WAVEFRONT ABERROMETERS Contents: List of Figures and Tables Abstract 1. Introduction 2. Adaptive Optics and Subsystems 2.

1 Wavefront Sensors 2.2 Deformable Mirrors 2.3 Laser Guide Star Projection 2.4 Control Computers 3. Wavefront Aberrometers 3.1 Definition of a Wavefront 3.2 Definition of Aberrations 3.3 Mathematical Relationships 3.4 Working Principles of Aberrometers 3.4.1 3.4.2 Tscherning Aberrometer Hartmann Shack Aberrometer 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 8 8 9 10 11 11

3.5 Comparison 4. Glossary 5. References List of Figures and Tables :

Figure 1: General view of Adaptive Optics System 3 Figure 2: Wavefront Sensors 3 Figure 3: Deformable Mirrors 4 Figure 4: The shape of a wavefront 5 Figure 5: Perfect eye and aberrated eye 5 Figure 6: Wavefront distortion of perfect eye and aberrated eye 5 Figure 7: Wavefront error 6 Figure 8: Graphical representation of root mean squared wavefront error 6 Figure 9: Zernike Pyramid 6 Figure 10: Relationships between Wave Aberration, PSF, and MTF 7 Figure 11: Scheme of wavefront analyzer based on the principles of Tscherning aberrometry 8 Figure 12: Examples of spot patterns 8 Figure 13: Examples of Tscherning Aberrometer output 8 Figure 14: Additional examples of Tscherning Aberrometer output 9 Figure 15: The Hartmann-Shack aberrometer is a modifed fundus camera 9 Figure 16: A micro-lenslet array 9 Figure 17: A micro-lenslet array 9 Figure 18: Tscherning Principle 10 Figure 19: Hartmann Shack Principle 10 Table 1: Zernike Pyramid 6 Table 2: Mathematical relationships 7

Abbreviations: [G]: Glossary LV: Last Visited

WAVEFRONT ABERROMETERS Abstract High-order optical errors (aberrations) of the human eye are often responsible for reduced visual acuity in spite of an optimal spherical or cylindrical refraction. These optical aberrations are of natural origin or can result from operations on the eye involving optical structures. The presented analyzers are based on Tscherning and Hartmann Shack principles. As major principle, progressive laser beam is distorted and forms a retinal image according to the optical errors of the eye. This retinal pattern is imaged onto the sensor of a low-light CCD camera [G] by indirect ophthalmoscopy. The deviations of laser beam from its ideal regular position are measured by means of a personal computer, and from these values the optical aberrations are computed in the form of Zernike polynomials up to the 8th order [1].

1. INTRODUCTION In the past 5 years since the first wavefront-based LASIK treatment on normal eyes, the ophthalmology profession has had to confront a new language based on astronomy, optics and mathematics. Over this time wavefront technology has been used for diagnosis and treatment, and its application has made the profession define what is meant by good vision, and determine whether, with psychophysical and psychometric tests, it is possible to understand how an individual perceives the world. The clinical application of wavefront technology has forced ophthalmologists and vision scientists with an engineering bias to talk to those with a biological bias, and to appreciate that if you try and change the corneal shape, its biological, anatomical and optical properties exist within a complex external eye environment. This project demonstrates that wavefront analysis is a useful diagnostic tool, and that wavefront based corneal refractive surgery is an improvement over conventional techniques. Its use by an ophthalmologist is a clinical decision specific to an individual patient [2]. A Short History The idea of wavefront analysis existed long before surgical refractive procedures were practiced and/or excimer lasers invented. Wavefront analysis has its roots in astronomy [3]. Nearly 400 years ago, the celebrated Jesuit philosopher-astronomer, Christopher SCHEINER, professor at the University of Ingolstadt, demonstrated the focusing ability of the human eye using a simple device known as the Scheiner Disk. Scheiner's experiments showed that if an optically imperfect eye views through an opaque disk perforated with two pinholes, a single distant point of light such as a star will form two retinal images [4]. In 1894, Danish Prof. Marius TSCHERNING [5] published his investigations on optical aberrations of the human eye. He concluded that such optical aberrations may deteriorate vision but unfortunately there seems to be no way to correct them. This situation has been changed with the introduction of ArF excimer lasers for corneal laser surgery and may be corrected by wavefront-guided LASIK [G] or PRK [G]. Nevertheless, Tscherning introduced a new way to determine optical aberrations in human eyes [1]. In the 1900s, an astrophysicist named Johannes HARTMANN devised a method of measuring the ray aberrations of mirrors and lenses. He wanted to isolate rays of light so that they could be traced and any imperfections in the mirror could be seen. The Hartmann test consisted of using a metal disk in which regularly spaced holes had been drilled. The disk or screen was then placed over the mirror that was to be tested and a photographic plate was placed near the focus of the mirror. When exposed to light, a perfect mirror will produce an image of regularly spaced dots. If the mirror does not produce regularly spaced dots, the irregularities, or aberrations, of the mirror can be determined [3]. In 1930s, the theory, wavefront aberration mapping and image enhancement used in astronomy for years, was first developed by a German physicist Prof. Frits ZERNIKE [6]. Around 1971, Dr. Roland SHACK and Dr. Ben PLATT advanced the concept by replacing the screen with a sensor based on an array of tiny lenslets. Today, this sensor is known as the Hartmann-Shack sensor.

WAVEFRONT ABERROMETERS Hartmann-Shack sensors are used in a variety of industries: from the military, to astronomy, and now in ophthalmology [3]. In the 1990s, Prof.Dr. Josef BILLE, Physics Department of Heidelberg University, Germany, was the first person to use the Hartmann-Shack sensor in ophthalmology. Other wavefront pioneers include Dr. Junzhong LIANG and Dr. David WILLIAMS. These doctors built upon the each others achievements until a wavefront device that could be used in a clinical setting, was developed. Prior to that, the technology was extremely complex. However, the current wavefront device, developed by Dr. Williams and Dr. Liang, has been automated resulting in increased speed and accuracy [3]. In 1994, the first wavefront mapping of the eye was performed [6]. In 1997, Dr. Liang and Dr. Williams presented a paper at ARVO (The Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology) that discussed the early clinical results attained with the wavefront device. At this time, ophthalmologists began to take a serious look at the possibilities of wavefront technology for correcting refractive error. The major laser manufactures; VISX, Bausch & Lomb, and Alcon then approached Drs. Bille, Williams, and Liang to develop their own wavefront analyzers [3]. In 1999, corneal wavefront measurement was performed [6]. In 2002, The FDA (Food and Drug Administration) approved Custom Cornea wavefront guided LASIK [6].

2. ADAPTIVE OPTICS AND SUBSYSTEMS Adaptive optics is a technology to improve the performance of optical systems by reducing the effects of rapidly changing optical distortion. It is commonly used on astronomical telescopes to remove the effects of atmospheric distortion, or astronomical seeing. Adaptive optics works by measuring the distortion and rapidly compensating for it either using deformable mirrors or material with variable refractive properties. While the technique was theoretically understood for some time, it was only advances in computer technology during the 1990s that finally made the technique practical .

Figure 1. General view of Adaptive Optics System [8]

When light from a star or another astronomical object enters the Earth's atmosphere, turbulence introduced (for example, by different temperature layers and different wind speeds interacting) distort and move the image in various ways (see astronomical seeing for a full discussion). Images produced by any telescope larger than a few centimeters are blurred by these distortions. An adaptive optics system tries to correct these distortions, using a wavefront sensor which takes some of the astronomical light, a deformable mirror that lies in the optical path, and a computer that receives input from the detector. The wavefront sensor measures the distortions the atmosphere has introduced on the timescale of a few milliseconds; the computer calculates the optimal mirror shape to correct the distortions and the surface of the deformable mirror is reshaped accordingly [7].

2.1 Wavefront Sensors The wavefront sensor located at the bottom of the adaptive optics system shown in Figure 1 aims to squeeze from a minimal number of photons the maximum amount of wavefront information possible. Dividing the available light into the image and the wavefront measurement instrument is a balancing act. If fewer photons can be used, fainter guide stars can be used, and the amount of light becomes available for interesting targets. Laser guide stars do their best work correcting higher order wavefront irregularities.
Figure 2. Wavefront Sensors [8]

WAVEFRONT ABERROMETERS Early military adaptive optics systems used both shearing interferometers and those of the ShackHartmann design as shown in Figure 2. The most common type now being used is a Shack-Hartmann sensor which relies on a lenslet array to create a grid of subimages, each of which measures the local slope of the wavefront. The rectangular grid geometry ordinarily used with the Shack-Hartmann sensor is conceptually simple. For measuring the most common atmospheric disturbances, radially symmetric low order aberrations, a curvature sensor can be used. It compares the signal strength from two equally defocused images, one just inside and the other just outside the focal plane. The two-dimensional difference between these signals provides information on low order wavefront perturbations [8].

2.2 Deformable Mirrors Once the wavefront is measured and the control signal determined, an optical element must be moved to change the phase of the beam of light. The tilt of a beam can be removed with fast tilting or scanning mirrors. For larger beams, particularly those required for transmission of high energy lasers, specialized designs are used. For correcting higher order aberrations, there are three dominant deformable mirror types as shown in Figure 3. A segmented mirror, with individually controlled tip, tilt, and piston motion on the segments can be used. These mirrors have the advantage of segments being Figure 3. Deformable Mirrors [8] easily replaced, matching closely to a geometrically registered wavefront sensor, and having an unlimited aperture (by being able to just add more segments) [8].

2.3 Laser Guide Star Projection Laser guide star systems produce a reference wavefront that emanates from a finite altitude in the Earths atmosphere, and this leads to complications that have been given the name focal anisoplanatism. Because the laser guide star is not at infinite focal distance, the all atmosphere is not sensed and there is an error in the focus component of the wavefront. Trades must be performed to properly design a laser guide star. If the raw laser beam has poor beam divergence properties, which is generally the case for commercial excimer and copper-vapor lasers, the telescopes full primary mirror must be used as a primary element in the laser project system. If the laser emits a near-diffraction-limited output beam, the projection system becomes simpler. The important parameters regarding the state of technology of laser guide stars are Laser wavelength Laser power (specifies brightness) Pulse repetition rate and pulse length (related to brightness, altitude, and sensor bandwidth) [8].

2.4 Control Computers The control computer, often called a wavefront re-constructor, takes the signals from the wavefront sensor. Images from a curvature system, spot intensity patterns from a Hartmann sensor, or interferograms from a shearing interferometer are used to compute appropriate drive signals for the deformable mirror. The speed and accuracy of this computation directly affect the closed-loop bandwidth of the system. Early systems used analog resistor matrices to do the calculations and did not limit bandwidth. Current systems, to make better use of changing conditions, variations in the wavefront sensor configuration, high noise conditions, and programmability, use digital signal processors to convert wavefront sensor signals to drive signals. For thousand-channel systems, the multiple control processors act in parallel to keep the overall bandwidth in the range of atmospheric time scales [8].

WAVEFRONT ABERROMETERS 3. WAVEFRONT ABERROMETERS Wavefront aberrometry, an innovative technique for measuring the complete refractive status of an optical system, has recently been introduced more widely into the clinical field. In ophthalmic practice it is routine to measure the spherical and cylindrical components of refractive errors and subsequently these can be corrected by spectacles, contact lenses, intraocular lenses or refractive surgery. However, these ideal sphero-cylindrical corrections only account for the lower order aberrations of the eye; they do not eliminate the higher order optical aberrations [9]. Total higher order aberrations are just forms of irregular astigmatism, although individual components such as spherical aberrations are rotationally symmetric. They can be severe, as in keratoconus [G] with clinically significant irregular astigmatism, or they can be subtle and not detected by conventional techniques [2]. In 1999, Theo SEILER, MD, performed the first LASIK procedures with an algorithm based on wavefront information. In 2005, patients and surgeons in many parts of the world have a choice of aberrometers as diagnostic tools and a choice of wavefront-based or conventional corneal laser surgery [2]. Higher order monochromatic [G] aberrations can be measured and named, and, there is a need to understand how these aberrations are measured, what the individual components are and how they impact on a persons vision [2]. 3.1 Definition of a Wavefront In optics, a wavefront is the locus (a line or surface in an electromagnetic wave) of points having the same phase. Since optical frequencies are so high, the temporal component of optical waves is ignored, and it is only the phase of the spatial oscillation that is described [10]. In another word, a wavefront is a virtual reference surface perpendicular to rays of light emerging from a point source P, in Figure 4. The shape of the wavefront determines the wavefront aberration of the eye [9].

Figure 4. The shape of a wavefront [9]

3.2 Definitions of Aberrations Monochromatic aberrations of the eye are the result of optical inconsistencies within media and local irregularities of the optical surfaces of the eye, which are specific for each individual. The most significant variable affecting the resolving power of a healthy eye is the extent of these optical aberrations [9]. Refractive errors of the eye can be described in terms of the shape of a wavefront of light that has passed through the eye's optics. With aberrationfree optics, wavefronts exiting the eye are perfectly flat (Figure 5, top).
Figure 5. Perfect eye (top), and, aberrated eye (bottom) [11].

In the case of simple myopia (Figure 5, bottom), the wavefronts are spherical surfaces that converge toward the far point. Other refractive errors, including higher-order aberrations, cause wavefront distortions that differ in shape from those seen in simple myopia as shown in Figure 6 [11].
Figure 6. Wavefront distortion of perfect eye and aberrated eye [12].

WAVEFRONT ABERROMETERS The goal of all aberrometers is to measure the shape of the optical wavefront that has been refracted by the eye's optics. ShackHartmann aberrometers measure the wavefront shape by measuring the distance between the wavefront surface and a reference plane located in the eye's entrance pupil. This distance, known as the wavefront error, is illustrated in Figure 7. In the right half of Figure 7, the straight vertical line represents the entrance pupil plane, and the curve is the optical wavefront exiting the eye, frozen in space with its center in the entrance pupil. The aberrometer measures the wavefront error, which is the distance between the wavefront and the reference plane, at many locations across the pupil [11].
Figure 7. Wavefront error [11].

3.3 Mathematical Relationships As light enters the eye from the air, its speed is retarded according to the refractive index of the material along its path to the retina. The arrival time is also influenced by the distance it has to travel. These two factors, refractive index and linear path variations, are measured with a wavefront sensor.

Figure 9. Zernike pyramid. Z(r Figure 8. Graphical representation of root mean squared wavefront error [2].

,f ) = Z n where f is angular

frequency and n is radial order. See table below [2].

Table 1. Zernike Pyramid, parallel to Figure 9 [2].

WAVEFRONT ABERROMETERS A map can be made that shows the relevant retardation that a plane wave undergoes as it traverses the optics of the eye. This information is displayed as a Zernike polynomial expansion. In order to parcel the wavefront error into individual building blocks, a set of normalized Zernike polynomials are best fit to the measured wavefront error. The coefficient for each Zernike term reveals that terms relative contribution to the total root mean square (RMS) error (Figure 8). In the normal ametropic eye, defocus (such as myopia or hyperopia) is by far the largest aberration, followed by astigmatism. These are low order terms. The Zernike pyramid is useful (Figure 9, Table 1). As it goes down the rows from the top, it goes from low order to high order. Low order encompasses the top three rows piston, tilt, tip, and sphere and astigmatism. Row three (such as sphere and astigmatism) is what it is normally measured and prescribed in spectacles. The fourth row is called third order aberrations, and it continues from there. Anything beyond lower order is lumped under the term higher order aberrations. As you can see from the diagram, they have individual names such as coma, and spherical aberration. In any row a function with a negative value of the index f is a rotated form of the function with the same but positive number for f. When interpreting data, there is a need to know whether the wavefront refers to total aberrations, higher order aberrations or individual higher order aberrations. In the normal ametropic eye, higher order aberrations are a relatively small component, comprising about 10% of the eyes total aberrations [2]. To make it simple, these relationships seen in Figure 10 are similar to computer logic:

Figure 10. Relationships between Wave Aberration (black-white graphics in each three pictures), PSF (projections on the black screen in each three pictures), and MTF (colored graphics in each three pictures) [12].

Table 2 is also related to Figure 10:

Table 2. Mathematical relationships [12].

WAVEFRONT ABERROMETERS 3.4.1 Working Principles of Aberrometers: Tscherning Principle In principle, the wavefront analyzer consists of two different optical path ways as shown in the scheme, in Figure 11, ingoing and outgoing optics. The ingoing optics consist mainly of a frequency doubled Nd:YAG [G] laser (532 nm, 10 mW, green), a dot pattern mask, and an aberroscope lens. The dot pattern mask creates 168 single light rays from the expanded beam of Nd:YAG laser. A spot-free center for the mask design was chosen to avoid light reflections at different optical surfaces of the human eye that might reduce the quality of the retinal image. The diameter of the spot pattern at the cornea is 10 mm and the total illumination time is 40 ms with a laser power far below the international safety requirements.

Figure 11. Scheme of wavefront analyzer based on the principles of Tscherning aberrometry [1].

The outgoing optic used in this measuring device is based on the principles of indirect ophthalmoscopy. the exit of the pupil was kept constant at a diameter of 1 mm and, thus, one might consider that the outgoing optic is diffraction limited. As seen in Figure 12, the retinal image is grabbed by a highly sensitive CCD camera linked to a personal computer. The images in Figure 12 might be thought as input (left), and output (right). The optical aberrations of the investigated eye can now be calculated by analyzing the retinal images. Basically each real spot position taken from the retinal image is compared to its corresponding ideal spot position. From the resulting deviations the wavefront aberration is mathematically reconstructed. One of the important factors in wavefront sensing is the correct centration of the subjects eye. The wavefront analyzer uses an infrared video system and a fixation target coaxial to the optical axis of the device to align the measuring system onto the line of sight of the Figure 12. Examples of spot patterns. subjects eye. Thus, the line of sight is determined as the reference Left: ideal retinal image of a perfect eye. Right: Image from an aberrated eye[1]. axis for the purpose of measuring and calculating optical aberrations. The centration of the dilated pupil is done by means of infrared LEDs and a CCD camera that records the reflection of the LED light from the cornea. Besides, the accurate alignment of the z-axis is done by centering iris-reflex of a modified slit lamp onto the pupil center [1].

Figure 13. Examples of Tscherning Aberrometer output. Left top: Raw image of Z8 Coma aberration. Bottom: Zernike image of Z8 Coma aberration. Center: Z9 Trefoil Right: Z19 [13].

WAVEFRONT ABERROMETERS

Figure 14. Additional examples of Tscherning Aberrometer output. Dot pattern outputs of hypermetropic (Left) and astigmatic eyes (Right) [13].

3.4.2 Working Principles of Aberrometers: Hartmann Shack Principle The purpose of the Hartmann-Shack aberrometer, like Tscherning aberrometer, is to measure the wave aberration function of the eye's optical system, which is the same as saying the purpose is to measure the shape of the wavefront of light that is reflected out of the eye from a point source on the fundus [G]. For example, the wavefront of light reflected out of a perfect eye would be a circular piece of a plane wave with the same diameter as the pupil. If this wavefront were to be captured by a conventional fundus camera, all of the reflected light would be focused into a single image of the retinal spot. However, a Shack-Hartmann aberrometer has an objective lens which is actually an array of tiny lenses, rather like the compound eye of an insect. With this kind of lens, shown in Figure 15, the reflected light is broken into many individual beams, thereby producing multiple images of the same retinal spot of light. To see how the array of spot images can be used to determine the shape of the wavefront, consider the wavefront in cross-section as shown in Figure 16. For a perfect eye, the reflected plane wave will be focused into a perfect
Figure 15. The Hartmann-Shack aberrometer is a modifed fundus camera that has an array of objective lenses which subdivides the wavefront into smaller beams of light, thereby forming multiple images of the same retinal point source [4].

lattice of point images, each image falling on the optical axis of the corresponding lenslet. By contrast, the aberrated eye reflects a distorted wavefront as illustrated in Figure 17. The local slope of the wavefront is now different for each lenslet

Figure 16. A micro-lenslet array subdivides the wavefront into multiple beams. Local slope of the wavefront over each lenslets aperture determines location of spot on video sensor [4].

Figure 17. An aberrated wavefront produces an irregular pattern of spots on the video sensor. Displacement of each spot from the corresponding lenslet axis is a measure of the slope of the wavefront [4].

and therefore the wavefront will be focused into a disordered collection of spot images. By measuring the displacement of each spot from its corresponding lenslet axis, we can deduce the slope of the aberrated wavefront when it entered the corresponding lenslet. Mathematical integration of this slope information yields the shape of the aberrated wavefront. The shape of the aberrated wavefront is a fundamental description of the optical quality of the eye called the wavefront aberration function. This function lies at the heart of a rich optical theory that allows calculating the retinal image of any object, to assess the quality of that retinal image quantitatively, and ultimately to predict human performance on visual tasks.

WAVEFRONT ABERROMETERS 3.5 Comparison: Tscherning Principle: Hartmann Shack Principle

Figure 18 [13]. It uses a collimated laser beam source that illuminates a mask with regular matrix pinholes, which forms a bundle of thin parallel rays that are projected into the eye. These rays form a retinal spot pattern that is distorted according to the eyes aberrations. The retinal spot pattern is imaged through a small aperture onto a CCD camera by indirect ophthalmoscopy. The deviation of all spots from their ideal positions are measured at the level of the eyes exit pupil, and from these values the optical aberrations are displayed [2].

Figure 19. [13]. Shack-Hartman aberrometers rely on an ingoing ray from a diode laser entering the eye as a thin beam focused to a point on the retina. An array of tiny lenses focuses the image of the reflected wavefront as it returns out of the eye. With this array of lenses, the outgoing wave of light is divided into many focused beams, generating multiple images of the same retinal spot of light. These are detected by charge couple device (CCD) sensors that determine the displacement of each spot of reflected light from its corresponding lenslet axis [2].

Advantages [13]: - Low penetration in the fovea - Fast measuring - Use of ingoing path - Measurement in the visible spectrum Disadvantages [13]:

Advantages [13]: - Less sensitive to scattering - High resolution (128x128, 29.6m) - Fast measuring & analysis - Well-known technique - Central corneal information Disadvantages [13]:

- Sensitive against scattering

(Diffraction of the laser radiation at the small pinholes affects the result)

-Complicated mechanical and optical arrangement - Low resolution (13x13 dots, R=200m) - Time-consuming analysis - Time-consuming patient set-up - Disturbing visible flash for patient (green, 532 nm) - Expensive low light sensor Manufacturers [2]: - WaveLight Laser Technologie AG, Erlangen, GERMANY www.wavelight-laser.net - Schwind, Kleinosterm, GERMANY www.eye-tech-solutions.com,

- Deeper penetration in macula - Use of the outgoing path - Expensive sensor Manufacturers [2]: - Alcon Sugical, Forth Worth, TX, USA www.ladarvision.com - Bausch & Lomb, Rochester, NY, USA www.bausch.com - Meditech, Jena, GERMANY www.meditech.com - Visx, Santa Clara, CA, USA www.visx.com

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WAVEFRONT ABERROMETERS 4. GLOSSARY Aberration: An effect that causes light from one point of an object after transmission through the system to arrive at different points [14]. CCD Camera : A charge-coupled device (CCD) is an image sensor, consisting of an integrated circuit containing an array of linked, or coupled, capacitors sensitive to the light [15]. Fundus: Fundus is a generic anatomical term referring to the portion of an organ opposite from its opening [16]. Keratoconus: A degenerative non-inflammatory disorder of the eye in which structural changes within the cornea cause it to thin and change to a more conical shape than its normal even curve [17]. LASIK and PRK: LASIK, an acronym for Laser-assisted In Situ Keratomileusis, is a form of refractive laser eye surgery procedure performed by ophthalmologists intended for correcting vision. The procedure is usually a preferred alternative to photorefractive keratectomy, PRK, as it requires less time for full recovery, and the patient experiences less pain overall [18]. Monochromatic: In physics, electromagnetic radiation of a single wavelength (or narrowly around a specific wavelength) [19]. Nd:YAG laser: Nd:YAG is an acronym for neodymium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet (Nd:Y3Al5O12), a compound that is used as the lasing medium for certain solid-state lasers [20]. Wavefront: In optics, a wavefront is the locus (a line or surface in an electromagnetic wave) of points having the same phase [10].

5. REFERENCES 1. M. Mrochen, M. Kaemmerer, P. Mierdel, H. E. Krinke, T. Seiler: Principles of Tscherning Aberrometry; Journal of Refractive Surgery Volume 16 September/October 2000 2. M. A Lawless, C. Hodge: Wavefronts Role In Corneal Refractive Surgery; Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology 2005; 33:199-209 3. http://www.tlcvision.com/what_history.fxml, LV on 2nd.May.2006 4. L. N. Thibos: Principles of Hartmann Shack Aberrometry; Journal of Refractive Surgery Volume 16 September/October 2000 5. http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1600, LV on 30th.Apr.2006 6. http://www.vision-institute.com/techniques/wavefront.html, LV on 30th.Apr.2006 7. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive_optics, LV on 30th.Apr.2006 8. R. K. Tyson; University of North Caroline at Charlotte, North Caroline, USA; Adaptive Optics Engineering Handbook, Chapter 1; Marcel Dekker 2000 9. N. Sachdev, G. Cairns, C. Mc Ghee: An Introduction to Wavefront Aberrometry of The Eye; New Zealand Optics Magazine, May 2002:9 10. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavefront, LV on 6th.May.2006 11. http://www.opt.pacificu.edu/ce/catalog/10260-RS/WavefrontSalmon.html, LV on 6th.May.2006 12. http://www-inst.eecs.berkeley.edu/~cs284/Student.Presentation/yibin.tian.unwrapping.hartmannshack.images.ppt, LV on 6th.May.2006 13. Personal and commercial studies from Prof. Mathias Glasmacher, University of Erlangen, Germany; WaveLight Laser Technologie AG, Erlangen, Germany 14. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberration, LV on 6th.May.2006 15. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CCD_camera, LV on 6th.May.2006 16. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundus, LV on 6th.May.2006 17. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keratoconus LV on 6th.May.2006 18. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lasik, LV on 6th.May.2006 19. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monochromatic, LV on 6th.May.2006 20. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nd:YAG_laser, LV on 6th.May.2006

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