, the learners noted that they liked
the topic as it was socially signifcant and they had much to say about
it. 63% of learners wrote that they had done and learned a lot during
this week and were satisfed with the process and outcome of their
research. The experimental form perceived their research work with
great responsibility. By trusting the children and letting them plan, act
and assess the outcomes, greater involvement and responsibility on their
part was achieved. The teacher came to the conclusion after evaluating
the experiment results that the learners searched for answers to their
own questions with great responsibility and the project went through all
contexts. Besides, the teacher alone could not have invented so many
diverse, interesting and appropriate activities for children, yet it had been
diffcult to give up an opportunity to tell the correct answer before the
children had started searching for it.
42% of the control form learners gave a positive assessment to the
project week, yet there were some who did not feel satisfed with what
they had done. They did not feel that any effort was needed during the
project week. The teacher admitted that it was hard to get all children
involved into the project activities, think of diverse activities for reaching
the goal (see Figure 2).
Figure 2. Learners activity during the project week.
1. asking questions, 2. defning notions, 3. observation and experimentation,
4. conclusions and discussion, 5. data structuring, 6. arguing and proving ideas,
7. independent work, search for answers, 8. presentation, 9. assessment.
162
Concluding remarks
the present research provides an assessment of the current situation
leading to the conclusion that, by creating a learning environment for
learners where they have an opportunity to do independent research,
their responsibility for the proceedings and outcome of the work grows.
teachers need methodological support for organising a research
learning environment and for shifting from the position of control to that
of counselling.
a common tendency was observed showing that the less learners
interests were addressed in the stage of planning, the less contribution
learners made in the project and the less was their wish to participate in
the process of work and their understanding of it.
references
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Dewey, J. (1990). The School and Society. The Child and the Curriculum. The
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Drelinga, E., Iliko, Dz. (2010). Ptniecisks darbbas izvrtjums pedagoiskaj
proces Latvij un Eiropas valstu atskaits par Nacionlo izgltbas sistmu
216. 223.lpp./raksts konferences rakstu krjum ATEE Spring University
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vajadzbm iekauan. ATEE Spring University Teacher of the 21
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acknowledgements. The present research has been made with the support of ESF
project Support of Doctoral Studies at Daugavpils University, agreement No.2009/0140/
1DP/1.1.2.1.2/09/IPA/VAA/015.
163
Teachers engagement with the research:
the case study
Dzintra Iliko,
Ilona Miule,
Svetlana Ignatjeva
Daugavpils University
Abstract. The aim of this case study is to reveal the development
of beliefs about pedagogy as an inquiry of one particular teacher. The
authors describe her journey as transactional, subjectively complex and
dynamic rather than linear process of professional development. The case
study refects teachers ontological and epistemological understanding of
teaching and how it shapes her understanding as a researcher, as well
as how it informs her methodological understandings. This case study
represents the teacher who has a strong sense of agency and positionality
in her role of a researcher within the culture of particular school. This
is the story of teachers journey from being predominately a teacher
educator who was passionately concerned with improving the quality of
teaching and learning that led to becoming a teacher-researcher who tries
to improve the quality of teaching and learning in an infrmed way, thus,
contributing to a research-led practice. The authors explore the tensions
and possibilities of organizing teaching as inquiry. This paper explores
how the teacher position herself toward research based teaching and
how she views research as a part of her professional life, and how do she
perceive her roles in relation to research.
Key words: teaching as inquiry, teacher researcher, teachers profes-
sional development.
Introduction
Teachers professional role includes academic, social, competency,
relationships with colleagues, students and their parents. Above these
roles, the research competence is another signifcant aspect of teachers
work.
The number of studies point to the signifcance of incorporating research
into teachers repertoire with the multi fold purpose of understanding the
processes of teaching better (Schoon, 1987; Clarke & Hollinsgsworth,
2002), improving practice (Longhran, 2002), providing solution to
pedagogical problems (Cochran-Smith& Little, 1998; Windschitl, 2002),
and increasing the quality of student learning. Research also challenges
164
the teacher to re-assess preconditions, to question accepted orthodoxies,
to re-evaluate existing theories and to develop new theories (Tanner &
Davies, 2011). Teacher carried - research includes meta cognition, moti-
vation, dispositions, self-effciency and self esteem (Claxton, 2002;
Hargreaves, 1999). Research also involves personal, ethical, theoretical,
methodological factors and such skills as critical thinking, self-awareness,
and self-discipline. (McIntyre,1997, Leonard, 2000).
Besides, it is determined by teachers beliefs, habitual practice, external
pressures, policy, curriculum demands, the assessment pressures, and
teachers pedagogical understanding. A number of constraints, such
as normative beliefs, material conditions limit the range of possibilities
and the role of teacher as a researcher in their classrooms. The main
tensions arises when the teacher is at variance and negotiation with
those conficting demands.
methodology
For the purpose of this study, the authors used qualitative research
methodology. Strauss & Corbin (1990) have remarked that qualitative
research is about persons lives, lived experiences, behaviors, emotions,
and feelings, cultural phenomena, and interactions between nations(p.11).
Bullough & Baughman (1997) assert that teaching can be best understood
in relationship to teachers biography, the unfolding, telling and retelling
life (p. 27). The authors used interview data and classroom observation
with the purpose to uncover the aspects of teachers personal and
professional learning related to research. The authors choose refective
narrative as a methodology that allowed providing rich description of
refective episodes in teaching. Refective narrative aims to examine the
experience of the teacher in her journey to develop a research identity
through the process of social construction in the community of learning
with her students. Narrative method is recommended as the most effcient
method in recording teachers beliefs, dispositions, and perspective about
teaching (MacLure, 1993, Watson, 2006,).The research is grounded in
a constructivist approach, based on postmodern theories of self as a
refective, meaning-making individual (Holsten & Gubrium, 2000). The
study has gathered evidence from spoken and visual narratives: frstly,
thorough classroom observation that provided the insider perspective on
the nature of teaching as inquiry, secondly, though the interviews with
the teacher who demonstrated her learning journeys, thirdly, formal and
informal discussions with students allowed gaining details on teachers
use of inquiry in her work. Teachers as a researchers identity was
16
studied as an ongoing process of interpretation and reinterpretation
of experiences, implying both person and context and revealing sub-
identities (Beijaard et al, 2004). The analyses focus on how the teacher
uses specifc discourse strategies - reported speech, pausing, gestures,
and body posture and opposite portraits of the events. The authors paid
attention how the teacher defned her role identity as a researcher, which
discourse strategies in her narrative are important and how they are used
to signify her identity as a researcher. To be attentive to the teachers lived
meaning the authors coded the transcripts for places where the teacher
made explicit reference to her role as a researcher and the research
practice she introduced in her classroom. In a process of coding and
interpretation the authors coded for implicit identity claims, paying more
attention to claims that occurred next to teachers as researchers role
claims and tried to understand her teaching model and approaches. The
authors clustered the claims based on shared qualities and organized
them in a more general claims associated with teachers researchers
role. The analyses is not presented as a defnite representation of
teachers role claims across contexts. Rather this is a representation of
one particular case that cannot be generalized across the contexts. We
attended holistically to a multiple identities she has displayed during the
classroom observations and interviews.
triangulation of the analyses was achieved through the co-authors
engagement in a refective discourse of teachers accounts. The case
study allowed a deep examination teachers story and the construction of
her story about the struggles over accepting uncertainties, complexities,
tensions and anxieties which she come across while organizing her
pedagogy as an inquiry. In line with structuralism constructivism, the
authors paid attention to the teachers phenomenological, differential and
practically - based nature of her activity.
Research fndings: teachers narrative
Changing roles, changing identities
the teacher pointed to the different context where her teaching
is located. She pointed to the changing roles in her classroom
setting:
the changes in the role of the teacher as a instructor for the whole
class to the role of the teacher as a guide who helps students to
direct their learning.
the changes in the role of the student from a passive receiver
of knowledge to the one who creates and constructs new know-
ledge.
166
the key elements of her teaching as derived from the interviews and
classroom observations are as following:
Facilitating, guiding learning;
addressing learners diverse needs
ensuring learning as active and participatory venture
Her understanding about teaching is deeply grounded in constructivist
philosophy where learning is seen as a process of using current expe-
rience, refecting on it and ftting new information with what is already
known. Her philosophy is focused on representing the complexity of
the world, providing multiple representations of the world, emphases on
knowledge construction rather than on knowledge reproduction, as well
as individual and collective construction of knowledge through thoughtful
refection. In her classroom learners are involved in the co-construction
of knowledge with their peers.
the teacher reported that she has engaged herself in the process of
unlearning the stable teaching discourse that dominated in her practice
in order to participate fully in a new discourse of locality and time. She
admitted that in the course of refection she realized that her frame of
thinking and perceiving things was narrower than she has imagined.
the teacher challenged her previous experience and beliefs that were
deeply ingrained in her teaching and thinking in order to allow more
space for the new alternative meanings to emerge. As she reported, at
the beginning of introducing the elements of inquiry in my classroom,
I faced the resistance from the students who were used to a different
mode of teaching, that has an orientation towards the results. This
means that all teachers are motivated to work to achieve higher results.
As the teacher admitted, transforming her teaching to the mode of inquiry
caused her facing risks and uncertainty to fail. Still, teacher was so
inspired after attending one week seminar on a classroom approach as
of inquiry, based on constructivism which she has dared to introduce as
some elements of inquiry that, in turn gradually transformed into a deep
persuasion. The particular school of the study is a private school that
has high records in the country and all the teachers construct their work
towards students achievements. In a time line she came to recognize
conceptual shifts in her understanding. The teacher has developed new
levels of understanding about her practice and articulated her knowledge
in new ways. She has developed the characteristics of a researcher,
such as critical self-awareness, creative questioning of each activity,
meta-cognitive awareness, skillfulness, and explicit naming of the goals
of teaching together with her students. She defned her success, by her
167
students being able to formulate the aims of the lesson by themselves,
learning with intrisic motivation, and asking deeper and more meaningful
questions.
the key elements that developed in her teaching philosophy as
derived from the classroom observation and interview data are the
following: learning as a meaning making activity, creativity, constructivism,
engaging students as co-creators of knowledge, encouraging students to
take a responsibility over their learning, building relationships of mutual
interdependency. As teacher commented in the interviews, inquiry -
based learning allowed the students to look deeply into things, and to
ask deeper questions.
She reported that she has begin with incorporating small research
projects in her classroom practice and has observed how these small
investigations infuenced her students understanding and learning. She
has taught gradually her students to formulate and to explore questions
of their personal interest. She has allowed more students autonomy
in choosing the research question and the design of the research.
She has placed the emphases to focus their students on how they are
learning and what causes more diffculties in their learning. Later, she
has encouraged explore strategies to overcome those diffculties. This
fundamentally changed the way her students perceived learning. She
always encouraged her students to explore the issue of their research
from multiple perspectives and different angles. In the classroom, one
could observe the enthusiasm with which the students engaged in a
meaningful conversation with peers and with the teacher. As the teacher
reported, students questions become more and more sophisticated.
Another achievement, as reported by the teacher, was the developed
competency of her students to formulate the aim at the beginning of each
lesson and to lead a self-regulated process towards achieving this aim.
another peculiarity of her teaching is intensive use of it in her
classroom setting. IT in her classroom can be seen as a key of providing
learners with enhanced access to sources of knowledge outside the
immediate classroom environment.
Tensions, negotiations upon the teachers roles
interview data traced several tensions in teachers work: the tension
between how to balance her desire for new innovative approach and
habitual ways to doing things; the tension between habitual ways of
teaching and pushing students beyond the comfort zone and beyond the
safety and predictability.
168
The teacher commented that one of the tensions she was struggling:
being in control, the desire to share her power with students. She admitted
that she pushed learning towards meaning she wanted her students to
achieve instead of giving for the students to fnd and name their own
meaning. She reported fnding herself at the interplay between engaging
in the inquiry, introducing enquiry in her classroom, as well as coming
back to the canon of the curriculum demands. Despite of constructivist
approach in her teaching, quite frequently she has found herself in
the role of instructor. Still, she was challenging the banking model of
education by locating her expertise in providing the space for students to
learn, and by her daily conversations about the classroom practice and
her vision. Her teaching can be described as a cyclical process of the
impact of the research on her teaching practice.
the obstacles of integration of research in the classroom setting
mentioned by this particular teacher are the following: orientation of
teaching toward students achievements, social expectations, adminis-
trative demands, time pressures, and burn out. The teacher stressed the
ambiguity, discomfort, and anxiety she faced while introducing research
in her classroom setting at the very beginning of experimenting while
introducing the elements of inquiry in her teaching. Still, it helped the
teacher to gain understanding who she is and understanding about the
limitations she has placed in her understanding. She commented that
gradually inquiry become self-inquiry, the process that took on a more
circular, spiral, and self -refective form.
Concluding remarks
the analyses of teachers work as a researcher offers an opportunity
to bring at the discursive level dynamic related to teachers identity as a
researcher. This helps one to notice subtle changes the teacher makes in
developing her researchers identity. This also points to a dynamic nature
of teachers identity and allows analyzing how the teacher prioritizes the
aspects of her professional work. This is a small scale study that cannot
be extended to apply to other groups.
Teacher training programs need to strive to lead teachers to refect
and to be conscious what and why they are doing by asking questions
about their practice. By the use of research as a tool they will be able
to analyze the effectiveness of their practice, thus enhancing their meta
cognitive knowledge about their practice. Refection and research,
construction of their pedagogical understanding can contribute to their
professional development on theoretical level.
169
research based pedagogical work can help practicing teachers to
engage more into theoretical discourse and to become more competent
and critical users of research sources that will lead them to become
refective practitioners. Teachers need to have courage to leave certainty
and to engage in new ways in creating new possibilities for themselves
and for their students to become fully engaged in the process. As
Southern (2008) argues, this engagement helps to see limitations of old
thinking and opens new possibilities. The commitment to new ways of
learning is the key for creating learning environment that supports the
vulnerability and risk associated with doing research.
references
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chers professional identity, Teaching and Teacher Education, 20 (2), 107-
128.
Bullough , R. V. & Baughman, K. (1997). First year teacher eight years later: An
inquiry into teacher development. New York: Teacher College Press.
Clarke, D. & Hollinsgsworth, H. (2002). Elaborating a model of teacher
professional growth. Teaching and Teacher Education, 18, 947-967.
Cochran-Smith, M., & Lyttle, S. (1998). Teacher Research: The question that
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Claxton, G. (2002). Building learning power. Bristol: TLO
Hargreaves, D. (1999). The knowledge creating school. British Journal of
Educational Studies, 47 (2), 122-144.
Holsten, J. & Gubrium, J. (2000). The self we live by: narratives in a postmodern
world. New York: Oxford University Press.
Grine, O. (2010). Sustainability in pupilss research activity by integrating
oportunities of formal and non-formal education in secondary school., In
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Iliko, Dz., Ignatjeva, S., Miule, I. (2010). Teachers as reserchers: Bringing
teachers voice to the educational landscape, In Journal of Teacher Education
for Sustianability, 12 (1), 51-66.
Longhran, J. J. (2002). Effective refective practice: In search of meaning in
learning about teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 53(1), 33-43.
MacLure, M. (1993). Arguing for yourself: Identity as an organizing principle in
teachers jobs and lives. British Educational Research Journal, 19 (4), 311-
322.
McIntyre, D. (1997). The profession of educational research. British Educational
Research Journal, 23(2), 127-140.
Schon, D. A. (1987). Educating the refective practitioner toward a new design for
teaching and learning in the profession. San Franciso, CA: Jossey Bass.
Southern, N. L. (2007). Mentoring for transformative learning. The importance
of relationships in creating communities of care. Journal of Transformative
Education, 5, 329.
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Strauss, A. & Corbin, J.M. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded
theory procedures and techniques. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publication.
Tanner, H., & Davies, S. M. B. (2011). How engagement with research changes
the professional teacher-educators: a case study from the Welsh Education
Research Network. Journal of Education for Teaching, 35 (4), 373-389.
Watson, C. (2006). Narratives of practice and the construction of identity of
teaching. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 12 (5), 509-526.
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dilemmas. Review of Educational Research, 72 (2), 131-177.
171
EDuCaTIon For SuSTaInaBlE
DEvElopmEnT In HIgHEr EDuCaTIon


Some developments on education for sustainable
development in higher education institutions
Walter leal Filho
Hamburg University of Applied Sciences,
Hamburg, Germany
Abstract. the implementation of sustainable development in higher
education is a global trend. Yet, the intensity and the depth with which
higher education institutions are taking on the challenge of sustainability
signifcantly differ.
This paper presents a global analysis about how higher education
institutions are including sustainability issues in the different areas
(e.g. teaching, research, outreach and institutional management) and
describes the progress made in this feld during the last 10 years. A
special emphasis is given to the problems and barriers which prevent
developments in respect of the integration of sustainability issues in
higher education. Finally, some concrete steps which may be undertaken
in order to allow universities to integrate sustainable development in their
activities but also in regional development, are outlined.
key words: sustainable development, higher education, global ana-
lysis.
Introduction: Higher education and sustainability
Sustainability today is one of the most widely used words in the
scientifc feld as a whole and in the environmental sciences in particular,
yet the analysis of the evolution of such a concept is a diffcult exercise.
This is because the records of the systematic use of such an expression,
whose reference in the current vocabulary and political discourse is
nowadays so popular, are scattered around. Until the late 1970s, the
word sustainability was only occasionally employed in most cases to
refer to ways through which forest resources should be used. It has,
172
in other words, strong connections with the forestry sector from where,
some believe, it is originated.
A key question which one might ask at this stage (a question which is
posed over and over again, every day, by millions of people all over the
world) is what does sustainable development really mean? Depending
on the ways it is looked at, it may have many meanings, such as:
the systematic, long-term use of natural resources as defned in
the Brundtland report described elsewhere in this chapter so
that these are available for future generations (here referring to
country and local policies);
the modality of development that enables countries to progress,
economically and socially, without destroying their environmental
resources (here referring to country policies);
the type of development which is socially just, ethically acceptable,
morally fair and economically sound (here referring to the social
ramifcations of development);
the type of development where environmental indicators are as
important as economic indicators (here referring to the close links
it bears with economic growth).
Many other variants may be listed and are indeed used by different
organisations, taking into account their political perspectives and
institutional aims. IUCN, which in liaison with UNEP and WWF produced
Caring for the Earth (IUCN, WWF, UNEP, 1991), suggested at the time
that the expression sustainable development be replaced in some
context by sustainable living, since although the suffx development
is associated with governments and refers to a governments responsi-
bilities, the word living is closer to an individuals life.
Even though over the past ten years or so signifcant achievements
have been made in respect of sustainability (Singh et al., 2009, et al.,
2007), and sustainability science (e.g. Kates et al., 2001), there is still
considerable differences among countries. This state of affairs can be
partly explained by the different levels of emphasis given to sustainability
in countries as a whole and institutions in particular.
the authors defend the view that there is unlikely to be a consensus
at least a total one on the meaning of sustainable development, although
most people would agree on what it is all about. The reason for this is
rather simple: ones own defnition will be infuenced by ones training,
ones working experience and ones political and economic setting. There
is nothing negative with that, but, equally, there is the need to establish
some ground rules so that the search for a consensus on what it is and
173
what it means may not be made hopelessly impossible due to individual
differences in opinion and perspectives. Another way to overcome the
problem is by looking at approaches to sustainability this meaning the
processes which may ultimately lead to sustainable development. This
paper will thus refer to sustainability, as opposed to the broad spectrum
of sustainable development, having universities as a focal point.
A signifcant step forward in the international efforts towards recog-
nising the value and usefulness of sustainability was the momentum
generated by the publication of Our Common Future, also known as the
Brundtland Report (WCED, 1987), which reported on the deliberations
of the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), an
offcial group set up by the UN to investigate ways by which environmental
conservation could be systematically pursued internationally, paying due
attention to economic, social and political considerations. After nearly
three years of work, a panel composed by specialists from various
disciplines and from different geographical regions provided an in-depth
examination of what the matter of sustainability is, what is required to
pursue it and the measures that countries should adopt so as to put it into
practice. Also, the defnition of sustainability proposed by the WCED and
referred to above has contributed towards some degree of acceptance
on what it means. This is an important achievement since, before that,
emphasis to it was piecemeal.
the process leading to the un Conference on environment and
Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 set in motion partly
owing to the Brundtland Report , the national meetings which preceded
the conference and the preparation of the so-called national environment
Reports by many of the countries represented at Rio, gave a new
impulse to the debate on sustainability. The publication of Agenda 21
(UN, 1992) as the ultimate framework of action in the environment sector
and its subsequent endorsement by over one hundred governments
reiterates the value the international community afford, at least in
principle, to sustainability. Agenda 21 emphasises the importance of
sustainable development time and time again, over its forty chapters.
The Johannesburg conference, held in 2002, revised progresses since
Rio and it was seen that, despite promising prospects, comparatively
little had been achieved and many of the problems raised in Rio in 1992
still were not suffciently addressed ten years later.
Things were a little different at the university sector. Nearly 15 years
ago, a pioneering book outlined how sustainable development can be
implemented at universities (Leal Filho, MacDermitt, & Padgham, 1996).
174
In addition, over ten years ago, in a set of volumes on sustainability in the
context of university education (Leal Filho, 1998, 1999a, 1996b, 1996c),
the author discussed the fact that, since Rio, a lot has been said, written
and published on the broad subject of sustainability at various levels,
from curriculum (Creighton, 1996) to planning (Blowers, 1993) to the
broad feld of policy (e.g. Selman, 1996; Baker, Kansis, Richardson, &
Young, 1997; Brown, 1997) and local environmental initiatives (Whittaker,
1995; ICLEI, 1997), also including the university level. Within the tertiary
sector, there have been various landmarks in the process of designing
approaches and mechanisms to bring in environmental concerns to
university policies, some of which set in motion well before UNCED,
which include many important documents such as:
the Magna Charta of European Universities (1988)
the talloires Declaration of university Presidents for a Sustainable
Future (1990)
the Halifax document Creating a Common Future: An Action Plan
for Universities (1991) (Lester Pearson Institute for International
Development, 1992)
the Urgent Appeal from the CRE to the Preparatory Committee
of UNCED (1991)
the COPERNICUS Universities Charter or Sustainable Deve-
lopment (1994)
the Lneburg Declaration on Higher Education for Sustainable
Development (2001)
the ubuntu Declaration on education and Science and technology
for Sustainable Development (2002)
Graz Declaration on Committing Universities to Sustainable Deve-
lopment (2005)
G8 University Summit Sapporo Sustainability Declaration (2008)
G8 University Summit: Statement of Action (2010)
Moreover, in a further refection of the maturity of the topic at a scientifc
level, a specialist journal was launched in the year 2000. Entitled The
International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education (IJSHE), this
unique periodical has established a prestigious international network
of practitioners, academics and legislators working on sustainable
development in higher education. IJSHE is the worlds frst journal
to specifcally focus on the subject of sustainability and sustainable
development at universities, especially the 600 or so of them worldwide
which have committed themselves towards sustainability by signing
17
international agreements and convention such as the Bologna Charter,
The Halifax Declaration, the Talloires Declaration and the Copernicus
Charter for Sustainable Development, among others. IJSHE differs from
other journals in the feld (e.g. Journal of Cleaner Production, Journal of
Sustainable Development, etc.) in the sense that:
it provides up-to-date information on new developments and trends
on sustainable development at universities;
it reports on international experiences on an academic context,
especially from Europe and North America, but also from other
parts of the world (e.g. Africa, Latin America, Asia, Oceania);
it is a tool for the dissemination of reliable information on matters
related to campus greening or institutional change;
it enables continuous networking and information exchange on
sustainability at universities, on a global basis.
Furthermore, IJSHE represents a step forward in the provision of a
peer-reviewed journal, which may promote the work of the people working
in the feld and disseminate their work and their own institutions, on an
international basis. Now on its 12th volume (2011), IJSHE has already
provided a signifcant contribution towards addressing the lack of specifc
scientifc articles on sustainability in higher education, addressing matters
such as misconceptions, comparison of policy and practice, overcoming
barriers to campus greening and promoting approaches such as back-
casting or a universitys role in promoting sustainability in health care.
IJSHE has already many awards for its innovative focus, including the
Aurelio Puccine Award, conferred in a special ceremony held in Rome,
Italy in the summer of 2001. The medal states the challenge of current
generations is to make sure that a better world will be here waiting for
the new ones.
Moreover, over the course of the past ten years, the literature has
registered various works which have attempted to throw some light onto
the ways by which sustainability seen as both a process and as a
goal may be effectively implemented, emphasising what can be done at
university level. For example, a publication outlining practical examples
of the introduction of sustainability components into university activities
entitled Sustainability and University Life (Leal Filho, 1999a), provides
concrete examples of action at various fronts such as administration,
planning, teaching, extension and research. The ultimate aim of the
book is to show the hows of sustainability and the practical problems
experienced as part of the process at the time. Since then much
progress has been made and the following publications have provided a
176
solid basis for the development of sustainability as a research topic and
as an area of importance in university programmes:
Leal Filho, W. (ed) (2000) Communicating Sustainability. Peter
Lang Scientifc Publishers, Frankfurt.
Leal Filho, W. (ed) (2002a) Teaching Sustainability towards
curriculum greening. Peter Lang Scientifc Publishers, Frankfurt.
Leal Filho, W. (ed) (2002b) International Experiences on
Sustainability. Peter Lang Scientifc Publishers, Frankfurt.
Leal Filho, W. and Ubelis, A. (eds) (2004) Integrative approaches
towards sustainability in the Baltic Sea Region. Peter Lang
Scientifc Publishers, Frankfurt.
Leal Filho, W. (ed) (2005) Handbook of Sustainability Research.
Peter Lang Scientifc Publishers, Frankfurt.
Leal Filho, W. Ubelis, A., Berzina, D. (eds) (2006) Sustainable
Development in the Baltic and Beyond. Peter Lang Scientifc
Publishers, Frankfurt.
Leal Filho, W. (ed.) (2006) Innovation, Education and Communication
for Sustainable Development. Peter Lang Scientifc Publishers,
Frankfurt.
Leal Filho, W., Salomone, M. (eds) (2006) Innovative Approaches
to Education for Sustainable Development. Peter Lang Scientifc
Publishers, Frankfurt.
Leal Filho, W., Manolas, E., Sotirakou, M., Boutakis, G. (eds) (2007)
Higher Education and the Challenge of Sustainability: Problems,
Promises and Good Practice. Evrographics, Orestiada.
Leal Filho, W. (ed) (2010) Sustainability at Universities: Oppor-
tunities, Challenges and Trends. Peter Lang Scientifc Publishers,
Frankfurt.
they illustrate the fact that the topic has become mature and is the
subject of much scholarly attention on a worldwide scale.
Sustainability at universities: Some case studies
this section introduces some current trends on sustainability in
higher education, drawing from various case studies from across the
world. Starting with Bould (2009) focused on what is happening in New
Zealands tertiary education system with regard to design education.
Boulds principal research data consist of four perspectives collected
from the countrys higher education institutes between February 2008
and March 2009. The data comprise the graduate attributes for six
institutes with a design department, the course guides, prospectuses and
177
websites from the design departments and interview transcripts involving
15 design staff and 23 students attending their second year of studies.
regarding the manner in which sustainability is incorporated into
design education, an exploration of the attributes of the six national
institutes that have a design degree programme revealed that, although
only one explicitly mentions sustainability as its objective, nevertheless,
all attributes of the six institutes indicate a capacity for learning about
issues of sustainability.
In their prospectuses, course guides or online information all six
institutes emphasise social or environmental sustainability. Two describe
key experiences, another two assert that students will learn some form of
environmental responsibility after graduation whilst the last two indicate
that students will acquire an understanding of relationships between
technology and society. From the six design departments, two offer an
optional specialised course on sustainability issues within design and,
in addition, one of these two also offers a general design course that
includes elements of sustainability. Two other design departments offer
compulsory, general design courses with elements of sustainability
whilst the last two offer no courses at all. In order to examine what was
actually taught, Bould interviewed 15 staff members from three of the
six design departments named as case studies A, B, and C. Although
between the two cases A and B, B specifcally teaches sustainable
design, nevertheless, there is little difference between them with regard
to how the design team in each case study discusses sustainability. Do
teachers in case study a have similar knowledge regarding sustainable
design when compared to teachers in case study B? Bould found a
variety of opinions held by design team members in case a while this
design team emphasised the need for a sustainability champion and
better collegiality amongst staff. The design team from case B shows
a level of collegiality amongst themselves and all indicate they play a
leading role in promoting sustainability.
in order to answer the question whether it makes a difference to
the design team if sustainable design is integrated or separated, Bould
interviewed 23 second-year students from case studies A and B with an
aim of identifying their level of general awareness of sustainability issues
with regard to design. Bould divided the level of awareness in both cases
into three categories: low, medium and high. Although the students who
have a specifc course in sustainable design (case B) have relatively
more awareness regarding sustainability in the high level category,
nevertheless, the fndings show a different distribution of students for all
178
three levels with a considerable spike for the medium level category in
case A. In order to determine what or who infuences students in regards
to sustainability within design, Bould analysed their responses in order to
identify motivating and de-motivating factors. The fndings show that an
integrated approach to sustainable design promotes the consideration of
a greater variety of motivations. When sustainability is taught separately,
as in case B, students seem to be motivated through the course and
the staff associated with the institute as well as have more motivation to
locate others associated with sustainability.
According to Wallis et al (2005), universities can contribute to the
enhancement of regional sustainability in four main ways: through best
practice in sustainability, through producing graduates who are skilled and
committed to sustainability, through research and through partnerships.
Regarding best practice in sustainability, university campuses may
themselves serve as example in sustainable practices. The university
of British Columbia was the frst university in Canada to have a
sustainable development policy and a Campus Sustainability Offce,
e.g. it is worth noting the running score of paper, the use of electricity
and water used in campus plus the fact that students are encouraged
to sign a sustainability pledge that requires them to consider the social
and environmental consequences of all their actions. michigan State
university has produced a sustainability report describing social and
economic as well as environmental indicators of performance. Hong
kong university is also committed to sustainability and this is evident
from its website and booklets promoting environmentally sustainable
practices.
regarding the production of knowledgeable and skilled graduates
who are practitioners in sustainability, most existing programmes are
postgraduate, even leading to doctorate qualifcations such as Colom-
bias PhD in Sustainable Development. Others have a particular focus
such as the MSc in environmental Sustainability which is offered by the
university of Edinburg and the MBa in Corporate Social responsibility
which is offered by nottingham university. Undergraduate degrees
in sustainability are less common although many universities aim in
producing graduates who are familiar with the principles of sustainable
development. For example, Deakin university in australia has a suite of
generic attributes graduates should have called the Deakin advantage
where attributes such as an understanding of the principles and
applications of sustainable development are meant to be applied to the
graduates own disciplinary felds and work situations.
179
regarding the dimension of research, Wallis et al. (2005) make a
distinction between traditional Type 1 and Type 2 research. The latter
is problem-driven, applied, multi-disciplinary, iterative and partnership-
based in which collaboration is established from the outset, through the
problem defnition phase, data collection and interpretation (Wallis et
al., 2005). For example Deakin university has led the realization of
the project regional to Catchment Scale indicators of Sustainability in
Southwest Victoria. The project has 17 local partners and it is worth
noting the 19 indicators of sustainability which have been produced and
which the region considers most important.
in terms of partnerships, it is worth mentioning the South West
Sustainability partnership which was established in 1998 and comprises
15 public sector organisations, local government bodies and tertiary
education institutions in Victoria, Australia. The Sustainability Blueprint
which was produced aimed at building capacity for regional action, at
conserving and enhancing the natural resource base, at creating greater
prosperity through sustainability and at achieving effective implementation
and monitoring.
Witham (2007) presents and discusses a research project undertaken
by the Economics Network (EN) which, under the auspices of the Higher
Education Academy (HEA) in the UK, focused on how the subject of
sustainable development was to be embedded in the higher education
economics curriculum. In the frst phase of the project, a total of 133
economics lecturers from 62 UK departments completed an online
questionnaire. The second face was a series of focus groups for
economics lecturers and other interested academics with the purpose
of identifying the barriers embedding eSD into the curriculum as well
as exploring ways of overcoming those barriers. The respondents felt
the discipline of economics should seriously involve itself with eSD
and identifed several concepts which were important in linking ESD
and economics. However, there was disagreement on what those key
concepts were. In addition, several barriers to the embedding of ESD in
economics curricula were revealed.
the economists thought that their subject was important for eSD for a
number of reasons ranging from offering a way to thinking about the world to
adding to the understanding of policy instruments such as environmental
Impact Assessments. Although there was no consensus on what the
most important concepts were, nevertheless, the respondents identifed
several key concepts for linking ESD with economics curricula:
market failure (externalities); inter/intra-generational issues (particularly
equity); utility; discounting; value theory, and methods of valuation; non-
180
use value; tradeoffs; renewable and non-renewable resources; resource
endowment; circular fow models; interconnectedness; dematerialisation
issues; substitutability; scarcity; trade; long term equilibrium; steady state;
growth; weak versus strong sustainability; natural capital; marginality;
and the general concept of limits, whether this applies to growth, or to
economics itself (Witham, 2007).
The respondents identifed several barriers to embedding sustainable
development in the higher education economics curriculum. These
were:
lack of staff awareness and expertise, and the associated need to
acquire new knowledge; lack of time to update courses; lack of relevant
course examples; misunderstanding or lack of academic rigour; problems
of internal accreditation and systems of validation, including benchmarks;
lack of institutional drive and commitment; perceived irrelevance by
students, perhaps manifested in a lack of student demand; and the fnancial
restrictions which might be placed on any ESD project, particularly if it is a
new initiative (Witham, 2007).
What follows identifes the three main barriers and explores ways via
which such barriers could be overcome: 1. Economics lecturers are not
convinced of the relevance of embedding SD in the curriculum, mainly
because the embedding of SD in the curriculum seems to confict with the
employability of students. Such an obstacle could be overcome via the
development of sustainable products and markets, and / or through social
marketing. 2. Those willing to embed SD are uncertain as to what the key
concepts are as well as how these concepts should be embedded in the
curriculum. The way to overcome this barrier would be to frst determine
the concepts to be included, then survey the students to see what they
know, followed by a survey at the end of the term to see what they
were taught. Concepts not being taught will be embedded the following
academic year. 3. If the problem of SD involves multiple disciplines, its
solution should be multi-disciplinary, if not interdisciplinary. Barriers to
interdisciplinary work for economists could be that economics is not
welcoming to other disciplines, the belief that economics has no limitations
when answering questions of SD and the feeling that some economists
feel insuffciently trained in communicating with other disciplines. Such
problems could be overcome by dividing the economists into groups and
give them the same problem to solve, e.g. discuss the London Olympics
to identify factors which would make this project sustainable. This topic
is suitable because it embodies a multiplicity of economic, social and
environmental effects.
181
Murphy et al. (2009) evaluated the degree to which sustainability
concepts have been incorporated into engineering education and
research in the U.S. Regarding sustainable engineering education,
the authors administered two questionnaires. The frst focused on the
development of sustainable engineering at the programme level and was
sent to the heads of all academic units while the second was sent to
engineering faculty identifed as sustainable engineering champions. The
frst questionnaire was sent to 1300 programme heads and answered
by nearly 300 (a 21% response rate) while the second was sent to
327 engineering faculty and answered by 137 (a 43% response rate).
Although the overall representation of engineering programmes is <30%,
more than 80% of the respondents include 73% of schools with Ph.D.
programmes that ranked in the top 100. From these responses it was
made clear that most of the top 100 engineering programmes in the U.S.
support teaching and research in sustainable engineering.
The fndings of the above effort are presented in two categories:
(1) courses, course modules and curricula, and (2) research. As this
effort was not a census of activities, the fndings should be considered
directional. In addition, during the research the terms sustainability or
sustainable engineering were not defned in order to have engineering
programmes self-identify the content that constitutes sustainable
engineering. Indicatively, the section which follows discusses curricula
and research.
it is worth noting that most of the top 100 programmes offer courses
while a much smaller number of programmes offer degrees. 23% of
respondents (65 departments and 53 institutions) offer Bachelors or
Masters degree programmes.
With regard to curricula and at the graduate level, it is worth
mentioning two Masters degree programmes. The programme offered
by the university of michigan (ann arbor) launched at 2007 is inter-
departmental and offers three tracks: sustainable energy systems,
sustainable design and manufacturing, and sustainable water resources.
the yale programme also involves core courses from both the School of
Engineering (water resources, industrial ecology, and sustainable design)
and the School of Forestry and Environmental Studies (environmental
science, social ecology, economics, and policy and law). The yale
programme was also launched at 2007.
at the undergraduate level the Department of engineering and Public
Policy at Carnegie mellon university (pittsburg, pa) for more than 30
years offers a Bachelor of Science (B.S.) programme. The programme
182
basically consists of selected courses in decision analysis, economics,
statistics, and technical topics, plus two project courses where students
work in teams on a current problem for an outside client. The Engineering
faculty at the University of Texas (Austin) have developed Signature
Courses such as the course entitled Sustaining a Planet which
describes material and energy cycles in the natural world, how natural
systems interact with and are modifed by engineered systems and how
students lives ft into these systems.
With regard to research, funding in sustainable engineering is
substantial. For the purposes of their paper, Murphy et al. identifed
roughly a quarter of a billion dollars in funding which is concentrated in
top tier institutions and engages more than 00 graduate and roughly
400 undergraduate students. The most topical area for research has
been energy and power generation systems. Other important areas have
been industrial processes, materials, building and construction, water,
transportation, pollution prevention, climate change.
One of the most challenging areas of university education is to provide
students with opportunities to put sustainability principles into practice.
Steinemann (2003) frst presents university initiatives to promote
research, education, and application of sustainable development in the
U.S., second examines problem-based learning (PBL) as a practice
based pedagogy and as an approach for learning how to implement
sustainability, third brings the above together via presenting her course
Sustainable Urban Development, fourth summarises experiences and
lessons from the course and fnally offers recommendations.
According to Steinemann, universities promote sustainability via fve
main ways policy, research, education, infrastructure and outreach
activities. Regarding policy, one example would be the California Insti-
tute of Technology Environmental Task Force which encourages
students, faculty, and staff to work on campus environmental initiatives
such as recycling, bicycling, and energy conservation. The university
of California at Davis pursues research on strategies and technologies
for sustainable management of urban forests. With regard to education,
one may mention Harvard universitys Center for the Environment,
Brandeis universitys Masters degree programme in Sustainable
international Development and Brown universitys student projects
on campus sustainability. On infrastructure, well-known are the green
buildings of the university of California at Santa Barbara and of the
University of Texas at Houston. As far as outreach is concerned,
Bates College has established responsible purchasing, composting, and
183
recycling initiatives and at the university of South Carolina students
and campus recycling staff work with charitable organizations to donate
food, clothes, building materials and furniture in order to reduce the
universitys disposal costs.
PBl emphasises learning by doing and students are asked to solve
real-world problems. PBL has many advantages. It can make knowledge
more accessible and applicable. It helps students develop skills for solving
practical and real world problems. In PBL it is the students, not teachers,
who are responsible for solving the problem. PBL provides motivation for
learning and for solving a problem. Finally, PBL helps students cultivate
professional skills such as cooperative and interdisciplinary problem
solving.
In Steinemanns course Sustainable Urban Development, taught
at the georgia Institute of Technology, atlanta, students identify a
problem and then develop a sustainability plan to address it. The course
attracts students from several disciplines. The course emphasises
interactive implementation, i.e. communicating and working with
university staff, students, companies and the wider community. Besides
instructor feedback, every two weeks students make oral presentations
of their work both in terms of content and in terms of form.
In the four years of teaching the course, some thematic areas for
student projects were: framework for sustainability, sustainable buildings,
energy effciency, water conservation, storm water management,
sustainable landscaping, recycling and composting, transportation,
hazards reduction and pollution prevention, education and outreach.
Finally, besides the potential contributions and strengths of PBL
Steinemann examines the challenges of her course. First, she notes
the importance of fnding a balance between giving students feedback
and giving them freedom in project design and implementation. Second,
she mentions the importance of helping students identify and overcome
barriers. A third challenge is the design of suitable and feasible projects.
Fourth, she mentions time pointing out the use of some projects even
several years later. Fifth, is maintaining student enthusiasm. Sixth, she
points out that a PBL course is very demanding in terms of preparation,
delivery and evaluation.
Boyle et al (2007) have summarised mITs environmental activities in
education and research.
With regard to education, besides the wide array of courses and
programs at both undergraduate and graduate levels, there are striking
successes that should be used as models for the future:
184
For example, the Terrascope freshman experience provides out-of-
the-box thinking about environmental problem solving from the frst day
students arrive at mIT. Another is D-Lab, an interdisciplinary offering,
which uses case studies and projects enabling students to understand
challenges to sustainable development. A third is Sloans Laboratory
for Sustainable Business (S-Lab), a subject in which student teams
collaborate with volunteer clients to meet environmental and social
challenges in business models. The Department of Urban Studies and
Planning offers an international environmental practicum that takes
students (after a semester of problem-focused study in collaboration with
overseas partners) into the feld for a month-long problem-solving effort
(Boyle et al., 2007).
all of mITs fve schools engage with the study of environment and
sustainability. In the School of Science, for example, groundbreaking work
is being done with regard to predicting an increase in the frequency and
intensity of tropical cyclones due to global warming and in addressing how
to use reaction chemistry (catalysis) to replenish/remove fundamental
elements to maintain natural chemical cycles.
Many faculty members in the School of engineering are pursuing
research driven by environmental concerns such as the need for new
materials, substitutions for existing materials, changes in new devices
for increasing product effciency and reducing materials use, new energy
storage, sources and demand reduction, and better, more holistic design
methods. A new feld at mIT is environmental genomics. Scientists in
this feld study the diversity and abundance of microbes the most
signifcant agents of biochemical cycles.
Faculty in the Sloan School of Management study how business can
operate in a sustainable fashion and how they can play a positive role
in the regeneration of the planet and the support of human health and
welfare. Scholars there also study the organisational dynamics that often
thwart or delay the adoption of innovative technologies, emphasising
how frms and other organisations can successfully implement large-
scale changes in technology and practices that determine the impact of
business on the environment.
the School of architecture and Planning has worked through the Media
lab and the Departments of urban Studies and Planning and architecture
to improve visualisation, urban design and public participation tools to
promote more sustainable patterns of urban development. Academic staff
from across the school have engaged in projects aimed at enhancing
the energy effciency and environmental sustainability of buildings, cities,
and regions, including a special focus on the extreme challenges facing
China and other rapidly urbanising countries.
18
The School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Science, through a variety
of Departments, has emphasised the study of the costs and benefts
associated with various environmental protection strategies. Examples
include the impacts of regulation, economic costs of climate change and
the infuence of organisational structure on sustainability.
Some campus interdisciplinary efforts should also be mentioned.
Of particular importance is the multi-school Centee for Global Change
Science that implements the Joint Programme in the Science and Policy
of Global Change. CGCS concentrates on climatic processes with the
goal of identifying critical thresholds in the climate system and accurately
predicting changes in the global environment. Modelling and data
analysis from this effort are fguring signifcantly in policy discussions,
and the programme is expanding to address directly infuences on the
environment from current and future energy sources.
Columbia universitys Earth Institute was established 1995. The
research institutes stated mission is to address complex issues facing
the planet and its inhabitants, with particular focus on sustainable
development and the needs of the worlds poor. The Earth Institutes
activities are guided by the idea that science and technological tools
that already exist could be applied to greatly improve conditions for the
worlds poor, while preserving the natural systems that support life on
Earth. The Institute comprises 16 research units. The units which have a
strong environmental focus are The Columbia Water Centre, The Centre
for Rivers and Estuaries, The Centre for Climate Systems Research,
The Centre for Environmental research and Conservation, The Earth
Engineering Centre, The Lenfest Centre for Sustainable Energy, The
Centre on Globalization and Sustainable Development, The Centre for
Sustainable Urban Development, The Centre for International Earth
Science Information Network, The International Research Institute for
Climate and Society, The Columbia Climate Centre, The Lamont-Doherty
Earth Observatory, and The Centre for Hazards and Risk Research.
Indicatively, this paper will present some of the work done in the
Columbia Water Centre (CWC) and in the Centre for Environmental
Research and Conservation (CERC). The Columbia Water Centre
(CWC) was established in January 2008. The centre focuses on water-
related issues, especially issues of water scarcity around the globe. The
Centre focuses in fnding strategies to tackle the current and impending
levels of global water scarcity. With a team of hydrologists, climatologists,
engineers, and water policy analysts, the CWC aims at designing water
management models that are both dependable and sustainable as long-
term global solutions.
186
according to the Columbia Water Centre, since its establishment, it
has undertaken projects in four countries: India, China, Mali and Brazil.
In Brazil, CWC has partnered with the Federal university of Cear
in the northeast to focus on sophisticated climate-based forecasting
systems used for water allocation decisions across diverse use sectors.
Recently, ground was broken in Brazil on a centre that will provide water to
500 people living in a rural area. In India, the project focuses on reducing
water consumption in the agricultural sector by encouraging sustainable
crop choice patterns, as well as working with corporations to deploy
better irrigation technologies (and increase reliability) throughout their
supply chains. CWC has partnered with Punjab Agricultural University
to come up with innovative solutions to eliminate water overuse. Some
of the methods that were developed are currently being used in the
2010 planting season with over 500 farmers participating. The work in
Mali coincides with the Millennium Villages Project. CWC is focusing
on designing irrigation and cropping systems that can be operated and
maintained locally in order to provide farmers with higher-value cash
crops. The centre has installed large pumps that improved the amount
of water available. Projects emphasise bringing together local partners,
market forces and public-private partnerships (Columbia Water Centre,
2010)
the Centre for environmental research and Conservation aims to
stem the loss of biological diversity and cultivate leadership to address
the ecological challenges of the 21st century. CERC is a consortium
of fve world-renowned scientifc institutions based in New York City:
Columbia university, the American Museum of Natural History, the
New York Botanical Garden, the Wildlife Conservation Society and
Wildlife Trust. Each member of the consortium contributes to developing
environmental leadership through a variety of education and research
programmes. Collectively, this work is conducted in over 60 countries.
Throughout CERCs 13-year history, consortium researchers, volun-
teers, interns, students, faculty and staff have been involved in:
fnding new species of plants and animals in biodiversity hotspots
mapping the movement of wildlife and zoonotic diseases that pass
from animals to humans
studying the evolution of primate behaviour
examining how forests respond to disturbance
studying ecosystem processes and ecosystem services like
carbon storage by tropical trees and grasslands
understanding how to develop participatory conservation program-
mes
187
working on the restoration of damaged habitats
exploring models for sustainable development through a balance
of good economics, governance and conservation (Center for
Environmental Research and Conservation, 2010).
One of the most important tasks of higher education institutions is
to transform learners into inquisitive, refective, experienced and critical
thinking individuals. Transformative pedagogies dictate assessment
processes which move away from traditional formats and address a
variety of learning styles at the cognitive, psychomotor and affective
levels.
Pace (2010), via the use of an action project, explores the impact
of transformative pedagogies on pre-service teachers who participated
in an environmental education programme (EEP) of the university of
malta. A total of 22 pre-service teachers participated in the programme.
Enrolment in the EEP was on a voluntary basis. They were all prospective
primary school teachers. This particular programme was designed
to target not so much content but the cultivation of pro-environmental
values by engaging students in their own learning as well as providing
them with opportunities for refection and self-evaluation. Pace relies
on qualitative methods to analyse his data. In particular, he analysed
evaluation questionnaires on the programmes study units, refective
questionnaires drawing upon the students refective journals, focus
group interviews and one-to-one interviews.
According to Pace, the major lessons which can be extracted from his
paper are three:
The true change factor that infuenced student behaviour was the
methodology adopted during the programme rather than what
content matter was provided. Experiencing methodologies that
acknowledged different learning needs and provided opportunities
for active engagement in learning enabled students to develop
skills, attitudes and values necessary for the promotion of
sustainable development principles.
responding to the different learning needs of students was only
possible through a novel way of designing, implementing and eva-
luating an educational programme. Educational institutions (par-
ticularly universities) need to adapt their administrative structures to
promote and be more open to new and alternative approaches.
the eeP experience evidences that change both institutional
and personal occurs gradually and in small steps, provided an
institution and an individual learner is given space to grow.
188
true environmental education can only happen if educators and insti-
tutions disengage from traditional methods of teaching and use trans-
formative and learner-centred pedagogies.
A fnal example of what is happening today comes from Hamburg,
Germany where the Hamburg University of Applied Sciences organised
the World Sustainable Development Teach-In Day, held in December
2010. The aims of the World Sustainable Development Teach-In Day
(Figure 1) are:
to disseminate information on the concept, aims and purposes of
sustainable development so that it can be understood by a broad
public, and will include elements relating to its environmental,
social, economic and policy aspects;
to raise awareness among university students on the complexity
of matters related to sustainable development and the need for
personal engagement and action;
to provide an opportunity to introduce projects and other initiatives
on sustainable development that are being undertaken at
international, regional and local level by schools, universities,
government bodies, NGOs and other stakeholders;
to discuss the problems, barriers, challenges, opportunities and the
potential achievements with regard to implementing sustainable
development globally, regionally and locally.
Figure 1. Web site of the World Sustainable
Development Teach-In Day
189
a set of lectures in english prepared by some of the leading experts
on sustainable development, combined with videos on the scientifc,
economic and social aspects of sustainable development, and a
discussion forum, ensure a wide participation.
problems in implementing sustainability in higher education
Sustainability as a whole and education for sustainable development
in particular, have greatly beneftted from the international momentum
created by the un Decade of education for Sustainable Development
(DESD). Running from 2005 to 2014, DESD, for which UNESCO is the
lead agency, seeks to integrate the principles, values, and practices
of sustainable development into all aspects of education and learning
in order to address the social, economic, cultural and environmental
problems we face in the 21st century.
But despite DeSD and even though there have been important cultural
changes in the general perception of what sustainability is or in relation
to what it means to people, the wide implementation of the concept of
sustainability still faces major challenges. These are also seen in the
higher education context, where a number of barriers still prevent further
advancements both in the use of sustainable development techniques or
in the execution of sustainable development programmes. A key question
one may pose at this stage is:
If sustainability in higher education is so important, why is it not more
widely implemented?
this is a question whose answer is not easy to provide since there are
many social, political and economic considerations that infuence it. But
part of the answer stems from the fact that there have been (and there
still are) many structural problems which prevent the wider dissemination
of the principles of sustainable development in higher education. The
wide range of problems in relation to the implementation of sustainable
development in higher education can be classifed into four categories
as outline in Table 1.
Table 1. Categories of problems faced in implementing sustainable
development in higher education
Category nature of the problem Consequence
Perception low value attached to
sustainability
little or no interest
attitude indifference to sustainability no engagement
190
Perspective no acknowledgment of the
value of sustainability
resistance to include it in university
programmes
Focus Sustainability not perceived as
relevant
emphasis given to other themes or
subjects
Cost-
effectiveness
Sustainability seen as costly
area of work
little or no investment in curricular or
in-campus activities
the above outlined categories have some real implications and lead
to a number of serious problems. Some of them are as follows:
Problem 1: sustainable development is deemed as a subject per
se. Principles of sustainable development are across the board and, as
such, do not always ft in a single subject. Since it is not classifed as
being of the domain of any given science (rather being a component
which may be incorporated into all disciplines) there tends to be a trend
towards perceiving sustainable development as a concept which needs
to be packed under a single subject or discipline.
Problem 2: the basis of sustainability is often very theoretical. Here
part of the diffculty stems from the fact that sustainability and sustainable
approaches are seen as theoretical matters. To make things worse,
sustainability has been, as a term, hijacked by the political discourse and
to many people it is merely a theoretical expression or a vague jargon.
Problem 3: sustainability is perceived as too broad. this feeling is
strongly felt in some contexts (e.g. in engineering programmes), where
sustainability is seen as too broad and, by default, as diffcult to handle.
Problem 4: expertise on sustainability is not easily available. this is
observed in some universities, which regard sustainable development
as a new issue and a new feld of action to which they have no specifc
expertise.This trend has been changing since there have been many
appointments of professors in areas related to sustainable development,
but it is still an issue.
Problem 5: sustainability is a fashion. this is unfortunately still
observed in many universities, where the sceptical approach used by
some vice-Chancellors and Presidents does not really encourage more
developments.
Other problems may also be added to the list. Indeed, a recent study
performed by Leal Filho (in press) has identifed the following issues
as further problems in the implementation of education for sustainable
development at universities, but especially at school level:
1. Lack of the training of teachers to handle matters related to edu-
cation for sustainable development;
Continued table 1
191
2. Lack of specifc materials which may facilitate its handling in classr-
ooms;
3. Limited provisions for continuous education in the feld of education
for sustainable development;
4. Limited availability of institutions which specialise on education for
sustainable development and can provide advice on the ground.
5. Diffculties in evaluating education for sustainable development;
6. Lack of coordination between countries and institutions on
education for sustainable development;
7. Lack of continuous political support to education for sustainable
development beyond the political discourse at international
events.
It is noticeable that, during the above outlined research, lack of
training was the most frequently mentioned problem. And that was so
across Europe. It was closely followed by lack of teaching materials.
Lack of continuing education programmes (i.e. in-service training) is
also deemed as an obstacle. Lack of sustained fnancial support is also
acknowledged as being a barrier, albeit to a lesser extent.
Perhaps one of the most worrying features in relation to the above
state of affairs is that one or more of the above points are used, every
day, as an excuse for not taking action. It is crucial that these are duly
addressed.
Some concrete steps
in trying to solve or at least minimise the impacts of the problems
here outlined, a number of objective and concrete measures are needed.
Some of them may be:
more political support to sustainability programmes in higher
education
more coordination between the individual initiatives
more funds for sustainability projects
better provision of suitable infra-structure
more specifc literature and appropriate teaching materials

In addition, further action is needed in respect of ensuring sustainability
is embedded into university programmes, as opposed to being a marginal
part of it as it has largely been the case so far. Figure 1 outlines some
elements which need to be considered in order to catalyse a greater
integration of sustainability in university programmes.
192
Figure 1. Some elements to catalyse a greater integration of
sustainability in university programmes
this paper suggests a set of 10 points which may help to foster the
efforts to implement sustainability at institutions of higher education.
These are:
1. Encourage and promote the development of initiatives and
projects on sustainable development at universities, not only in
respect of subjects (e.g. curriculum) and campus greening, but
also in terms of research and extension (e.g. training events to
an external audience).
2. Ensure universities take part in local, regional and national
initiatives related to sustainable development, so as to put the
principles of sustainability into practice and support initiatives
in respect of sustainable consumption and production and the
promotion of ecological, social and economic development.
3. Identify and use tools, toolkits, practical measures and monitoring
mechanisms, which show how much progress can be achieved
with the implementation of sustainability efforts.
4. Provide examples of approaches and methods which show how
sustainability principles may lead to improvements in effciency
and in costs reduction, as well as in reducing environmental
degradation, pollution and waste.
5. Mobilise sources for fnancial and technical assistance and
capacity-building for works in industrialised but also in developing
countries.
193
6. Develop materials and instruments which show or illustrate
environmental and health impacts, using, when possible and
appropriate, case studies to implement them.
7. Run regular awareness-raising initiatives illustrating the impor-
tance of sustainable development and take part in information
and dissemination schemes using the media.
8. Establish and seek peer support to sustainability programmes. If
appropriate, by setting-up Centres around which university pro-
fessors from different disciplines (faculty) may gather.
9. Collect and disseminate information on the activities taking place
at the university and promote the exchange of best practices and
know-how on sustainability methods and processes.
10. Involve the university administration (e.g. Rector, Vice-Rector,
Dean, etc.) on sustainability activities so that they can see it is
worth it.
it may be the case that not all 10 measures can be implemented at one
go, but, in trying to get them implemented, universities may realise they
have a potential which has been dormant and which can be concretised
if they have the political will to do so.
Conclusions
As shown in this paper, higher education institutions worldwide are
including sustainability issues in different areas such as in teaching,
research, outreach and institutional management, but it has to be said
that this is happening at different levels of depth and with different
degrees of success.
Even though much progress has been made over the past years,
there are still many problems and barriers which prevent developments
in respect of the integration of sustainability issues in higher education.
these barriers and problems can be addressed if the political will needed
is available. When applied to various contexts such as water, energy,
industry or transport, sustainable development has proven to be an
important tool in fostering the quality of life and in reducing the human
impacts on the environment.
there are many universities which have excelled in putting the principles
of sustainable development into practice, as this paper has outlined. Part
of the success of some of them goes back to the fact that they have not
only chosen innovative approaches and pursued innovative ideas, but
also because they have established partnerships and hence were able
to provide added value to their own works. Cooperation therefore may
194
be one effective means by which universities may consolidate their own
good work and at the same time open the door for new opportunities.
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197
Student design culture formation as the element for
sustainable development of an educational system
Tatyana Stenina
Ulyanovsk State Technical University
Abstract. The article considers the issues of formation of students
design culture along with the increased number of social innovations. The
article highlights the importance of the design culture formation process
as one of educational system elements for sustainable development. The
author suggests the concept of the organisation of socially-determined
students design activity.
Key words: social designing, subjects design culture.
Introduction
the educational issue of the formation of a subjects culture and
reorganisation of its components is now urgent due to current rates of
social development lagging behind scientifc technical progress. The
expected result of this educational process is change of the traditional
perception of the world towards a creatively innovative one.
Modern science affects possible social space organisation, which is to
be balanced and satisfying for the subjects. However, according to many
scientists studying social technologies and sustainable development,
the responsibility for management decision made under the swift
development of science-intensive technologies at present both rises and
falls considerably.
The speed and rate of human technical and biological infuence on
nature, unrestrained exploitation of natural recourses and all-increasing
rates of power generation do not correlate with supreme values and a
sense of human existence and even come up against them, and threaten
the mankind with irreversible consequences [1].
At the same time, the new paradigm of education is characterised
by changes in the meaning of the notion education which now contains
both personality formation and designing of a new desirable state of a
subjects social environment. Therefore, the most signifcant issues are
the issues of humanity development. The modern process of highly skilled
and competitive specialist training is based on humanity, culturological,
198
personality-centred and communicative-pragmatic approaches which
imply the organisation of educational process with specifc attention to
the development of each students creative personality and the formation
of motivational mechanisms of self-education and self-discipline aimed
at the development of professional and personal qualities.
Social and technology approach to life activity initiates formation of
a new social style of thinking and a new culture of personal behaviour.
Social parts played by humans and their involvement in different social
institutions raise the problem of researching such a phenomenon as the
subjects design culture, which is perceived as an element of the general
culture of a modern person, promoting the reproduction of life forms that
is aimed at harmonisation of relationships between humans and the
social environment. The present, dynamically developing socially cultural
situation entails reconsideration of the evolution of educational processes
from the position of integrating education and culture. Strengthening of
cultural functions is a precondition for further effcient development of
an educational institution which is perceived as a sphere of humanity
and cultural practice providing the development of social and personal
consciousness.
this research is based on the scholars opinions on the urgency of the
formation of a subjects design culture as the most important element of
the specialists personality structure that meets the requirements of the
modern society. The connections between education and culture are of
particular importance because they are based on an ecological relation of
the person to the worlds perception. In order to develop and implement
social technologies, we need well-trained professionals who possess
necessary knowledge and skills in project management, characterised
by a high level of social activity and avdesire for better changes of
reality. The research appeals to higher education since higher education
students are especially open and receptive to innovations. Youth is that
very environment to develop a new phenomenon social innovative
design representing a variant solution for social problems (the term of
Luks) [2]. Students purposes, ideas and values can thus effciently affect
the societys development perspectives on the whole. Students are the
authors of non-traditional and progressive approaches to the reformation
of various social processes and institutions. Students are also those who
criticise the cumulative historic experience of preceding generations. A
social project always carries an imprint of the values orientations of its
authors, which is the reason why the tendency to the enhancement of
ideological training of modern students in higher education institutions is
199
the one that complements socially signifcant activity and transforms the
acquired knowledge into personal views.
the above-stated considerations allow naming the social and edu-
cational environment of the university with its specialists personality
formation as an object of our research.
the subject of the study is the formation process of students design
culture.
the purpose of the research is to develop the concept of the organi-
sation of students design activity at a university, including educational
technology aimed at the formation of their design culture.
In order to defne terms of this article within the context of the issue
of a subjects design culture formation, we determine the notion design
activity subject.
Design activity subject is a person conducting a socially important
design activity on the basis of the existing social needs, the values
regulating social behaviour and his/her personal social activity.
We determine design culture, culture being a holistic phenomenon,
as an element of cultural system, based on the commons in different
types of human activity. The ground of the essential defnition of design
culture is the notion of subjects culture, supplemented according to the
specifcs of designing.
One of the most important issues in design activity at a university
organisation appears to be the task of revealing students potential during
educational process by their participation in social designing.
An analysis of social designing as an object of scientifc research
(the analysed works are the works by Genisaretsky, Dridze, Kurbatov,
Lukova, Luks, etc.) allows to propose that, at the present point of the
civil society structure ,social designing is to become a brand new and a
more effective mechanism of adequate changes in the social practice.
It integrates the aggregate of activities: goal-setting, idea development,
target and tasks settings, constructing the realisation of the projects
mechanism and, fnally, the realisation of the projects intention as such.
Within the context of culturological knowledge, social designing is a
dominant element in the value ground of modern culture, disposing of
different facilities for the representation and exchange of information. At
the same time, the programmes of social designing permit to describe
education with its own natural life and its product our opinions and
observations, which make it possible to formulate laws as necessary
relations [3, 19].
Effcient contribution to a modern interpretation of the problem of
educational designing was made by the following researchers: Abuklina,
200
Vasilieva, Zapesotskaya. Glebova. Gonobolina, Krichevsky, Kuzmina,
Polat, Slastenina, Shcherbakova, etc. At present, the existing educational
design paradigm is to strengthen the status of education as a practically-
oriented science capable both of describing the real system of education
and of initiating and implementing real innovative educational practices.
the educational grounds of social designing are interpreted as an
educational systems order. The most important are the purposes for the
formation of a subjects personal features formation.
the need to determine the theory and methodology of the institu-
tionalisation of social designing in higher education pedagogy explains
the study of its modern organisational forms and addressing the problem
of defning this notion within educational innovation as one of the
directions of systems theory and process approach.
it is to be noticed that designing higher education pedagogy is to be
understood not as application of design methods, but as a deductive
construction based on leading principles of problem education, enriched
with ideas of competency approach, the content of design technologies
and the criteria of results evaluation [4].
an analysis of research works reveals the range of design culture
problems and permits to propose that there is no general opinion among
researchers according to the defnition of the notion. Accordingly, it would
be reasonable to generalise the scholars conclusions and to formulate
the term of subjects design activity. In our opinion a subjects design
culture is to be determined as an element of general culture, integrating
knowledge, skills and relationships applicable in traditional (technical)
designing, and humanity and social technologies.
Following a comparative analysis of culturological, sociological and
psycho-pedagogical sources, we suggest the following defnition of a
subjects design culture: a subjects design culture as a socially deter-
mined segment of persons general culture is a quality, a systemic,
dynamic condition characterised by a specifc level of knowledge on the
existing social process, formed values and social activity, integrated in
socially effcient design activity.
the urgency of the development of systems modelling technology and
the processes of innovative specialist training is based on an increased
intensity of generating social innovations. Hence the technologies are to
provide the process of dynamic process modelling aimed at formation
of skills, including diagnostic monitoring, differential diagnostic, risks
analysis and innovative changes modelling as well as innovative project
management technologies. The most signifcant criteria of university
201
student training are the complex skills: to implement systems analysis of
management solution process, to design task solution process, to apply
interdisciplinary knowledge for further development, explanation and
implementation of management solutions, to make forecasts, to generate
ideas, to develop and implement projects. The important task of innovative
education is seeking ways to develop an educational process based on
an integration of techno-social, natural-scientifc and ecologically social
factors. The educational programme includes mastering the special
modern management technologies, which requires inclusion of active
educational methods in educational process.
tools for the proposed issues of seeking solutions for innovative
education forms are development and implementation of the organisational
concepts at the university on the grounds of a combination of theory and
practical activity in the form of students participation in social designing,
whose concepts, methods and approaches at the present are to become
an integral element of management theory and practice.
the concept of the organisation of design activity in university
students professional training of students includes the characteristics of
the state of an innovative social environment , the aims of formation and
development of students design culture, the model of the organisation of
social designing, the technology of social designing, the conditions for its
realisation and the evaluation procedure of the formed integrated quality
of an individuals design culture.
Formation and development of the professional and cultural compe-
tences of modern specialists, including design culture, occur in the pro-
cess of systemic and purposeful education. At the same time, organi-
sation of educational innovation environment requires specifc organiza-
tional-educational conditions, thereby proving the necessity for the
development of a social designing model in educational process which
would meet a range of requirements to students design culture.
the logic of modelling is determined by the targets of higher education
institutions, particularly the aim of forming general cultural competencies
of modern specialists. The developed model corresponds to the task of
the transformation of the theoretical points of research into the practice
of its further testing, and is an interrelated aggregate of the target,
structure-content, organisational-process and diagnostic components of
individual students design activity as well as their participation in youth
associations and other public organisations, and in the design activity of
social partners and organisations interested in solving socially signifcant
problems of the region by design method.
202
the objectives of the stated stage of the experiment are the legacy and
effciency check of the theory of the structure of a subjects design culture,
proposition of the organisational concept of a students design activity in
the social educational environment of a university and correlation of the
derived results with the expected ones.
the educational experiment in mastering social design mastering
aimed at formation of students design culture includes the students of
State-fnanced higher educational institutions of the Ulyanovsk city and
the students of MAGU (Small academy of public administration) with the
basic university at the ulyanovsk region ulyanovsk State technical
University.
The duration of the experiment was 3 years. The frst stage included
the students mastering courses in social designing and their social
adaptation in the educational environment of a university; introducing
the social innovations implemented at the university; participating in the
implementation of social projects; and conducting independent research
of effcient realization of youth policy in the region.
the second year of the experiment implied the students to have
trainings at the agencies implementing youth policy at universities and
at the state and municipal authorities, to cumulate necessary information
for problem statement, and to target an individual social project. Later
the projects were developed, expertised and recommended for defence.
the best projects were recommended for participation in contests of
social projects under the Governor contest of youth development of the
Ulyanovsk region as well as at the district and federal level. The authors
of winner project made presentations of their projects with detailed
analyses. This kind of work allows for consolidating positive samples of
behaviour in student consciousness, stimulating individual project work
and forming motivation for success.
The fnal stage of social design technology is an implementation of
the developed projects in the social and educational environment of the
university. The recommended projects are tested iteratively. Experts
confrm or deny the urgency of implementing this idea and check the
declared fnancial and recourse requirements. In cases of a positive
decision, expenses of the project implementation are included into the
fnancing estimate of educational work with students. The project thereby
enters a phase of implementation.
this educational social design technology adapted for students
ascertained needs in mastering the skills of designing gives an opportunity
for the students to apply their knowledge in practice (both in designing
203
and humanities history, law, philosophy, social science, etc.). The
main educational task in the development and implementation of social
projects is to train an interest in getting knowledge, give a possibility for
students to fnd their application in life and their profession.
the forming stage of the represented experiment is an implementation
of a social design organisational model: formation of students motivation
to activity in the management of the social development of regional
youth with creativity that allows to transfer knowledge and values of the
society into sustainable features of personality; realisation of design
technologies, thereby optimising the process of social design and linking
specifc knowledge on social design, relations, creative activity and work
of social institutions.
in order to reveal and analyse the dynamics of active-behavioural
component formation of a subjects design culture, we tested the projects
developed by the students.
It is also to be noticed that, according to the accumulated experience,
the level of the problem readiness and the foundation of proposed
solutions depends directly on the ability of the students to actively
participate in implementing social innovations. Students projects with
highest scores show the highest level of socialisation and meet all the
requirements of social designing.
an example of successful technology mastering is the project by
Tatyana Dolgopolova, the winner of the All-Russian contest of youth
projects in the social sphere at St. Petersburg in 2010. The project
Foundation of an ecology crew for reconstruction of the springs of
the ulyanovsk region was developed and executed on the grounds of
cooperation and interaction with Regional childrens ecology centre.
the purpose of the project was forming a young ecology crew for
reconstruction and restoration of the springs of the ulyanovsk region and
for improvement of the surrounding territory. The author was awarded a
prize For the support of talented youth within the decree of the President
of Russian Federation from April, 6, 2006 135 on the measures of state
support of talented youth. The project was supported by the Ministry of
Forestry, Nature and Ecology of the Ulyanovsk region and recommended
for implementation in all municipal establishments of the region.
Conclusions
as a conclusion to the article on the the formation students design
culture, we would like to underline the importance of the formation of
youth design culture for overcoming of negative processes related to
204
implementation of thoughtless and poorly proved social innovations. We
consider sustainable development as an integrating purpose of change
designing and management in social systems; in turn, higher education
institutions are to solve the problem of implementing new methods
and educational technologies aimed at formation and development of
students design culture.
During their work on social innovative projects, students acquire
necessary knowledge and management skills, master new procedures of
social technology development and implementation and, therefore, new
methods of organising sustainable development management at different
levels of social and economical systems and their development.
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tsipalnogo upravleniya [Innovation social technologies of state and municipal
administration] / V.N. Ivanov, V.I. Patrushev. - ., 2001. - 319.
Luks G. A. Sotsialnoe innovatsionnoe proektirovanie v regionalnoi molodezhnoi
politike [Social innovative design in regional youth policy] / G.A. Luks. -
Samara.: Published Samarsky univesitet, 2003. - 278.
Mamardashvili M. K. Strela pozaniya [Arrow of cognition]/ M. K. Mamardashvili. -
.: Yazyki russkoi kultury, 1997. 304.
Svechnikov K. L. Realizatsiya metoda proektov v gumanitarnoi podgotovke
studentov uchrezhdeny srednego professionalnogo obrazovaniya: Avtoreferat
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25.
205
re-thinking marketing university education for
sustainable development: the case of kenya
Jonah nyaga kindiki
Moi University, Kenya.
Abstract. A survey design for public and private universities in
Kenya was carried out utilising library literature as the main qualitative
approach. The objectives of this paper worked as a framework on which
library literature was reviewed in order to investigate (1) the relevance
of curriculum offered in universities in Kenya, (2) university graduates
unemployment, (3) uniformity in the sector and (4) effects of the rapid
expansion of universities. The results indicate that (1) marketed curri-
culum is perceived and understood differently by customers, (2) cus-
tomer-focused curricula minimise unemployment, (3) universities lack
uniformity due to diversifed orientations and (4) individual customers
pursue education when benefts overweigh costs. This paper concludes
that higher education could foster sustainable development if universities
offered customer-focused curriculum with programmes relevant to job
market in order to minimise graduate unemployment, maintain uniformity
and uncontrolled expansion.
Key words: sustainable, development, marketing, university, educa-
tion.
Introduction
the concept of marketing university education which fosters sustain-
able development is widely acknowledged in the developed world but
the practice in Kenya has not yet attained strategic levels. Education
for sustainable development should contribute to full personal sustained
development which involves precisely the development of those cognitive
and other social powers that allow individuals effectively to participate in
democratically constituted communities and thereby to control their lives
(Cole, 1988: 17, Rodney, 2005: 73).
How can marketed university education foster education for
sustainable development?
Despite the well documented version to marketing university education
in developed world there is little or no well-documented support for a
206
growing culture of marketisation in the developing world (Wragg, 1993,
Scott, 1999, as cited in Maringe, 2004: 54). This may indicate limited
literature and publication base. In a rapidly globalised world, higher
education is becoming an international commodity at the marketplace
for customers. Customers in education encompass wide-ranging groups
of people and individuals from prospective students, current students,
former students, donors, government, the business world, employers
and internal employees. A customer in this case is defned as anyone
in a current or potential relationship with the university whose needs are
considered as paramount in various decisions at different levels within
the broad framework of the overall mission of education. The customer
concept is perceived to be a contentious one particularly in the feld of
education. Partly, because the concept is considered alien, as it has
emerged from business world. More signifcant, however, is the concern
that ascribing the customer label in education minimises the nature
of relationships between institutions and those they relate with. In the
business world, relationships with customers are often transactional
based on notions of exchange of goods and services between the
providers and the customers. In education, relationships are thought to
go beyond transaction to encompass partnership with external audiences
and public accountability through funding arrangements and those who
deal with standards and assessment (Foskett, 1999, as cited in Maringe,
2004: 57).
Marketed university education can foster education for sustainable
development in Kenya by minimising inequalities among the customers
who have unequal incomes. According to Bowles and Gintis (1976:
89, 103) inequalities of opportunities available for quality education
persistently lie on the dynamics of economic life. The roots of unequal
incomes and inequality of opportunities alike lie not in human nature, not
in technology, not in the educational system itself, but in the dynamics
of economic life. Furthermore, educational system legitimates economic
inequality by providing an open, objective and ostensibly meritocratic
mechanism for assigning individuals to unequal economic positions.
the educational system fosters and reinforces the belief that economic
success for education for sustainable development depends essentially
on the possession of technical and cognitive skills skills which it is
organized to provide in an effcient, equitable, and unbiased manner on
the basis of a meritocratic principle. Educational system therefore fosters
inequality by providing open meritocratic mechanism for assigning indivi-
duals to unequal economic positions through the certifcates, diplomas
and degrees offered.
207
the use of educational system to legitimise inequality has its own
challenges. Ideologies and structures which serve to hide and preserve
one form of injustice often provide the basis of an assault on another.
even if universities are encouraged to offer relevant curriculum to job
market, customer choice is encouraged to maintain uniformity, allowed
to control their meagre budgets and expansion, the ideology, philosophy
and perception of offering equal opportunities to quality sustainable
education, and meritocracy is precisely such a contradictory mechanism.
the contradictions within education system and contradictions in the social
formation reproduce socio-economic inequalities. These contradictions
lie in the philosophical assumptions of business organisation which
moulds universities into forms favourable to the needs of the capitalist
accumulation and reproduction of the subservient position of students
who are future workers in a capitalist production state (Bowles & Gintis,
1976: 103, Gintis & Bowles, 1976, as cited in Cole, 1988: 16, 23, Harber
& Davies, 1997: 86).
university education could forester education for sustainable develop-
ment by widening access for economic and social justice, and manpower
development. It is argued that widening is not just a case of increasing the
number of university places. It is more a case of developing programmes
which are marketable and that the customers of universities will be
willing to access. For example, in the new constitution of Kenya which
recognises devolution of power in the counties educational change will
focus on taking university education closer to people. Marketing strategies
for university education which fosters sustainable development will thus
become both a guiding philosophy and strategy for enabling universities
to develop and deliver programmes that meet the customers needs in
their counties. It is thus erroneous to think marketing university education
which fosters education for sustainable development is merely a tool for
selling university products to customers. If integrated into coherent
discipline, information in marketing university education could provide
a useful source of ideas, innovation, and inspiration to those individuals
challenged with the responsibility of ensuring that university education
for sustainable development not only survives but thrives.
university education could foster education for sustainable develop-
ment by offering fresh perspectives with new ideas, approaches,
and advice about promising new techniques and trends in university
management. Such information could help universities to attract new
students, identify and reach new groups of potential customers, ensure
better utilisation of existing programmes, make the best use of marketing
208
resources, improve retention rates, coordinate institution-wide efforts
and get to and stay on the cutting edge.
Success with the implementation of education for sustainable
development in kenya
Strategically, Kenya has achieved success with the implementation
of education for sustainable development in that the marketed university
programmes are helping graduates to be self-employed rather than
focusing on white collar jobs. These initiatives are widening employment
opportunities, especially for university graduates. The government is
also putting more emphasis on the development of more small-scale
and cottage industries by promoting the informal sector, that is, Jua
Kali sector. Recently, there has been an explosive growth in world-wide
interest in the informal sector as a panacea for the problems of poverty
and unemployment. Kenya was where the term informal sector was frst
used in 1971. During the 1980s the term Jua Kaliin Swahili hot sun
came to be used of the informal sector artisans, such as car workers and
metalworkers, who were working under the hot sun because of a lack of
premises. Gradually it came to refer to anybody in self-employment. And
in 1988 the government set up the Jua Kali Development Programme.
Jua Kali sector is being promoted by providing credit facilities to the
youth, especially university graduates, and improving infrastructure.
Also, progressive success is seen in areas of gender equality by
providing equal opportunities in access to university education and
integrating environmental issues in higher education. There is a major
emphasis on developing curriculum, particularly at the university level
which addresses affrmatively the issues of gender and environment. On
issues of regional cooperation, the Government of Kenya is restructuring
the economy by creating greater regional co-operation and by providing
incentives to the various investors, for instance, the establishment of
the East African Community (EAC), the Economic Community of West
African States (ECOWAS), the Common Market for Eastern, Southern
Africa (COMESA) which promote regional economic integration through
trade and investment and intergovernmental authority on Development
(IGAD). Locally, the District Focus for Rural Development (DFRD) and
Constituency Development Fund (CDF) aims to promote equitable
distribution of resources and provision of job opportunities in the rural
areas in Kenya.
209
Issues with the implementation of education for sustainable
development in kenya
there are issues with the implementation of education for sustainable
development in Kenya concerning the relevance of curriculum offered
in universities, the university graduates employment, uniformity in the
sector and the effects of uncontrolled expansion.
relevance of curriculum offered in universities
Universities in Kenya are aggressively addressing the issues of the
relevance of curriculum by laying emphasis on globally demanded skills
for sustainable development. But, due to reduction in the governments
budgets for public schooling in Kenya, university lecturers have put
pressure on the government to maintain their wages or to have them
decreased at slower rates, and it has been easiest for the government to
respond to these pressures by cutting teaching materials and supplies
crucial to curriculum rather than salaries. New university lecturers in Kenya
have not been hired in past two decades due to under funding, causing
class sizes to rise. In some cases, university lecturers are lecturing over
one thousand (1000) students in one lecture hall, sometimes teaching in
various distant campuses the same day. There is inadequate delivery of
curriculum content to students and Kenya suffers the challenge of offering
irrelevant curriculum. And again, due to purchasing power for university
lecturers salaries decrease, they have become disenfranchised from the
larger meaning of offering relevant curriculum through vibrant teaching
and research and have spend more of their time and effort in attempting
to retain wages and benefts. On the other hand, universities have
commercialised their degree programmes by opening campuses which
are increasingly becoming unmanageable. One can fnd more than ten
(10) of different universities in one city.
Perhaps, starting many campuses is a fnancial survival approach
for universities, even if in some cases this is happening at the expense
offering irrelevant curriculum which is increasingly lowering academic
standards, leading to unemployment of graduates in the job market. In
such a scenario, university education cannot effectively foster education
for sustainable development; hence there is need of re-thinking marketing
strategies for higher education in Kenya.
Where focus of university mission is on issues of curricular relevance
and the customers needs, marketing perceptions and understanding are
more customers focused. Although universities in Kenya have developed
a complex system of myriads of institutions differentiated along curricular
210
traditions refected in their traditional overall provision and organisation,
they could develop customer-focused curriculum strategy which could
help them to market programmes relevant to the job market, thus reducing
high levels of university graduates unemployment, encouraging uniformity
in the sector and subsequently addressing the issues of uncontrolled
expansion. Traditional universities whose missions remain transfxed in
the models of excellence in teaching, research and service tend to exhibit
product orientations of marketing. There is need for re-thinking marketing
strategies and conducting robust research to explore how universities in
less developed countries like Kenya are coping and what progress they
are making in attempts to develop market orientation concepts which
could foster university education for sustainable development (Maringe,
2004).
university graduates unemployment
Although the UNDP Report (2005) on education pointed out that many
young people today are better educated than any previous generation,
millions are unemployed and this poses a grave challenge to issues
with implementation of university education which fosters education
for sustainable development. This challenge raises questions on the
relevance of marketed degree programmes and employability.
in the early years following the attainment of political independence
in many African countries, there was an urgent need for rapid expansion
of education and training facilities for replacing expatriates in the private
sector by local manpower. In Africa, in the 60s and 70s, there were
signifcant changes in ideas about the links between education and
employment. The economists were worried that major bottlenecks to
economic growth would occur in the developing countries because they
lacked high and middle-level human resource. Strong emphasis was
placed on human resource planning and it was felt that there was need
to make accurate assessments of economic needs. In order to make the
best use of scarce resources, educational output was related to these
needs (Republic of Kenya, 1965, Bray et al., 1986: 36).
But recently Kenya has witnessed a general increase in unemployed
qualifed university graduates. The number of university graduates has
increased faster than the number of job opportunities at the level to
which they aspire. It is now realised that Kenya faces an excess of highly
educated labour; the average level of education force has increased,
as well as the average level of education among the unemployed. The
private demand for education and facilities is very strong, due to high
211
income differentials enjoyed by the educated and skilled workers, and the
low private cost of education which is highly subsidised by the state. The
corollary of this demand is that growth in the number of educated young
people leaving schools and universities every year has outstripped the
annual growth in the number of new jobs of the type that is sought by them
(Wanjigi, 1983:33). Although it may be severe in Kenya, unemployment
is a worldwide problem. There is no universally agreed defnition of what
precisely constitutes unemployment. In any given country, the nature and
characteristics of the employment problem depend on the structure and
characteristics of the stage of development of its economy. Therefore,
given the structure and diversity of Kenyas economy, the problem of
unemployment is diffcult to defne.
Factors associated with university graduate unemployment are
universal but there are those that are context specifc. In Kenyan context,
rapid population growth is a major factor leading to unemployment
of university graduates. Population growth has increased students
enrolments at university level; yet, the rate of job creation at various
sectors of the economy is low. There is low absorption of university
graduates at the various sections of the economy due to slow growth of
the economy, which increases the rate of unemployment. Many investors
in Kenya are foreigners. They encourage high capital labour ration as a
result of adopting a capital-intensive approach against labour-intensive
approach to production. That means very few university graduates
are absorbed in the labour market. Also inappropriate technological
applications contribute to university graduates unemployment. Kenya is
heavily dependent on imported technology, which for the most part is
highly capital-intensive. Such technologies change so rapidly that they
sometimes become obsolete before they are fully mastered. The use of
capital-intensive methods of production has been justifed on the grounds
that such methods are more favourable to the growth of output and that
they generate more savings than labour-intensive methods. It is argued
that, with the increased savings, the economy would then afford to invest
in activities with high employment creation potential (Wanjigi, 1983:12).
imbalance in sectoral budgetary allocations is another factor contri-
buting to graduates unemployment in Kenya. Some sectors in Kenya get
more fund allocations than others, for instance, tourism, defence, internal
security, special programmes, trade, industry and education. Therefore,
the growth rate of different sectors defnitely varies. Sectors allocated
more funds grow better than those who get less. This has created
disproportion to labour absorptive capacity. Also, low rates of capital
212
accumulation contribute to the unemployment of university graduates.
The capital level of investment depends on the level of savings. But the
level of expenditure by most members of the society is very high while
the level of saving is very low. Although the growth of economy depends
mainly on savings, the rate at which many investors expand their frms in
terms of the scale of operation is very low (Wanjigi, 1983).
there is also a mismatch between job expectations or aspirations
and job opportunities of the university graduates. It seems there is failure
of the education system to equip the learners with the relevant skills and
knowledge in the employment market. Universities in Kenya are now
marketing programmes relevant to the employment market. Thus, some
traditional courses are gradually becoming very unpopular. Rural-urban
imbalance in job opportunities also contributes to unemployment. This
has occurred partly due to the failure of development programmes to
focus on areas with the greatest employment creation potential. The
pattern of development in Kenya has in the past been heavily biased
towards urban development. Although, the various development plans
since independence have recognized the importance of directing more
attention to rural development, the provision of basic infrastructure
which would stimulate the expansion of productive activities and
therefore employment have not kept pace with the growing labour force.
this in turn has resulted in the migration of people to the urban areas
in search of employment either in the formal or in the informal sector
(Wanjigi, 1983:12-13). It is believed that in the urban areas many job
opportunities exist within the private and public sectors. But some of the
university graduates are equipped with skills not relevant to the needs
of employment market. Some university graduates fail to get jobs when
they pursue traditional programmes, which leads to scarce white-collar
jobs.
university graduates unemployment is a major hindrance to education
for sustainable development. There is need for the government to provide
credit facilities to university graduates to enable them to start their own
business; fnd ways and means of curbing rural urban migration by the
means of rural work programmes; remove barriers to labour mobility
between other countries by relaxing immigration policy, although this
solution may have a major disadvantage of encouraging brain drain. There
is need for encouraging a one person-one job policy; the importance of
early retirement benefts, especially reviving the initiatives of awarding
golden handshake where those opting for early retirement are given
some agreed amount of money to start individual income generating
projects which fosters sustainable development.
213
uniformity in the university sector
there is no clear uniformity in the university sector due to uncontrolled
expansion which has created various categories of universities in Kenya.
The Mackay report (1984) recommended an appropriate site for second
university in Kenya and an eight year span of primary education, a four
year secondary education and a four year university education. The
establishment of the Commission for Higher Education (CHE) in 1985 by
the Universities Act (1985, cap. 210B) aimed at making better provisions
for the advancement of university education in Kenya for connected
purposes. In the early 1980s, Kenya envisaged the urgent need to look
into ways of expanding university education to accommodate the 8-4-
4 graduates. Due to this expansion, currently Kenya has three broad
types of universities - the public ones, the private chartered ones and
the private ones with the letters of interim operation. The frst category of
public universities in Kenya tends to:
have higher student and staff population
have more residential students and staff
have more full time staff than part time staff
offer more programmes to school leavers with better grades at
KCSE
exhibit a philosophy of higher education based on the mediaeval
conviction that universities deal with knowledge for its own sake
be extremely meritocratic, and base its enrolment criteria on the
highest possible entry criteria
have a broad based curriculum provision catering for the majority
of traditional university disciplines.
The second category of private chartered universities tends to:
have less student and staff population
have less residential students and staff
have more part time staff than full time staff
offer programmes to school leavers with poorer grade at KCSE,
adult and mature students.
the third category of private chartered universities with letters of
interim operation offers specialised programmes and has not satisfed
the criteria of evaluation of commission for higher education. Many
universities in this category are church related and offer theology based
courses which appeal to small groups of customers.
Due to these categories of universities operating in Kenya, it is
diffcult to control colleges which they collaborate with. Some colleges/
institutions consult universities authorised to operate and offer degrees
214
in Kenya while others do not. Since universities in Kenya do not
constitute a unifed sector, they have developed into a complex system
of institutions differentiated along curricula traditions refected in their
traditional overall provision and organisation. Conventional universities
whose missions remain transfxed in models of excellence in teaching,
research and community service tend to offer education relevant to the
job market which contributes to sustainable development. The non-
conventional universities whose mission remains transfxed in the models
of competition for students and money tends to offer education irrelevant
to the job market and which does not foster sustainable development.
Thus, universities in Kenya lack uniformity due to diversifed orientations;
hence the need to re-think about marketing programmes which could
foster sustainable development.
Uncontrolled expansion
The proliferation of universities in Kenya has ushered a new environ-
ment of increased competition, diversity and choice of programmes
amidst what has been described as negative trends. The public is blaming
universities for commercialisation and massifcation of education by
opening campuses all over, a practice that is likely to affect academic
standards. Other effects of the proliferation of universities in Africa are
loss of staff, especially from public universities, and an overall decline of
the image of the university from national to regional levels, coupled with
increasingly reduced government funding. Such an environment poses
serious challenges to the programmes offered in universities and requires
attending to ensure not just the survival of the institutions but their ability
to cope with the rapidly changing environment (Maringe, 2004: 55).
In the context of uncontrolled expansion, proliferation and massifcation
of university education, individual customers pursue education when
benefts overweigh costs. Competition for jobs becomes fercer and
more widespread. Rich customers are increasingly willing to put their
funds into PSSP programmes. Poor customers have little choice but to
enrol in degree programmes offered by Joint Admissions Board (JAB)
because the fee payments are subsidised by the government. Even after
subsidy some cannot afford and are encouraged to apply for loan from
Higher Education Loans Board (HELB). The government sponsored
programmes are unattractive to employers and do not promise
employment after completion. In fact, given the choice, employers choose
the former than the latter. The quality of education in the universities
in Kenya is deteriorating, but so are the benefts. When employment
215
opportunities are limited and the wages for existing jobs are set at an
internationally competitive low scale, these is little incentive to stay in
education past some basic level. Returns to education are low and
access to the type of education that could have high pay-offs is limited
to the rich customers because of high private costs. The implications of
this distinction are not trivial for education if the uncontrolled expansion
is allowed and proliferation and massifcation of university education in
Kenya is celebrated.
results
The results indicate that (1) there is a possible relationship between
the way marketing is perceived and understood by customers (2) where
focus of university mission is on the issues of the relevance of curriculum
and the customers needs , marketing perceptions and understanding
are more customers focused.
Conclusions
this paper concludes that higher education could foster sustainable
development if universities offered customer-focused curriculum, which
could help them develop programmes relevant to job market in order
to minimise graduates unemployment, maintain uniformity in the sector
and control their expansion.

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217
Education and training of pharmacists in lithuania
and Italy: a comparative analysis
Vilija Grinceviien
Vilnius Pedagogical University
Nora Grinceviit,
Teva pharmaceuticals
Jonas Grinceviius, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences

Abstract. In European Union countries pharmacy specialists are

educated and trained according to different programmes. The analysis
of the Lithuanian University of Health Sciences and Italian universities
pharmacists education and training programs reveals certain differences.
In Lithuania, there is only one university where pharmacists are educated.
This leads to a unifed study program. Pharmacy faculties in Italy have
2 degrees: Pharmacy (Farmacia) and Pharmaceutical Chemistry and
Technology (Chimica e tecnologia farmaceutiche). The pharmacy degree
is oriented at training for work in pharmacies, whereas chemical pharmacy
is aimed at work in laboratories. In Lithuania, pharmacists have two
options following graduation from university: to choose doctoral studies
in biomedicine or go directly to work (in pharmacies/ pharmaceutical
companies). Italian pharmacy specialists have more options at hand:
1) doctoral studies, 2) work (in pharmacies/ pharmaceutical companies/
laboratories), 3) specialised studies, which allow pharmacists to also work
in hospitals later on. Specialised studies for pharmacists are not available
in Lithuania.
Key words: education of pharmacist, chemical pharmacy, pharmacy,
higher education, specialisation.
Introduction
During the Lithuanian Education system reform, ambitious goals were
set, namely, to make the education system capable of helping every
member of society develop a system of knowledge, and acquire certain
competence in order for a person to properly understand economic and
social processes and take an active part in them. The provisions of the
State Education Strategy for the year 2003-2012 stipulate the following:
the development of the lithuanian education system shall achieve that
by the year 2012 every Lithuanian citizen should have an opportunity to
pursue studies at a higher education institution in a chosen form (distance,
part-time or other form of studies) and over 60 per cent of Lithuanian
218
youth should acquire higher university or non-university education; the
Lithuanian higher education should join the single European Higher
Education Area (Provisions of State Education Strategy 2003-2012,
2003).
the analysis of international and lithuanian documents setting the
education development guidelines (Sorbonne Declaration 1998, Bologna
Declaration 1999, Prague Communiqu 2001, Berlin Communiqu
2003, Bergen Communiqu 2005, London Communiqu 2007, Leuven
Communiqu 2009, the Law on Education of the Republic of Lithuania
1991 (and more recent versions of the law), the Law on Science and
Study of the Republic of Lithuania 2009, the provisions of the State
Education Strategy for the year 20032012) suggests that the issue of
education quality has recently been gaining importance in the area of
higher education as well as other parts of education system.
the law on Science and Study of the republic of lithuania emphasises
that the mission of science and studies is to help ensure prosperity
of society, culture and economy in the state, to serve as a basis and
stimulus for a full-rate life of every citizen of the Republic of Lithuania,
and to satisfy the natural desire for knowledge. The Lithuanian science
and study policy ensures good quality of science and studies as well as
equal rights to higher education for all citizens of the state and conditions
to do scientifc work and strive for scientifc and creative development for
the most capable ones; it monitors the compliance between the science
and study system and the needs of society and economy, it supports the
openness of the system as well as its integration into the international
area of scientifc research and higher education (The Law on Science
and Study of the Republic of Lithuania, 2009).
aim of the research: to look into and analyse pharmacist training
system and career opportunities in Lithuania and Italy.
goals: 1. To introduce current Lithuanian higher education system;
2. To review the particularities of pharmacist training and career oppor-
tunities; 3. To introduce Italian higher education system; 4. To review
the pharmacist training system and career opportunities in Italy; 5. To
compare pharmacist training systems and career opportunities in
Lithuanian and Italy.
The lithuanian education system consists of seven levels that
can be compared to the levels of International Standard Classifcation of
Education (ISCED, 1997). On each educational level specifc goals are
achieved by implementing appropriate programmes. Level 6 contains
higher education studies (see Fig. 1).
219
Fig.1. Lithuanian higher education system: credits and duration
Currently there are 4 higher education institutions operating
in Lithuania, including 22 universities (14 state and 8 independent
universities) and 23 colleges (13 state and 10 independent colleges).
Higher education studies are of two types: non-university and university
studies. Non-university studies are of one cycle. They take 3-4 years.
the graduates are issued a diploma of higher education stating the
higher education acquired, professional Bachelors qualifcation
degree and professional qualifcation achieved. Higher education non-
university studies are implemented by colleges. College graduates,
following bridging courses (professional practice), can continue studies
at university-level higher education institutions. University studies are
implemented by university-level higher education institutions. University
studies are of three cycles: the frst cycle covers bachelors degree, the
second cycle includes Masters degree or special professional studies,
220
and the third cycle covers doctoral, residency studies or doctoral studies
of arts.
University studies can also be of integrated type, when the frst and
second cycles are merged. Lithuanian University of Health Sciences (the
only of its kind in the country) organises integrated studies in pharmacy
and provides the qualifcation degree of master in pharmacy as well as
pharmacist professional qualifcation. The duration of the studies is fve
years (300 credits, 10 semesters, and fve years, each of them consisting
of 60 credits).
The Pharmacy study programme consists of several blocks: general
subjects, specialised subjects, elective and optional courses. There are
no specialisations. The studies end in a fnal examination or defending
a master thesis. Recently, an increasing number of students choose
defending a master thesis even though the majority of future pharmacy
specialists still sit a fnal examination.
A master in pharmacy, a pharmacist, when planning a career inside
the country, chooses work in pharmacies, pharmaceutical companies or
continues studies in the third cycle, namely, doctoral studies.
The Italian higher education system
Italy has played an important role in European higher education: it
is one of the four countries that frst engaged to create the so-called
European Area of Higher Education (Sorbonne Declaration, May
1998), thus starting that type of higher education reform which, known
as Bologna Process (Bologna Declaration, June 1999) is being
implemented all over Europe. (Ministero dellIstruzione, dellUniversit
e della Ricerca n.d.)
In Italy, like in Lithuania, higher education is structured in a binary
system, consisting of two main articulations: the university sector and the
non-university sector. At present, the university sector is made up of 89
university institutions which are classifed in:
58 State universities (Universit statali)
17 non-State universities, legally recognised by the State (Uni-
versit non statali, legalmente riconosciute
3 technical universities (Politecnici)
2 universities for foreigners (Universit per Stranieri)
6 higher schools specialised in postgraduate university studies
(ScuoleSuperior)
6 telematic universities (Universit telematiche).
221
the non-university sector includes 4 education typologies with their
institutions:
higher schools of design: polytechnics for the arts, academies of
fne arts, higher institutes for applied arts, music conservatories
and recognised music institutes, higher institutes for musical and
choreographic studies, national academies.
higher education in language mediation: higher schools for
language mediators
higher integrated education (FIS): programmes of higher technical
education & training (IFTS)
a few specifc felds (e.g. archiving, diplomatic, restoration, military
studies, etc.) which, along with their respective institutions, fall
under the supervision of ministries other than that of Education.
(Italian Higher Education for International Students n.d.)
The course is divided into three cycles: the frst cycle, the second cycle
and single-cycle, as well as the third cycle are specialisation and doctoral
studies. There are also further opportunities for deepening knowledge in
the three levels of study: Master of level 1, Master of level 2 and advanced
training courses. Integrated studies consisting of 300 credits are also
available for the following: Architecture, Law, Engineering / Architecture,
Veterinary, Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, and
those of 360 credits are available for Medicine and Dentistry. Moreover, an
integrated study program of four years is available for Primary education
Teacher Training. The 1
st
cycle degree consists of 180 credits, with the
duration of 3 years. The 2
nd
cycle degree and Master of Science degree
consists of 120 credits, with the duration of 2 years. The 3
rd
cycle includes
PhD studies, with the duration of 3/4 years, as well as specialisation
studies, the duration of which depends on the academic regulations.
Further possibilities of cross-sectional study are the following: the
Master of level 1 or level 2, consisting of 60 credits and taking one year of
studies. These programmes do not provide any qualifcation. Advanced
training courses and continued education consist of a degree and diploma
(for those who have professional experience considered suitable). These
studies do not provide any qualifcation. See Fig. 2.
222
Fig. 2. the italian higher education system
In Italy pharmacy studies are available in many universities. Of the total
of 89 higher education institutions operating in Italy, every third university
has a faculty of Pharmacy. (The European Education directory n.d.)
the list of the universities providing a possibility to study pharmacy in
alphabetical order is the following. (Cerca universita n.d.) See Table 1.
Table1. university list
university list where is pharmacy faculty
1 University of Bari Aldo Moro 17 university of napoli
2 university of Basilicata 18 university of Padova
3 university of Bologna 19 university of Palermo
4 university of Cagliari 20 university of Parma
university of Calabria 21 university of Pavia
6 university of Camerino 22 university of Perugia
7 university of Catania 23 University of Piemonte Orientale
Amedeo Avogadro
8 University of Catanzaro Magna Graecia 24 university of Pisa
9 University of Chieti-Pescara G.
dAnnunzio
25 University of Roma La Sapienza
10 university of Ferrara 26 University of Roma Tor Vergata
11 university of Firenze 27 university of Salerno
12 University of Genova 28 university of Sassari
13 university of Messina 29 university of Siena
14 university of Milano 30 university of torino
1 university of Modena e reggio emilia 31 university of trieste
16 University of Napoli Federico II 32 University of Urbino Carlo BO
223
Pharmacist training pattern in Italy is the following:
1) degree in Pharmaceutical Chemistry Technology or Pharmacy (5
years)
2) practical training (6 months)
3) examination for certifcation of the profession.
The pharmacy study programme includes the study of the purpose
of medicines, their composition, storage and distribution; throughout
the course the students are provided with the necessary knowledge
on drugs used on public and private basis, which a pharmacist uses
in order to ensure public health. Following a six-month internship at a
pharmacy experienced during the studies, the graduate is allowed to
take the State Exam. In Italy and in Europe, a degree in medicine will
assume responsibility for manufacturing and control of medicines, food
and cosmetics testing laboratories and responsibility for the analysis
of drugs, production of medical devices, responsibility for preparation,
storage and distribution of medicines in pharmacies (public pharmacies
and hospitals), as well as allows graduates to provide scientifc information
on medicinal products.
they can take responsibility for the preparation of serums and
vaccines, etc. In pharmacies, in addition to distribution, graduates can
also work in providing counselling and health education. Pharmacy
graduates can hold leading positions in planning and monitoring in other
locations including Institutes of Research. In hospitals, pharmacists
prepare medicines, control their distribution to various departments and
provide advice to the medical professionals. They may also participate in
competitions for secondary school teaching qualifcation and later work
in secondary and high schools.
the goal of the degree in pharmaceutical Chemistry and Tech-
nology is to prepare specialists with the expertise in chemical sciences
to work in biological and pharmaceutical sectors. Specifc areas include:
design and synthesis of drugs, identifcation of natural molecules of
therapeutic interest, as well as defnition of their action, the study of
pharmaceutical formulation and methods of analysis of the drug. The
Council of europes professional roles indicated some fundamental
research in the pharmaceutical sector, supervising the production of
pharmaceuticals; responsibility for the preparation, quality and distribution
of drugs, cooperation in the feld of public health and in hospitals, medical
information science, promoting the proper use of medications, and health
education of society. This degree is an advantage for the management of
the laboratories that produce medicines. Following six months of training
224
in an authorised pharmacy or a laboratory and having passed the exami-
nation for a license to practice as a pharmacist, graduates can also
access the employment opportunities of graduates in Pharmacy, namely,
public pharmacies, hospitals and government health insurance systems,
they may cooperate at public and private research laboratories, public
audit institutions and industries (chemical, pharmaceutical, cosmetics,
etc.). The graduates may also participate in competitions for certifcation
to teach in secondary and high schools.
the two programmes of pharmacist training also differ in the manner of
performing the required six-month training period prior to the examination
of the Register: the graduate in Pharmacy is receiving training in the ffth
year, while the graduate in Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology
does it after the graduation examination.
Recently, alongside the Master of Science in Pharmacy and Pharma-
ceutical Chemistry and Technology, some universities have introduces a
University Diploma (DU) in Scientifc Information on Drugs.
The University Diploma (DU) in Scientifc Information on Drugs
is aimed at training professionals recognised at European level. The DU
program lasts for three years and is divided into courses aimed at providing
the student with basic training and more specifc vocational knowledge.
The diploma in Scientifc Information on Drugs is the one that provides
specifc professional knowledge in the feld of drugs, dietary products
and diagnostics, enabling graduates to work in the feld of the registration
of medicinal products for human or veterinary use, and other areas,
such as the National Health Service, to present and explain to doctors
and pharmacists the composition and technological characteristics as
well as therapeutic effcacy, contraindications, modes of use, and the
optimal dosage of a medicinal product. This task also stipulated in the
provisions on pharmacovigilance of the Legislative Decree. With these
skills and competences the student will be able to fnd employment in the
pharmaceutical or nutraceutical industry, where rapid scientifc progress
has a large impact on the proper dissemination of information. More
possibilities for placement can be found in public institutions, health
services provision and administration. (Pharmaonline n.d.)
Specialisation studies
the following is an overview of all possible specialisation studies in
Pharmacy that a graduate in Pharmaceutical Chemistry and technology
may attend at italian universities.
For each specialisation, the abbreviation for the university headquar-
ters, the place of the course and its duration is given. See Table 2.
225
Table 2. Specialisation list
Specializations
years years
Biotechnological applications 3 Methods of chemical control and
analysis
2
Biochemistry and Clinical
Chemistry
* Microbiology and virology 4
Marine Biochemistry 3 Medical Oncology *4
Chemistry and Food technology 2 Clinical Pathology *
Chemistry and technology of
organic and natural
3 animal science lab **2
experimental endocrinology 3 elements Science *4
industrial Pharmacy 3 Science and techniques of Medicinal
Plants
3
Hospital Pharmacy 3 Cosmetic Science and technology 2
Pharmacognosy 3 Chemical Synthesis 2
Pharmacology 2/*4 Health Statistics *3
Hygiene *2 technology for the production of sugar
and alcohol
2
toxicology 3/*4
*the application may be made to the Faculty of Medicine
** the application may be made to the Faculty of veterinary Medicine
Having analysed and compared pharmacy specialist study plan
in Lithuania and Italy, the following differences were revealed: a) the
Lithuanian Pharmacy study programme in integrated (without any
specialisations), whereas in Italy two study felds are present: pharmacy
and pharmaceutical chemistry and technology; b) differences between
Pharmacy ant pharmaceutical chemistry and technology was noticed.
the Pharmacy study program includes the study of the purpose of
medicines, their composition, storage and distribution; throughout the
course the students are provided with the necessary knowledge on
drugs used on public and private basis, which a pharmacist uses in
order to ensure public health. The goal of the degree in Pharmaceutical
Chemistry and technology is to prepare specialists with the expertise
in chemical sciences to work in biological and pharmaceutical sectors.
Specifc areas include: design and synthesis of drugs, identifcation of
natural molecules of therapeutic interest, as well as defnition of their
action, the study of pharmaceutical formulation and methods of analysis
of the drug (University of Bologna n.d.). c) Lithuanian study plan have
similarities with both Italian programmes: Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical
chemistry and Technology (Lithuanian University of Health Sciences
n.d.).For study plan details see Table 3.
226
Table 3. pharmacist (lithuania and Italy) and pharmaceutical
Chemistry and Technology (Italy) study plan
Comparative analysis
pharmacy studies lT
(luHS)
pharmacy IT
(university of Bo)
pharmaceutical
chemistry and
technology IT
(university of Bo)
Subject
Cre-
dits
Subject
CFu
Cre-
dits
Subject
CFu
Cre-
dits
1st year
General and inorganic
Chemistry
6 General and
inorganic Chemistry
10 General and
inorganic
Chemistry
9
essential animal biology 3 animal biology 4 animal biology
Basics of human
anatomy
3 Human anatomy 10 Human anatomy 4
Pharmaceutical botany 8 Pharmaceutical
botany

introduction to studies 3 Botany Botany and

elements

analytical chemistry 4
Organic chemistry Organic chemistry 9
applied Physics 3 Physics 8 Physics 8
Professional language 8 english 3 english 3
Human physiology
Mathematics and
computer science
6 Mathematics
Computer science

3
Mathematics
Computer science
8
3
Optional subjects 6 Optional subjects Min.
4
2nd year
analytical chemistry ii 4 analytical chemistry 9 analytical
chemistry
8
instrumental analysis
Physical chemistry 7 Physical chemistry 8
Organic chemistry II 4 Organic chemistry 12 Organic chemistry
ii
8
Biological chemistry 6 Biochemistry 10 Biochemistry 8
Microbiology Microbiology 10 Microbiology
Pharmaceutical
chemistry
analysis of the
medicines
14 analysis of the
medicines
8
227
Pathological physiology 4 Pharmaceutical
botany ii
Structural
characterisation
of organic
compounds
9
environmental health 3 Molecular biology 3
Professional language
ii
4
Optional subjects 13
3rd year
technology of
pharmacy drugs
8 analysis of the
medicines ii
7 analysis of the
medicines ii
9
Pharmacognosy 9 Pharmacognosy 7 Pharmacognosy
and pharmacology
6
Pharmacology
Pharmaceutical
chemistry
Pharmaceutical
and toxicological
chemistry
10 Pharmaceutical
and toxicological
chemistry
8
essentials of internal
medicine
4 applied
biochemistry
applied
biochemistry
8
First aid and disaster
medicine
4 Physiology 12 Physiology 8
Drugs metabolism 3 General and
molecular pathology
8 General and
molecular
pathology

Special
methodologies in
pharmaceutical
analysis
7 technology
and socio-
economy and
pharmaceutical
legislation
13
Hygiene
Optional subjects 22 Optional subjects Min
4
th
year
Chemistry of medicine 10 Pharmaceutical
chemistry
(molecular)
6 applied
pharmaceutical
chemistry
8
technology of
pharmacy drugs
7 Biochemistry of
nutrition
3 Biochemistry of
nutrition
3
Social pharmacy 9 technology
and socio-
economics and the
pharmaceutical law
12 technology and
socio-economics
and the
pharmaceutical
law
13
toxicological chemistry 9 Pharmaceutical
and toxicological
chemistry ii
10 Pharmaceutical
and toxicological
chemistry ii
toxicology
8
7
Continued table 3
228
Pharmacology ii 4 Pharmacology and
drug therapy
11 Pharmacology
and drug therapy
8
Clinical pharmacy 3 Drugs metabolism 4 analysis of drugs 11
Pharmacotherapy laboratory
extraction and
preparation of
synthetic drugs
12
Optional subjects 13 Optional subjects Min
1
5
th
year
Practice 39 Practice 30 Practice 30
Final thesis or
Qualifcation
examination
3 thesis 1 thesis 24
Pharmaceutical care 3 technology
and socio-
economics and the
pharmaceutical
law ii
11 technology and
socio-economics
and the
pharmaceutical
law ii
8
Chemical analysis of
phytopreparations
3 toxicology 10 toxicology ii 7
Xenabiotics metabolism 3 Purchase of
capacity and
relationship
management
Biochemistry of
nutrition
3
Pharmaceutical
chemistry
(molecular)
6
Controls
technology of
medicines
3
applied
pharmacology
3
Optional subjects 9 Optional subjects Min
1
Total ECTS 1-5 years 300 Total ECTS 1-5
years
300 total eCtS 1-
years
300
Conclusions
education system is the most important social institute and that of
socialisation. Rapidly developing society results in changes both in the
common eu education area and education systems of separate member
states, where national features are also preserved. National education
indicators are evaluated and compared to equivalent indicators of other
Continued table 3
229
states by applying the International Standard Classifcation of Education
(ISCED). Based on this classifcation, statistical data are processed
and publicised that refects each level of education on the national and
international basis. Since the Lithuanian education system was integrated
into the european union education area and national legal acts regulating
change in education were complied to the European legislation, national
particularities of the education system preserved and are still clearly
visible in the training of specialists of high qualifcation, namely, in higher
education system and level 6 of the Lithuanian education system (ISCED
5).
In Lithuania, pharmacy specialists are only trained in one university
(Lithuanian University of Health Sciences) in an integrated study
programme (with the duration of fve years (300 credits, 10 semesters, fve
years, each of them consisting of 60 credits)). There are no specialisations.
The studies end in a fnal examination or defending a master thesis. A
Master in pharmacy, a pharmacist, when planning a career inside the
country, may choose work in pharmacies, pharmaceutical companies or
continue studies in doctoral studies.
Italy has played an important role in European higher education: it
is one of the four countries that frst engaged to create the so-called
European Area of Higher Education (Sorbonne Declaration, May
1998), thus starting that type of higher education reform which, known
as Bologna Process (Bologna Declaration, June 1999) is being imple-
mented all over Europe. In Italy, like in Lithuania, higher education is
structured in a binary system, consisting of two main articulations: the
university sector and the non-university sector.
In Italy, pharmacy specialists are trained in every third university. The
Pharmacy study programme (300 credits) has two felds: Pharmacy and
Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology. Graduates of
the integrated studies have a possibility to further choose a specialisation
or advance to doctoral studies. Specialisation studies determine (open)
wider career possibilities, e.g. work in pharmacies, hospitals, phar-
maceutical companies and education institutions.
Having analysed and compared pharmacy specialist training systems
and career possibilities in Lithuania and Italy, the following differences
were revealed: a) in Lithuania pharmacy specialists are trained at one
university (Lithuanian University of Health Sciences), whereas in Italy
pharmacy study programs are available at almost every third university.
b) the Lithuanian Pharmacy study programme is integrated (without any
specialisations), whereas in Italy two study felds are present: pharmacy
230
and pharmaceutical chemistry and technology; c) in Italy specialisation
studies are also available (>20), which can be organised in cooperation
with Faculties of Medicine and Veterinary; d) Career possibilities
in Lithuania are rather limited, most of the graduates of integrated
Master studies are employed in pharmacies and a small part work in
pharmaceutical companies and other institutions or have a possibility
to continue doctoral studies. In Italy the choice of employment is wider,
resulting from specializsation studies.
references
Bologna declaration. (1999).
Berlin Communiqu. (2003).
Bergen Communiqu. (2005).
Prague Communiqu. (2001).
The Law on Education of the Republic of Lithuania. (2010) Nr. I-1489.
The Law on Science and Study of the Republic of Lithuania. (2009) Nr. XI-242.
London Communiqu.(2007).
Leuven Communiqu. (2009).
Sorbonne Declaration. (1998).
Provisions of State Education Strategy 2003-2012. (2003) Nr. IX-1700.
231
organIzaTIon oF lEarnIng anD
rESEarCH EnvIronmEnT In EDuCaTIon
For SuSTaInaBlE DEvElopmEnT
(prE-SCHool, prImary, anD
SEConDary lEvEl)
Use of experiential marketing technologies
in teaching at higher education institutions
Natlija Sotikova,
marina gunare
Baltic International Academy, Latvia
Abstract. Objectives The article has been written with the purpose
to analyse the changes that have taken place in the teaching-learning
process at the university level, whether the teachers attitudes to teaching
they deliver have changed for the last 15 years, what the students
expectations concerning the study process are, what forms of teaching
are of most interest for the students, what kinds of experiences the
students share with the friends and family, what would be an ideal lecture
in the students perception.
Design and methods. For the purposes of the present research, the
following have been performed: a survey conducted among the teachers
working for PR study programme, a questionnaire survey among BIA
(Baltic International Academy) students and the student doing Advertising
and management at RISEBA (Riga International School of Economics
and Business Administration); the method of observation was applied by
the authors of the article, as the authors have had 15-year long teaching
experience at higher education institutions, the authors presently work
as lecturers at the above higher schools and are currently teaching at
the above programmes. Altogether 60 students and 20 teachers were
questionnaire surveyed.
Results the fndings of our research have demonstrated that at
the PR study programme there are only 3-4 study subjects where, in the
course of the study process, elements of experiential marketing are made
232
use of. The teachers survey has shown that 90% of them maintain that
signifcant changes have taken place in the study process for the last 10-
15 years; only 30% of the teachers, however, apply new technologies in
practice.
Conclusion Contemporary enterprises need resourceful and
dynamic people able to determine the direction of the activity on their
own, confdent, self-motivated, interested to develop new skills. Expressly
those qualities should be in the focus of attention of the higher education
institutions in training of young professionals; and the experiential
marketing technologies could contribute signifcantly to develop such
qualities in the course of the study process.
Keywords: higher education, interactive methods of teaching,
experiential marketing technologies, experience, study process.
Introduction
The information boom having a lot of impact on contemporary life,
it compels the teachers to reassess the traditional forms of work, to
reconsider the contents of education. The aim of the contemporary higher
school consists of training of a competitive professional. It should be kept
in mind, however, that in current social and economic situation when
the changes in ideas, knowledge and technologies occur faster than the
generation change, the reserve of the professional skills and knowledge
once acquired will suffce only for 5-10 years. (Malone S.A. 2003). The
advancement of the society, science and technologies occur at such a
pace that new knowledge rapidly becomes irrelevant and outdated. All
that has a lot of impact on the teachers work; the teachers thus have to
take into account the continually changing realities, develop and improve
their skills and methods of teaching on a regular basis. It also has a
lot of impact on the students training whose skills and abilities should
be developed in novel ways. This would help the students in future to
upgrade the knowledge reserve more easily and be in step with the
times.
At higher school, when the study matter is delivered orally, the
word-of-mouth methods of teaching are mostly made use of, as much
as they used to with the lecture taking the central place among the
above methods. The lecture as a leading element of the overall study
course serves to deliver extensive theoretical subject matter ensuring
completeness and wholeness of the students perception. However, the
traditional university lecture has a number of imperfections as this method
facilitates with the students passive reception of opinions and hinders
independent thinking. Of course, lectures are necessary. Experience of
233
higher school instruction has proved that without lectures the academic
level of overall training goes down, the consistency and steadiness of the
students work during the semester is impaired. Therefore, the lecture
remains one of the leading methods of teaching and a leading form of
study process management at higher school institutions.
various teaching methods combined would render the studying
process more interactive and diverse. Contemporary teaching metho-
dology comprises over 250 various teaching methods and techniques
(, 2008). Application of the methods results in certain
transformation of the role of the teacher and emergence of new tools to
evaluate the students achievements. Figure1 gives some of the most
widespread teaching methods.
Individualreadingassignments
Fastdiscussionssubgroups
Circleofknowledge
Presentationofworkexperience
Brainstorm
Projects
Discussions
Experiments
Enterprisetour
Methodsofproblemsolutions
Someofthemostwidespreadteachingmethods
Fastdiscussionssubgroups
Figure 1. Main teaching methods
As research fndings have shown, group work proves to be the most
effective method (Figure 2) (, 2009).
234
Figure 2. Effciency of the methods used in the study process
Therefore, the last decade has seen active introduction of innovative
methods using new progressive technologies.
Contemporary higher school has at its disposal quite a number of
methods facilitating creativity with the students. These methods include
tours and excursions, business games, presentations, crossword puzz-
les to be created by the students, case study analysis, polls and sur-
veys, project presentations, educational games (role play, simulation
exercises, business games and educational games), utilising of public
and community resources (a visit of an expert, tours), social projects
and other out-of-school educational activities (social projects, contests,
radio and newspapers, flms, performances, exhibitions, shows, songs
and fairy tales).
as opposed to the Soviet times when the form of the examination was
unifed for all an oral or written answer during the examination, now
the forms of examination may additionally comprise project presentation,
library-research papers, and other presentations.
Computer technologies have brought essential novelty to the study
process, allowing for interactivity and facilitating development of active
forms of assignments. Such new quality offers the possibility of effective
perceptibly useful broadening of the area of independent study work of
the students. With emergence of digital publications and virtual study
laboratories in practical classes and improved access to information, a
number of individual independent forms of studies are rapidly develop-
ing.
Currently the majority of leading higher education institutions are
striving to modernise the system of education based on broad application
of information and communication technologies, offering new prospects
and remarkable possibilities for teaching/learning. The interest for such
235
resources is growing both among the teachers and the students. In
the work (Multimedia culture) Shlykova
writes: ...the works of the national (Russian Federation) researches,
various experiments on the multimedia use confrm the conclusions
arrived at by the American counterparts. ... In the study process the
students acquire not more than a quarter of the subject matter offered.
Multimedia technologies allow increasing the above rate twice or thrice,
as they offer syncretic teaching, i.e. simultaneous visual and auditory
perception of the subject matter, active participation in managing the
way of the subject matter delivery, going back to the sections requiring
additional reviewing. ... In future the role of multimedia in education will
be constantly increasing, as the knowledge ensuring high professional
skills levels always tend to be changing fast. (, 2004).
Kolb describes a learning cycle integrating all the learning styles:
activist, thinker, theoretician and pragmatist. Activists prefer action.
thinkers analyse in-depth and from various angles the knowledge they
acquire. Theoreticians like developing theories from disconnected facts
and are absorbed in developing principles, creating models and systemic
thinking. Pragmatists strive to try the knowledge in practice. Kolb
suggests four types of learners: Divergers, Assimilators, Convergers,
and Accommodators.
able 1. kolb and Fry on learning styles (Tennant,1996)
learning style learning characteristic Description
Converger
abstract
conceptualisation +
active experimentation
strong in practical application of ideas,
can focus on hypo-deductive reasoning on
specifc problems,
unemotional,
has narrow interests
Diverger
Concrete experience +
refective observation
strong in imaginative ability,
good at generating ideas and seeing things
from different perspectives,
interested in people,
broad cultural interests
assimilator
abstract
conceptualisation +
refective observation
strong ability to create theoretical models,
excels in inductive reasoning,
concerned with abstract concepts rather
than people
accommoda-
tor
Concrete experience +
active experimentation
greatest strength is doing things
more of a risk taker
performs well when required to react to
immediate circumstances
solves problems intuitively
236
The importance of refexion and continual improvement is emphasised
in the study cycle. Mnemonic DRUD facilitates the acquisition of the steps
in the activity being carried out.
Do something
refect on it
understand it and conclude
Do it differently (Malone, 2003)
Figure 3 gives an illustration of the learning cycle
Reflectiononthe
actioncarriedout
(diverger)
Conclusions
(assimilator)
Action
(converger)
Applicationin
practice
(Accommodator)
Figure 3. learning cycle
Taking into consideration the learning cycle, the technologies of
experiential marketing appears particularly promising as they allow
bringing into the classes an element of creativity, out-of-box thinking,
which facilitates training of analytical skills with the young people,
capable of a creatively different approach to problem solution, prepared
to take part in discussions and make independent decisions. In order
to develop the above qualities with the students, it is essential that the
students study work should comprise creative assignments. Creative
assignments are understood as such study work when the students are
required not merely to render the information, but fnd, to a lesser or
greater extent, a creative approach, as the assignments comprise some
element of uncertainty and might have a number of solutions. As is known,
the creative assignment is the content and the basis of any interactive
method. A creative assignment (and especially the ones relevant to
the students life) renders the studying meaningful and is motivating
for the students. The open-end tasks and an opportunity to fnd ones
own correct answer based on personal experience and the experience
of a colleague, a friend makes it possible to create the foundation of
237
cooperation, cooperative learning, communication involving all the
participants of the study process including the educationalist. The choice
of a creative assignment, in turn, constitutes a creative assignment for
the educationalist, as it is required to fnd an assignment meeting the
following criteria: the assignment does not have a categorical one-word
answer; it is a practical one and useful for the students; it is relevant to
the students life and work; it is appealing for the students; and serves
the educational purposes ad maximum.
Davis and Botkin in the book the Monster under the Bed state
the following : Industrial approach to education [has rendered] the
educationalist actors, while the students are passive observers. As
opposed to that, the emerging model [of education] brings the prospect
for the students to become active participants. Acting will shift from the
consumers to the users, i.e. from teachers to pupils, while the study
process will be determined by an active pupil rather than a manager-
teacher. On the new educational market the clients, the executives and
the students will become active pupils, or, rather interacting pupils
(Davis, 1995). First of all, we will consider the experiential marketing,
the technologies of the experiential marketing, and the ways to apply
the experiential marketing in the study process at higher education
institutions.
Experiential marketing is an instrument to build an emotional link
between the product (trademark, brand) and the consumers within the
frameworks of the event (actions, presentations) held by the producer
(Schmitt, 1999). Thus, in the course of delivering the instruction, an
emotional link is built among the teacher, the study subject and the
students.
Experiential marketing provides for full immersion of the student into
the study subject with the purpose of more profound acquisition of the
study subjects material.
Experiential marketing possesses the following features: it is
entertaining, engaging, boundary-breaking and value creating.
let us consider how the above are revealed in the study process at
the level of higher education. There used to exist such an approach to
the study process: the education should be serious, the students should
be passive and everything depends on the teacher. As is known, the
contemporary consumers (to which category also the students belong)
desire experiential impressions. All the constituents of culture, such as
news programmes, education, sports, and nutrition - strive to meet the
above requirement (Schmitt, 2003).
238
To fnd out whether experiential marketing is in demand in higher
education and whether its elements are used in the study process, a survey
was conducted among the teachers working for PR study programme,
a questionnaire survey among BIA (Baltic international Academy)
students and the student studying in the programme advertising and
management at RISEBA (Riga International School of Economics and
Business Administration); the method of observation was applied by the
authors of the article, as the authors have had 15-year long teaching
experience at higher education institutions, the authors presently work
as lecturers at the above higher schools and are currently teaching at
the above programmes. Altogether 60 students and 20 teachers were
questionnaire surveyed.
Based on the research fndings, the following conclusions can be
made:
Entertainment serves the source of positive emotions, generates the
emotion of joy and pleasure, and appealing to fantasy and humour.
Engaging. The new teaching approach is engaging both for the
students and the teachers. The students hunger after new experiences:
engaging, offering an escape from the every-day reality and taking into
a different world. 30 % of the students noted that it is important for them
that the teacher treats them as colleagues, uses interactive methods of
instruction, creates interactive experiences, facilitates learning of the
students, encourages research, and encourages independent opinions,
role play during the study session.
Boundary breaking. the technologies of experiential marketing
carry the potential of transforming the students perception of the study
process. Frequently, due to the impressions and experiences offered
to the students, the boundaries between the students and the teacher
become blurred and the students become active participants of the study
process.
value creating. the use of experiential marketing in the study pro-
cess in higher education brings about both actual value and benefts.
the experience offered conforms to the strategic goals of the higher
education institution. The students requirements are taken into account
and are intended to build the relations with the students. Besides, in this
way consumer values are created, for instance in the form of education,
entertainment, incentive. The experience proposal comes about when
the higher education institution appears as a stage with the study process
being the stage set with the aim to involve the students into an active
study process (Pine, & Gilmore, 2005).
239
Memorable experiences are created on condition four components
are combined: the education itself, entertainment, aestheticism, escape
from everyday reality into virtual reality.
The components of the technologies of experiential marketing are:
arousal of interest, engagement into the action, active participation in
the process, urge to share the experiences and knowledge with others.
the use of the technologies renders the process of teaching-learning
attractive, interactive, and memorable.
Experiences is the fullness of feelings and sensations, brought
about by some event or interaction, - such is the defnition coined for the
notion by the specialists in the feld of design Press and ooper (,
, 2008).
With the experience for the background the students better perceive
and retain the delivered instruction, identifying the study process with the
positive emotions experienced during the class. Due to the emotional
engagement, the positive effect lasts for a long time.
Pine and Gilmore, the authors of the book the The Experience
Economy, maintain that even the most trivial activity can be transformed
into an unforgettable experience. The companies offer the experience
when they engage the customers into an ongoing action at the personal
level, striving to make the event a memorable one for the customers.
various experiences attracting the attention of the students can
be created at the higher education institution, such experiences will
render the students active participants of the study process, improve
the perception and retention of the subject matter. Pine and Gilmore
suggest that the algorithm of experience creation should be considered
within two main areas: participation in the process: active or passive;
the type of the relations or attitude existing between the client and the
performance type: absorption or immersion (Pine & Gilmore, 2005).
The frst area (on the horizontal axis) corresponds to the extent the
students take part in the study process. On the one side there is the
passive participation, when the students do not exert any direct infuence
on what is going on. For instance, in the course of the studies those
might be the students listening to the teachers during the lecture or
the visitors during the Open Doors days, or Shadow Days, listening to
the speaker and thus taking a passive part in the events and collecting
experience as listeners or onlookers. On the other side there is the active
participation, when the students exert direct infuence on what is going
on. For example, the students taking part in discussions, round tables,
seminars, workshops, contests, various events.
240
Another area of experience (on the vertical axis) refects the type of
link or attitude existing between the students and the study process. On
the one side there is absorption, occurring when the experience is carried
over to the inner world of the person and the persons attention is thus
retained; on the other side there is immersion, i.e. the students actually
(or virtually) becomes a part of the experience (Pine & Gilmore, 2005).
In other words, when the experience enters the students, as
for instance, when they are watching an educational flm or seeing a
presentation, the absorption is observed.
When, on the other hand, the students enter the experience, as
taking part in a contest or role play, or initiation into students, the students
are immersed into the experience.
If the vertical and the horizontal axis are combined, four areas of
experiences are formed: entertainment, education, escape form reality
and aestheticism (Pine & Gilmore, 2005).
those areas are not mutually excluding and are frequently combined
in a unique personal experience.
Fig. 4. Four types of experiences
Entertainment. Though education is a serious matter, it does not
mean that it cannot be fun. Kotler, a professor teaching marketing at
Kellogs School of Management, in his article Education Packagers:
A Modest Proposal introduced a metaphor classroom theatre and
encourages the compilers of educational programmes (as opposed
to the publishers) to follow the example of the Hollywood producers
and create multimedia experience, which would both educate and
241
entertain the students (Kotler, 1978). In the students questionnaire
survey, 90% of the respondents answering the question about what kinds
of lectures they like best, answered that they prefer the lectures featuring
some humour, striking examples, vivid descriptions, some provocation in
discussions.
Education. Many students (70%) responded in their questionnaires
that they favour the opportunity to apply in practice the knowledge and
skills acquired. Development and implementation of own PR campaigns,
presentations, promotional booklets, portfolio, analysis of promotional
and PR campaigns, reports, photo and video reports produced on the
event help to consolidate in practice the knowledge and skills acquired.
80% of respondents replied in affrmative to the question whether the
practical skills they learned in practice helped them to acquire the study
subject in general.
the students of the study programme Public relations implemented
at Baltic international academy within the frameworks of the study subject
Means and Technologies for communication with the target audience
apply their skills in practice holding various events, inviting pubic
personalities for the meetings with the students, creating promotions for
those events, preparing photo and video reports on the events.
Escape from reality. During the escape, the student is fully immersed
into the experience and takes part in it. It can be a simulation of a court
trial at law school, receptions held for the business etiquette studies, feld
studies at the enterprises or offces, role play, youth camps, costumed
performances and celebrations. Contrary to what the name of the
method suggests, the students do not escape from the every-day reality,
but rather make for the place and for the activity which is worthy of their
time and efforts.
Aestheticism. In an aesthetic experience a person immerses
(is wrapped up in) into the event or environment without making any
impact on this (or the person almost does not make any impact), i.e.
the environment remains unaffected. A person may receive an aesthetic
experience while visiting a picture gallery or a museum. An aesthetic
experience at a higher education institution can be created through the
interior design of the study rooms and halls, library, decorations and sets
created for the events. The students tend to pay a lot of attention to this
particular aspect. The more so, the experts on performance improvement
are increasingly paying particular attention to the creative spaces. In
such spaces the knowledge is acquired more effectively and the ideas
generated by the students are of more practical and creative nature,
such spaces facilitate the spirit of cooperation (, 2011).
242
in order to create an exciting and powerful experience, we should
not be focused on merely one area; rather elements from every area
should be combined to create the experience the higher school institution
intends to offer to their students.
For instance, during the lectures in such study subjects as Principles of
Advertising, Corporate Culture, and Communication with Target Audience,
it is possible to create experiences comprising all the four components.
The means at disposal are: the teachers narration concerning the types
of advertising, presentations, visual illustrations, video demonstrations
with a follow up in a form of analysis. Examples of creative assignments
carried out within the frameworks of the course could be: advertisements
created in the class, attempts to make video clips as a home task,
generation of creative ideas during the lecture, review and analysis of
promotional campaigns of the leading world companies.
the study course Communication with target audience necessitates
integration of theory into practice. The students organise actual events,
exhibitions, presentations, balls, meetings with public personalities.
According to theory, this is not a simulation of activity but activity as such.
The students get an opportunity of frst-hand experience and to see in
practice what really works and what should be in the focus of attention.
The students prepare reports on the events, photo essays, invitation
cards, carry out activities to attract public attention to their projects.
Conclusion
The research that has been carried out demonstrates that, though
te they understand the requirements of the current situation, many high
school teachers are still making use of time-tested methods and do
not pay suffcient attention to the new methods of instruction. In their
questionnaires the students mark only 3-4 study subjects in delivering
of which the elements of experiential marketing, such as entertaining,
education, escape and aestheticism are used. Questionnaire survey of
the teachers has shown that 90% of them realise that signifcant changes
have taken place in the study process for the last 10- 15 years; only 30%
of them, however, apply new technologies in practice.
The choice of the effective methods and means for a specifc study
session appears to be one of the most important aspects of the study
process. When reviewing the means and methods of teaching, it
should be taken into consideration that they are continually improved
and developed. However, it should also be taken into account that one
and the same means and methods can be more effective under some
conditions while totally unacceptable under other conditions.
243
a contemporary teaching model opens the possibility of rendering the
students active participants of the study process. The active aspect, in
such a case, shifts from the teacher onto the students; the study process
will be determined rather by an active student and not by a managing
teacher. On the new market of education the administrators, instructors
and students will cooperate in the study process, allowing training of the
professionals sought-after on the contemporary labour market.
references
Davis S. (1995). The Monster Under The Bed. Touchstone.
Kolb D. A. (1984). Experiential Learning, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice Hall.
Kotler Ph. Education Packagers: A Modest Proposal // The Futurist. august
1978. P. 239242.
Malone S. A. (2003). How to Set Up and Manage a Corporate Learning Centre.
Gower Publishing Company.
Pine B. J., Gilmore J. H. (2005). The Experience Economy: Work Is Theater
& Every Business a Stage. Harvard business School Press, Boston,
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244
Development of competence (excellence) centre
for the improvement of the quality of
vocational education
Eriks grinbergs,
Ieva margevica
University of Latvia
Abstract. Signifcant changes have taken place during the recent
years in vocational education in Latvia the aim of which has been to
promote the development of institutions of vocational education that are
oriented towards increasing the quality of education and encouraging
them to diversify the education programmes they are offering and to
improve professionally the study process that would correspond to the
abilities and interests of the learners.
The new demands reveal the necessity to change the way the work
is organised in the vocational education institutions. It is envisaged to
establish 14 competence (excellence) centres of vocational education in
Latvia until 2015.
The aim of the study is to examine the experience of other European
countries in establishing the competence (excellence) centres which
are aimed at satisfying the needs of the society, free market and every
individual. In order to achieve the aim, the authors will analyse the latest
documents that provide information about the competence (excellence)
centres of vocational education as well as analyse the experience of the
competence (excellence) centres of other European countries. The study
will result in working out recommendations for successful establishing of
competence (excellence) centres of vocational education in Latvia.
Key words: vocational education, professional education competence
(excellence) centre.
Development of competence (excellence) centre for the impro-
vement of quality of vocational education
Due to the rapid development of technologies and the social and
economic conditions, the demand for workers who are able to adapt
in the constantly changing working conditions, to work in non-standard
situations, who are fexible and are able to perform effciently their work,
who show the initiative to improve their knowledge and skills to develop
professionally, is increasing all over the world.
The new economic, political and social challenges put forward new
requirements for the vocational education so that it could satisfy the
245
needs of the society and would correspond to the demands of the labour
market of the near future.
During the last decade, the vocational education is one of the priorities
of the EU education policy. Maastricht, Helsinki, Bordeaux and Bruges
Communiqu (European Commission, 2004, 2006, 2008, and 2010)
emphasise the attraction of the vocational education as the key factor
to increase the involvement in the vocational education. The greater
involvement means not only the possibility to ensure the specialised and
professional qualifcation necessary for the labour market to the people,
but also as the main input in the implementation of lisbon goals
because in this way also the people who would otherwise not continue
education after the compulsory schooling age may get the qualifcation
(CEDEFOP, 2010, 23).
When analysing the Bruges Communiqu (2010), it is seen that the
key objectives of the vocational education are the following: to maximise
access to lifelong learning, to create more opportunities for experience
and training abroad, to provide higher quality courses, to favour the
access for disadvantaged people and to promote innovative thinking,
which coincide with the priorities formulated already in 2004 Maastricht
study (Tessaring, Wannan, 2004) which particularly underlines:
Promoting the image and attraction of the vocational education
among the employers and other individuals with the aim of
facilitating the involvement in vocational education and vocational
training;
reaching a high level of quality and innovation in the vocational
education system which would be benefcial for all learners
and would make the european vocational education globally
competitive;
linking the vocational education with the demands of the labour
market, which requires highly qualifed work force and especially
education and professional development of the senior workers
that is connected with changes in the demographic situation;
Promoting the needs of the risk groups and groups with low
education aimed at social cohesion and at increasing their invol-
vement in the labour market.
taking into consideration the european dimension and the inter-
nationalisation, the institutions of the vocational education, as the Ger-
man scientists Gauger and Kraus (Gauger, Kraus et al., 2007, 19)
emphasise, should promote
intensive acquisition of the foreign languages;
246
wide use of the new media, e.g., e-learning;
mobility of the learners, teachers and school principals;
intercultural competence as an important precondition of the
European labour market;
introduction of unifed quality standards, quality assurance and
assessment.
As regards the above-written, the authors of the article would like to
admit that along with the Bologna process where higher education takes
the central focus, the Copenhagen process in which the strategic aim is
the improvement of the quality of vocational education was also started
in 2002.
thus already for several years the vocational education systems
in europe face many changes that lead to the transition from input
management and control approach to the output controlling approach.
Scientists (Canning, 2000; Wilbers, 2003; Tiemeyer, 2003) have indicated
that one of the successful preconditions of implementing the output
controlling approach is to ensure greater autonomy to the vocational
education institutions, which creates also a possibility to take greater
responsibility.
Such a direction creates the necessity for all those involved in voca-
tional education to understand and become aware of their new roles
in order to overcome the current knowledge (content) oriented ap-
proach and implement the competent action oriented approach, i.e.,
the acquisition of the competence in the organization that is constantly
improving, where everyone is learning; the guided education in order to
attain the goal every persons wellbeing and ensuring the quality of life,
thus promoting the quality of vocational education.
The objectives of the vocational education in Latvia are refected in the
Law on vocational education. The Law on vocational education (1999)
stresses that one of the key objectives of vocational education is creating
the possibilities for the vocational education students to continue their
education abroad and to compete in the international labour market.
It is essential to note what has been underlined in Latvia 2030. The
strategy of Latvias sustainable development - that the technological
competence, the ability to integrate the skills and competences of different
spheres, creative abilities, the human and risk management skills as well
as the openness to international and intercultural cooperation acquire
an increasingly greater importance. It means that the competitiveness
of latvia will more and more depend on the connection between the
education system and the changes in the labour market and the ability
247
to prepare people for work in the changing conditions all through his/her
life.
at present the priority objectives in the optimisation of the vocational
education institutions in latvia are advanced in accordance with the
Lisbon Strategy (2000) that the European Union has to become the most
competitive and dynamic knowledge based economy in the world. The
optimisation of the vocational education institutions will promote ensuring
the labour market with the necessary number of specialists according to
the employment structure.One should keep in mind, however, that a new
strategy has already been developed Europe 2020: The Strategy for
smart, sustainable and integrative growth (EU 2002) EU 2020 strategy
is based on the outcomes of the lisbon strategy which were achieved in
the framework of the development and employment partnership, taking
into account the new challenges. According to the Consultative document
of the European Commission EU 2020, the idea of the strategy is to
establish a more sustainable, environment friendly (greener) economy of
the social market in the space of the european union where the level of
wellbeing is promoted through innovation and effective use of resources
and the main emphasis is placed on knowledge.
there are three key priorities in the Consultative document of the
European Commission EU 2020:
1. Ensuring the development (growth) on the basis of creating value
with the help of knowledge (education and research, innovation
and creativity);
2. Providing possibilities for people in the inclusive society (fexibility
and safety in the labour market, skills, decreasing the poverty and
exclusions, broadening the possibilities of self-employment);
3. Developing a more competitive, common and environment friendly
(greener) economy (policy on transport, power industry and indus-
try).
In order to achieve the aims set forward by the strategy EU 2020 the
promotion of the economy which is based on knowledge and innovation,
which is more effective as regards the resources, which is less harmful
to the environment and which is more competitive, which enjoys a
high level of employment and which ensures the social and territorial
cohesion, the Council of Ministers of Education, Youth and Culture of
the eu has approved the conclusions the Strategic framework for
the European cooperation in the feld of education and training 2020
which puts forward four strategic goals to make the lifelong learning
and mobility the reality; to improve the quality and effectiveness of
248
education and training; to promote fairness, social cohesion and civic
participation; to promote creativity and the ability of innovation, including
the entrepreneurship abilities, in all levels of education and training.
the aims expressed in the above-mentioned strategies to a certain
extent coincide with the strategic aim expressed in the national
development plan of Latvia 2007-2013 education and knowledge for
the growth of national economy and the excellence in technologies. The
key aim for the development of education resulting from the strategic aim
has been defned in the Guidelines for the development of education
2007-2013 to ensure the possibility for every citizen to acquire
qualitative education all through ones life according to the individual
interests, abilities and the needs of the countrys economic development.
Particular aims have been put forward for achieving the key aim, including
the following to ensure the educational offer that corresponds to the
development needs of the national economy; to broaden the education
possibilities for different groups of the society in all regions of the country;
to strengthen the quality of education and the leadership capacity.
Up to the present, the lack of the network in the feld of innovations
of cooperation (partnership) of educational institutions, professional as-
sociations, entrepreneurs and scientists has hindered, for instance, the
achievement of the progress (growth) based on creating the values with
the help of knowledge. As regards the vocational education, the fact
that inclusive infrastructure that facilitates innovative action has been
insuffciently developed and that there is not enough information on what
specialists will be demanded in the labour market in the near future hinder
the process of ensuring possibilities of people in the inclusive society
(fexibility and safety in the labour market, decreasing the poverty and
exclusions), the creation of innovations in cooperation with enterprises.
Latvia, according to the guidelines adopted by the cabinet of ministers
on December 15, 2009, Key guidelines for optimising the network of
vocational education institutions 2010-2015 and the development and
investment strategies developed for vocational education institutions,
plans to implement gradually by the year 2015 the programme for
optimising the institutions of vocational education. The key guidelines
have been developed in order to optimise the network of vocational
education institutions to improve the quality of vocational education,
taking into consideration the assessment of the work of vocational
education institutions, the recommendations of the branch associations
and the needs of the national economy, at the same time assessing also
the demographic situation in the regions.
249
the key guidelines for the optimisation of the network of vocational
education institutions envisage that the current 9 vocational education
institutions in 2015 in the subordination of the Ministry of Education
and Science will be reorganized into 30 vocational schools, including
14 competence centres of vocational education and 10 integrated edu-
cational institutions of the local municipalities which will be combined
with the general education or interest education institutions.
the material and technical basis of the competence centres of voca-
tional education is planned to be used for training also the students of
other vocational education institutions in work with latest technologies,
using the corresponding machines and equipment which cannot be
purchased for each vocational education institution. The competence
centres will also organise the professional development training of the
working force and the requalifcation of the unemployed, thus offering the
further education possibilities to the population regardless their age and
previous qualifcation.
the competence centres as an approach for promoting modern and
qualitative education are gaining appreciation in many countries of the
world, USA, Austria, Germany, Estonia. The use of such an approach
refects the transition from the school model to the demand model and
ensures the possibility to tailor individually the offer on the basis of the
learners needs and to develop the particular curriculum based not on
the subject but on the competences to be developed. (El Govern de
la Generalitat de Catalunya, 2010; Biemans, Nieuwenhuis et al., 2004;
Kerka, 1998; Canning, 2000)
the authors consider that the competence centre broadens the pos-
sibilities of the vocational education institution, for instance, it has a
possibility to offer a wide spectrum of services along with the vocational
education, like, further education on different qualifcation levels, on-site
professional development, consultations for the enterprises on how to
organise professional development, training of mentors, research in
the feld of vocational education, organisation of sessions related to the
acquisition of different professions at schools, etc.).
the authors are of the opinion that it is vital to study the essence
of the term competence centre and to evaluate the foreign experience
in establishing the competence centres of vocational education for
establishing competence centres of vocational education and for ensuring
their successful operation in Latvia.
When analysing the scientifc literature produced in different countries
(Estonia, Austria, Germany, USA, etc.) on the competence centres, the
250
authors faced a diversity of terms used, thus for instance, in Estonia,
Spain and USA the following terms are used: Excellence centres,
Competence or ability centres (Strickler, 2008), Excellence client service
centres, Excellence innovation centres. The term Competence centre is
more often used in Germany and Austria.
there have been several discussions in the Western europe
regarding the use of the term Competence centre, e.g., German scientist
Gckede (Gckede, 2002, 17) stresses that Both parts of the phrase
indicate to different structural aspects: competence refers to the bearers
of competence (people), center in its turn, indicates the concentration
or uniting. The institution or its part cannot have the competence but it
can unite people who possess defnite (particular) competence. As the
institution is established with the aim to promote the development of
people, then it is possible to understand the term competence center as
a centre where people have a possibility to develop their competence.
The German BLK Report (BLK, 2001, 16) explains that Competence
centers of vocational education serve the vocational education,
professional development and further education in particular branches
or professional felds, respectively, serve guilds or enterprises in the
respective regions and thus promote the provision of suffcient quali-
fcation offer as well as the transfer of innovations.
Scientists Meerten and Noske (Meerten & Noske, 2005) emphasise
that the main function of competence centres in the feld of education is
provision of high quality and innovative education services.
In Latvia (Key guidelines for optimising the network of vocational
education institutions 2010 2015) the competence centre of vocational
education is understood as the institution of vocational education which
has the necessary material basis for the acquisition of professional
qualifcation in all the basic professions of the respective feld and the
objective of which is to provide the necessary methodological support
for acquiring the professions of the respective feld to other institutions
of vocational education and to serve to both the young people and the
adults as the place for acquiring the new technologies and in future to
fulfl the functions of the examination centres, including the possibility to
acknowledge the education that has been acquired through non-formal
ways (2009, 4).
Wilbers (Wilbers, 2003, 5) explanation of the competence centre
Competence centers are institutions (competence centers as institutions),
part of the institution (competence centers within the institutions) or the
educational structures founded by different institutions, which are oriented
251
to some segment or problem. During this process of orientation the key
competences are defned, this gives a possibility to offer services that
ensure the possibility to increase the success of the main or the support
processes- shows that there are several models of relations possible
among the competence centres and institutions.
Scientists Twardy, Gckede, Beutner, Wilbers (Twardy, 2003, Beutner
& Gckede, 2002, Wilbers, 2003) indicate another model where several
institutions have founded one competence centre. Such competence
centres on the basis of common content direction unite institutions/
persons from different felds and cooperate with vocational schools,
higher educational institutions and research institutes and/or economic
and cultural institutions.
Having studied the explanations of the essence of competence
centres, the authors of the article conclude that competence centres
can exist both physically and virtually. Thus, they do not need to
have a defnite (physical) place. For instance, people who work at the
competence centre may be in different countries and be connected only
virtually. Despite the fact whether the centre is physical or virtual, it is
a real organisation with a defnite structure.
The experience of Germany, Estonia and Spain in the establishment
of competence centres and the analysis of their operation reveal that
the greatest emphasis is placed on the quality of teaching and the
competence centres as the decisive factor in increasing the quality of
vocational education, the research on vocational education and the
introduction of innovations in the teaching/learning process and in
promoting the cooperation with enterprises.
The open system of competence (excellence) centres strengthens the
creation of new knowledge and their application in practical activities.
The competence (excellence) centres in Germany and Estonia have
shown good results in vocational education; they refect continuous
and purposeful work which is directed towards bringing together and
ensuring cooperation between the leaders of enterprises, employees
of the public sector, workers in different segments of industry, trade
unions, professional associations, the teaching staff and learners other
educational institutions and study centres, universities, local experts, big
and small companies, employment agencies and other institutions.
the competence centres establish and maintain networks between
the bearers of knowledge in order to ensure the possibility for the
knowledge to emerge on the level of individuals, groups, organisations
and among the organisations (Seufert & Seufert, 1998). In order to
252
implement these objectives, the knowledge/competence clusters should
be formed as the collectives of generating learning (learning laboratories
from the practitioners, researchers and consultants/trainers) who base
the learning on common practice and experience and create their own
system of knowledge scoop (Senge, Scharmer, 1997).
The mechanisms for creating, developing and implementing innovative
ideas are formed in the competence centres in Spain, Germany and other
countries. It should be mentioned that the chief aim of the competence
centres in the above-mentioned countries is to promote, develop and
transfer innovative, practice-based knowledge.
It is possible to conclude, on the basis of the analysis of the experience
drawn from several countries, that in order to provide the quality of
vocational education that corresponds to the demands of the labour
market and a maximum return on the investments, the competence
centres have to meet several objectives:
provision of the education services:
vocational education implementation of modern vocational education
curricula using the new media, the offer of introductory sessions to the
general comprehensive schools on acquiring different professions; further
education (professional development), e.g., preparatory courses for the
master craftsmans examinations; courses that have been developed on
the basis of the needs analysis of a particular enterprise for the professional
development; courses for acquiring supplementary qualifcation; as well
as one day seminars on the topical issues in the particular feld and other
services a wide offer of e-courses, the assessment of the employees
skills, certifcation, team building, etc.
provision of the support:
to support the development of the entrepreneurship by offering the
enterprises consultations in the feld of education (e.g., how to organize
the employees on-site learning), the research and to provide support in
working out the development plans by attracting the leading specialists
(experts) in the particular feld, etc.
research and methodological work:
to improve and modernise the current curricula and the development
of new curricula according to the changes in the feld, labour market,
information and communication technologies, pedagogy in order to
ensure optimal quality of human resources.
To work out curricula that are suited for the entrepreneurship.
to respect the diversity of every individual, through evaluating their
needs, interests, abilities and experience; the development of individual
and support programs in order to ensure the possibility for every member
253
of the society to join the educational process and to realize ones potential
optimally.
Developing the cooperation networks:
To develop the cooperation networks with the universities and scientifc
institutes, feld associations, enterprises by involving the partners in
professional orientation activities, in introducing the innovations into
practice, the development of curricula, in decreasing the social exclusion
and in evaluating the operation of the competence centres in order to
ensure the link with the real life and to use gainfully the partnership
resources.
to develop stable and long-term partnership with the foreign aca-
demic and entrepreneurship sector for conducting joint research, for
joint use of the available modern technologies and intellectual resources
by developing new curricula and improving the existing curricula, by
organising further education courses, seminars for exchanging the expe-
rience, working out joint projects, organising conferences, etc.
Cooperation in studying the further education needs and interests of
the employees and in evaluating the effectiveness of the courses.
Provision of the practice placements for the learners.
Development of the international cooperation networks.
management:
To promote the investment in the feld of the research and development
of vocational education by increasing the return on the investment in
long-term perspective.
to promote the attractiveness of the vocational education in order to
ensure the involvement of people in the vocational education.
To facilitate the economic proftability by using high level scientifc
discoveries.
The use of management methods in organising activities/certifcation
(quality management systems).
the continuous development of the professional competence of the
pedagogues involved in the vocational education using the formal, non-
formal and everyday learning ways in order to ensure their readiness for
the development of new curricula, teaching/learning materials, e-learning
materials as well as for their participation in the common innovation
process in education.

Conclusions
the new requirements reveal the necessity to transform the work of
the institutions of vocational education. The social factors should also be
254
taken into consideration; that it is necessary to work in teams in order to
develop the skills to cooperate, to improve the educational institutions in
which everyone has a possibility to participate in the decision making.
the competence centres of vocational education should become the
institutions which will participate in the social and economic development
of the region and the city, directing their activities towards the introduction
of innovations and the development of the necessary competences.
Getting acquainted with the experience of implementing the vocational
education programmes in several foreign countries, the authors conclude
that the planned activities of the vocational education should be directed
towards acquisition of theory in the vocational education institutions
and in the work places, by combining high academic and working place
standards with the integrated academic and professional curricula in
order to acquire the skills necessary for the employment and to receive
professional education. The entrepreneurship, employment, government
and public institutions and organisations should actively participate in
order to ensure resources, training places and support for all learners and
pedagogues. Finally, the policy and structure of the vocational education
should facilitate the necessary cooperation links, inclusive philosophy,
planning, assessment and the development of human resources.
all the above-mentioned aspects indicate the necessity to perform
activities that would improve the quality of vocational education in Latvia.
One of the options is the establishment of competence (excellence)
centres. Such a centre will be ecological (i.e., its activities will be
environmentally-friendly and directed towards the individual who works
and learns in the centre in order to satisfy his/her needs) and socially
responsible in which three aspects education, research and cooperation
form one unity. The competence centre with the help of well thought over
and innovative research will contribute to the development of the national
economy.
On the basis of the analysis of the scientifc literature and EU normative
documents, it is possible to conclude that by establishing the competence
centres of vocational education the vocational education institutions along
with the vocational education should offer people the possibilities to use
a wide spectrum of services: the offer of further education on different
qualifcation levels, the on-site professional development, consultations
to the enterprises on how to organise professional development, the
introductory sessions at schools on acquiring different professions.
This indicates that several factors infuence successful operation of the
competence centres, e.g., the model of the organization, the use of the
255
latest technologies, knowledge management, and the use of customer-
centred approach.
the authors consider that the decisive factor regarding the capacity of
the competence centre is the continuous professional development of its
staff. It is expected that the staff of the competence centres will not only
work using the latest technologies and methods, but will also participate
in all the work processes starting with the education needs analysis and
the education demands and fnishing with the education control.
the experience gained about the operation of the competence centres
in other countries shows that the action feld of the competence centre
is very broad from the acquisition of the profession to the continuation
of education and professional development, from the exchange of
information by developing the communication and knowledge platform to
the knowledge transfer, from consultations ensuring the staff development
to the technical support of the enterprise.
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The Council of the European Union. The Strategic framework for the European
cooperation in the feld of education and training 2020 (2009/C 119/02).
(2009). Retrieved from: http://ec.europa.eu/education/lifelong-learning-
policy/doc28_en.htm.
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likumi.lv/doc.php?id=20244.
Tiemeyer, E. (2003). Aussenentwicklung: Bildungsnetzwerke managen-Konzepte
und Lsungen aus dem Modellversuch ANUBA. Strahler, B., Tiemeyer,
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Konzepte, Lsungen. W.Bertelsmann Verl. S. 27.-39.
Wilbers, K. (2003). Personen und Institutionen vernetzen: Zentrale Heraus-
forderungen von Bildungsnetzwerken. Strahler, B., Tiemeyer, E., Wilbers,
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Lsungen. W.Bertelsmann Verl. S.16.-26.
258
EDuCaTIon For SuSTaInaBlE
DEvElopmEnT anD SoCIal Work
School nET reorganisation policy in lithuania:
a social-cultural context and fnancial-economical
priorities
Audrone Juodaityt,
Erika Masiliauskien
Siauliai University, Lithuania
Abstract. As it is pointed out in the documents underlying the
educational policy of the country, the School Net Reorganisation
(hereinafter referred to as SNR) is based on two principles, i.e. optimal
management of facilities and human resources. It is assumed that such
reorganisation would secure the possibility for each pupil to the lifelong
education which would also be socially just and accessible. It aims at
qualitative educational services, thus encouraging the development
of public society. However, all strategic social-cultural prerequisites of
school net reorganisation in the educational documents of the Republic
of Lithuania bear exclusively declarative nature, while there are other
priorities prevailing in the public political discourse, namely, fnancial
and economical ones. The article presents the results of the content
analysis of strategic documents according to which it might be alleged,
that implementing of the school net reorganisation has aimed at optimal
exploitation of the schools premises and adjustment of the necessary
fnancial resources secured by the proper number of pupils portfolios,
etc. Therefore, the reorganisation has not been suffciently substantiated
by the analysis of threats and consequences on the social mobility of
pupils living in remote rural territories.
Key words: school net reorganisation policy, contexts, priorities.
Introduction. Globalisation, information boost, rapid change and
diversifcation/stratifcation of the society are the most commonly named
major challenges of modern society that spurred the rearrangement of
the school net in Lithuania. The social and cultural role of education is
259
signifed in the context of the abovementioned challenges. Besides, it
has been stressed, that the society is able to respond to those challenges
only if the educational system of the country is not static; on the contrary,
it is distinguished by a constant renewal and is capable to train educated
people. The optimal school net, allowing more effective usage of funds
and thus enhancing the quality of education, is defned as one of the
prerequisites for the creation of such a system.
There is a key goal settled for the SNR in Lithuania, i.e. the welfare of
a child as a consumer of the educational services which is related to the
implementation of the following tasks, namely, a conveniently accessible
school that would be comfortable, suffciently provided with learning
facilities and high qualifed teachers implementing modern methods in
their job, cooperation between the schools and favourable conditions for
further education (Methodical Recommendations for Rearrangement
of the School Net, 2004). These tasks proclaim, that basic ideology of
the SNR has been substantiated by the social- cultural and fnancial-
economical priorities which, in addition, have been actualised by the
fact that formal documents are ineffcient for the consistency of the
abovementioned priorities to be sustained; it is necessary that every
participant of the SNR strive for securing of the educational quality, its
availability and equal possibilities. However, even at the moment of the
adoption of political decisions concerning the SNR, it has been particularly
appealed to the fact that it is important to perform the situation analysis
of a particular region, foresee the demographical changes in this region
and combine the goals of the regional and state politics, the needs of the
local community and funding possibilities. All this testifes that fnancial,
economic, regional and state policy plays a crucial role while implementing
the SNR, meanwhile, the social-cultural needs of a particular region and
the interrelation between fulflling those needs and the present educational
institution, i.e. the school, has become a secondary plan of the SNR.
According to this, it is obvious, that the national model of the SNR has
been insuffciently substantiated by the feasibility study, analysis of the
change in the fnancial terms, globalisation processes occurring in the
European education, competitive environment of the territorial schools
and the prevailing values.
Insuffciently rearranged school management activity models, local
communities poorly indulged into the processes of reorganisation with
their mere declarative role lacking clear content and a system of activity
are the consequences of such planning and implementation of the Snr
(Merkys, Balciunas, Slyziuviene et al., 2003; Merkys& Balciunas, 2005).
260
another consequence of the Snr is a challenge for the familys social
life, i.e. having closed the territorial school there appears a need for new
social services (for example, a child has to get clothing that would not
distinguish him as a social group among the city children). Besides, one
should point out that the SNR has infuenced a childs health as well (for
example, it has changed a childs day routine to get up early and return
home late).
Thus, in the policy of the SNR there has been insuffcient penetration
into its social-cultural context, especially while pointing out the econo-
mical-fnancial priorities, the content of which has been revealed by the
following principles, namely, the merging of schools or separate classes,
or pupils transfer to other classes or schools is performed having regard
to the situation in a particular region and, frst of all, answering the
questions is such reorganisation convenient to a pupil and the family?
can a pupil safely reach the adjacent bigger schools? is it possible to
make the getting into school more comfortable for a pupil? all these
aforementioned questions have not been suffciently investigated in
Lithuania so far. Firstly, only recently the attention has been paid to the
SNR-caused social problems of the children living in the rural areas.
There is a small number of sociological investigations on the social,
cultural or political problems of the lithuanian children living in the rural
areas. Vosyliute, Grigas, Lakis and Marcinskas (1998), Budiene and
Zabulionis (2009) have rather targeted the investigation of the collective
identity problems the children of this particular group are experiencing.
they have noticed that children living in the rural areas particularly
identify themselves with the territory they live in, while their migration to
other territories infuences not only the thresholds of the social mobility,
but the lost of the ethnical identity as well.
Lately, attention has been paid to the necessity of providing infor-
mation concerning the distribution of the net of childrens pre-school
and pre- primary education services to the citizens of the rural and city
areas (Juodaityte, Gaucaite, & Kazlauskiene, 2009) and the quality
of pre-school education services provided in the rural and city areas
(Monkeviciene, Glebuviene, Joniliene et al., 2008). However, the relation
between the quality and availability of the educational services provided
in the rural areas, and the tendencies of the childrens social disjuncture
and the mobility and availability of the social welfare programmes for
those children has not been investigated yet.
Following the order of the Ministry of education and Science of the
Republic of Lithuania (2003-2005), a group of scientists supervised by
261
Merkys (2003) performed two investigations, namely, The School Net
Rearrangement and The Pupils Commuting Facilities (2003), and The
Social effect of the School net rearrangement in the Municipalities
Having Participated in the Pilot Project (2005). The researchers have
identifed the following problems: lack of non-formal education services
in the reorganised schools, the commuting pupils insuffcient occupation
in the school; lack of security; lack of the pupils health prevention,
particularly, that of the school fatigue and stress, insuffcient enhancement
of the commuting process control, undeveloped inter-organizational
partnership net and the like. all this is related to the relevant issues of
our investigation as well, i.e. How have the social-cultural contexts been
developing in the school net reorganisation policy where the priorities are
drawn on the economic-fnancial model of the school rearrangement?
What have their content looked like and how, on its basis, is it possible
to foresee the effciency of the school net policy from the point of view of
educational quality?
Subject: the SNR policy in Lithuania.
Hypothesis: it is presumable that, having analysed the priorities drawn
for the creation of the economic-fnancial model of the SNR in Lithuanian
territorial municipalities and highlighted how the social- cultural meaning
actualises in practice, the factors, prerequisites and consequences of the
effcient strategic management of the SNR at municipality level might be
foreseen.
The aim is to investigate how, within an emerging economic-fnancial
model, have the social-cultural meaning and orientations towards the
improvement of the school education quality been contextualised in the
SNR policy.
the following methods have been used, namely, analysis of academic
literature, meta-analysis and content analysis.
The arrangement and methodology of the investigation. For the
investigation to be performed, offcial documents, i.e. the strategies,
annual activity reports and the Snr outlines from the district municipalities
(of Rokiskis, Birzai, Akmene, Joniskis, Telsiai) of the Northern Lithuania
Region have been analysed by using the method of content analysis. This
method has been chosen aiming at the impartial and systematic analysis
of the documents and search for the notional units, which would allow
identifyung the priorities of the SNR policy in Lithuania, including their
expression and interrelation.
The Snr policy as a challenge for the managers traditional
thinking: the factors limiting the construction of the social- cultural
262
notions. The SNR policy occurring in Lithuania has been infuenced by
the processes of globalisation that generally occurred in the european
education. They appeared in the following principles of reorganisation:
Orientation towards the pace of the rearrangement having regard
to the intensive and rapid reorganisation of schools in Europe;
Common social-cultural contexts which consist of competition over
qualitative training and education of pupils including their ability to
choose the desired educational institution;
Implementation of state-of-the-art achievements, based on the
coherence of centralisation and decentralisation, in the areas of
educational management, administration and policy;
Free market infuence on education and enhancement of compe-
titiveness between the schools not only in particular territories, but
in Lithuania at large, including orientation towards competitiveness
abroad as well.
Due to these reasons, the possibilities for the schools self- governance
and adoption of independent political decisions have been left apart,
including the orientation towards a particular social-cultural purpose
of the schools in the regions or territories. Herewith, the possibilities
for expression of the teachers, parents and childrens opinions and
responses towards the reorganisation processes have been narrowed.
the managers and teachers of the schools have become some of the
most important policy executing persons. However, they have been
entitled to perform the roles of executives rather than participants who
would bear the responsibility for the adopted decisions.
the Snr in lithuania has also been related to the processes of long-
term global, social, economical and cultural transformations embracing
the transformation of material, as well as human resources. However, a
suffcient attention to the latter factor has not been paid and, therefore,
the strategists of the Snr in lithuania turned to the processes of quasi-
globalisation (sovietisation), which meant the implementation of the soviet
remains that, frst of all, manifested in the thinking of schools managers.
According to Bulajeva and Duobliene (2009), due to this reason in
particular it is not relevant to point out to barely economic and fnancial
causes of the reform for the school and education managers of all levels
executing it in the post-communist countries since exactly this reason
invokes the diffculties for them to penetrate the social- cultural context.
these scholars assert that the politicians-reformers of education in the
Republic of Lithuania, including school managers, undergo the era of
twisted globalisation as they relate all this to the political rearrangement
263
of education that has developed in the environment of sovietisation
(Zelvys, Budiene, & Zabulions, 2003; Stonkuviene, 2009). Therefore,
most of the education managers have a distinct characteristic a lack of
critical attitude towards the reform. The essence of such thinking is that
managers can not penetrate the consequences of the reform since in
their previous experience they were taught to perform the orders but not
analyse their content or consequences with regard to local peculiarities.
Therefore, one should still fear the educational reform, including the
possible political consequences of the SNR, which may arise in case the
managers try to evaluate the strategy, process or results of the reform
negatively or critically.
the politicians relate the Snr processes to such appearances
of globalisation that are visibly observed in practice, namely, the
education becoming more massive, standartisation, marketisation and
internalisation (Bulajeva & Duobliene, 2009). While implementing the
SNR policy, the sole factor, i.e. the economic-fnancial one, has basically
been referred to without suffciently penetrating into the variety of the
social factors determining its implementation, i.e. different territorial
economy, labour market, presence/absence of the middle class, increase
in a number of people under the low living standards, distribution of strata
in the residential territory, economic-social status of various groups,
etc. The attention has not been paid to the different administrative and
participation experience of the politicians from the territorial municipalities,
administrators and school managers as well. Therefore, the SNR policy
proceeded on the basis of various methods, the major of which was the
execution of the reform as an obligatory step of the educational policy
of the Republic of Lithuania. Therefore, the municipality administrators
and school managers have been orientated towards situation analysis
and determination of changes and consequences for the participants of
the reform (for teachers, parents, pupils). It means that the SNR policy
has been performed in a bureaucratic way, respectively administering it
in accordance with the education regulating political acts and documents
of the Republic of Lithuania.
The other tendency of the SNR policy infuenced by the globalization
factors in Lithuania and, at the same time, creating the barriers for new
thinking of the managers of various levels is standardisation, which
indicated obligatory number of pupils in each class as well as in school, the
attention paid to the economic and optimal usage of the school facilities
(buildings, frst of all). According to Berger and Luckmann (1999), the
standardisation of education does not impede the diversity only if there
264
are possibilities for the interested groups to develop a dialog on the
basis of a variety of social-cultural educational contexts. The purpose of
the school for the territorial cultural development and training of human
resources is one of the major ones. The basis of those resources consists
of securing the pupils social identity as cultural diversity in the school.
However, the infuence of the soviet remains on the managers thinking
twists, in particular, the concept of the standardisation essence as well
(Bulajeva & Duobliene, 2009) since the perception of the process differs
if compared to the Western European countries. There standardisation
is identifed as a training means which secures educational quality, while
in the post- communist countries of the eastern and Middle europe the
standardisation is realised as a factor limiting the variety of attitudes and
participation expression, as well as a form of control.
in the Snr policy there emerges the tendency of the implementation
of free market relationships and global competition between the schools,
the marketisation being one of the phenomena thereof (Bulajeva &
Duobliene, 2009, p. 27). The politicians and strategists of the reforms in the
post-communist countries are in particular attentive to this phenomenon;
however, they encourage marketisation only in words while, in reality,
they often try to ignore or sabotage marketisation. For instance, if in
speeches the approval to a possibility of keeping the schools in the rural
territories is expressed, in practice completely contradictory factors are
applied. There still remains a pragmatic orientation that is lively enough
and which is based on the economic-fnancial indexes of the SNR.
Therefore, if one or another initiative of the educational marketisation
helps to save additional fnance, it is perceived as the most righteous
one. Due to this reason, even while performing the public procurement
there remains an orientation towards the cheapest services rather
than the most qualitative ones. Meanwhile, the theorists of education
management (Hargreaves, 1999; Drucker, 2009) denote the dominance
of the elements of market and competition in education as one of the
most reliable factors enhancing the quality of school education. They are
guided by an opinion that the freedom to choose the services provides
the possibility for each participant of education (training) to be responsible
for the result. Therefore, one may conclude, that striving for the pupils
qualitative education should encourage the schools to compete against
each other for the quality, not only for the economic beneft of the SNR,
which is clearly seen due to the increased number of pupils portfolio.
The management peculiarities of the Snr policy at a territorial
municipality level: social-cultural and fnancial-economic priorities.
265
The forecast of the SNR strategic goals and situation analysis. the
strategic goals and aims of the SNR refect the key priorities of the school
net functioning. It is not incidental that the SNR in some municipalities is
related to the following strategic goals:
1) securing of a higher education quality in all educational institu-
tions;
2) constitution of equal learning possibilities for all and ensuring an
effcient usage of educational facilities.
the relevant indexes are foreseen for evaluation of the strategic
goals in municipalities. As an example of those indexes, one may denote
the number of the graduates from the high school; the number of those
who acquired the basic education; the number of pupils studying in the
gymnasium; a decreasing number of pupils repeating the class and so
forth. In this context, the corresponding strategic aims of the Snr are
identifed, i.e. to sustain the facility background in the basic rural schools
and take care of a safe commuting of pupils; to improve the qualitative
composition of the teaching personnel working in educational institutions;
to settle the number of children in educational institutions and classes.
there are relevant indicators foreseen for evaluation of the accessibility
of the aims, i.e. the decreasing number of vacant learning seats; the
lessons planned for pupils of no more than two primary classes; the
lessons of compulsory learning subjects conducted by the professional
teachers; all the pupils from general education rural schools are taken
to school and back home if the distance to school exceeds 3 km, etc.
Thus, in the context of the strategic goals and aims of the SNR policy,
the following relevant purposes emerge: 1) to coordinate the gathering
and pupils fow in the subordinate schools and 2) to create the school net
meeting the requirements of effciency, availability and quality.
The priorities of the SNR policy and management of factors. the
following priorities of the school net reorganisation are actualised in the
context of the SNR policy: modernisation of the conditions for educational
quality while using the vacant funds after diminishing the number of
empty (free) learning seats; the increase in the number of the learning
seats in particular schools; the enhancement of rural basic schools; the
establishment of facilities providing special aid in educational institutions;
the effciency of pupils commuting. The priorities of the SNR policy
allow for identifcation of such moral values of the net reorganisation as
social justice, equal opportunities, availability, effciency, optimal usage
of the resources, coherence, responsible management, quality and
fulfllment of personal needs. these moral values enable to distinguish
266
the particular factors of the Snr policy and also foresee the possibilities
of their management.
the analysis of the general strategic documents and the content
of the Snr outlines from the municipalities of the northern lithuania
regions (of Rokiskis, Birzai, Akmene, Joniskis, Telsiai) have revealed
that, while implementing the SNR policy in municipalities, the educational
context, the number of pupils, educational quality, qualitative composition
of teaching personnel, the condition of the buildings of educational
institutions, the effciency of the school net and pupils transportation to
school have become the key factors (Table 1). The contextualisation of
those factors in the strategic documents of the Snr policy at municipal
level testifes that they have become major indicators of the SNR policy
in the regions since they determine the priorities of the Snr policy
performed in the municipalities. It is not incidental that the factors of the
Snr policy have been contextualised in the content of social-cultural and
fnancial-economical priorities.
Table 1. Contextualization of the socialcultural factors of the
Snr policy in the documents at municipality level
Factors Notional contexts
educational context the main attention is paid to the demographical processes
in the region. In the context of the SNR implementation
these processes allow formulation of the following school net
rearrangement prerequisites: 1) the birth rate decreasing, the
number of pupils will decrease as well; 2) if the situation does
not change, the number of small educational institutions will
increase.
educational quality The educational quality, frst of all, is related to the pupils
who acquire the corresponding education. It is observed
how many pupils repeat the classes and whether there is
a maximum fulflment of the needs of pupils additional or
special education. Following those prerequisites, it is decided
if the present school net fosters educational quality. Besides,
according to a prevailing tendency, pupils in rural secondary
schools are not suffciently prepared for the state school
completion exams.
Qualitative composition
of the teaching personnel
the aspect of the qualitative composition of the teaching
personnel points out that there is a shortage of professionals
teaching particular subjects (e.g. compulsory subjects are
taught by the persons not having corresponding pedagogic
education); besides, there is a lack of special aid professionals
(psychologists, special educators, social educators)
267
the contextualisation of the social-cultural Snr in the strategic
documents at municipality level is explained by the following factors,
namely, educational context, educational quality and qualitative
composition of the teaching personnel. a content analysis of the
educational context as a social-cultural factor has revealed that,
while implementing the strategy of the SNR policy, the crucial role has
been played by the tendencies of the regional demographic fuctuation,
which are related to the population density, the number of employable
inhabitants, the level of youth education, birth rate and the fuctuation in
a number of inhabitants in a city and rural districts. Consequently, it is
identifed that regardless of the fuctuation in demographical composition
in a particular region, there appears a threat of increase in a number of
economically ineffcient schools.
a content analysis of the educational quality factor has disclosed
that, while planning and implementing the SNR policy, this factor is
actualised as bearing a particular importance not only for the SNR,
but for the entire educational system as well. The acquired education,
together with the fulflment of non-formal or special educational needs,
appears among the most important indexes of the educational quality.
the distinction of those educational areas so important for the pupils
education in the documents at municipal level becomes one more criterion
which particularly determines the (self)educational quality answering the
question whether the conditions suitable for the pupils having special
needs are fostered. It is acknowledged in the analysed documents that
the interests/needs of such pupils in rural schools are only partially
fulflled. The main reason for this situation is a lack of psychologists and
special educators in the reorganised schools.
a content analysis of the qualitative composition of the teaching
personnel as a social-cultural factor permits to assert that, while
implementing the SNR policy, the qualifcation of the teaching personnel
and its correspondence to the teaching subject, together with a possibility
for a teacher to provide additional special aid for pupils, play a crucial
role as well. We are going to describe the contextualising notions of the
fnancial factors manifested in the SNR policy in the strategic documents
at municipal level (Table 2).
268
Table 2. Contextualisation of the fnancial-economical factors of
the Snr policy in the documents at municipal level
Factors Notional contexts
number of pupils the tendencies of the decrease in the number of pupils argue that
this decrease is mostly felt in the con-centre of primary education,
while in 2011-2012 a signifcant decease is forecasted in the number
of pupils in almost all con-centres.
Condition of
school buildings
While planning the SNR, the condition of school buildings are assessed
considering the following aspects: the correspondence of the building
for a particular type of school; building occupation; conditions of
buildings. Conditions of buildings are evaluated according to what
repair do the external walls, foundation, internal walls, roof, windows,
foor, sanitary units, heating system, water supply and sewerage
system and electricity need.
Effciency of the
school net
The criterion of the school net fnancial-economical effciency is
related to the funding per one pupil. On the basis of the ratio between
the facilities securing the educational quality and the funding per
one pupil, it is actualised that, in case of a signifcantly lower funding
per pupil, he/she has got signifcantly better educational conditions.
The effciency of school net is also related to the effciency of class
gathering and the ratio between teachers and pupils.
Pupils
transportation to
school
Pupils transportation to schools is performed using the buses from
the Bus Fleet, school buses and the transport of the Social support
department as well as the parents transport. With an aim to improve
pupils transportation at municipal level, priorities are planned,
orientated towards each school having its own bus, thus saving the
time for travel to school.
The contextualisation of the fnancial-economical factors of the SNR
policy in the strategic documents at municipal level might be explained
by the following factors: number of pupils, condition of school buildings,
effciency of the school net and the pupils transportation to school. a
content analysis of the fuctuation in the number of pupils as a
fnancial-economical factor permits to assert that this factor is among the
most signifcant ones while planning and implementing the SNR strategy.
In case there is a tendency of decrease in the number of pupils, it is
necessary to solve the issues of the gathering of classes and school
net rearrangement. Besides, it is also stressed that, unless the present
situation changes, the number of pupils in the schools will decrease
since in the class set there will be a smaller number of pupils than it is
stated in the methodology of the pupils portfolio, and the number of
empty learning seats will increase. This will determine the unreasonable
usage of funding for education while the lacking funding for small-number
schools will be allocated from municipal budget.
269
the content of the evaluation of the condition of school buildings
factor reveals that, while planning the implementation of the strategy
of the SnR policy in a particular municipal territory (The Standards of
the School Provision, 2001), the schools have been divided into four
groups and four levels, i.e. I group the renovated school; II group
no less that 1 part of the building needs current repair; III group no
less that 1 part of the building needs the major repairs; IV group the
building foundation needs major repairs. An evaluation of the condition of
buildings has revealed the following situation more than a half of school
buildings need major repairs. This means that there will be no adequate
facilities provided for the pupils education (e.g. there is no reading room,
sports hall or part of specialised offces and so on).
the economic effectiveness is a keystone of the effciency of the
school net factor. Economically effective school is one in which the
learning does not proceeds in the joined (cooperated) classes and there
are relevant facilities in the school, i.e. sports and (or) concert hall, library
(reading room), canteen, a greater number of professional teachers,
suffcient supply of non-formal education services, etc. One may notice
in the strategic documents that the effciency of the class gathering is an
attribute of an effcient school as well. On the contrary, when the fulflment
of the class seats decreases, i.e. when there is an increase in the number
of empty learning seats, the school net becomes ineffcient. The ratio
between the number of pupils and teachers characterises the effciency
of the allocation of funds for education alongside with the effciency of
the school net, as well. Thus, such situation of the school net has allowed
the strategists of the municipalities to formulate an assumption that the
SNR is necessary because of economic-fnancial reason since the funds
allocated to fnance empty learning seats now as well as in the future
would be invested into the modernisation of facilities for educational
quality.
In case of pupils transportation to school, the acquisition of school
busses as an aid to improve the pupils commuting is actualized. These
busses take pupils not only to the lessons, but also to various after-
lesson activities, sport events or excursions. However, the content of the
pupils transportation factor also discloses the necessity to coordinate the
schedule of the public transport in accordance with the learning schedule
of the pupils from rural areas. Thus, another problem has been identifed,
namely, a part of pupils arrive to school too early, the trip takes too long
for them, therefore not all of them can participate in the activities of non-
formal education since they are limited by the schedule of the school
transport.
270
The consequences of the SNR policy: social-cultural and fna-
ncial-economical effciency. In the documents of the Republic of
Lithuania regulating the SNR (On the Guidelines of Rearrangement
of the General Education Institutions Net, 1999; The Programme for
implementation of the Provisions of the State educational Strategy for
2003-2012, 2003; Methodical Recommendations for Rearrangement of
the School Net, 2004 and other) and activity of the educational system,
it is stated that the processes of the SNR should be substantiated
by creation of effciently and coherently functioning and responsibly
governed educational system that would use the resources (fnancial,
human) in a purposeful and optimal way. Also, it is pointed out that the
SNR guarantees:
the development of continuous and lifelong learning competence
alongside with the educational system becoming socially just;
that there will be secured educational quality meeting the
requirements for education settled by a person living in an open
civil society and a market economy together with the requirements
for education inspired by the modern world society.
Other positive consequences of the SNR are also listed, namely,
flling of the class sets or a greater number of pupils in schools, which
means an optimal usage of the educational funds. The analysis of the
content of strategic documents at municipal level has also revealed other
political consequences of the SNR, which bear a twofold character, i.e.
a socialcultural and a fnancialeconomical one. The corresponding
effciency indexes are actualised in the contexts of these consequences.
Each index is substantiated socially and economically (Table 3).
Table 3. The content and indexes of the social-cultural and
fnancial-economical effciency of the SNR (in relation to
educational quality)
Index Social-cultural effect Financial-economical effect
Availability of
education
a general secondary education
will be available to all children
and adults according to their
abilities and chosen form or type
of education.
the funds for education are allocated
more effciently and optimally: the
number of vacant learning seats
having decreased, it will be possible
to provide greater allocations to
the modernisation of conditions for
educational quality, improvement of
the teachers professional skills and
so on.
271
Creating
of equal
conditions
to achieve
education
all children will have conditions
to prepare for school and start
the attendance. All of them will
be provided with psychological,
social educational and special
educational aid.
there will appear new workplaces
for the teachers who will loose their
job because of the SNR.
educational
quality
a smaller number of pupils
will repeat the classes; it will
be possible to strive for higher
computer literacy and language
learning.
there will be smaller funds spent for
teaching second-year pupils.
Fluctuation in
the qualitative
composition of
the teaching
personnel
a greater number of pupils will
be taught by the specialists of
higher qualifcation and, there-
fore, pupils will achieve better
learning outcomes.
the need of funds for the teachers
retraining and improvement will
increase.
Modernisation
of educational
infrastructure
More pupils will learn in recons-
tructed buildings, they will have
more modern (self) learning
tools.
the funds will be allocated only for
viable institutions, thus providing
more funds for the modernization of
educational process.
improvement of
(self)education
facilities
More favourable facilities will
be provided, the time spent on
journeying to school and back
home will become shorter and the
pupils and their parents feeling
of insecurity will decrease.
aiming at the improvement of
(self)education facilities, the expen-
ses of municipality budget will also
increase.
a content analysis of the social and economical consequences or
the effect of the Snr allows to allege that the social effect of the Snr
comprises availability and continuity of the pupils (self)education when
all are provided with an appropriate learning conditions, at the same time
taking care of their getting a relevant preparation for learning supplied
with a necessary special aid. Especially, encouragement of the pupils
learning motivation is actualised in the context of the social effect of
the SNR, as one may presuppose that creation of equal conditions
for pupils learning, fuctuation in the qualitative composition of the
personnel, modernisation of educational infrastructure and securing of
(self)education quality will become an important stimulus for the pupils
to achieve learning outcomes as well as possible. It is supposed that
the number of pupils repeating the classes and dropping out from the
system of general education school will decrease simultaneously. Also,
it is actualised that, while implementing the SNR policy, schools will be
better provided with a school transport, thus diminishing the pupils and
Continued table 3
272
their parents feeling of insecurity arising from the pupils journey from
home to school and vice versa.
the content analysis of the economic effect of the Snr reveals
that rational usage of wherewithal is possible only when the number
of pupils in classes and schools are optimised; then the decreased
number of empty learning seats will contribute to a better allocation of
funds as particular attention will be paid to modernisation of conditions
for educational quality, improvement of the teachers qualifcation and
creation of new workplaces. In the context of the economic effect of the
SNR, correlation ties emerge between the encouragement of learning
motivation and reduction of funds for second-year pupils, i.e. it is
identifed that creation of equal conditions for education is going to be
a relevant prerequisite for pupils to achieve the learning outcomes as
well as possible. Besides, it is obvious that the outlook of school activity
is of major importance while achieving the economical effect, as it is
declared that fnancial support for the modernisation of infrastructure will
be provided for the viable educational institutions.
Conclusions
The documents of the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Lithuania,
as well as the documents of the territorial municipalities substantiate the
reorganization by the models of rearrangement of economic- fnancial
infrastructure. At the same time, the possibilities of the optimal usage
of material resources are emphasized as well. However, all this has not
been suffciently related to human resources. The economic-fnancial
model has not been substantiated by elaborate analysis of a feasibility
study, i.e. by the fuctuation in fnancial terms, global processes occurring
in the European education, competitive environment of the territorial
schools and the values prevailing in the territory. Consequently, the
models of the management activity of the reorganised schools have not
been suffciently rearranged.
the attention has not been paid to a different administrative and
participation experience of the politicians from the territorial municipalities,
administrators and school managers. Therefore, the SNR policy has
been performed on the basis of various methods, the execution of the
reform as an obligatory step of the educational policy of the republic
of Lithuania being among the major ones. Hence, the SNR policy has
been performed in a bureaucratic way, respectively administering it in
accordance with the education regulating political acts and documents
of the Republic of Lithuania.
273
In the management practice of the SNR, due to the lack of policy
strategists and school managers critical thinking and under the infuence of
the sovietisation remains, the purpose of the SNR policy has been twisted.
the idea of the service quality is realised in a competitive processes over
the attraction of the funds which are determined by the number of pupils
portfolios. Thus, the idea of the economic pragmatism becomes naked
and no competition occurs over the childrens educational quality initiated
by the SNR policy. The economic and optimal management of the school
funds and a search for the possibilities of self-fnancing these principles
prevail in the political decisions of the municipalities.
It must be emphasised, in the context of relevance of the SNR policy,
that a consistent and public discussion on the implementation of a general
plan of school net reorganisation is a necessary prerequisite for the
implementation of a strategic vision of education. This way, educational
mission at municipal level becomes orientated towards the creation of
optimal conditions for the functioning of educational institutions and the
securing of modern and qualitative education, equal learning possibilities
and availability, including the performance of the state educational policy
for all studying.
In the context of the SNR, the fnancial-economical priorities are
the essential threats, but not the social-cultural ones. While creating
strategies for the SNR, frst of all, it is aiming with regard to fnancial-
economic priorities while, basically, the attention is not paid to the school
liquidation threats for the cultural, social and economic development of a
particular region (country), i.e. these threats are not analysed at all.
the analysis of the Snr opportunities has revealed that there social-
cultural factors are also declared; however, they are based on fnancial-
economical indexes. In the context of the social-cultural priorities,
equal learning opportunities and a higher (self)educational quality for
public pupil acquire the crucial importance. In the context of fnancial-
economical priorities, the content of such factors as optimal usage of
funds is particularly vivid. Such usage of funds is substantiated by the
aim to renew the material resources necessary for education, thereby
improving the quality of the pupils (self)education.
In the process of of SNR implementation, the following priorities of the
school net rearrangement have been distinguished: modernisation of the
facilities for educational quality while using vacant funds appearing after
liquidation of schools and diminishing the number of empty (vacant)
learning seats in the reorganised schools; enlargement of learning
seats in those schools; enhancement of rural basic schools; creation of
274
conditions for the pupils special aid in the educational institutions; pupils
transportation effciency. Consequently, the following moral provisions of
the net rearrangement emerge, namely, social justice, equal possibilities,
availability, effectiveness, optimal usage of resources, coherence,
responsible management, quality and fulflment of personal needs.
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276
Work options for mentally handicapped youth
Ilona Sidorovica
Daugavpils University, Latvia
Abstract. The paper provides a theoretical insight for young people
with mental disabilities and their integration into the labour market.
Laws and rules about Latvian Labour law Section 7 are analysed. The
Principle of Equal Rights provides that Everyone has an equal right to
work, to fair, safe and healthy working conditions, as well as to fair work
remuneration.
The Aim of Research - to analyse inclusion options in labour market
for mentally handicapped youth. The following methods of research was
used the research of normative documentation and situation analysis in
labour market (statistical data analysis NVA).
There is no separate section in legislation of the Republic of Latvia
about mentally handicapped youth rights establishing legal employment
relationships.
Mentally handicapped youth want to be full-fedged members of
society, to make themselves useful with work that they can do, all they
need is understanding and help form government and society.
key words: young people with special needs, integration, labour
market, young people with mental disabilities.
Introduction
it is written in latvian laws and regulations that a person has the right
to work as it is included in the Latvian Constitution 106th Article, which
states: Everyone has the right to choose their employment and workplace
freely according to their abilities and qualifcations. In its turn the Latvian
Constitution 107th and 108th Article provides: Every employee has the
right to get payment for the work s/he has done. Payment is not less than
the legal minimum, as well as the right to have weekly holidays and paid
annual vacation, Workers have the right to collective agreement as well
as to strike. The State protects the freedom of trade unions . (Latvian
Constitution (adopted 2/15/1922)).
State Labour Inspectorate, the State Revenue Service control how
legal employment relationship is guaranteed. As the right to work is a
fundamental human right, this issue is also engaged in the Ombudsmans
Offce. Hot issues in employment rights are spread via the mass media
(television, radio, press). Various Internet resources provide a wide
277
range of information about employment rights. A variety of brochures
and information materials are published about employment rights.
When people look at people with mental disabilities, they pay all
attention to their shortcomings and limitations, not their abilities and
resources that these people can have.
Today these people are being pushed out of our society, many
employers are unwilling to accommodate people with mental disabilities
at work.
The objective of the article: Find out the former experience and so far
the studies of people with mental disabilities and to establish disincentives
factors in the labour market. The method used: analysis of documents,
theory and former research.
latvian studies
there has been a time in human history when people with mental
disabilities were viewed as unft for society. They were considered
incurable and a dangerous group of people that need to be removed and
not included in public life. Unfortunately, this approach or its impact has
been viewed in nowadays in the public or individual community. However,
in recent years, studies have shown a slow, gradual change in public
opinion against people with mental disabilities and mental illnesses or
behavioural disorders.
1. The rights of people with intellectual disabilities: accessibility
of education and employment 2005 (Report, 2005, EUMAP) the Open
Society Institute in cooperation with the Latvian Human Rights and
Ethnic Studies Centre made a report. There it is written that the Latvian
legislation, policy and practice still give too little opportunities for people
with intellectual disabilities to access education and employment. Due
to lack of suitable employment programmes, people with intellectual
disabilities have no proper work. Research of monitoring includes
recommendations for policy makers: the Latvian government is called to
take steps to ensure the improvement of laws and regulations as well as
the practice as much as it concerns people with intellectual disabilities.
2. Possibility of social rejection and its reasons for unemployment-
sensitive population groups 2004 (Planka, Trapenciere, & Trupovniece,
2004). Scientists have made conclusions that are based on an extensive
study results: in order to improve the employment of disabled people,
a number of changes are required, including the attitude change of
employers and the public, the introduction of tax to disabled workers and
their employers, the improvement of the knowledge and business skills
for people with disabilities.
278
3. more rights for people with intellectual disabilities 2003. latvian
Association Child of Care. Project performers conclude that the need
for public-funded support events is necessary. Events would be focused
on supportive environment in the open labour market, such as informing
the public, motivating the employer and supporting employment agency
network, as well as raising education and skill levels of people with
intellectual disabilities.
4. The monitoring of social services for people with disabilities
providing civic participation 2002. Monitoring report. Disabled
persons and their friends association Apeirons. Survey data show lack
of integration into the labour market of people with disabilities, which is
based on data on people with disabilities the motivation to work. It means
that the rights to work of the people with disabilities are provided partly.
5. young people with disabilities as a social group and their
rehabilitation possibilities in latvia (Ozolzle, SO Sunfower 2001).
there are not enough comprehensive and satisfactory vocational training
programmes for young people in this group. Also to those who got any
professional training and qualifcations, the labour market does not offer
any options in employment. The needed number of day-care centres for
young people who are incapable of working in Latvia is not enough.
6. Background study of persons with mental disabilities and the
mentally ill interests advocacy programme (Laimane, 2000). During
the research some successful examples of alternative care were identifed
which gave patients a chance to adapt more fully into society. It would be
necessary to create an interconnected system, which includes day care
centres, supported employment, specialised workshops, support centres
and other services.
7. European Community Initiative EQual programme for latvia
2004-2006. eQual aim is to cover all grounds of discrimination and
inequality in the labour market, as well as the related social rejection.
the programme was developed during the preparation of a report that
examined the main problems in this area and made an analysis of
different risk groups.
8. lifelong learning policy guidelines for 2007-2013. the activity
of young people with special needs integration into the education
system.
looking at studies that are relevant to people with mental disabilities in
employment made it necessary to develop and expand the successfully
started work in Latvia. Analysis of the studies shows that greater emphasis
is placed on the national initiative and support, but the initiative of the
same people with mental disabilities is rarely mentioned.
279
in order to improve the situation for people with special needs in
Latvia, in 1997 The Ministry of Welfare set up a National Council for
Persons with Disabilities to promote cooperation between institutions
and to involve public organisations in decision-making which is related
to people with disabilities the promotion of integration. On June 30, 1998
the Cabinet of Ministers approved the concept of Equal opportunities
for all (Concept VIV, 1998). This document includes a realisation plan
by 2010, and the Ministry each year according to the conception and
funding opportunities include measures for concept realisation into the
Ministry action plans.
On the June 13, 2005 the Cabinet of Ministers approved the guidelines
developed by Ministry of Welfare guidelines for diminishing policy of
disability and its result from 2005 till 2015. (Guidelines, 2005). This
document includes various activities, including the introduction of a new
Law - Disability Law on Social Protection.
Typical problems for young people with mental disability entering
the labour relations
The General Assembly recognising the commitment of the United
Nations Organization Statutes and taking common and individual
activities in cooperation with the UNO to promote higher standards of
living, full employment and conditions of economic and social progress
and development (UNO Declaration of Human Rights) stress that the
declaration (Human Rights. Nations Treaty Series. 1st volume (part two)
universal treaties. United Nations in New York and Geneva, 1994) for
social progress and development give the need to protect these people
with special needs rights who are physically and mentally disabled and
to ensure their welfare and rehabilitation, keeping in mind the need to
help people with mental disabilities to develop their abilities in different
areas of activity and as much as possible encourage them to integrate
into normal life (Human Rights. Nations Treaty Series, 1994).
labour law article 7 stipulates that to promote the introduction of the
principle of equal rights for people with special needs, the employer is
obliged to take measures in accordance with the conditions necessary to
adapt the working environment and facilitate possibilities of establishing
working relationship for persons with disabilities, as well as to be
promoted or sent on training to the extent such measures would impose
a disproportionate burden on the employer. (Labour Law (adopted on
20.06.2001.) // Latvian Messenger).
the 7th article refects a contradiction because many employers are
reluctant to hire people with special needs. It requires more effort and
280
attention that today requires time, so that the employer will not want to
make any commitments to people with special needs. Nowadays people
with disabilities are being discriminated, the principle of equal rights is
not applied, although it is stipulated in the Latvian Constitution section
8, Human Rights 91th article that All people are equal in front of the
Latvian law and the courts. Human rights shall be exercised without
discrimination of any kind. (Latvian Constitution (adopted on 11.07.1922)
/ / Latvian Messenger).
Disincentive factors of recruitment for people with special
needs
Literature (Ermsone, Bleiere, 2002, Vocational education 2004,
Human rights 1994, Lamonova, 2004, Report. Inclusion Europe, 2004,
a guide for employers and employers organizations, 2004, International
Labour Offce in Geneva, 2002, Riemer, Pfohl, 2008) studies indicate the
reasons why employers are reluctant to hire people with special needs:
1. People with disabilities work less as compared to other workers.
The employer, recruiting people with special needs, can avoid problems
in the work giving the employee those exercise which performance where
special needs do not matter.
2. Employers are no suitable positions for people with special
needs.
Human consciousness has penetrated the idea that people with
disabilities are able to handle only the particular work. Tremendous efforts
are needed to put in raising awareness and building consciousness to
show that there is a wide range of employment opportunities and a large
number of possible jobs.
3. Literature research shows that the employers think they cannot
hire people with special needs for security reasons.
ignoring safety rules and improper handling of the devices can harm
and cause death.
Yet, why workers with special needs will ignore these rules and
equipment?
Compliance is not related to disability. In case of mental disability
it has to be checked if the worker is able to understand and respect
these rules and equipment. Special needs must not be a reason for
being discouraged to work. Taking into account all the above reasons,
the employer can be sure that hiring people with special needs do not
increase their recruitment of security risks if only there is appropriately
adopted job and if it is tested in advance that employees understand the
safety rules.
281
4. Employers fear that by recruiting people with special needs, they
will be under very strict laws and employers will have little chance
to lay off people if they are not satisfed with people with special
needs (Riemer, Pfohl, 2008).
employers are clearly worried about the employment and social
legislation issues.
5. People with special needs are not suffciently qualifed.
Qualifcation is based on education and experience. Nowadays every
man has got education at school and physical disabilities do not prevent
the successful acquisition of academic programmes and careers. People
with mental disabilities have been trained according to their abilities. They
beneft from a special and exciting hours at school, teachers help them to
get education, while gaining valuable theoretical and practical standards.
So you are able to fnd people with the required level of education among
people with special needs.
6. The contacts with people with special need show that the lack of
experience is one of the main reasons why employers do not offer
these people a job. They often fear that they will not know how to
treat people with special needs.
Characteristics of young people with mild and moderate mental
disabilities
the ranges of persons who are included in the category of people with
special needs are very large. The main groups - people with visual disorder
or blind, people with hearing disorder or deaf, people with language
disorders, people with emotional disorders, with mental disabilities
and learning diffculties with mental and somatic diseases, people with
physical disabilities which have chronic nature. Only one group of people
with special needs is analysed in this paper - pedagogical psychological
traits of people with mild mental disabilities (A and B level).
There is slight, intense and profound degree of disabilities. In case
of mild disabilities, young people can learn in mainstream classrooms.
Intense degree requires specialist involvement. Social learning and
compensation possibilities are limited to primarily communicative and
self-care skills feld. In case of profound disabilities a young person
requires self-care, his capacity is limited (ieva Red., 2000).
According to classifcation, in certain special schools it is possible
to meet the young persons whose problems are a clear stage and
they need special support from professionals in the learning process in
order to acquire the necessary knowledge and skills and be able to fully
participate in society and the labour market.
282
Aged 18 to 25 years, the students have reached the young age
group (depending on number of years spent in school) and so they are
specifc to these age structure corresponding to the psychological and
physiological characteristics. During this time, a young person changes
both psychologically and physiologically, matures according to their
sex and begins to realise it. It is believed that this is one of the most
complicated of human development stages. Physiological development
of young people with mild mental disabilities goes on according to
their age structure. Minor variations can be observed only in physical
development, for example, some distinctive co-ordinate movements.
in some cases the effects may accelerate sexual maturation or on the
contrary - the development of retention. However the rapid physiological
changes and hormonal fuctuations in the blood cause a stronger
reaction to this young peoples psyche, in a variety of lesions in the brain
or nervous system. They have diffculties to control the side effects that
are caused by changes in their body.
Childs personality characteristics and quality develops during
adolescence as well as reveals impact of emotional, cognitive and social
sphere that have emerged in all previous stages. The larger errors have
been allowed in previous periods of development, the stronger they
manifest during adolescence, the more diffcult young people are in
that period. Genreally a young person is characterised by negativity,
opposition,disobedience and the like (Svence, 1990, 120).
the work undertaken by young people with mental disabilities can
be unskilled or semi-skilled. Mild mental disabilities are often diffcult to
determine until the child starts going to school and is checked there.
These individuals brain activity is generally improving with age, some
even feel that this diagnosis is lost when they leave school, and they
adapt in society quite well (Komer, 2001).
Every person has developed as personality if s/he has taken a
defned place in society and is aware of hers/his existence and ability
to control, manage ones own behaviour. (Liepina, 2003). Personality
does not mean the exclusive ability. People with mental disabilities are
also personalities. People are not born as personalities, they are born as
individuals with their own physical and psychological individualities, but
as personalities they develop in interaction with other peoples internal
and external factors. Person is a biological and social creature (Liepina,
2003, 85).
young people with disabilities in the labour market are hindered by
a lack of motivation of employers and non-customised environment for
283
young people with special needs, including work environment. Common
stereotypes about the work capacity of people with disabilities reduce
employers motivation to hire them as well as the need for additional
expenditure to ensure adapted work place for people with special needs
and getting them to work.
recommendations in legislation improvement regarding integ-
ration of people with mental disabilities into the labour market:
1. In order to ensure better background from training to employment
for persons with mental disabilities, the government should give
priority to vocational training of a wide range of occupations
for people with mental disabilities. To affect this, analysis of
labour market must be done in order to determine which offered
professional training programmes (special schools, mainstream
schools and vocational schools) for young people with mental
disabilities would be appropriate for the current needs of the
labour market. In addition, the State Employment Agency should
implement training programmes for people with mental disabilities
so that they could get appropriate vocational training and access
to employment in the open labour market conditions.
2. To offer employers more tax relief. To motivate employers and
increase interest to employ disabled people, without fear of risk
and possible loss of business.
3. It is necessary to develop and approve required employment
conditions and the necessary resources for adapting workplaces
according to the needs of people with disabilities.
4. Adopting a law on people with disabilities in employment means
that the country on this issue has formulated a unifed strategy
and enforcement policy. Legislation on the provision of their
professional ftness, training, job placement and job retention or
continuing issues.
5. For a better understanding of the situation and needs of people
with mental disabilities, the Government should fully review the
data collection system and provide reliable and regularly updated
information about this group. Improvement of cooperation should
be done among different ministries that deal with people with
mental disabilities in order to improve support options for them
and their families.
6. The fow of information will be ensured by professionally organised
events, reducing the negative public attitudes towards people with
mental disabilities and providing knowledge of opportunities that
the public could provide the necessary support to them.
284
Conclusion
young people with special needs are a part of our society and they
can make their contribution to our countrys current recovery, within limits
they can take care of themselves.
the work is necessary to any young person and it is one of the most
important meanings of human life.
One of the fundamental rights of young people is the right to work and
earn a decent salary. In realising these rights, young people with special
needs have the opportunity to infuence their living conditions, improve
them, while also increasing social security.
there is no quota system in latvia for young people with disabilities and
to date there has been no specifc government incentives to encourage
young people with mental disabilities in employment. The main body of
labour market is the State Employment Agency (SEA).
the main substantive barrier in assessing the situation of young
people with disabilities is a comprehensive lack of data on the types of
disability in Latvia.
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Unemployed and job seekers Employment .- unemployed disabled. Retrieved
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People with intellectual disabilities: education and employment. Report, 2005.
EUMAP, the European Union Monitoring and Advocacy Program, Open
Society Mental Health Initiative, 2005.
Human rights. Nations Treaty Series. 1.sjums (part two) universal treaties.
UNITED NATIONS, New York and Geneva, 1994, 515.lpp.
People with disabilities employment.-Index . Psychological factors and stereotypes
that discourage employers to hire persons with disabilities. Retrieved from:
http://ande.isma.lv/Latvv/indexlvsat.htm.
Labour Law. (Adopted 20.06.2001.). Latvian Journal, 105.
Employers - equal dialogue partners: a guide for employers and employers
organizations. Riga, the Ministry of Welfare, 2004.
Discrimination aching deep in my heart! Fighting discrimination in Europe.
Report. Inclusion Europe: 2004.
Ermsone, D., Bleiere, S. Employers Guide. Riga, Ltd.: Madona poligrfsts,
2002. Part 1.
Disability and the consequences of mitigation policies, 2005 - 2015. Retrieved
from: www.lm.gov.lv/doc_upl/guidelines.
Latvian Constitution (adopted on 02.15.1922). Latvian Vstnesis., No. 43.
Latvian Constitution (adopted on 07.11.1922). Latvian Vstnesis., No. 43.
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Lamonova, F. Your rights and duties of the second New York. Educational steps,
2002. - 158.lpp.
Laimane, I. Background study of persons with mental disabilities and the mentally
ill advocacy program. LCESC, Riga, 2000.
Liepins, S. Special psychology. - R.: Raka, 2003.
Acorn, G. Mental development of disturbed young people as a social group and
their rehabilitation of the Latvian Police Academy No articles. 8, 2001.
The Standard Rules on Equal Opportunities for disabled people is adopted by
the United Nations General Assembly 48th Session 1993rd On the 20th
December.
Planck, M., Trapencieris, I., Trupovniece, A. The likelihood of social exclusion
and the reasons for unemployment-sensitive population groups. LU FSI,
Riga, 2004.
Vocational education and labor market Latvian. Category Employers and
vocational education. 2004.
Com, R., Patopsiholoijas basics. Fundamentals of abnormal Psychology.
2001.
Sun-organization of people with intellectual disabilities. History. Retrieved from:
http://www.saule-rb.lv/?p=60&lang=14.
Svence, G. Developmental psychology. R.: Penguin Books, 1990.
International Labour Organizations Code of Practice of disabled people in
employment promotion. International Labour Offce in Geneva. 2002.
Social work terminology dictionary. Zin. Red. L. ieva, prof., Dr.paed. R.: De-
velopment, 2000.
Riemer, G., Pfohl, T. Labour market and people with special needs. education
and Innovation Institute. 2008. Retrieved from: www.arbertundbehinderung.
at.
286
EDuCaTIon For SuSTaInaBlE
DEvElopmEnT anD E-lEarnIng
The impact of a holistic implementation of moodle
at secondary school Gimnazija Bezigrad (GIMB) in
didactic and pedagogical attitudes
alenka Budihna,
Tanja Mastnak
Gimnazija Bezigrad, Slovenia
Abstract. Goals of ICT implementation in Slovenia, directed by
Ministry of Education, consider equipping schools with infrastructure
and e-educating teachers. Secondary school GIMB approached the
challenge holistically, using the snowball method based on peer teaching.
The project was regularly followed by SWAT analyses, steady motivation
and workshops for different stages of teachers interests. Our goal is to
actively involve senior management, lessen the digital differences among
teachers, and educate every member of the teaching staff. GIMB is in the
phase where coordinated ICT is emphasised with active implementation
of didactic novelties and pedagogical changes. The article describes the
process of regular evaluation, fnal assessment of the project by means
of an electronic survey answered by 70 % of the teaching staff. The result
presents active and passive involvement of the teachers in correlation
with subject specifc area, years of teaching experience and age of the
teachers. A considerable percentage of teachers become motivated
learners, advanced users: building e-teaching material and teaching
students to use ICT formally.
Key words: holistic ICT implementation, snowball method, Moodle,
teacher education, e-learning
Theoretical Introduction
Implementing Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in
school work is such a complex project that we must consider it at various
levels which are, however, tightly interconnected. Time and space must
287
be inevitably planned for implementation, and once the project of ICT
implementation has begun it can only be successful if it is supported
at all levels and every participant has committed themselves to the
cause. In many researches the authors have come to a conclusion that
successful projects need ICT vision, careful plans for teacher integration,
continuous support at all levels, collaboration and constant evaluative
studies (Altun et al. 2010).
national level
in Slovenia information and Communication technology is part of
the improving the curriculum of the secondary schools. Using ICT and
therefore developing digital literacy is one of the key competences of
the European Framework. Competence is considered a combination of
knowledge, skill and relationships according to the learning environment.
In 2007 (ampelj et al.) an action plan was made in Slovenia in which the
situation in Slovene secondary schools was analysed and suggestions
and strategies were given on how to continue with the work already
started. Based on this action plan a project, in collaboration with
European Funds, Project E-olstvo (2007) was developed by national
School it Programme Committee who collected positive results and took
a critical view of the level of ICT system in Slovenian schools. In a four
year programme they started to educate teachers on pedagogical use of
ICT collect and disseminate e-contents and examples of good practice,
consult school leadership on future development of each school with the
goal to cover all primary and secondary schools in Slovenia.
School level
leadership of each school has to keep in mind that it is necessary
to try and provide conditions for suitable teacher training. Teachers
must be supported and encouraged to sustain regular iCt education
not only because it is part of personal growth but also because iCt are
undergoing such quick development that it is the only way how to keep
up with the novelties. A considerable problem is presented by the fact
that teachers have to learn about such ways of teaching which were,
even in the recent past, unknown to them at the time of their education.
Leadership of each school must introduce politics where these diffculties
are taken into account but not as an obstacle or an excuse.
In order to introduce such a project holistically, school leadership must
have a vision and a model by means of which they can implement the
use of ICT at all levels of school work. The school must monitor, review
288
and evaluate the effectiveness and quality of ICT throughout the school.
the leadership team must base future planning upon the evidence-
based monitoring and evaluation of progress (Education and Training
Programme 2010). In 1999 Ely established that some key conditions
must be fulflled in order for the implementation to become successful.
There must be availability of knowledge, time, and possibility of explicit
and implicit motivation, cooperation and commitment.
School management is facing a new age of leadership mode where
traditional way of leading is replaced by new attitudes: openness, fexibility,
transparency. Changes which are taking place in the classroom also hold
true for school managers: leaders become guides and mentors, they no
longer rule with autocratic power as this has proven as too slow a way
to respond to current changes.
Teacher level
If teachers do not possess enough ICT knowledge and skills, it can
become a serious impediment for the implementation of ICT. Therefore
professional leadership is needed to guide teachers in accepting new
ways of teaching as teacher is still the only authority who decides what
and how will be instructed in the classroom. So it is of importance
that teachers become aware of the interaction between pedagogical
objectives and potential of ICT to support them (Education and Training
Programme 2010).
educating teachers should be organized gradually and in the following
levels:
use of computers,
becoming acquainted with adequate technologies,
pedagogical inclusion of iCt technologies in the curriculum and
developing digital material which is adapted to didactics of each
specifc subject area in such a way that it is immediately retreived
from for use in classroom (Mooij 2001).
Teachers need to adapt to the new demands in learning environments:
since iCt enables more personalized and individual approach it is of
considerable importance for the teachers to include iCt in their classroom
activities (Education and Training Programme 2010). In order to do it
successfully, teachers must rethink and reshape their role, making the
transition from instruction to individualised learning. New pedagogic and
didactic methods are on way wherever teachers start using iCt in the
classroom. Teachers also need to learn to impart their knowledge through
a third party, mostly the media (Education and Training Programme
289
2010). At the same time, they still play an important role as they decide
upon the appropriate media suitable for their students.
Student level
Digital technologies are tools for the teachers, but for the students
they are their everyday environment. As students are well used to it but
are often unaware of its formal use, it is important for them to develop
strategic and methodological knowledge in order to be able to select and
use relevant information. As soon as students become digitally literate,
they also become more active and safe users of new technologies. On
the level of lifelong learning digital literacy facilitates access to needed
information and contents. Therefore it should be a part of the e-vision of
each school to produce digitally literate students as the market outside
school has demands exactly in this area. It would be irresponsible
of the national education system to neglect one of the complex key
competences which also leads and facilitates lifelong learning. Formal
digital knowledge gained in high school also ensures a certain advantage
to those students who continue their studies at universities.
Method
In a case study at high school Gimnazija Beigrad (GIMB) we will
describe how we started the gradual and holistic approach in the project
of introducing the use of Moodle platform for all teaching staff in the year
2008. Our plan was to include all the teachers at GIMB to attend the
introductory workshop for Moodle and acquire the basic knowledge of
introducing and using e-learning platform Moodle in the period of 2008
to 2012. Introductory and advanced workshops were organised regularly
twice or thrice a year and each teachers pilot project was followed up.
Each year analysis of strengths, weaknesses, advantages and threats
(SWAT analysis) was carried out among the teachers in order to evaluate
the project. At the end of the project we carried out a web survey among
the teachers and carried out some interviews with teachers who are in
favour of ICT use in the classroom and some of those who are not.
During the Moodle introductory project other possibilities were also
systematically offered to the teachers in the feld of e-technologies: the
skilled use of educational web programs (i.e. Hot Potatoes), the use of
e-content from the internet, the use of interactive whiteboards (all the
classrooms in the school are equipped with an interactive whiteboard)
and the use of electronic log book and assessment book. The set goal
was that all teachers should come to understand the pedagogical use
290
of technological equipment provided by school, and certain percentage
were expected to develop advanced use of the technical possibilities in
the sense of innovative, creative pedagogical material.
By February 2011 the aim was almost achieved. Out of 84 teachers
only 5 have not attended the Moodle workshops yet. We anticipated that
there will be a percentage of teachers who do not wish to work with e-
technologies for diverse reasons such as personal aversion to working
with computers, declinations to acquiring new knowledge just before
retirement and suchlike. On the other hand, there are some teachers
who very quickly become users with advanced knowledge of Moodle and
other programs which support e-teaching and learning. Their pedagogical
innovations will be introduced later in the text.
the project was followed by systematic and regular analysis which
was also presented at international conferences (Ljubljana 2009 and
Paris 2010). In the frst stage we used SWAT analysis to get the results
of the quality of the project. The results showed the presence of fear
and mistrust among teachers due to the technological knowledge
shortcomings. At the beginning there were a lot of technical troubles
because of out-dated hardware and software, lack of knowledge and skill
and similar. Since the school has limited fnancial possibilities, we were
facing the situation where our ambitions were way above our present
possibilities. As this is such a complex project, we only understood where
the problems were hidden after starting the project of iCt equipment of
the school. Introducing new technologies is accompanied by technical
troubles and instability and those technological disadvantages caused
a lot of complaints and distrust from teachers in the beginning phase.
as a result a lot of time and effort was put into successful solution of
hardware, software and infrastructure stability.
to reach all the teachers we use the snowball method which was
clearly described in our previous presentations (Mastnak et al.). In order
to proceed with this approach, it was vital to follow and understand the
response of the teachers who were involved in the process. The model
is still working. Presently we have concluded the basic introductory
workshops. If any teachers wish, they can get individual help and
support from outside expert help hired by school (Mikli, Budihna) and/
or from those colleagues who are more advanced in their technological
knowledge besides attending the regular workshops. At this stage it was
also very important that teachers got feedback information about use
of Moodle in the classroom from the teachers from the same subject
group.
291
Results
SWaT analysis and statistic research
In the frst SWAT analysis it was clear that frst steps are time
consuming, a lot of encouragement is needed, there was still distrust in
the technology, teachers were afraid of failing in front of the students or
losing their authority, but nevertheless some teachers enjoyed the work
with ICT, results with students were positive. The second SWAT analysis
showed that participants really liked practical and useful information
from the colleagues from their own subject area. Teachers started to
exchange teaching material as well as ideas. The second SWAT analysis
also showed that fear of technology malfunction receded and teachers
started to concentrate more on the contents and not so much on the
technical parts of Moodle. In this area the examples of good practice
were of vital importance.
at the third stage of investigation we made some statistic research
in which we presented results, analysis and possible conclusion to all
teachers at a staff meeting. We used web survey technique and analysis
of data (number of participants, age, subject specify).The aim was to
transparently present the current situation, stress the positive results and
encourage the rest of the staff to join the prevailing majority. As was
expected, the positive mass of Moodle users automatically dragged the
rest of the teaching staff (except 5 individuals) to feel the need to join
in.
The statistic results made in December 2010 were very encouraging.
By then seventy per cent of the teaching staff had participated in
workshops. The time of using Moodle in teaching varied from three months
to two years. It was interesting that teachers preferred to use Moodle in
frst and second grade we assume it is because they want to start
something new with new generation of students. We also observed that
younger generations of students were more positive towards activities
in e-classroom than older generations. Many of them had already
experienced e-learning in primary schools. The use of Moodle was less
noted in the third grade. In the fourth grade the use increased again:
fourth grade teachers and students appreciate the use of e-classroom
because they study more at home and need fast access to the learning
materials. This is exactly what the remote learning is aimed at.
According to the results of the questionnaire, the teachers estimate
that students appreciation of using Moodle as a teaching tool are middle
value (in the scale of 1-5, they marked 3) content to work in e-classroom.
this result was surprising and we will focus our next research on the
students response to e-learning.
292
Comparison among subject groups showed that Art (100%) and Math
(92%) teachers were the most frequent active users of Moodle. The lower
interest has been presented by Gym teachers (only 44% participated in
workshops). The rest of the subject groups (Science, Languages and
Social Sciences) had around 70% of active participation.
The results of age analysis were also as expected. We formed three
groups of teachers. Group A included teachers born between 1980 and
1970 (20), group B teachers born between 1960 and 1970 (29) and
group C teachers born before 1960 (35). The number of elderly teachers
is very high at GIMB, nevertheless the results of groups B (69%) and C
(66%) were very similar. The smaller group of young teachers (A) had
better results than the other two groups (99%).
After the presentation of results at the staff meeting, teachers
participated in the workshops of three different levels according to their
skills. At this stage all the teachers except 5 had participated in the
workshops. We considered this a success.
The quantitative research was completed by qualitative research:
SWAT analysis and interviews with most advanced teachers. The aim
was to estimate the didactic and pedagogical change caused by the use
of e-teaching.
the results of SWat analysis showed that among strengths of e-
teaching teachers see possibilities of diversity of teaching process
(possibility of covering students different learning styles), teaching is
neither time nor space specifc it can expand, the teaching process
is better organised, there are better opportunities for co-teaching with
other subject groups, interdisciplinary cooperation, the generational gap
of e-literacy is narrowing, digital divide is decreasing, direct and personal
contact with student enables more individual approach, formal use of
digital media is introduced to the students.
teachers exposed the following weaknesses: time consuming initial
preparations, work overload for students and teachers, technical problems,
spoiling the students by offering them such learning materials.
advantages of using Moodle platform are possibilities of introducing
e-classroom for all subjects, which also enables connections with other
schools and programmes, e-classroom can become a database of
assorted e-learning materials, students can follow up the e-contents,
there is a possibility for after school learning and teaching more advanced
uses of e-technology.
the threats mentioned were that quick changes of the iCt programs
are diffcult to follow; the contact with students is depersonalised.
293
80% of teachers expressed opinion that the use of Moodle is good for
students because: it helps them to become better prepared for university
studies (where advanced use of computer skills is demanded), it
represents a new way of communication between teacher and student, it
helps students to develop digital skills and new pedagogical approaches,
students are more responsible for the organisation and realisation of their
work, learning process is more often on high quality level (use of audio,
video and similar advanced techniques).
in the third SWat analysis there are more advantages and strengths
than threats and weaknesses. There were more diffculties exposed in
the frst SWAT analysis and less advantages; in the third SWAT analysis,
however, it was the other way round. Teachers have become used to
using iCt in the classroom and the it support became stable enough for
teachers to rely on it.
Interviews with teachers
in the semi-structured interviews with teachers who are in favour of
using ICT in the classroom, it was emphasised that the most important
pedagogical change was caused by the use of Moodle and e-learning
and it also infuenced the relationship between teacher and student.
According to the teachers, this relationship became more intense and
precise. The responding time from teacher is quicker and students
get responses more often than attending the usual teacher-student
meetings. Teachers can expand the information on the topic and offer
more material. Moodle in combination with interactive whiteboard is very
welcome because visualization of instruction can become a new didactic
approach. Teachers can also keep record of students work in a more
transparent way, especially those teachers who have more than 200
students. They have problems with following individual progress of an
individual student. Moodle platform enables teachers to have students
folder present every time when teachers get in touch with particular
student.
the music teacher saw advantages in the advanced use of digitally
stored music material for her subject area because it facilitates students
to study examples more deeply as they have remote access to music
samples.
Teachers in favour of ICT also found a very exciting change in the feld
of assessment. The possibility to enter the values of diverse components
of the grade for each assignment into the program can bring completely
new dimensions, into assessment process from the point of view of
294
objectivity, specifcity and diversity. Pedagogical change happens when
assessment takes place in the form of ICT.
teachers who are wary of iCt use in the classroom exposed the
disadvantage such as loss of physical communication the presence of
four senses and loss of spontaneity in relationship with the students and
instruction material.
Conclusion
introducing iCt at all school levels makes some changes also where
they are not expected but leadership must be prepared to recognize,
accept, adapt and react to the new situations. For example, during the
project it became obvious that special iCt staff meetings had to be
introduced because there were so many innovations, improvements,
news, possibilities and workshops offered that regular pedagogical
meeting were too short. In every subject area one teacher in favour of ICT
was appointed as a treasurer of subject e-contents. This teachers role
was to collect and share e-contents with their subject area colleagues.
Again, it is much easier to implement such an innovation when there
is constant support from the leadership. A project leader should be
appointed for ICT project.
Once ICT work is introduced into a school, it should become a
constant. It should become part of regular curricula and everybody in
school should be encouraged to use it, including the leadership as they
serve as an example to the others. It must be included in annual plans
and reports, it must be considered in every area in which school is active.
Parents and local participants should be included.
Moodle platform has proved a very useful tool in the classroom work.
Many teachers and students alike were surprised by its benefts. Didactic
changes come hand in hand even when teachers are not aware of them.
Once it becomes part of everyday use, it is indispensable. Teachers
become used to sharing experience in this feld and they also get used
to asking for advice from more skilled colleagues. The snowball method
is a very useful and sensitive method because it seems to be working
on the psychological level where, after a while, teachers do not want to
differ from others.
The use of Moodle platform can be roughly divided in two: it can serve
as a database for a certain subject or teacher and/or it can become an
interactive tool between teacher and student. This depends on how skilful
a user the teacher is. This is where students become active and guided
and teachers change their role from a teacher into one of a mentor.
295
As we have not run any research on students, we cannot report how
much they meet the requirements mentioned in the e-vision. It is quite
obvious, however, that fourth grade students are grateful for the fnal
examination material retrieved from on-line.
after surprisingly good results of three-year planned Moodle project
we are preparing for another three- or four-year project where teachers
e-education will be upgraded.
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(2007). Predlog akcijskega narta nadaljnjega preskoka informatizacije
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297
E-learning environment for sustainability
in educational action research
Janis kapenieks
Riga Technical University, Latvia
abstract. The article analyses the results of a research which were
obtained by using a new method for the creation and acquisition of
knowledge an educational action research in an e-learning group. The
method was implemented in a Business Planning course for the bachelor
level students at The Riga Technical University. The article proposes som
ebasic principles for enhancing comfort ability and motivation of e-learning
environment and its users interface. Adequate technological solutions
are proposed as well. The principles are formulated in accordance with
the users learning preferences. Some of the most important solutions
providing user-friendly interaction with computer are proposed in the
article. A user-friendly working environment for an e-learning consultant is
proposed. It releases his/her intellectual resources for better collaboration
with the learners analysis of discussions, provision of corrections and
enhancing motivation.
Key words: e-learning, action research, learning environment, users
interface, collaborative learning.
Introduction
new digital technologies play a special role in the creation and
perception of new knowledge. The cognitive act is no longer grounded in
the model of classical knowledge theories that regard it as an individual
psychological act. Since such frequently used computer applications
as typing or searching in various resources are rooted in our language
and practice, computer participation becomes an integral component of
cognitive activities. The interactive nature of digital networks ascribes
it a completely new role. Communication technologies are no longer
passive; they interact with the user in the evaluation and creation of
knowledge (UNESCO, 2005). The present study was conducted to seek
new techniques for a functional use of computers in enhancing inquiry
processes. In the course of the study, new experience was gained about
improving cognitive activities via creative intra-group cooperation in a
digital environment.
the paper describes the insights gained from working with innovative
methods in an e-learning Business Planning course within a bachelor
study programme at Riga Technical University.
298
the paper reports on a particular milestone in a continuous study
where students acquire knowledge about commercial activity while
working in a group that participates in an educational action research
conducted in e-learning environment. The study aims at
ascertaining the effectiveness of the applied method,
creating basic methodical principles,
designing an e-learning environment where this e-learning me-
thod could be effectively used for acquisition of various kinds of
knowledge.
During the initial phase of the study the methodology of group work in
educational action research in an e-learning environment was designed
(Kapenieks, 2010b). Following that, the students cooperation in the
group and the results of knowledge acquisition were analysed. Research
fndings are submitted for publication in the proceedings of the 3rd
International Conference on Computer Supported Education (CSEDU
2011) in Nordwijkerhout, the Netherlands. The next research phase
focused on analysing the students activity in the e-learning environment
during the entire course of action research and drawing conclusions about
the ways the method affects the students personalities the dynamics
of interests, beliefs and values. The fndings indicate certain changes in
the students interests and orientations to creativity and development.
The paper reporting on these fndings is submitted for publication in an
international IEEE Engineering Education 2011 conference Learning
Environments and Ecosystems in Engineering Education (EDUCON
2011) in Amman, Jordan. The latter study also identifed several
shortcomings in the designed e-learning environment.
the most important shortcoming was the relatively complicated
communication between the e-learning environment and its users.
The communication occurs with the help of computers, hence the key
element in receiving and interacting with the information is the screen of
a computer (or a mobile phone). Since students need to simultaneously
process extensive amounts of interrelated information, the screen design
plays a crucial role. It organises the acquisition of information, helps to
compare and evaluate it as well as provides opportunities to supplement
it. This is important with regard to motivation. We shall hereafter call
the screen of communication a users interface with the e-learning
environment.
the present paper continues the evaluation and publication of research
results. The aim of the paper is to elaborate basic principles for the design
of interface in an interactive e-learning environment for educational action
research in a group as well as to create a corresponding prototype of a
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users interface design for organising the students group work.
to characterise the effectiveness of the method used in the present
educational action research we focused on the following factors: (1)
the students mutual infuence in group work, (2) ascertainment of the
students creativity and its manifestations in e-learning environment and
(3) e-learning environment as a factor that enhances the creative process.
the need to address these issues is enforced by the current demand
which is recognised alongside with the topicality of developmental
problems. For instance, this approach is grounded in the belief that the
most appropriate concept for characterising the present economic era is
creative economy, thereby admitting the importance of creativity and the
possibilities to measure it (Chapnick & Meloy, 2005:13). In the present
study, the students creative activity is closely related to interaction in
the action research group. Chapnick and Meloy also contrast personal
creativity with the one that develops between an individuals personal
thoughts and the broader socio-cultural context. They argue that the
latter is a more systemic rather than personal phenomenon (Chapnick
& Meloy, 2005: 14).
Creativity in action is closely connected with educational innovation.
The latter encompasses not only new, but also improved ideas,
knowledge and practical applications (Kostoff, 2003; Mitchell, 2003). In
the frst action research phase, the grounds were sought for creating
the methodology which would permit to evaluate the improvements in
the students learning process according to their innovative nature. The
present paper continues this topic since it aims at seeking solutions
that would adapt e-learning environment to action research context and
attempts to introducing innovations in education, which is based on the
use of information and communication technologies for a more dialogical
education.
The research method used in the present study defnes new
pathways in knowledge acquisition and personality development. This
matches the notion of disruptive innovation as perceived by Christensen
and Lrgreid (2001). They also distinguish another kind of innovation
sustaining innovation that ameliorates the existing systems and services
(ibid.). Szabo and Sobon (2003) defne introduction of instructional
communication technologies in education, chiefy distance learning,
as disruptive, which allows for new ways of knowledge acquisition to
emerge.
In the course of the present study, several generally acknowledged
innovation tendencies were realised:
increased access opportunities,
300
increased opportunities for expert evaluation and suggestions,
which may be oriented towards competence development rather
than pure knowledge acquisition,
improved active learning by creating new learning elements
(Ghaill, 1992) which are nowadays ensured by the presence of
technologies in the classroom and beyond increased use of
constructivist and student-centred approaches, focus on the
learning outcomes (CERI, 2009).
In the present research, a serious challenge is posed by the fact that
opportunities for identifying and measuring innovations in education
are questionable. The quantities to be measured depend on various
factors that are hard to evaluate and the possibility of independent
measurement is, admittedly, problematic. The quantities to be measured
are effectiveness and/or effciency not only the students results, but
also the created capacity and other aspects (Blumenfeld, 2000). Two
approaches have been used for measuring the infuence of innovations
in the present study with a special emphasis on the latter:
descriptive approach by comparing performance in cases of
innovative and non-innovative approaches (Gibbs, 2001),
econometric approach that attempts to describe performance by
means of variables (CERI, 2009).
In the experimental part of the study, action research was used as a
learning method for creation and acquisition of knowledge. It integrates
the action research used in conventional learning methods into group
work with the technological facilities of e-learning. The innovative nature
corresponds to the defnition of sustaining innovation (Szabo & Sobon,
2003). This methodology provides more effective and attractive ways of
knowledge acquisition for knowledge creation through refection.
the present study analyses the process of knowledge creation and
its infuence on personality. Salte, Gedne and Gedne (2009) argue
that educational action research permits to develop ability to fnd wise
solutions for specifc situations. Thus, educational action research is
based on the process that develops ability to formulate ones opinion
and express or record it. The method becomes a strategic approach to
the development of expression skills (ibid.).
the present study acknowledges the crucial importance of learning
environment in educational action research. The learning environment
301
corresponds to the reality of communicative space where contemporary
pupils and students act. This entails specifc requirements for the e-
learning environment. As stated above, one of the research aims is the
realisation of these requirements. The e-learning environment should
fulfl the requirements of a sound learning environment (Dewey,
1997),
be easy to use,
be suitable for various int.al. mobile technologies,
be captivating and attractive, able to compete with the broad
supply of social networks,
correspond to a sound cognitive approach and help to develop
metacognitive skills.
the study undertaken over a lengthy period of time indicates that
educational action research is an effective means for knowledge acquisi-
tion since knowledge is created from linking up personal experience and
the information to be acquired. Hence, we set the following objective to
our study to design a model of the interface for motivating cooperation
in a workgroup that is created in an educational action research
implemented in an e-learning environment. Opportunities were sought
for integrating the activity of students and an e-learning consultant as
well as for decreasing the distance between them, which is characteristic
of this form of learning. In the present paper we shall examine: (1) the
experience and insights gained by the researcher/e-learning consultant
while analysing the students performance and (2) the students views on
e-learning environment.
process and participants of educational action research
educational action research in riga technical university was
conducted with two repetitions (2010, 2011) in the autumn semester. The
infuence of educational action research on the students interaction in
the group and the manifestations of creativity were studied.
the e-learning interface model proposed in the present paper was
created to suggest an environment for the acquisition of a Business
Planning course in a bachelor study programme.
the course was supervised by a teacher but the work in the e-
learning environment was conducted by an e-learning consultant.
In coordinating the action research, the Riga Technical University e-
302
study portal ORTUS was used. It relies on the open source MOODLE
software. The students receive instruction on the assigned tasks and
can download the study aids and assignments as well as assignment
templates or upload the tasks fulflled. Action research was carried out
in the environment of Google documents. Filling in a form, the students
had to answer questions which were summarized and recorded in an
MS Excel sheet. The e-study consultant divided the students into groups
and ensured each students access to the sheet of his/her group for
corrections or viewing the results. In the sheet, the students complement
each anothers ideas, summarise them in a living theory and view the
teachers corrections and assessment. This environment gives the
students of the entire group the possibility to work on a common sheet
as well as provides easy communication between the group members
and the teacher by e-mail which is also used for motivating the students.
214 RTU ETF bachelor students from 10 academic groups participated
in action research of whom 177 students performed 2 cycles of creating
their living theories while 148 students participated in all 3 cycles. In
each cycle they were divided into groups of 4 to 6 students according
to the order of flling in the MS Excel sheet. Each group worked on a
common document and each student created their own living theory in
collaboration with two group members.
Knowledge creation was divided into learning cycles according to
consecutive themes. The knowledge acquisition spiral in Figure 1 refects
the learning strategy used. It is based on the systemic constructivist
approach which pays attention to three important discursive practices:
(1) construction of meaning, (2) positioning and (3) performance. Each
learning cycle begins with the identifcation of the problem to be solved.
In each learning cycle, the living theory is created on the basis of group
communication within action research framework. It is further developed
in the following cycle (Figure 1).
303
Figure 1. Continuity of learning by action research in the Commercial
Studies course (Kapenieks, 2010)
model of educational action research
Design of an e-learning environment for educational action research in
a group is created in correspondence with its aim to promote students
inquiry in all levels of Blooms taxonomy. During previous contact
lessons, educational action research in groups has exhibited such
potential. According to Blooms taxonomy (Bloom, 1956), educational
action research is grounded in educational interventions in the frst three
hierarchical levels: knowledge, comprehension and application; during
the action research process the learner moves in the direction of analysis-
synthesis and evaluation (Kennedy, Hyland, & Ryan, 2007). Traditionally,
e-learning environment and the internet resources are oriented towards
the frst three levels. The interactivity of e-learning environment allows
for demonstration and evaluation of knowledge. Computer design,
especially multimedia solutions, supports development and demonstration
of comprehension. Demonstration of knowledge application is possible
both verbally and via interactive process simulations.
e-learning environment in educational action research should be
designed so as to support analysis permit to easily split information
into component parts evaluate, arrange, categorise, compare, etc.
304
For instance, during the course on Commercial Studies students need
to be able to evaluate the signifcance of the various segments of the
target market for the given enterprise depending on age, interests,
income, geographic location, etc. Initially, this was performed in the form
of questionnaire.
the next hierarchical level in action research is synthesis
combining parts in a whole. The design of e-learning environment should
provide opportunities for ordering, argumentation, combining, creating,
generalising, etc. Crucially, synthesis should be based on knowledge and
discursive opinions. Thus, the design of e-learning environment should
enable the students to easily review the opinions of discussion partners,
which contain both analysis and synthesis. Initially, this was laid out in a
Ms Excel table and was not easily viewable.
According to Blooms taxonomy model, e-learning environment
should be designed so as to support the writing of study outcomes in the
cognitive domain in the highest hierarchical level evaluation as well,
where cooperation with the e-learning consultant is of key importance.
This resulted in corrections that were suggested if need be.
To reach the research aim, the levels of the targeted thinking processes
and the appropriate technological solutions were analysed. The activities
to be performed in order to reach every consecutive level of Blooms
taxonomy while operating in an e-learning environment correspond to
specifc requirements for the design of e-learning environment and the
activities performed by the e-learning consultant.
Salmon (2004) proposes a fve-step model of e-learning in cooperation;
it gives the idea of the requirements for technological functionality and
corresponding activities performed by the e-learning consultant in each
step.
Figure 2 demonstrates the connections between Salmons (2004)
fve-step model of e-learning in cooperation and the levels of Blooms
taxonomy. Salmons model integrates the steps of educational action
research in a single cycle of knowledge acquisition. The highest level
of interactivity corresponds to the levels of analysis and synthesis in the
hierarchy of thinking processes. Salmons model also gives the idea of
the major tasks that need to be performed by the e-learning consultant at
each step and of the corresponding technological requirements.
30
Figure 2. Left: Salmons (2004) fve-step model of e-learning in
cooperation in educational action research; the authors additions
demonstrate the steps to be taken in educational action research.
Right: hierarchy of thinking models in Blooms taxonomy model (Bloom,
1956) and their correspondence to Salmons procedural model
educational action research in an e-learning environment was
conducted by drawing on the three e-learning types identifed by Clark
(2000). They are closely related to the models depicted in Figure 2.
1. receptive e-learning type information acquisition. the task
of interface design is to eliminate the risk of overburdening the
cognitive systems. In this case, information in the course of e-
learning is presented in extensive amounts and effectively. the
screen displays plenty of textual and graphic information. This type
of e-learning matches the frst two levels in Blooms taxonomy
knowledge and comprehension.
2. Directive e-learning type develops reaction skills. Interface
design should promote the emergence of associations. This type
of e-learning reinforces or weakens association between stimulus
and reaction. Practically applicable method: question, award for
a correct answer or punishment for an incorrect one. Directive
acquisition means are applicable in this case watch and do. This
type of acquisition is characterised by small steps, demonstration,
examples. It matches the third level of thinking processes in
Blooms taxonomy application.
3. guided discoveries knowledge creation. Screen interface
should support the emergence of mental representation. Know-
306
ledge creation begins when the learner creates a coherent mental
representation. From this perspective, guided show is preferable
where the learner tries to perform an authentic task (e.g., selling
goods). The instructors activity serves as a cognitive guide; the
learners task is to understand the presented problem in the
context of solutions to problems at work. We shall call it guided
discovery. The exercises should be appropriate for unpredictable
situations at work. The guided discovery e-learning type matches
the highest levels in Blooms taxonomy and also plays a key role
in creating new knowledge and comprehension.
Salte et al. (2009) identify two stages of phronesis in educational
action research: cautious positioning with a gradual opening of
communication and increase of interest, as well as active evaluation of
contextual nuances (search for the valuable) in co-action that permits
to evaluate the processes occurring in action research. These insights
were considered when evaluating the students activities and creating
the model of cooperation screen.
Changes in the participants of action research in e-learning
environment
In educational action research, knowledge acquisition occurs in a
creative process creating new personal knowledge through refection
and discursively supplementing group members opinions. During the
previous stage of our study (paper submitted for publication in CSEDU
2011 conference), it was established that in e-learning groups, if compared
with presence groups, no pronounced leaders appear and the students
performance is more or less homogeneous. The results are little affected
by the sequence in which the students become involved in the group work,
as depicted in Figure 3. The parameter used for measuring creativity is
the number of discursive ideas that were offered to supplement peers
opinions in discussion and while summarising them in a living theory.
This number was obtained by means of content analysis, focusing on
students performance in the frst cycle of knowledge acquisition. Broader
analysis of the fndings is provided elsewhere (Kapenieks, 2011b).
307
Figure 3. Students creativity depending on the sequence of their
involvement in group work. Figure from the publication in CSEDU 2011
conference proceedings
to create the structure of the interface model of students com-
munication with e-learning environment, the insights from our previous
study (submitted for publication in EDUCON 2011 conference) were used.
their analysis indicates that educational action research in e-learning
environment affects the learners personality. Their interests, beliefs
and values, according to self-evaluation, were joined into clusters and
analysed at various action research stages. The clusters were constituted
by interests oriented towards, for instance, development. In the course
of action research, the students mean self-evaluation changes. Figure
4 depicts how, on average, developmentally oriented interests increase
in the group while their orientation remains relatively constant on the
personal-societal axis.
in the second study year we have come to believe that the commenced
action research for studying the infuence of e-learning environment
on changes in the learners personality becomes increasingly topical,
especially in the context of prognoses found in literature. For instance,
by 2015 a signifcant rise is expected in the demand for highly qualifed
workforce (by 12.5 million vacancies since 2008). Such qualifcation
corresponds to Levels 5 and 6 in ISCED, and they require high theoretical
knowledge and research skills grounded in innovative and creative
thinking (Cedefop 2008).
308
Figure 4. Changes in the students interests in the course of action
research orientation towards development. Figure from the
publication in EDUCON 2011 conference proceedings
Creating the basis for e-learning environment model
Dewey (1997, Hansen, 2002) defnes criteria for a sound learning
environment, and they are also pertinent to e-learning environment.
Group work in e-learning environment is based on respect towards the
participants computer skills and, by engaging students in experiments, is
oriented towards improving the existing skills. This matches the criterion
of a simplifed environment. Action research creates cooperative
experience in the group and joint creation of a living theory is based on
the ability to listen to others opinion.
although e-learning environment permits to pollute it with prejudice
and intolerance (as indicated by the content of its various forms), our
experience of educational action research reveals the latter as atypical
for group work. There is grounds to believe that personalisation of the
environment plays the key role here. This matches Deweys principle
of a purifed environment it calls out participants best thinking and
feelings.
a personalised and attractive e-learning environment encourages
personal responsibility and interest, and motivates for cooperation on
the web, thus enhancing individual development. According to Deweys
criteria, such environment is balanced and fuels social and moral
consciousness.
Work in e-learning environment where all spheres of life are interre-
lated urges students to harmonise knowledge, vision, feelings and beliefs.
309
this matches Deweys criterion of a steadying environment.
the technological facilities of e-learning environment permit to
make it friendly and motivating. Our experience indicates that Internet
environment basically corresponds to Deweys criteria of a sound
e-learning environment. Such environment is communicative and
simulative. Its key feature is potential to facilitate second and third person
action research (Gay Wicks & Reason, 2009). E-learning technologies
support interactivity thus posing challenges for the design of such an
environment. It is open and refexive. E-learning environment permits
to effectively monitor students reactions (refections) and infuence their
activities.
Selecting the basic principles for the design of e-learning envi-
ronment
the present paper aims to suggest basic principles for a clearly
perceivable and user-friendly screen interface in educational action
research, which might be used with all levels and types of e-learning.
One of the most infuential e-learning means is the wide opportunities
for graphic display. Graphic display either statically or variably performs
several functions (Clark, 2003), as depicted in Table 1.
Table 1. Types of graphic display in multimedia
Content type Instructional method
Fact
Fact statement
Images of specifc forms, screens or appliances
Concept
Defnitions
examples
non-examples
analogies
Process
Degree tables
animated diagrams
Procedure
Steps tables
Demonstrations
Principle
Guidelines
various contextual examples
To create basic design interface principles, we drew on the key
functions of graphics as defned by Clark (2003)
organising the topic according to steps 1 and 2 in Salmons
(2004) model
depicting regularities steps 2, 3 and 4 in Salmons model
310
function of interactive environment during the classes matches
all fve steps.
an important task of the interface is to ensure action and development
(Chapnick & Meloy, 2005).
in order to create an effective interface design for educational action
research in e-learning environment, the principles for designing a user-
friendly interface as identifed by Clark and Mayer in their pedagogical
experiments were used in the present study. Observation of these
principles favourably affects the students perception. These principles
include:
The principle of proximity. A persons perception peculiarities
point out that information is better perceived if the graphic image and
explanatory text are displayed close to each other. If the image and text
are separated, a person uses cognitive resources to unite them. This can
lead to overload due to limited capacity of working memory. If the image
and text are joined, working memory is used to keep them together
(Mayer, 2001).
Typical breaches of the principle of proximity are the following:
Images and text are separated one before the other (to be
scrolled), connections are hazy.
Feedback on a separate screen from the tasks or questions.
links on the screen appear in a new window that covers the
essential.
Instructions for practical tasks appear on a separate screen.
The principle of modality. Knowledge is acquired more effectively
if audio text (narration) is used on the screen instead of a written text. It
is particularly important if graphic information is crowded. Simultaneous
perception of image and sound produces better end result because,
when using only visual perception channels, multimedia information
easily overburdens the sensory memory. This problem can be solved
by simultaneously using the audio and the visual perception channels
(Mayer, 2001). E-learning concerns not only the perceptive (cognitive)
and intellectual sphere. Its infuence on emotions is of crucial importance.
That is why spoken audio text permits to dramatise the material. Speech
elements give broader opportunities to affect the students emotional
world (Chapnick & Meloy, 2005: 79).
The principle of reducing verbiage. It is recommended to avoid
delivering one and the same information in textual and oral form
simultaneously. If this is not observed, students address too much
attention to the written text and fail to perceive the graphics. Human
311
psychology explains it with overloading the visual perception channels
with information delivery in the sensory memory. Nevertheless, this
suggestion should be approached critically. It applies to cases when the
amount of graphic information on the screen is extensive. Thoughtful
audio supplements to the screen text can enhance perception in special
cases:
if there are no images on the screen,
if there are extensive opportunities to present the images slowly,
if students require greater cognitive effort to understand spoken
rather than written text (if the language used is not their native one
or in working with people with special needs).
in these cases the visual and audio perception channels are not
overloaded.
The principle of coherence. Adding interesting material that is not
directly related to the information to be acquired can inconvenience
students. One should avoid adding
entertaining stories that are relevant to but not essentially required
for the instructional material,
background music for motivation,
detailed descriptions.
In this case, working memory is additionally strained while its capacity
remains limited. One might think that any attractive images and video
render the multimedia in question more interesting since students acquire
the material better if they are emotionally awakened. Nevertheless, the
cognitive theory posits that students actively seek sense in the material
to be acquired, creating coherent mental representations (and it causes
joy). Superfuous images are confusing and use up the limited cognitive
capacity. It is natural that multimedia designers wish to add interesting
quotes to their material. Yet interesting but irrelevant phrases reduce
the effectiveness of acquisition because they suggest a new topic and
provoke organisation of the material around it (Mayer, 2001).
The principle of personalisation. It is generally accepted that
an informal style decreases the impression of seriousness. Such an
assumption would suggest that it also decreases the effectiveness of
acquisition. Yet it has been proven that the instructional process presents
information and triggers certain cognitive processes in students. People
make more effort if they wish to understand their conversation partner
(Beck 1996). A series of observations confrms that
real persons are no more effective than animated persons on the
screen
312
real voice is more effective than written text
the group that performed the tasks assisted by a pedagogical agent
achieved the result that by 30% exceeded the one in the group assisted
by text (Atkinson 2002). Chapnick and Meloy (2005) believe that the
pedagogical agent or Character creates an emotional and intellectual
bridge between students and the material to be acquired. It creates
the wish to analyse own developmental needs and decreases internal
resistance to the content (p. 105).
Designing the structure of cooperation screen
Basic interface design principles for educational action research in a
group in an e-learning environment were elaborated on the grounds of
the data obtained at the initial stage of the research. These fndings have
been published (Kapenieks, 2010b) and submitted for publication in
conference proceedings CSEDU 2011 and EDUCON 2011. Accordingly,
we have defned suggestions for an interface design model in conformity
with the hierarchical levels of thinking and a fve-step model (Figure 5).
Figure depicts the desired interface functionality created during
our study in accordance with the fve-step model and the hierarchy of
thinking processes.
Figure 5. authors suggestion requirements for interface functionality
across various hierarchical levels of thinking in accordance with
Salmons (2004) fve-step model
313
We considered the opinions of students who participated in the
educational action research to be crucial for elaborating the principles
for interface design. The students performed the majority of activities in
a Google Documents format and an Excel table. The latter only partly
meets the requirements specifed in Figure 5. 50% of the 22 students who
participated in the survey admitted that the suggested interface (Excel
table) was rather uncomfortable and graphically unclear. Four students
(18%) had made their entries via mobile phone; three more would like to
do so. 36% prefer to listen to recordings and make audio material; 50%
reported their preference for video communication, which corresponds to
the principle of modality at the interface. Nevertheless, the majority are
satisfed with written text on the screen (73%).
Figure 6 reveals that the majority of students (54%) believe it is
expedient to observe the principle of proximity by placing basic information
under discussion as well as group mates opinions on the screen. Some
(9%) report they would wish to design the screen themselves by using
gadgets.
Figure 6. Students opinions about the necessary changes
in interface design (22 respondents)
model of cooperation screen
On the grounds of the above-mentioned principles, the students
suggestions, evaluations and experiences, we propose the following
interface design model for educational action research.
all functionality should be designed in such a way that would permit
to use internet browsers in the environment without installing additional
314
components on the computer in the course of action research, students
and consultants repeatedly logged on to the environment from different
computers. It is important that the functionality be retained when working
at the mobile phone interface as well.
Interface model should contain several interface screens, in accor-
dance with Salmons fve-step model of e-learning in cooperation and
Blooms hierarchical levels of thinking.
Step 1 knowledge. The widest scope of accessible means should
be used during this step. These include face-to-face classes, use of
Internet resources, doing exercises. Interface carries a coordinative
meaning. It can be universal or projected to match the aims of specifc
classes. The main task is to ensure easy access to resources or develop
the skill of locating them. The interface should be attractive, user-friendly
and ensure effective delivery of knowledge in an easily perceivable way.
Face-to-face lectures, video lectures and demonstrations as well as
educational video have great potential in this respect.
Step 2 discussion. Face-to-face classes are more convenient. If
discussions are organised in e-learning environment, the forum should
be used. Synchronised classes are more effective. Lengthy waiting pe-
riods decrease motivation.
Step 3 opinions and additions. The idea defned by a student or
the consultant. Interface ensures its delivery: in textual, graphic, audio or
video format.
Table 2. Students and consultants activities at the interfaces
in e-learning environment
Interface Students interface and activities
Consultants interface and
activities
introductory
interface
Becomes acquainted with the
tasks, the group and the consultant.
Becomes acquainted with the
process of action research.
Links to all interfaces.
Field for tutors suggestions.
enters a motivating material for
students in a textual, audio or
video format.
upload
interface
Uploads his/her idea.
Can provide an Internet link.
The idea can be presented on TV;
broadcast time is provided.
the idea can be entered from
mobile phone.
Answers the questions about his/her
idea.
Prepares questions to students
about their ideas.
Can upload the idea under
discussion (for all, for groups or
individual students). Sees the
fles that students upload and can
download them. Sends SMS and/
or e-mail memos about the tasks.
Adds motivating suggestions.
31
interface
My opinion
about my
group
mates
ideas
Becomes acquainted with group
mates ideas and supplements them
with own opinion as follows from the
questions.
Monitors students work and adds
motivating comments. In separate
cases gives correction.
Sends motivational SMS and/or
e-mail memos.
interface
Group
mates
opinions
about my
idea and my
living theory
On the grounds of group mates
additions, writes a summative living
theory about the idea.
Monitors students work and adds
motivating comments. In separate
cases gives correction.
Sends motivating SMS and/or e-
mail memos.
evaluates students performance
and un adds corrections if
necessary.
interface
our group
achieve-
ment
views and compares the group
achievement ideas, answers
to questions, additions, living
theories, consultants comments and
evaluation.
Views group achievement ideas,
answers to questions, additions,
living theories, consultants
comments and evaluation.
System functionality:
1. Automatically groups students in the order of uploading.
2. Suggests standard texts for SMS memos about the things to be
done.
3. Permits to edit only those felds where students need to provide
their entries.
4. Collects statistics about flling each feld.
5. Enables easy sending of e-mails and SMS to all, groups or
particular students.
table 3 depicts how the basic principles for multimedia interface
organisation are integrated in the interfaces (Mayer, 2001).
Table 3. principles for interface organisation on students and
consultants screens
principle
realisation of the principle in
students interface
realisation of the principle in
consultants interface
Personalisation
Students and tutors avatar
on screen, audio un video
commenting possibilities. Tutors
feld comments, video, audio
possibilities.
Possibility to change the layout of
gadgets on screen.
Students avatars on screen,
uploading the suggestions in
textual, audio, video format
Possibility to change the layout
of gadgets on screen
Continued Table 2
316
Proximity
Gadgets on screen contain
description of idea and questions
for discussion, feld for group mates
answers and additions
The idea, students answers and
additions on screen
Modality
Easy uploading of textual, audio,
video and graphic material
Easy textual, audio, video and
graphic facilities
use of graphics
easy uploading of graphic material
and suggestion to present the idea
graphically
Graphic facilities
reducing
verbiage
Suggestions not to duplicate the
text in audio or video format. Screen
contains only necessary information
Written and audio/video
comments are not duplicated.
Screen contains only necessary
information
Figure 7 displays the models of students screen interface created
on the basis of gadgets. Such a model enables the user to change the
gadget layout.
Figure 7. interface model for scenario stage opinion about group
mates ideas
Continued table 3
317
Similar principles should be observed in other cooperation inter-
faces.
Conclusions
Cooperation screen (interface) of e-learning environment plays the
key role in educational action research in an e-learning environment. Its
attractiveness, graphic layout and clearness to a great degree determine
the students motivation to work with this method. Interface design should
fulfl the following requirements:
Refect the hierarchy of students thinking processes in educational
action research and match the fve-step model of e-learning in
cooperation.
Key organisational principles to be adhered to at the interface the
use of graphics, the principle of modality, the principle of proximity.
Clear and precise formulations should motivate students to retain
these principles in their activity.
Personalisation as understood by the group is particularly impor-
tant the e-learning consultant and group mates play the role of
pedagogical agents at the screen interface; this is achieved by
using avatars, video and audio. Interface design should provide
users with opportunities to change the layout of gadgets.
Successful educational action research positively affects the partici-
pants personality by developing creativity and research skills, which will
be required in the most demanded professions in the eu in the years to
come.
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9
th
International JTEFS/BBCC Conference
SuSTaInaBlE DEvElopmEnT.
CulTurE. EDuCaTIon
BBCC Mission reorientation of teacher education
and research in education for
Sustainable Development
Conference proceedings
_______________________
SL 843. 2011-05-09. 20 aut. apsk. l. Tiraas 100. Usakymas 42.
Ileido V iauli universiteto leidykla, Vilniaus g. 88, LT-76285 iauliai.
El. p. leidykla@cr.su.lt, tel. (8 ~ 41) 59 57 90, faks. (8 ~ 41) 52 09 80.