Microalgae Technologies & Processes

for
Biofuels / Bioenergy Production in
British Columbia:
Current Technology, Suitability
& Barriers to Implementation

FinalReportSubmittedto

TheBritishColumbiaInnovationCouncil

by

Authors:

AbayomiO.Alabi,SeedScienceLtd.
MartinTampier,ENVINTConsulting
EricBibeau,UniversityofManitoba
January14,2009

Support for this study provided by:

ii

EXECUTIVESUMMARY
Microalgae(algae)arecurrentlybeingpromotedasanidealnextgenerationbioenergyfeedstock
becausetheydonotcompetewithfoodorfeedcrops,canpotentiallyproducemuchhigherarealoil
yieldsthancurrentagriculturalcrops,andcanbeproducedonbarrenland.Algaehavebroad
bioenergypotentialastheycanbeusedtoproduceliquidtransportationandheatingfuels,suchas
biodieselandethanol,oranaerobicallydigestedtoproducebiogas1.
Threemaintechnologiesarecurrentlybeingpursuedtoproducealgaeforbioenergyapplications.
Theseare:

Phototrophiccultivationinopenraceways,
Phototrophiccultivationinclosedphotobioreactors2(PBRs),and
Heterotrophiccultivationinclosedfermenters.

RacewayshavelowercapitalcostsandenergyrequirementsthanPBRs.However,theiropennature
makesthemmoresusceptibletocontaminationbyundesirablespeciesandenvironmental
conditions(suchaslowtemperaturesandprecipitation).Thisseverelyrestrictsthenumberofalgal
speciesthatcanbesuccessfullycultivatedaswellasthecultivationperiodsintemperateclimates.
PBRscancultivatemore,possiblybioengineered,algalspeciesandbecauseoftheirheatretaining
capabilities,canbeusedforlongerperiodsintemperateclimates.However,PBRscanoverheatthe
culturesduringthedayandthepumpingandmixingrequirementsprecludethecultureofsome
fragilespecies.
Somealgaecanbegrownheterotrophicallyusingorganicsubstratesintheabsenceofsunlight.This
productionmodehastheadvantagesofareadilyavailabletechnologyandfermentationknowledge
base,ahighdegreeofprocesscontrolandindependencefromenvironmentalconditions.
Furthermore,heterotrophiccultivationhasbeenshowntoachievehighervolumetricproductivities
andlipidcontentthanphototrophicmodesofcultivation.However,notallspeciesofalgaeare
capableofheterotrophicproduction.
Oneofthemajorcostfactorsinbioenergyproductionfromalgalbiomassisharvesting3.Harvesting
fromopenracewaysisusuallyundertakenasatwostepprocedureinwhichthealgaearefirst
concentratedtoasuspensionofroughly1%solids,followedbyanenergyintensiveconcentrationto
1525%solidsCurrently,bioflocculationistheleastexpensivemethodforachievingthefirst
concentrationstep.However,itsunreliabilityhasledmanytouseorganicpolymers
(polyelectrolytes)instead.4
Extensivereviewoftheliteratureandinformationobtainedfromindustryinsidersresultedinthe
identificationofcostparametersforexpectedbiomassyields,algaeoilcontent,capital,labourand
operationalcosts.Athermodynamicmodelwasdevelopedthatuseshourlysolarinsolationand
temperaturevaluesinBCtopredictmaximumbiomassyieldsforthetwophototrophic

1Biogascanbeburnttogenerateelectricityand/orheat,oritcanbeupgradedtobiomethane(>96%

methane)forinjectionintothenaturalgasgridorcompressedandusedasatransportationfuel.

2PBRsmayalsobemostlyclosed,withasmallopeningtotheenvironmentforgasexchange.
3Thisisbecausetherelativelylowconcentrationsofalgaeintheculturebrothneedtobeconcentratedprior

touse.

4Othermethodssuchasfiltrationandmicrostrainingareonlyeffectiveforlargerorchainformingalgae

species.

iii

technologies.Usingthismodel,theresultingcostperliterofalgaeoilproducedweredetermined
underthefollowingscenarios:
TableES1
ScenariosExaminedforAlgalBiomassProductioninBritishColumbia(seeChapter4
fordetaileddescription).
Technology
BaseCase
Scenario2
Scenario3
Scenario4
Raceway
Unheatedraceway Heatedraceway Unheatedraceway Unheatedraceway
(runyearround) (runyearround)
(runAprilto
(runAprilto
September)
Septemberwithhalf
thecapitalcostsof
Scenario3)

Location:Prince Location:Prince
Location:
Location:
George
George
VancouverIsland
VancouverIsland

9.38g.m2yr1
15.47g.m2yr1
22.89g.m2yr1
22.89g.m2.yr1

15%oil
15%oil
15%oil
30%oil
2
1
2
1
1
1
PBR
15.3g.m yr
15.3g.m yr ;35% 6,000gal.ac yr
n/a
25%oil
oil
Ethanolsecretion
Fermenter
50g.L1;
100g.L1;
n/a
n/a
50%oil
60%oil
RW:Raceway;PBR:Photobioreactor;FER:Fermenter;CC:CapitalCosts;PG:PrinceGeorge,BC;
VI:VancouverIsland.

Theresultsoftheeconomicanalysisforeachscenario,expressedbothintermsofcost($)perkgof
biomassproducedandincostperlitreofoilproduced,areshowninFigureES1.Oneoptionto
produceethanolinaPBRwasalsoincluded.Forcomparison,thecostperkgofcanola,andcostper
litreofcanolaoilareincluded.
$30.00
Costperlitreofalgaeoil
$25.00

Costperkgofalgaebiomass

$24.60

$20.00
$15.00

$17.60
$14.44

$10.00

$8.24

$7.64

$7.32

$7.32
$5.87

$5.00

$2.66

$1.57

$1.46

$2.65

$2.58
$1.02

$1.54

$1.54 $1.11

$0.88 $0.35

$0.00
RW,Base RW,
RW,
RW, PBR,Base PBR,35% PBR, FER,Base FER,100 Canola
Case
heated summer summer, Case
oil
(ethanol) Case g.L1,60%
(PG) only(V.I.) 25%oil,
oil
50%CC

FigureES1 CostperkgofAlgalBiomassandperLitreofOil/EthanolProducedUsingDifferent
SystemsandDifferentScenarios.

iv

ThebasecasecostsforthethreedifferentproductionprocessesareillustratedinTableES2.
Racewayshavetotalproductioncostsof$14.44perlitreofalgaloil.Themajorityofthiscostis
capital(49%)andlabourcosts(27%)5.However,operationalcosts,suchaspowerandfertilizer,are
alsosubstantial(25%)6.PBRshaveahigherproductioncostof$24.60perlitreofalgaloil.Aswith
raceways,themajorityofthiscostiscapital(63%).Fermentershavethelowestproductioncostof
$2.58perlitreofalgaeoil.Thistimethemajorityofcostisoperational(78%)mainlyfromthe
power(31%)andtheorganiccarbonsubstrate(23%).
EvenundertheoptimisticscenariosinFigureES1,currently,noneoftheprocessesexaminedin
thisstudycanachievepriceparitywithfossilfuels.Furthermore,whilefermentationappears
closest,achievingcosteffectivealgalbiomassproductionthroughfermentationstillrequires
significantR&Dtogenerategreateryieldsandoilcontent.
TableES2
ComparisonofBaseCaseCostsforThreeAlgalBiomassProductionTechnologies
(US$perLitreofAlgalOilProduced)

Raceway
Photobioreactor
Fermenter

InitialInvestment($.L1)
52
111
2

ProductionCost
($perliterofoilproduced)

Labourcost
$4.03 26.69% $2.96
11.90% $0.29 10.88%

Otherproductioncost
$3.71 24.59% $6.37
25.59%
$2.06 78.45%

Capitalcost
$7.35 48.71% $15.56 62.50%
$0.28 10.66%

TotalCost
$15.09

$24.89

$2.63

Creditfromthesaleofalgae $0.65
cake*
Nettotalcost
$14.44

Lipidcontent
15%

Costperkgofalgae
$2.66

$0.29

$0.05

$24.60

25%

$7.32

$2.58

50%

$1.54

*includingrevenuesfromsellingthealgaecakeafteroilextraction

TableES3showstheenergybalancesandGHGperformanceofthethreealgalcultivation
technologiesconsidered.Whilenotanaccuratelifecycleanalysis,thisshowsthatinBCallthree
technologiesreduceGHGemissionsandhaveapositiveenergybalance.
Asaconsequenceofthehighyieldsachievable,theGHGbalanceforfermentationoutperformsboth
phototrophicoptions.AlltechnologiescomparefavourablywiththeGHGbalancesofcornethanol
(around1,400g.L1)andbiodieselfromcanola(2,800g.L1).However,thisismainlyduetothe
electricitybeingalmostcarbonneutralinBCandmightnotholdtrueinmostotherjurisdictions.
Likewise,theenergybalanceofthefermentationprocessisalsobetterthanboththephototrophic
technologies7,andat1.93(i.e.foroneunitofenergyinput,1.93unitsaregained)compares
favorablytobothcornethanolandbiodieselfromcanolaoil(whichhaveenergyratiosofaround2).

Whilehighlabourcostsdifferfrompreviouswork,thishasbeenconfirmedbytwoindependentsources.

Algaeculturesinracewaysrequiretheconstantoperationofpaddlewheelsorpumpstomovethegrowth
mediumandpreventalgalsettling.

7Thelowenergybalanceforphototrophicallygrownalgaeisduetomuchgreaterenergyinputrequirements,

i.e.theneedforcontinuousmixing,pumping,harvesting,andCO2insertion.Thebalancewouldbeimprovedif
cultivationwereinmoresouthernareaswithhigherinsolation.

TableES3:EnergyandGHG(CO2)BalanceperLiterofOilProducedUsingThreeDifferent
Technologies(seeChapter5fordetaileddescription)

Raceway Photobioreactor Fermenters

CO2Balance(Gramsperliter)

CO2Balance(g.L1)
6,097
4,108
3,117
EnergyBalance(MJperliter)

39.7
11.5

1.76
1.23

Energybalance(MJ.L1)
Energyratio

21.9

1.93

Algaecultivationhasalsobeenattractivebecauseofitspotentialtofixatmosphericorfossilfuel
derivedCO2intobiomass,potentiallyenablingthegenerationofcarboncreditsthrough
sequestrationofthebiomassorbytheproductionofcarbonneutralfuels8.However,ifalgaewere
cultivatedtocaptureandsequesterCO2inBC,basedoncurrentcostsofproduction,thiswouldcost
around$793pertonneofCO29.Furthermore,ifthealgaewereusedtomakebiofuels,thisactivity
wouldonlybeeligibleforoffsetsifenoughbiofuelcouldbeproducedtoexceedtheBCmandated
levelof5%.Howthiswouldbedeterminedisasyetunknown.
Onepossibilitytoimprovetheeconomicfeasibilityofbioenergyproductionfromalgaeistoadopta
biorefinerymodelandcoproduceadditional(ideally,highvalue)products.Aninitialanalysison
eicosapentaenoicacid(EPA),anomega3acidester,showedsubstantialpotentialforalgaeoilcost
reductions10.Theproductionofthisorotherhighvalueproductscouldhelpmakealgaebioenergy
moreeconomicallyfeasible.
Insummary,analysisbasedoncurrentalgaeproductiontechnologyshowsthat:
Whilepotentiallyfeasibleingeographiclocationswithcheaplabourandhighinsolation,
racewaysareunlikelytoproducealgaloilatpricescompetitivewithfossilfuelsinBCor
Canada.Whiletheproductionofaspecialtyproductmayimprovetheeconomicsofraceway
production,itssusceptibilitytocontaminationisamajorlimitationtoitsuse.
PBRsareunabletoeconomicallyproducebioenergyfromalgae.
Fermentationappearstobethemostpromisingoptiontomakebiofuelsfromalgae.In
addition,itisindependentofclimaticconditions,whilethecostsandenergybalancesmaybe
equivalenttofirstgenerationbiofuels(ifyieldsandoilcontentcanreachhighlevels).
Algaetobioenergytechnologiesarestillprecommercial,andwillrequiresignificantR&Dto
increaseproductivityandreducecosts.Consequently,successfulcommercialscalebioenergy
productionfromalgaeisunlikelyinBCinthenearterm.

8Bydisplacingfossilfuels
9Thiscalculationonlyconsidersthecarbonfixedinthealgaebiomass.Ifcarbonlossesandcostsfrom

electricity,fertilizeruse,transportation,deepburialetc.wereincluded,thiscostperwouldbeevenhigher.

10

ThesizeoftheEPAmarketatcurrentpricelevels,however,wouldneedtobeconfirmedinordertosustainthe
validityofthisfindinginthecontextoflargescalealgaeoilproduction.

vi


Acknowledgements

ThisstudywouldnothavebeenpossiblewithoutthehelpandsupportoftheMicroalgaeStudy
SteeringCommittee:

BCMinistryofAgricultureandLands,BCClimateActionSecretariat,BCInnovationCouncil,BC
Hydro,CanadianBioenergy,GenomeBC,WesternEconomicDiversificationandBCMinistryof
Energy,MinesandPetroleumResources.

MathewDickson
MinistryAgriculture&Lands
AnnEastman
MinistryAgriculture&Lands
RichardHallman
BCInnovationCouncil
AlexTu
BCHydro
StewartCampbell
CanadianBioenergy
RichardHowlett
GenomeBC
JohnBriggs
WesternEconomicDiversification
GeoffTurner
MinistryofEnergy,MinesandPetroleumResources
MichaelRensing
MinistryofEnergy,MinesandPetroleumResources

SpecialthanksgotoDr.AnnEastmanandMattDicksonfromtheMinistryofAgricultureandLands
fortheirvisionandconstantsupportforthisstudy.

Theauthorswouldalsoliketothankthefollowingpeoplefortheirimportantcontributionstothis
study:
Dr.StephenOLeary,

NationalResearchCouncil,CanadaConseilNationaldeRecherches
Canada(NRCCNRC),forreviewingthisstudy.

Dr.TaoLi,

AlbertaResearchCouncil,fordevelopingthemicroalgaegrowth
model.

All the individuals and companies that responded to their requests for information and provided valuable
input for this study:
Dr. John Benemann
Mr. Martin Gordon
Mr. Sam Jaffe
Dr. Martin Ecke
Professor Zvi Cohen
Professor Qingyu Wu

Benemann Associates
Carbon Capture Corporation
Panea Energy Ltd.
Bioprodukte Prof. Steinberg Produktions
Ben Gurion University, Israel
Tsinghua University, P.R. China

Finally, the authors would like to thank three other valuable contributors who wish to be anonymous.

vii

GlossaryandAbbreviations
Airfloatation
Anaerobicdigester

Bcf
Bcfd
Bcm
Biodiesel
Bioenergy
Bioethanol
Biofuels
Biogas
Biomethane
Butanol
Cyanobacteria
Decarboxylation
Degasser
Desulphurization
Electroflocculation
Feedstocks
Fermenter
Flocculate
g.L1.d1
g.m2.d1
GL
Gt
Heterotrophic
Hydrocarbondewpoint

Hydrogenase
IEA
IPCC
Isoform

Processoffloatingclumpsofalgaecellsusingminutebubbleswhich
attachtotheclumpsandmakethemfloat
Asealedvesselorvesselsinwhichmicroorganismsbreakdown
biodegradablematerialintheabsenceofoxygen,producingmethane
andbiogas
Billioncubicfeet
Billioncubicfeetperday
Billioncubicmeters
Asubstitutefordieselfuelmadefromorganicproducts
Renewableenergymadefromorganicsources
Renewableethanolmadefromorganicsources
Solid,liquidorgasfuelderivedfrombiologicalmaterial
Themixtureofgases,includingmethane,formedduringtheanaerobic
digestionoforganicwastes
Methaneportionofbiogas,afterupgradingtonaturalgasquality
Aprimaryalcoholthatcanbeusedasasubstituteforgasolinewithno
modifications
Prokaryotesmicrobeshavingcharacteristicsofbothbacteriaandalgae
Theremovalofacarboxylgroupfromanorganiccompound
Sectionofaclosedphotobioreactorwheregasexchangeoccurs
Catalyticchemicalprocessusedtoremovesulfurfromnaturalgasand
refinedpetroleumproducts
Processofinducingflocculationbyelectricalcurrent
Input(raw)materialsrequiredintheproductionofbiodiesel
Aclosedvesselforaerobiccultureofalgaeusingorganiccarbonsources
asnutrients
Theaggregationofmaterials(e.g.algaecells)togethertoformlarge
clumps
Gramsperliterperday
Gramspersquaremeterperday
Gigaliters
Gigatonne
Modeofproducingmicroorganismsonorganicsubstratesintheabsence
oflight
Thetemperatureatwhichthehydrocarboncomponentsofa
hydrocarbonrichgasmixturewillstarttocondenseoutofthegaseous
phase
Anenzymethatcatalysesthereversibleoxidationofhydrogen
InternationalEnergyAgency(http://www.iea.org/)
InternationalPanelonClimateChange(http://www.ipcc.ch/)
Aproteinthathasthesamefunctionasanotheronebutisencodedbya
differentgenesequence

viii

kWh
Lignocellulose
Lipid
Mb/d
E.m2.s1
Mesophilic
Microalgae
Mixotrophic

ML
MLS
molephoton.m2.s1
Mwh
NOx
OPEC
PBR
Continuousperfusion

Photoinhibition
Photon
Photonfluence
Photooxidation
Planktonic
Polyelectrolyte

Psychrophiles
Pyrolysis
Quantum
Stillage
Syngas
Thermophiles
Transesterification
Turbidostat

Kilowatthour,aunitofenergy
Biomasscomposedofcellulose,ligninandhemicellulose
Fatsolublemolecules
Millionbarrelsofoilperday.Onebarrel=34.97imperialgallons=
158.99litersofoil
Microeinsteinspermetersquarepersecond,unitofirradiance.1
einstein=1moleofphotons
Organismthatgrowsbestatmoderatetemperatures(typicallybetween
15to40C
Microscopicsinglecelledplants
Aculturemodewherebyaculturedphotosyntheticorganism(e.g.algae)
utilizesbothinorganiccarbondioxideinthepresenceoflightaswellas
organiccarbon.
Megalitres
MultipleListingServiceoftheCanadianRealEstateAssociation
Micromolephotonspermetersquaredpersecond
Megawatthour,aunitofenergy
Nitrogenoxides
Organizationofpetroleumexportingcountries
Photobioreactor
Processwherebycellfreemediaiscontinuouslyremovedfromaculture
(usuallythroughahollowmembrane)andfreshmediaaddedthereby
enablingremovaloftoxicmetabolites
Areductioninphotosyntheticcapacitycausedbyexposuretoexcess
light.
Aquantumunitoflightenergy
Totalnumberofphotonshittingagivenarea
Oxidationundertheinfluenceoflight
Microorganismsthatinhabitthewatercolumn
Polymericorganiccompoundswithanelectrolytegroup,which,upon
dissociationinwater,makesthepolymers,charged.Theyareusedto
neutralizethesurfacechargesofmaterials(e.g.algaecells)during
flocculation
Organismscapableofgrowingandreproducingincoldtemperatures
Thedecompositionoforganicmaterialsbyheat
Thesmallestrealizableunitofsomething
Theresidueatthebottomofastillafterfermentationcontainingsolids
butnoalcohol
Ahydrogenandcarbonmonoxiderichgasobtainedthroughheatinga
carbonfeedstock,suchasbiomasstoveryhightemperatures
Organismswhichthriveathighertemperatures
Theprocessofexchangingthealcoholgroupofanestercompoundwith
anotheralcohol
Continuousculturedevicewithafeedbackbetweentheturbidityofthe
cultureandthedilutionrate

ix

TableofContents
EXECUTIVESUMMARY ....................................................................................................................... iii
Acknowledgements............................................................................................................................ vii
GlossaryandAbbreviations ...........................................................................................................viii
ListofFigures.......................................................................................................................................XII
ListofTables ........................................................................................................................................XII
1 Introduction .....................................................................................................................................1
1.1 MarketPotentialforBioenergy/Biofuels......................................................................................1
1.1.1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1.2. GlobalDemandforBioenergyProducts................................................................................................. 2
1.1.3. BiofuelsMarketPotentialDiscussion...................................................................................................... 4
1.2 TheBioenergyMarketinBritishColumbia ..................................................................................4
1.1.4. Biofuels:................................................................................................................................................................ 4
1.1.5. Biomethane: ....................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.3 OtherMarketOptions ..........................................................................................................................5
1.1.6. TertiaryMunicipalWastewaterTreatment(nutrientremoval) ................................................. 5
1.1.7. Protein .................................................................................................................................................................. 5
1.1.8. HealthFoods,Vitamins,FoodColouring&FineChemicals........................................................... 5
1.1.9. EmissionReductionCredits ........................................................................................................................ 6
1.4 TechnologiesandPlantSetupOptions...........................................................................................7
1.1.10. Biodiesel ............................................................................................................................................................ 7
1.1.11. Ethanol ............................................................................................................................................................... 7
1.1.12. Biogas ................................................................................................................................................................. 8
1.1.13. IntegrationwithExistingDistributionInfrastructure .................................................................. 8
2 CurrentAlgaeCultivationMethods ..........................................................................................9
1.2. Introduction ...........................................................................................................................................9
1.2.1. Light ....................................................................................................................................................................... 9
1.2.2. Temperature ...................................................................................................................................................... 9
1.2.3. Mixing..................................................................................................................................................................10
1.2.4. GasExchange(CO2AdditionandO2Removal)..................................................................................10
1.2.5. Nutrients ............................................................................................................................................................10
2.1 CultureTechniques ............................................................................................................................ 11
1.2.6. OpenPondCulture: .......................................................................................................................................11
1.2.7. Photobioreactors(PBRs) ............................................................................................................................11
1.2.8. Fermenters........................................................................................................................................................12
1.2.9. Harvesting .........................................................................................................................................................14
1.2.10.StrainSelection................................................................................................................................................15
3 PotentialIssuesandBenefitsofLargeScaleCultureofAlgaeforBiofuels.............. 17
3.1 PhysicalEffectsofAlgaeCultivation ............................................................................................ 17
3.2 EcologicalAspectsofAlgaeCultivation ....................................................................................... 17
3.3 BenefitsofAlgaeCultivation........................................................................................................... 18
3.4 PublicPerceptionofAlgaeCultivation ........................................................................................ 18

4 Economicanalysis ....................................................................................................................... 19
4.1 AlgaeGrowthPotentialinBC.......................................................................................................... 19
1.2.11. AvailableSolarEnergy ..............................................................................................................................19
1.2.12. MaximumProductivityModel ...............................................................................................................19
4.2 AlgaeProductionCost ....................................................................................................................... 23
1.2.13. Introduction...................................................................................................................................................23
1.2.14. OpenRaceways ............................................................................................................................................23
1.2.15. Photobioreactors .........................................................................................................................................27
1.2.16. Fermenters.....................................................................................................................................................30
1.2.17. AnaerobicDigestion ...................................................................................................................................31
1.2.18. Discussion.......................................................................................................................................................32
1.2.19. SensitivityAnalysisandMinimumPerformanceLevels ............................................................35
1.2.20. Conclusions ....................................................................................................................................................37
5 EnergyandGHGBalance ........................................................................................................... 39
5.1 ComparisonofResultsforBC ......................................................................................................... 39
5.2 ComparisonofBCAnalysiswithotherGHGandEnergyBalanceEstimates .................. 42
5.3 CarbonCapturePotential ................................................................................................................ 44
5.4 PotentialtoMeetMandatedBiodieselLevelsinDieselBlendsinBC ............................... 46
6 ProductionofBiofuelswithHighValueCoProducts ...................................................... 47
6.1 InitialEconomicAnalysis................................................................................................................. 47
6.2 DiscussionofEicosapentaenoicAcidasaCoProduct............................................................ 49
6.3 MinimumByProductValueRequired......................................................................................... 52
7 RulesandRegulations................................................................................................................ 53
7.1 FederalRulesandRegulations....................................................................................................... 53
7.2 ProvincialRulesandRegulations ................................................................................................. 54
7.3 MunicipalRulesandRegulations .................................................................................................. 55
8 FundingOpportunities .............................................................................................................. 56
8.1 General ................................................................................................................................................... 56
8.2 FundingAvailabletothePrivateSector...................................................................................... 56
8.3 FundingforMunicipalitiesandFirstNations ........................................................................... 57
9 ScopeforImprovementandRecommendations............................................................... 59
9.1 ScopeForImprovement ................................................................................................................... 59
9.2 Recommendations.............................................................................................................................. 60
10 References ................................................................................................................................... 62
11 Appendices .................................................................................................................................. 75

xi

ListofFigures
Figure1:ProjectedWorldGasolineConsumptionthrough2030 .......................................................3
Figure2:SolarRadiationAroundtheWorld(Kwhr.M2.Day1) ......................................................... 20
Figure3:AverageYearlySolarEnergyinCanada(inMJ.m2) ............................................................ 20
Figure4: CostperkgofAlgalBiomassandperLitreofOil/EthanolProducedUsingDifferent
SystemsandDifferentScenarios............................................................................................... 37

ListofTables
Table1: CurrentandProjectedFutureWorldFuelandBiofuelProductionfromvarious
Studies...................................................................................................................................................2
Table2: WorldwideLiquefiedNaturalGas(LNG)Trade ......................................................................3
Table3 BiofuelsMarketsinCanadaandBCduetoGovernmentMandates..................................4
Table4 TheoreticalMarketsforMethanefromAlgaeinBC................................................................5
Table5: ComparisonofOpenRaceways,PhotobioreactorsandFermenters ............................ 13
Table6: PredictedAverageDailyAlgaeProductionfromBCUsingAlgaeGModeland15%
LipidContentforRacewayproductionand25%LipidContentforPBRproduction.
.............................................................................................................................................................. 21
Table7: CapitalCostParametersfora400haRacewayAlgaeProductionPlant ..................... 24
Table8: AssumptionsontheCompositionofAlgaeGrowninRaceways,Bioreactorsand
HeterotrophicFermenters .......................................................................................................... 25
Table9: AnnualOperationalCostParametersfora400haRacewayAlgaeProductionPlant
.............................................................................................................................................................. 27
Table10:DistillersGrainandAssumptionsonAlgaeCakeValue .................................................... 27
Table11:CornPricingandAssumptionsonAlgaeCakeValue.......................................................... 27
Table12:CapitalandOperationalCostParametersfora400haBioreactorAlgaeProduction
PlantinBC......................................................................................................................................... 29
Table13:CapitalandOperationalCostParametersforAlgaeProductionthrough
HeterotrophicFermentation(1,200m3fermenter)........................................................... 32
Table14:FertilizerCostandAssumptionsonAlgaeCakeValue....................................................... 32
Table15:ComparisonofBaseCaseCapitalandProductionCostsforThreeAlgaeProduction
Technologies .................................................................................................................................... 33
Table16:BiomassCostComparisons ......................................................................................................... 33
Table17:ParametersUsedforDifferentScenarios............................................................................... 35
Table18:EnergyandGHG(CO2)BalanceperLiterofOilProduced ................................................ 40
Table19:TheoreticalEnergyComparisonBetweenCornEthanolandHeterotrophically
ProducedAlgaeOil......................................................................................................................... 41
Table20:RevisedEnergyBalanceforRacewayCultivationofAlgaeinBCandtheTropics
UsingAlternativeEnergyParameters..................................................................................... 43
Table21:EstimatedCostsForCO2SequestrationusingAlgaeGrownforSixMonthsperYear
InBC .................................................................................................................................................... 45
Table22:AnnualCostsandReturnsfromtheCoProductionofEPAEsterwithAlgaeOiland
AlgaeCake(Protein)usingP.tricornutumgrowninRaceways,PBRsand
Fermenters ....................................................................................................................................... 49
Table23:AnnualcostsandReturnsfromtheCoProductionofEPAEsterwithAlgaeOiland
AlgaeCake(Carbohydrate)usingM.subterraneusgrowninRaceways,PBRsand
Fermenters ....................................................................................................................................... 51

XII

Table24:RelativeContributionofAlgaeOilandtheHighValueCoProduct,EPAEster,to
RevenuesfromtheProductionofP.tricornutumandM.subterraneusGrownin
RacewaysUndertheBaseCaseScenario................................................................................ 51

XIII

1 Introduction
Microalgae(algae)aremicroscopicplantsthataretheprimarysynthesizersoforganicmatterin
aquaticenvironments.Theyhavehighsurfaceareatovolumeratios,enablingtherapiduptakeof
nutrientsandcarbondioxide(CO2)andamuchfastercellgrowthratethanlandbasedplants.Algae
havebeenusedinhumanfoodandhealthfoodproducts(50;101;102),feedsforfishlarvae,shellfishand
livestock(13;17;64;102),andhavebeenculturedfortheirhighvalueoils(16;52;53;130;131;148;169;198),
chemicals,pharmaceuticalproducts(35;72;84;148;169)andpigments(18;95;110;148;169).
Inthe1980sand1990s,extensiveresearchintothemasscultivationofalgaebiomassforthe
productionofbiofuelswasconducted(26;166;195;196).Whiletheresearchshowedthistobetechnically
feasible,italsoshowedthat,atthetime,itwasnoteconomicallyfeasible.Assuch,muchofthe
researchwasdiscontinued.However,recentconcernsaboutincreasingcostsanddecreasing
availabilityoffossilfuels,theimpactsofCO2emissionsonclimatechange,andtheshortcomingsof
firstgenerationbiofuelfeedstocks,hasledtorenewedinterestandresearchintoalgaecultivation
forbioenergyproduction11.
Thefollowingstudywasundertakentoprovidearobustevidencebaseoffactualinformationto
validatedecisionsforthestrategicdevelopmentofalgaeforbiofuelsinBC.Thiswasundertakenin
lightofcontroversiesarisingfromwidelyvaryingclaimsregardingtheproductivityofalgae.What
followsisanimpartialinvestigationintothecurrentstateofalgaetechnologiesandresearchto
determinethefeasibilityofalgaecultivationinBCasbioenergyfeedstocks12.

1.1 MarketPotentialforBioenergy/Biofuels
Thefollowinganalysisofthemarketpotentialofenergyproductsfromalgaeislimitedtobiodiesel,
bioethanolandbiomethane:productsforwhichthetechnologiesforlargescaleproductionexist.
Byproducts,whichcanimpacttheeconomicpotentialforproducingalgaebiomass,arealso
considered.
1.1.1. Introduction
Thepotentialmarketforbioenergyiscurrentlydrivenbygovernmentmandates.However,as
energypricesincrease,demandforbioenergymaybecomemorepricedriven.Technologicaland
regulatorydevelopments,suchastheproductionofmorefuelefficientcars,hybridsandbattery
poweredcarsorincreasedGHGemissionreductiontargetsmayalsoimpactdemand.Whatfollows
isananalysisofglobaldemandforthreebioenergymarkets:bioethanol,biodieselandbiomethane.

11Thisresearchisbeingconductedbyseveralresearchgroups/companiesaroundtheworldwhoaretaking

advantageofnewertechnologiesandincreasedcultivationandbiotechnologyknowledge(48;117;129;143;163;189;
201).
12Sincenocommercialalgaetobiofueloperationscurrentlyexistandstartupcompaniesaregenerallynot

forthcomingwiththeirdata,thisstudyreliedmainlyoninformationpublishedintheliteratureandnumerical
calculations.However,toensurevalidity,thekeyfindingswereconfirmedthroughdirectcommunications
withalgaeexpertsandindustryinsiders.

1.1.2. GlobalDemandforBioenergyProducts
1.1.2.1. Ethanol
EstimatesforinternationalautomotivefuelandbiofuelproductionaresummarizedinTable1.
TheseestimatesshowthatanyfuelefficiencygainsinNorthAmericaandEuropewilllikelybe
erasedbyincreasedmotorizationinthedevelopingworld(Figure1).
Therangeinethanolproductionby2030intheforecastbyWalteretal.(194)(Table1)represents
twoscenarios.ThelowerforecastassumesE10useinmostregions(E20inEurope),whilethe
higherforecastassumestheuseofE16intheUS.Thedifferencebetweentheforecastsmadebythe
IEA(93)andWalteretal.(194)isbecausethelatterassumesthatlignocellulosicmaterialwillprovide
thebulkofethanolfeedstocks.NoneoftheforecastersinTable1expectthecontributionofbiofuels
tooveralltransportationfuelconsumptiontobesignificant.
Table1:CurrentandProjectedFutureWorldFuelandBiofuelProductionfromvariousStudies
FuelType
Gasoline
Ethanol
Diesel
Biodiesel

Biodiesel&Ethanol
Aviationfuel
Marinebunker
Middledistillates2

WorldProduction
2005
2030
1
1,213GL.yr
1,924GL.yr1
1
21.4mb.d
27.8mb.d1
(1,211GL.yr1)
(1,613GL.yr1)
1
33GL.yr
272.4444.1GL.yr1
1
17.1Mt.yr
78.5125Mt.yr1
1
(21.4GL.yr )
(98156GL.yr1)
22.2mb.d1
37.8mb.d1
1
(1,288GL.yr )
(2,194GL.yr1)
1
3.8GL.yr

2.9Mt.yr1
13.922.1Mt.yr1
(3.5GL.yr1)
(16.526.3GL.yr1)
51GL.yr1*
1
0.7mb.d
2.8mb.d1
40GL.yr1
(162GL.yr1)
+27GL.yr1

1
238Mt.yr
426Mt.yr1
1
6.4mbd
8.5mb.d1
3.6mb.d1
4.3mb.d1
1
2.8mb.d
5.1mb.d1
1
28mb.d
46mb.d1

Source
Walteretal.(194)
OPEC(139)
Walteretal.(194)
IEA(93)
OPEC(139)
Walteretal.(194)
IEA(93)
JohnstonandHolloway
(96)
OPEC(139)

Fieldetal.(69)
IEA(93)
OPEC(139)
IEA(93)
OPEC(139)
OPEC(139)

GL:gigaliters(109);mb.d1:millionbarrelsperday;Mt:megatonnes
*maximumpotentialfromagriculturalandanimalsources,withoutalgae
1inadditiontocurrentproduction,fromabandonedfarmland
2Middledistillatesincludebothheatingoilanddieselfuel


Figure1:ProjectedWorld
GasolineConsumption
through2030[Walteretal.
(194)].ROWBR=Restofthe
World

1.1.2.2. Biodiesel
Thebiodieselmarketcanbebroadlyclassifiedintofourmainenduseapplications:transportation,
nonroadapplications(mining,forestry,construction,etc),marine,andtoalesserextent,space
heating(125).JohnstonandHolloway(96)estimatedtheworldwidepotentialforbiodieselproduction
by2030tobeabove50billionliters13andwithimprovedyields,couldincreasetomorethan600
billionliters(primarilyfrompalmoil).Theseestimatessuggestthatforalgaetogainamarketin
biodieselproductiondependsonpricing,notonresourceavailability,asalternativesourcescan
adequatelysatisfymarketdemandfortheforeseeablefuture14.However,ifallautomotivefossil
fuelsaretobereplacedwithbiofuels,newfeedstockssuchasalgaewillverylikelyberequired(46).
1.1.2.3. Biomethane
Whileunrefinedbiogasisunlikelytobecomeaninternationallytradedcommodity,itcanberefined
tobiomethaneandusedasanaturalgassubstitute.Assuch,andbecausebiogascouldreplaceLNG,
theLNGmarketcanbeseenasaproxyfortheglobalbiogasmarket.
Currently,14countriesimportLNG,andthisisexpectedtoincreasetomorethan35by2010(with
themainimportersbeingtheUS,Chinaandtoalesserdegree,EuropeandIndia)(30).Worldexports
areestimatedtoreach110Mtby2010,and346Mtby2030(94)(Table2),withimportstotheUS
andCanadaincreasingfromalmostnetzeroduringthe1980sand90stomorethan147Mtby
2020(125).
Table2:WorldwideLiquefiedNaturalGas(LNG)Trade[IEA(94)]
Year
Amount
%oftotalnaturalgasuse
Algaerequired(drytonnes)

2004
90bcm
(66Mt)
7%
0.5Gt

2010
150bcm
(110Mt)
9%
0.8Gt

2030
470bcm
(346Mt)
23%
2.4Gt

13Estimatesofworldworldwidebiodieselproductionbasedprimarilyonvegetableoilproductionandanimal

fatresidues.
14Increaseddemandforsustainable/ethicalbiodieselfeedstocksmayalterthis.

1.1.3. BiofuelsMarketPotentialDiscussion
TheestimatesforfuturebiofuelproductioncomparedinTable1,divergesubstantiallyfortheyear
2030.However,twoofthesourcesagreefairlywellonfuturenumbers(125;139).Since2005,current
(2007)biodieselproductionhasdoubledto8GL(127)andethanolproductionhasincreasedfrom33
to46GL,thusvindicatingthehigherestimates.Basedonthesemostoptimisticandpessimistic
estimates,andtheestimatesthatalgaecanproduce267litresofethanol(assuminga40%starch
content)and190litresofbiodieselperdrytonne,worldwidealgalbiomassdemandin2030could
beupto416milliontonnesperyear.Twentytimesmorewouldbeneededtoreplacealldieseland
gasolineby203015.
Theanaerobicdigestionofalgaecanachievemethaneyieldsofabout250m3.t1ofalgae(76;202).
Therefore,ifalgaeweredigestedforbiogasproductionalone,aconservativeproductioncapacityof
400m3biogaspertonne(200m3ofmethane)ofalgaecanbeassumed.This,basedonpredicted
LNGtradein2030,resultsinatheoreticalworldwidemethanemarketofatleast2.4billion(dry)
tonnesofalgalbiomass.

1.2 TheBioenergyMarketinBritishColumbia
1.1.4. Biofuels:
ThemarketforbiodieselandbioethanolinBCiscurrentlydrivenbythe2007BCEnergyPlans
targetof5%renewablefuelsinblendsby2010,andthefederalgovernmentmandateof5%ethanol
ingasolineby2010and2%biodieselindieselby2012.Theestimatedsizesofthebiodieseland
bioethanolmarketsinBCandCanadaresultingfromthesemandatesareshowninTable3.
AslittleofBCsarablelandbase(lessthan5%ofthetotallandarea)isavailabletocultivateenergy
crops,futureincreasesinbiofuelmandatetargetswilllikelydepend,inlargepart,onthefeasibility
ofobtainingnewsecondgenerationbiofuelfeedstocksthatdonotrequirearableland(suchas
algae).
Table3BiofuelsMarketsinCanadaandBCduetoGovernmentMandates
FuelType
Bioethanol
Biodiesel

CanadianMarketin2012
2.9GL
0.6GL

BCMarketin2012
245ML
183ML16

GL:gigaliters(109);ML:megaliters(106)

1.1.5. Biomethane:
ThenaturalgasmarketinBCis215billioncubicfeet(bcf)peryear(171)(6blnm3.yr-1),withan
additionaldemandof17.3bcfd(179blnm3.yr-1)intheAlbertapipelinesystem,whichisconnected
totheBCgasgrid.Table4showsthetheoreticalamountsofalgaeneededtoreplacerealistic
percentagesofthesemarkets17.Whiletheexportmarketisthelargest,duetothevolumesrequired,

15Despitethis,thereareseveralfactorswhichincreasetheuncertaintywithrespecttotheaboveestimates

andthesearefurtherexplainedinAppendixA.
16TheBCmarketforbiodieselin2012isestimatedtobeinexcessof183ML.TheBCmandaterequirenon

roadusetobeincluded,morethandoublingthetransportationonlyvolumes.
17Asitisunrealistictoassumethatallconventionalnaturalgaswillbereplacedbyalgae.

itismorefeasiblethatalgaecoulddisplaceimportednaturalgasfromtwoplannedterminalsinBC18
(103;199).
Table4TheoreticalMarketsforMethanefromAlgaeinBC
NaturalGasMarket
CurrentBCMarket
LNGImportstoBC
Albertademand
SumaspipelinetoUS
(capacity)

TotalMarketSize EstimatedMarket EstimatedMarketfor

Potential
Algae(drytonnes)
3
1
6billionm .yr
2%
600,000
3
1
13millionm .yr
100%
65,000
179billionm3.yr1
13.5billionm3.yr1

10%
10%

90million
7million

Additionalenergymarketsforalgaemaybefoundindecentralizedapplications.Forexample,
remotecommunitiesthatareabletocultivatealgaemightbeabletogeneratebiogastoproduce
heatandelectricityforlocalneeds,displacingdieselfuelandheatingoil.

1.3 OtherMarketOptions
1.1.6. Tertiarymunicipalwastewatertreatment(nutrientremoval)
Algaecanbeusedtoreducethephosphatecontentintreatedmunicipalwastewaterincontrolled
environments,thusaddressingtheproblemofeutrophicationinwatersheds(123;151),while
simultaneouslyreducingcostsbyproducingbioenergyfromharvestedalgae19.
1.1.7. Protein
Proteinconcentrationsrangingfrom15to71%havebeenreportedinalgae(13;88;169).Proteinfrom
residuesofbiodieselandethanolfeedstocksarealreadybeingusedforlivestockfeedandby
aquaculturists.However,thismarketislimitedandmaysoonbesaturatedbybyproductsfrom
agriculturalbiofuelproduction(59;166).Proteinrichalgaeresiduescouldalsobeusedashumanfood
itemsorsupplements.However,appearance,digestibility,marketabilityandtastemaybe
impedimentstocustomeracceptance(13).Clearly,themarketfortheseproductswouldhavetobe
createdwhilealargescalealgaeplantisstartingup.
1.1.8. HealthFoods,Vitamins,FoodColouring&FineChemicals
Foodadditivestopreservecolour,pigments,fibers,enzymes,sugar,fats,aminoacids,vitamins,
antioxidants,cosmeticproducts,calcium,specialtyoilsetc.arebeingdiscussedaspotentialhigh
valueproductsfromalgae.Suchhighvaluecoproductscouldboosttheeconomicsofusingalgaeas

18TwoLNGterminalsarebeingproposedforBC,oneonTexadaIslandandtheotheratKitimat.Thesefacilities

wouldreceiveupto6millionm3(199)and7millionm3(103),ofLNGrespectivelyperyear,startingin2010.
19Adiscussionofthepotentialofalgaecultureinwastewatertreatmentisbeyondthescopeofthisstudyand

readersarereferredtostudiesconductedbyvanHarmelenandOonk(189)andHoffman(90).

abioenergyfeedstock20.However,itisimpossibletodetermineifthereissignificantpotentialfrom
thesebyproductswithoutfurtherintensiveresearch21.
Polyhydroxyalkanoates(PHAs)areafamilyofwaterinsoluble,stereospecificpolyestersof
differenthydoxyalkalinicacidswithpropertiessimilartothoseofconventionalplasticsthatcanalso
beproducedbyseveralorganismsincludingcyanobacteria(170;191;192).Whilethesizeofthis
potentialmarketstillneedstobedetermined,PHAsarealreadybeingusedonacommercialscalein
disposablerazors,traysandutensilsinJapan,biodegradablebottlesinEurope,andabsorbable
sutures,pinsandstaplesformedicalpurposes22(191).
1.1.9. EmissionReductionCredits
CarboncreditscanbecreatedwhenCO2issequestered.However,becausethealgaeproducts
(biofuelsorfeeds)areusuallyconsumedandhenceoxidizedwithinashorttimeperiod,the
sequesteredCO2isreturnedtotheatmosphereandtheproductisineligibleforCO2credits.
CreditscanalsobeearnedwhenaCO2neutralfueldisplacesafossilfuel.IfCO2fromafossilfuelis
usedtogrowalgae,twopossiblescenariosmayapply:
Inthefirstscenario,iftheliabilityfortheCO2emissionsremainwiththeoriginalsource(i.e.,a
powerplant,cementplant,etc.)then,fromacarboncreditcontext,thebioenergymadefromthis
CO2willdisplaceafossilfuelandcanearncredits.However,undergovernmentbiofuelmandates,
onlynonmandatedactivitiesareconsideredadditionalandthereforeeligibleforcredits.Thus,
onlybiofuelquantitiesexceedingthemandatedlevelswouldqualifyforcredits.However,thelegal
problemsofattributingsuchcreditstoonespecificbiofuelproducerwillbedifficult,ifnot
impossible.Itisthereforecurrentlyunknownifcreditswillcomefromsuchbiofuels,althoughthere
isahighermarketvalueandtaxcreditsforacarbonneutralfuel.
Inthesecondscenario,iftheoriginalemitterwantstoclaimcreditsbecauseofanalgaeoperation
usingtheCO2initsfluegasbeforeitisreleasedtotheatmosphere,then,fromacarboncredit
context,thebioenergymadefromthisCO2willbecomeafossilfuelandwillnotearncredits.In
addition,algaecannotusealloftheCO2influegases(seeSection5.3),andonlyapercentageofthe
algaebiomassisoilorcarbohydratewhichisusedforbioenergyproduction,i.e.onlyafractionof
theCO2sequesteredfromtheemitterwouldeventuallydisplaceafossilfuelandbeeligiblefor
credit.Whilethiscouldbeconsideredincontractualagreements,duetotheCO2liability,the
bioenergycouldnotbesoldasCO2neutral23.
WhileCO2creditscanbegeneratedfromelectricityproducedfromalgae,inBCthesewillaccrueto
BCHydrowheneverpowerissoldtotheutility(asmandatedinpowerpurchasingagreements).
Creditscan,however,becreatedwherebiogasispurifiedtobiomethaneandusedtodisplace
naturalgas.Algaecanalsobeusedforhydrogenproduction,butanolandsyntheticgasoline,
pyrolysisproductsandcompost.ThesearediscussedinmoredetailinAppendixB.

20However,differencesinthecompositionofmicroalgaemustbeconsideredasspeciessuitableforthe

productionofhighvalueproductsmaybelesssuitableforbiofuelsproductionthanothersandviceversa.
21

ComprehensiveoverviewsofproductsmadefromalgaeareprovidedbyPulzandGross(148)andSpolaoreet
al.(169)

22Awidermarkethasbeensuggestedfortheseproducts(23;189),whichneedstobeverified.Moreover,
cyanobacteriawhichproducePHAsarenotknowntoexhibithighlevelsoflipids.

23ThebioenergycouldbesoldasabiologicallyproducedgreyfuelwithaCO footprint.Whethersuchafuel
2
couldbeusedundercurrentbiofuelsmandatesremainsuncertain.

1.4 TechnologiesandPlantSetupOptions
Currently,severaloptionsexistforturningalgaebiomassintobioenergy.AppendixEsummarizes
theapproacheschosenbyanumberofcompaniesandresearchteamstoday24.Whatfollowsisa
briefdiscussionofeachtechnology,themainelementsandcriterianecessaryforalgaeasa
feedstockforthethreemainbioenergies:biodiesel,ethanolandbiogas25.
1.1.10. Biodiesel
Toobtainalgaeoil,thealgaearefirstconcentratedandtheoil
extracted,usuallyusinganorganicsolvent,whichrecoversabout
90%oftheoilinalgaebiomass(134),orusingafilterpress(about
75%oilrecovery).SupercriticalfluidextractionwithcooledCO2
isanotherpossibilitywhichcanrecovercloseto100%oftheoil
(4).Theresidue,whichcontainsstarchandprotein,canbefurther
processedtomakeethanol,animalfeed,orusedasafeedstockin
ananaerobicfermenter.

Acommercialscale
algaetobiodiesel
processisatleasteightto
tenyearsawayfrom
hittingthemarket.
JohnHemmings,Process
DirectorofStudiesand
Technology,SNCLavalin,
Canada

Biodieselproductionisatransesterificationprocessduringwhich
oilswithahighviscosityaretransformedintoalkylesterswith
lowerviscosity,similartonormaldieselfuel,andglycerin.The
transesterificationprocessiscausedbytheadditionofmethanoltotheoilinthepresenceofa
catalyst.Theadditionof10%methanoland90%oilwillproduce90%biodieseland10%glycerin
asabyproduct.
Whileoilsforbiodieselproductioncanbemadefromavarietyofsources,includinganimalfats,
virginoilsandusedvegetableoils,thevalueoftheoilwilldependuponitscomposition(104).For
example,oilswithhighwatercontentorfreefattyacids,suchaswastevegetableoils,leadtosoap
formationduringtransesterification,increasingcleanupcostsandhencereducingtheirvalue.
Somealgaeproduceoilsrichinhighlyunsaturatedandpolyunsaturatedfattyacids(seeAppendix
C).Thesearemorepronetooxidation,andbiodieselmadefromtheseoilsarenotlikelytomeetthe
iodinevalueof120130gper100gbiodieselrequiredininternationalstandards(46).Despitethis,
biodieselproducedfromtheseoilshasalowermeltingpointandthusexcellentcoldflowproperties
comparedtobiodieselfromsaturatedfats(whichtendstogelatambienttemperatures(91;164)).To
meetthebiodieselfuelqualitystandards(EN14214andASTMD6751),theextentofunsaturationin
algaloilscanbereducedbypartialcatalytichydrogenation(46;57).
Basedonthisinformation,itisdifficulttopredictthevalueofalgaeoilasabiodieselfeedstock.
Althoughitappearstobeverysimilartoalternativeoils,theexactcompositionofthealgaeoilcan
beinfluencedbytheselectionofspeciesusedandtheprocessparameters(88).
1.1.11. Ethanol
Thestarchcontentofalgaeisreportedtobebetween9and69%(68),withthehighervaluesbeing
comparabletocorn,wheatandotherconventionalethanolfeedstocks(160).
Oncethealgaeareconcentratedandtheoilextractedasdescribedabove,theenzymealphaamylase
ismixedwiththeresidueandpassedthroughheatedcookers,wherethestarchisliquefied.By

24Whilebiodieselandtheuseoffluegasisthemainapproachchosensofar,thereisstillnocleardirection

concerningthechoiceofopenponds,raceways,orPBRs(discussedfurtherinsection2.1andAppendixF).

25Moredetaileddescriptionsanddiagramscanbefoundintheliterature,suchasEnvintConsulting(66)

addingasecondaryenzyme(glucoamylase),theliquefiedstarchisconvertedtofermentable
sugars.Yeastisthenaddedtothemashtofermentthesugarstoethanolandcarbondioxide.Usinga
continuousprocess,thefermentingmashisallowedtoflowthroughseveralfermenters,untilthe
mashleavingthefinaltankisfullyfermented.Thefermentedmashcontainsabout1115%ethanol
byvolumeaswellasthenonfermentablesolidsfromthealgaeandtheyeastcells.Ethanolis
distilledoffthemashat96%strength,whiletheresidualstillagecanberecoveredfromthebaseof
thecolumnanddriedtoobtaindrieddistillersgrain.
1.1.12. Biogas
Algaecanbedigestedbybacteriainanaerobicdigesters.Whiledigestersaredistinguishedbasedon
theiroperatingtemperature,operatingmode,anddesign,theexactlayoutandtechnologyusedwill
besubjecttoanassessmentoffeedstockcompositionandvolume.
Tooptimizebiogasyieldsfromanaerobicdigestion,thecarbonnitrogen(C/N)balanceinthe
feedstockshouldbeinarangeof2530(sincethebacterialcarbondemandismuchhigherthan
nitrogendemand).Algae,however,havealowC/Nbalance(202)andmayrequiretheadditionof
carbontothedigestionprocess(e.g.wastepaper).Theremovalofoilorstarchmayexacerbatethis
problemasthesecompoundscontaincarbon,furtherdistortingtheoptimalC/Nbalance.
Thebiogasproducedbythedigesterconsistsofroughly60%methaneand40%carbondioxide,
plustracegases,andcanbeusedtoproduceheatand/orelectricity.Purifiedbiogas,knownas
biomethane,canbeusedinnaturalgasvehiclesorintroducedintothenaturalgaspipeline.
However,todosoitmustfirstmeettheTransCanadapipelinestandards(AppendixD).
1.1.13. IntegrationwithExistingDistributionInfrastructure
Ifalgaeplantsproduceonlythefeedstockandnotthefinalbiofuel,locationwillbedeterminedby
availabilityofsuitableland,accesstowater,sourcesofCO2andclimate,andnotbyproximitytothe
distributionnetwork.Thisisbecausethedeliveryofthealgaloiltotherefineriesorfeedstocktothe
digestercaneasilybeaccomplishedusingtruckorrailcompanies26.
Furthermore,evenifthefacilityweretoproduceboththefeedstockandthebiofuel,becauseboth
dieselandethanolarecurrentlyusedasanadditive,ratherthanstandalonefuels,theyarenot
compatiblewithcurrentdistributionpipelinesandmustbeblendedintoexistingfuels,closeto,or
attheenduser.Thisagainlimitsthetransportationofbiodieselandethanoltorailortruckdelivery.
Ifthealgaewereusedtoproducebiogasforheatand/orelectricityproduction,thedigesterwould
needtobenearalargecommercialheatsink(duetothehighcostsofheattransferpipes)orathree
phasepowerline.Projectsthatchoosetoupgradethebiogastobiomethanewouldneedtobeclose
toanintermediatepressuregaspipeline.Projectsthatarenotclosetotheexistinggasnetworkwill
likelyhavedifficultyfinancingandbuildinganaccesspipe,whilethealternativetopressurizeand
bottlethebiomethaneandthentransportviarailortruckwillalsobecostprohibitive.The
technicalfeasibilityofanaerobicdigestionwillalsodependonthesizeoftheoperation(aminimum
ofaround150drytonnesofbiomassperyearisrequiredtofeedaverysmalldigester),andpossibly
theavailabilityofadditionalhighcarbonfeedstocks,suchaswastepaper27.

26CompanieslikeCNrailwhichalreadyhaveexistinginfrastructureinplacetomoveliquidbiofuelsthrough

theNorthAmericanrailnetwork.Inadditiontoaccessingbiodieselandethanolblendingfacilitiesontheirrail
network,theyalsoofferrailtotruckandrailtostoragefacilitiestothosenotontheirrailnetwork.

27AgriculturaldigestersinBCproducingheatandelectricitywereshowntonotbeeconomicallyfeasible

withoutahigherelectricitytariff(9),whereasthecostofbiomethaneproductionwasfoundtobecloseto
currentnaturalgasmarketpricesonlyifagatefeecanbechargedforthebiomasstobeprocessed(11).

2 CurrentAlgaeCultivationMethods
1.2.Introduction
Successfullycultivatingalgaerequiresthattheybeprovidedwithspecificenvironmentalconditions,
whichvarybetweenspecies.Theseincluderequirementsforlight(intensities,wavelengths),
temperatureranges,CO2concentration,nutrientcomposition,salinitiesandmixingconditions.The
followinghighlightsthemostimportantoftheserequirementsforalgaecultivation(seeAppendixF
foramoredetaileddiscussion).
1.2.1. Light
Beingthebasesourceofenergyforphototrophicalgae,theavailabilityandintensityoflightisone
ofthekeyparametersaffectingthesuccessorfailureofalgaecultures.
Atverylowlightintensities,thenetgrowthofthealgaecultureiszero(thecompensationpoint)
(113).Asthelightintensitiesincreases,photosynthesisincreasesuntilapointisreachedwherethe
growthrateisthemaximumattainable(thelightsaturationpoint)(77;108;154).Increasingthelight
intensitybeyondthispointdoesnotincreasethegrowthrateandcanleadtophotooxidation,
damagingthelightreceptorsofthealgaeanddecreasingthephotosyntheticrateandproductivity
(photoinhibition).
Beingadaptedforlowlightlevelsinthewild,thelightharvestingantennaeofalgaecellsareso
efficienttheyabsorballthelightthathitsthemeventhoughitcannotallbeusedforphotosynthesis.
Thus,athighalgalcellconcentrations,almostalltheavailablelightisabsorbedbyathintoplayerof
cells,leavingtherestinthedark(mutualshading).However,mostalgaegetlightsaturatedatabout
20%ofsolarlightintensities(77;126;147;183;185),hence,whilethecellsbelowthesurfaceoftheculture
maybelightlimited,thecellsinthetoplayermayfacetheoppositeproblemsoflightsaturationand
inhibition.
Overcomingtheseissuesinvolvesreducingthelightpathlengthofalgaeculturesystem(toincrease
lightpenetration),andincreasingcelldensitiestoapointatwhichmutualshadingminimizesthe
exposureofeachcell(orthemajorityofcells)tolight.Thisisalsofacilitatedbypropermixingwhich
ensuresthatindividualcellsarenotstationedexclusivelyinthedarkorlightzonesoftheculture28
aswellasincreasingmasstransfer(80;81;195).
1.2.2. Temperature
Ingeneral,algaegrowthincreasesexponentiallywithrisingtemperaturesuntilanoptimumlevelis
reached,afterwhichgrowthdeclines.Thisisofparticularimportanceforoutdoorcultures,where
theabilitytocontroltemperaturesisoftenlimited(especiallyinopensystems)andisdetermined
byatmospherictemperature,solarirradianceandhumidity.Fluctuationsinambienttemperatures
canresultindiurnaltemperaturesdifferencesofasmuchas20Cinalgaecultures(36;138;153),which
canaffecttheproductivityinthefollowingways:

28Theflashinglighteffectwherebyhighfrequencies(>10Hz)ofbriefflashesofhighintensitylightfollowed

byalongerdarkperiodwereshownnottoreduceproductivitycomparedtocontinuouslyilluminated
cultures(105;136)hasnotyetbeenreplicatedincommercialsituations.

1).

Becauselargewaterbodieshavelongresponsetimestoairtemperatures,evenwhentheair
temperatureisoptimal,thealgaeculturetemperaturecanbe1015Cbelowoptimal(36).
Therefore,optimalculturetemperaturesareonlyachievedforpartoftheday(153;156).

2).

Whileoptimalculturetemperaturesmaynotbeachieveduntilaftermidday,solarlight
intensityincreasesveryrapidlyinthemorning(99;168;193).Thiscausesalackof
synchronizationbetweentheseenvironmentalfactors,affectingphotosynthesisandcreating
asituationunderwhichphotoinhibitionmayoccurduringlowlevelsoflightintensityand
suboptimaltemperatures(121;193).

Whiletemperaturesbelowtheoptimalrangewillgenerallynotkillalgae(exceptforfreezing
conditions)sustainedtemperaturesabovetheoptimalrangewill.Furthermore,higher
temperaturesduringdarkperiodshavebeenshowntoincreasebiomasslosses(195).Thus,itis
importantfortheculturetoreachoptimaltemperaturesquicklyinthemorningandtorapidly
decreasetemperaturesafterdarkness,therebymaintaininghighproductivityduringthedayand
minimizingbiomasslossatnight.
1.2.3. Mixing
Asdiscussedabove,athighalgaeconcentrations,almostalltheavailablelightisabsorbedbyathin
toplayerofcells.Assuch,mixingmustbesufficienttokeepthealgaecellsinsuspension,andto
provideallthecellswithauniform,averageexposuretolight.Mixingalsodecreasestheboundary
layeraroundcells,facilitatingtheincreaseduptakeandexudationofmetabolicproducts(see
AppendixFforamoredetaileddiscussion).
1.2.4. GasExchange(CO2AdditionandO2Removal)
Asroughly4550%ofalgalbiomassismadeofcarbon(12;44;63;162),thelowpercentageofCO2inthe
air(0.033%)willquicklylimitgrowthifsupplementarycarbonisnotsupplied.ThisCO2isgenerally
blendedinwithairinaeratedculturesorinjectedintothealgaeculturesviagasexchangevesselsin
PBRsorsumpsinopenraceways.Severalmethodshavebeenusedtoreducethelossesofexpensive
CO2inopenalgaecultures,includingbubblingthroughairstones,usingplasticdomeexchangers
withperforatedPVCpipes,injectionintodeepsumps,trappingtheCO2underfloatinggas
exchangersandmaintaininghighalkalinitiesintheculturewater29.
Ifoxygen(O2)concentrationsexceedingsaturationoccursinalgaecultures,photooxidativedamage
occurstothechlorophyllreactioncenters,inhibitingphotosynthesisandreducingproductivity(132;
147;161;186).Wherethereisaninterfacebetweenthecultureandtheatmosphereinagitatedcultures,
thisisnotusuallyaproblemastheO2concentrationswillremainsimilartothatofambientair.
However,insystemswithoutaninterface,suchasclosedPBRs,additionalfacilitiessuchasgas
exchangechambersarerequired.(seeAppendixFforamoredetaileddiscussion).
1.2.5. Nutrients
Nutrientsaddedtoalgalculturesmustprovidetheinorganicelementsthatmakeupthealgalcell
andincludemacronutrients,vitaminsandtraceelements.Whilethereisverylittlepublishedwork
ontheoptimallevelsofnutrientsrequiredformassalgalcultures,themacronutrientsrequiredare
generallyconsideredtobenitrogen,phosphorusandsilicon30(86)ataratioof16N:1P(39).In
practice,however,toavoidnutrientlimitation,nutrientsareusuallyaddedtoexcess(3;70;161)and

29AdditionofCO

2canalsobeusedtocontrolfluctuatingpHlevelswhichmayoccurasthealgaeconsume
nitrates.ExcessivelyhighorlowpHdisruptsmanycellularprocessesandreducestheproductivityofalgae.

30Siliconisonlyrequiredfordiatoms,silicoflagellatesandsomechrysophyes.

10

widelydifferentratiosareused,evenwhenculturingthesamealga(152;157).Typicaltracemetals
usedincludechelatedsaltsofiron,zinc,cobalt,manganese,seleniumandnickel.

2.1 CultureTechniques
1.2.6. OpenPondCulture:
Thelargescalecultivationofalgaeandcyanobacteriainoutdooropenpondsystemsiswell
established(12;27;36).Pondscanbeexcavatedandusedunlinedorlinedwithimpermeablematerials,
ortheycanbebuiltupwithwalls.Openpondsareonlysuitableforasmallnumberofalgalspecies
thatcantolerateextremeenvironmentalconditionstotheexclusionofmostotherspecies(Table5).
Thesespeciesincludefastgrowers,suchasChlorella,andspeciesthatrequirehighlyselective
environments,suchasSpirulinaandDunaliella,whichthriveinhighlyalkalineorsaline
environments.
Currently,therearefourmaintypesofopenponds:
Unmixedopenponds:GenerallyusedforthecultureofDunaliellasalina,thesepondshavelow
productivities(<1g.m2.d1)(27)andareunsuitableforthecultureofmostalgalspecies(36;38).
Racewayponds:WidelyusedforthecommercialcultivationofSpirulina,Haematococcusand
Dunaliella(27;36),thesepondsutilizepaddlewheelsforcultureagitationandmixing.Reported
productivitieshaverangedfrom14g.m2.d1(0.07g.L1.d1)to50g.m2.d1(0.42g.L1.d1)(106;107;166;
196).
Circularponds:UsedmainlyinAsiafortheproductionofChlorella,thesepondsaremixedbya
centrallylocatedrotatingarm(similartothoseusedinwastewatertreatment).Productivities
achievedbycommercialplantsrangefrom8.5g.m2.d1to21g.m1.d1(27),withthehigher
productivitiesattributedinparttomixotrophicgrowth(asorganiccarbonisadded(113)).
Thinlayer,inclinedponds:Theseconsistofslightlyinclinedshallowtrays,overwhichaverythin
layerofalgaeflowstothebottomwherethecultureiscollectedandreturnedtothetop.High
productivitiesofupto3.1g.L1.d1(31g.m2.d1)havebeenreported(62).
1.2.7. Photobioreactors(PBRs)
Closed(ormostlyclosed)photobioreactors(PBRs)were
developedtoovercometheproblemsassociatedwithopen
Duetoitshighcost,algae
pondsystems.Theseincludecontamination,uncontrollable
productionforbiofuelsis
environments,evaporation,limitedspeciessuitability,low
notfeasiblewithartificial
volumetricproductivitiesandtheneedforlargelandareas
lighting.
(Table5).Theycanbelocatedindoorsandprovidedwith
artificiallightornaturallightvialightcollectionand
distributionsystemsoroutdoorstousesunlightdirectly.Theformeroptioncurrentlyinvolves
complexandcostlylightcollectionanddistributionsystemsortheuseofartificiallightandarenot
feasiblefortheproductionofalgaeforcommercialbioenergyapplications,hence,onlythelatter
optionsarediscussedhere(seeAppendixFformoredetaileddiscussionsonnaturalandartificial
illumination).
TubularPBRs:Severalserpentine,vertical,horizontalandinclinedtubularPBRshavebeen
designedandbuiltinthelastfewdecades(3;111;115;132;138;144;155;188).Thesesystemsincludeglassor
plastictubeswithgasexchangevesselsfortheadditionofCO2andtheoutgassingofO2,anda
recirculationpump(usingairorwater)formixing.Maximumreportedproductivitiesforhorizontal
systemsgrowingPhaedactylumtricornutumare:34g.m2(landarea).d1and2.2g.L1.d1(161),while
11

forinclinedsystemsgrowingChlorellasorokiniana,productivitiesof20.89g.m2.d1(0.67g.L1.d1)
havebeenreported(187).Sustainedaverageproductivitiesof13g.m2(occupiedlandarea).d1
(0.05g.L1.d1)havebeenreportedforcommercialscalecultivationofHaematococcuspluvialisin
25,000LhorizontalPBRs(138)(seeTable4ofAppendixFforacomparisonofproductivities
obtainedindifferentculturesystems).
Verticalbubblecolumnsandairliftreactors:ThesecylindricalPBRshavegasbubblesintroduced
atthebottomofthecolumnsandmaybesimplebubblecolumns,splitcylinderairliftsordrafttube
airlifts.Anarealproductivityof93g.m2.d1(correspondingtoavolumetricproductivityof0.64g.L
1.d1)wasreportedforP.tricornutumgrowninabubblecolumnPBR(161).Thisisahigherareal
productivitythanobtainedinacomparabletubularPBR,which,whileexhibitingahigher
volumetricproductivity(2.2g.L1.d1),exhibitedanarealproductivityofonly34g.m2.d1.
CombinedbubblecolumnandinclinedtubularPBR:ApatentapplicationsubmittedbyBerzin
(29)isforarightangledtriangularPBRwhichcombinestheprincipleofabubblecolumnwithmixing
bybuiltinstaticmixersinaninclineddowncomer.Thesystemalsohasacountercurrentofgas
toincreasemasstransfer.Gasexchangeoccursatagasexchangevessellocatedattheapexofthe
triangle.
HelicalPBRs:HelicalPBRsarecomposedofparallelsetsofflexibletranslucenttubescoiled
helicallyaroundacylindricalmeshframe.Gasexchangeisaccomplishedviaanincorporatedgas
exchangesystematthetopoftheunitandaheatexchangesystemmaybeincludedfortemperature
control.Highproductivitiesofupto113.7g.m2.d1(0.9g.L1.d1)havebeenreported(185).
FlatPlatePBRs:FlatplatePBRsaremadeofthinrectangulartranslucentboxes,whichareopenat
oneendandmayhaveribs(alveolae)runningverticallyfrombottomtotop.Aerationandmixing
areprovidedviaaperforatedtuberunningalongtheentirebottomoftheFPR(184).(92).
Productivitiesof1.09g.L1.d1(15.3g.m2)havebeenreportedwithSpirulinaplatensis(185).
1.2.8. Fermenters
Heterotrophicculture:Whilemostalgaegrowphototrophically,somearecapableofheterotrophic
growthusingorganicsubstratesasthesolecarbonandenergysources31.Thismodeofalgal
cultivationiswellestablished(7;15)andhasseveraladvantagesoverphototrophicmodesofgrowth
(Table5).Theseincludethelarge,existingfermentationtechnologyknowledgebase,thehigh
degreeofprocesscontrolforconsistent,reproducibleproduction,theeliminationoflight
requirements,theindependencefromweatherandclimaticconditions,andlowerharvestingcosts
(7;43;45).Sufficientoxygenisrequiredforthecatabolismoftheorganicsubstratesinheterotrophic
cultivationofalgae,hence,O2supplyisoftenthesinglemostlimitingfactorpreventinghighcell
concentrationandhighgrowthrate(51;133).
Generally,heterotrophiccultivationhasbeenfoundtoincreasethetotallipidcontentinalgae
comparedtophototrophicallygrowncells(117;129;177;197).InacomparisondonebyMiaoandWu(129),
heterotrophicallygrownChlorellacellsaccumulatedlipidsto55.2%ofthecellulardryweightas
opposedto14.6%inphototrophicallygrowncells.Furthermore,heterotrophiccultivationofalgae
usually(butnotalways)resultsinhigheryields32(14;67;197;203).

31Todate,themostwidelyusedsourceoforganiccarbonhasbeenglucose.However,otherorganicsubstrates

suchasacetate,fructose,citrateandethanolhavealsobeenused.

32Thishighlightstheneedforoptimizationoftheheterotrophiccultureofindividualstrainspriortomass

heterotrophicculture.

12

Table5:ComparisonofRaceways,PhotobioreactorsandFermenters(seeAppendicesF&Gfor
moredetails)

Factor
Raceway
Photobioreactor
Fermenter

Celldensityinculture
Low
Medium
High

Limitingfactorforgrowth
Light
Light
Oxygen

Culturevolumenecessaryto
High
Medium
Low
harvestaunitweightofcells

Surfaceareatovolumeratio
High
Veryhigh
Notapplicable

Controloverparameters
Low
Medium
Veryhigh

Commercialavailability
Readilyavailable Usuallycustombuilt
Readilyavailable

Constructioncostsperunit
Medium
High
Low
volumeproduced

Operatingcosts
Medium
High
Low

Technologybase
Readilyavailable Underdevelopment
Readilyavailable

Riskofcontamination
High
Medium
Low

Evaporativewaterlosses
High
High33
Low

Weatherdependence
High
Medium
Low

Maintenance
Easytomaintain Difficulttomaintain Requiresspecialized

maintenance

Susceptibilitytooverheating
Low
High
N/A

SusceptibilitytoexcessiveO2
Low
High34
N/A
levels

Easeofcleaning
Veryeasy
Difficult
Difficult(mustbe

sterilized)

EaseofScaleup
High
Variable35
High

Landrequirement
High
Variable
Low

Applicabilitytodifferent
Low
High
Low
species
Mixotrophicculture:MixotrophiccultureisanutritionalmodeinwhichphotoassimilationofCO2
andtheoxidativecatabolismoforganiccarbonsourcesproceedsimultaneously,therebyoffering
thepotentialofgreatlyincreasedproductivities.Forspeciesthatcanutilizebothlightenergyand
chemicalsubstrates,thismodeofcultivationoffersasuperioralternativetophototrophicand
heterotrophicgrowthasbothbiomassandproductivityincreaseshavebeenreported36(43;49;55;67;
197;203).Productivitiesashighas127g.m2.d1(daytime),and79g.m2.d1,(nighttime),havebeen

33WaterlossesmaybehighinPBRsifwaterspraysareusedforcooling.
34InenclosedPBRswithoutaeration.
35WiththeexceptionofverticalbubblecolumnandsometubularPBRs,itisdifficulttoscaleupPBRsandstill

maintainoptimumlight,temperatureandmixingproperties.SeeAppendixFforafulldiscussion.
36Aswithheterotrophicsystems,mixotrophicsystemsofferahighdegreeofprocesscontrol,higher

volumetricproductivitiesandalargefermentationtechnologyknowledgebase.However,andaswith
heterotrophicsystems,notallalgaespeciesareabletouseorganicsubstrates.

13

reportedformixotrophicculturesofChlorella37.Thiscomparesto35.841.4g.m1.d1obtainedin
photosyntheticcultures(112).
Aswithheterotrophicgrowth,severalauthorshavereportedchangesinthebiochemical
compositionofthealgadependingupontheculturesystem.Forinstance,whenN.laeviswasgrown
phototrophically,heterotrophicallyandmixotrophically,thepercentagesofunsaturatedfattyacids
declinedaslightlevelsdeclined(thusthevaluesoftheparametersfollowedthesequence
phototrophic>mixotrophic>heterotrophic).However,thetotalfattyacidswerehigherinthe
mixotrophicandheterotrophicallygrownalgaethaninthephotoautotrophicallygrownalgae.
1.2.9. Harvesting
Thecostsofharvestingcanbeasignificantproportionofthetotalalgalproductioncosts,ranging
from3.3%(135)to30%(83).Thisisbecauseobtainingthealgaebiomassfromtherelativelydilute
culturebrothsrequiresprocessinglargevolumesofwater.Toconserveenergyandreducecosts,
algaeareoftenharvestedinatwostepprocess.Inthefirststep,thealgaeareconcentrated,oftenby
flocculation,whichconcentratesthediluteculturestoabout15%solids.Inthesecondstep,the
cellsarefurtherconcentratedbycentrifugation,filtrationormicrostrainingtogetasolids
concentrationof1525%.(seeAppendixHformoredetail).
Flocculation:Algaecarrynegativecellsurfacecharges(78;167),which,whenneutralized,leadstothe
agglomerationofthealgaeintolargeclumpsorflocs.Theseflocscanthenbemorereadily
separatedfromtheculture.Flocculationcanbeinducedinvariousways:
Chemicalflocculation(inorganicchemicals):Algaemaybeinducedtoflocculatebytheaddition
ofinorganicchemicals,suchasaluminumsulfate(Al2(SO4)3)(alum),ferricsulfateFe2(SO4)3,ferric
chlorideFeCl3orlime(Ca(OH)2)(78;87;166),whichneutralizeorreducethenegativesurfacechargeof
thecells,causingtheformationofflocs.Therequirementforlargedosesofthesechemicalsledthe
AquaticSpeciesprogram(ASP)toconcludethatchemicalflocculationwastooexpensiveforthe
productionofbiofuels(166).Theincorporationofthemetalsaltsintheharvestedbiomassalsolimits
itsuseforhumanandlivestockfeedsandcreatesdisposalproblems(27;130).
Chemicalflocculation(polyelectrolytes):Polymericorganicflocculants38(polyelectrolytes)are
highlychargedorganicmacromoleculesoraggregatesformedinaqueoussolutionbydissociationof
chargedunitsofthesemacromolecules.Inadditiontoneutralizingthenegativechargesonalgae
cells,theyalsophysicallylinkthealgaecellstoeachother(181),thusproducingmorestableflocs.
Lowerlevelsofpolyelectrolytesarerequiredforflocculationcomparedtoinorganicchemicalsand
this,togetherwiththeirreportedlackoftoxicity39,hasmadethemamoreattractiveflocculation
option.Thecostsofusingorganicpolyelectrolyteshasbeenestimatedtorangebetween$5to$50
perton(8;165).
Bioflocculation:Somealgaewillnaturallyflocculateaftertransfertosettlingpondswhenleft
quiescentforsometime(116;135;166;195).Thisoccurrencehasbeenattributedtoenvironmental
stimuli,someofwhichhavebeenidentified,includingnitrogenlimitation,pHanddissolvedoxygen
level(27;32;109;195).BenemannandOswald(27)reportedonanefforttoestablishoperatingconditions
underwhichMicroactinumsp.culturescouldbeinducedtobioflocculatein0.1haponds.However,

37Thishighlightsanotheradvantageofmixotrophiccultures(albeitonesharedwithheterotrophiccultures):

theeliminationofnighttimebiomasslosses.
38Onlycationicpolyelectrolyteshavebeenfoundtobeusefulflocculants(27;166;167;181).
39ThishasbeencalledintoquestionasHeasmanetal.(87)reportedincreasedmortalitywhenSidneyrock

oysterswerefedchitosanflocculatedalgae.

14

relativelylittlewaslearned,andalthoughtheyobtainedhighremovalefficiencies,theauthors
concludedthattheprocesseswerestillunreliable.
Electroflocculation:Thisisacoagulation/flocculationprocesswhichisbasedonthemovementof
electricallychargedparticlesinanelectricfieldinwhichactivecoagulantspeciesareproducedby
oxidationofametalanode.Itinvolvestheapplicationofanelectriccurrenttoasacrificialanode
(usuallyaluminumoriron),whichthengoesintosolutiongeneratingmetalionswhichactas
coagulatingagentsandreleasinghydrogengasatthecathode(seeAppendixHfordetails).The
metalionscoagulatewiththealgaecellsandthebubblesproducedatthecathoderisetothesurface
takingtheflocswiththem.Electroflocculationworksirrespectiveofthesizeormorphologyofthe
algae(145;178)andaseparationefficiencyofover96%hasbeenreportedwithanenergy
consumptionof0.3kWh.m3(145).
Dissolvedairfloatation:Afterflocculation,theflocsmaybelefttosettlebeforerecoveryby
pumpingoffthesurfaceliquidlayer(sedimentation),ortheflocsmayberemovedbydissolvedair
floatation(27;34;116).Thisinvolvespressurizingsomeoftheliquidtodissolveadditionalair.Whenthe
pressurizedliquidismixedwiththealgaecultureatatmosphericpressure,theaircomesoutof
solutionasbubblesthatattachtotheflocs,makingthemfloat..
Centrifugation:Thisisawellestablishedindustrialprocessthatusesgravitationalforcetoachieve
separation.Themorphologyandsizesofthecellsbeingharvestedaffecttherecovery(andcosts)as
filamentouscellsandlargecolonialcellswillsettlemorereadilythansinglesmallercells(135).
Centrifugationisenergyintensive,withestimatesoftheenergyconsumptionrequiredforvarious
typesofcentrifugesestimatedtorangefrom0.3to8kWh.m3(130).Thehighcapitalandrunningcosts
associatedwithcentrifugeslimittheirusetosecondstagefiltrationintheprocessingofmicroalgae
forbiofuels.
Filtration:Theprincipleoffiltrationisintroducingtheparticlesontoascreenofgivenaperture
sizes.Theparticleseitherpassthroughorareretainedonthescreenaccordingtotheirsize.
Filtrationcanbeperformedunderpressureorvacuumwithenergyrequirementestimatesranging
from0.2to0.88kWh.m3and0.1to5.9kWh.m3respectively(130;167).Filtrationcanalsobecarriedout
bymicrostrainerswhichconsistofarotatingdrumcoveredbyastrainingfabric.Abackwashspray
collectstheparticlesintoanaxialtrough.Lowpowerrequirementsofbetween0.02to0.2kWh.m3
havebeenreported(22;167).Althoughthecostsassociatedwithfiltrationarelow,screencloggingand
membranefoulinglimitsitssuitabilitytolargerspeciesofalgae.
1.2.10. StrainSelection
Asexplainedinsection1.4,severaldifferentrenewablefuelscanbeproducedfromalgae,withthe
desiredendproductbeingtheprimaryfactorinfluencingthechoiceofspecies.Otherfactorsthat
shouldbeconsideredduringspeciesselectionincludegrowthrateandoptimaltemperaturerange
astheseaffecttheperformanceandproductivityofthealgaeintheproposedculturesystem(see
Table10inAppendixI).
Undernormalconditions,thelipidproductionofmostoleaginousalgaefromvarioustaxaisabout
25%ofthedrycellweight(21;91).Underconditionsofstress,suchasnutrientdeprivationhowever,
celldivisionstopswhilethecellscontinueaccumulatingstorageproductsataboutthesamerate(27;
166).Thisresultsintheaccumulationofneutrallipids(includinghydrocarbons)andincreasingthe
percentageoflipidstoaround3545%.
Theresponsesofdifferentalgae(intermsoftheirstorageproduct)tonutrientdeprivationare
variable(140),enablingthismethodtobeadaptedtowardsthegenerationofwhateverstorage
productisrequired.Forinstance,whileBotryococcusbrauniiincreaseditslipidcontentfrom46to
54%undernitrogenstarvationstress,Dunaliellasalinadecreaseditslipidcontentfrom25to9%
15

andinsteadincreasedcarbohydratesfrom16to56%(21).Thisofcourse,requirespriorscreeningto
identifyandselectstrainsproducingandaccumulatingthedesiredproduct.
Whilenutrientstarvationmayincreasethelipid(orcarbohydrate)contentofalgae,itisalso
correlatedwithadecreaseintotalcellandlipidproductivityoftheculture,andthusthereappears
tobelittlebenefitobtainedbynutrientstarvation.BenemannandOswald(27)suggestedaphased
approachwherebythealgaearegrownundernonlimitingconditionsinafirstphase,followedby
cultureundernitrogenlimiting(notstarvation)conditionsinthesecondphase.Ineffect,this
imposesagrowthratelimitonthealgaeandenablesthealgaetoaccumulatenutrientswithoutthe
resultantdecreaseinbiomassthatnitrogendeficientcultureswillface.

16

3 PotentialIssuesandBenefitsofLargeScaleCultureofAlgae
forBiofuels
Currentlythereislittlepublishedinformationontheenvironmentalandpublichealthimpactsof
algaecultivation.Assuch,forthepurposesofthisreport,whereinformationisunavailable,relevant
issuesarisingfromaquacultureoperationshavebeenused.

3.1 PhysicalEffectsofAlgaeCultivation
Space:Themainimpactofalgaecultivationwillbetheamountofspacerequiredforlargescale
facilities.ThismaybecomeseriouslyrestrictiveinareasofBCwherecompetitionforcoastaland
nearshoreresourcesintensifies.Significantissuesarenotexpectedforfacilitieslocatedonunfertile
ormarginallyproductivelands,orlandsundesirableforresidentialaccommodation.
Ecosystemdamage:Sitepreparationforpipelinesandproductionfacilitiesinvolvestheremovalof
rocks,earth,treesandvegetation.Thismayresultindamagetocoastalandterrestrialecosystems.
Aestheticimpacts:Thepotentialaestheticimpacthasdominatedmanydiscussionsaround
aquaculturedevelopment(142),andtoavoidconflictswithotherusers,plannershavehadtoensure
thatpotentialaestheticchangesareconsideredduringthedevelopmentofnewventures(58).

3.2 EcologicalAspectsofAlgaeCultivation
Potentialforeutrophication:Thepresenceofresidualnutrientsineffluentwaterscancausenet
increasesinnutrientlevelsinwatersreceivingeffluent.Whilethewiderenvironmentaleffectsare
notyetknown,eutrophicationcausedbyfertilizerrunofffromagriculturehasbeenimplicatedin
thedevelopmentofharmfulalgalblooms(6;40;74;75;97)andfishkills(73).Therefore,itislikelythat
algaecultivationeffluentswillhavetobetreatedbeforebeingreleasedtotheoceanorawaterway.
Chemicalpollution:Inlargescalealgaeculture,chemicalsanddisinfectantsareusedforthe
preventionandcontrolofdisease,watertreatment,removalofpredatorsandcleaningand
disinfectionofthecultureequipment.Insomecases,concernshavearisenoverthepotential
impactsofsuchchemicalsontheenvironmentandthehealthoffarmworkersandconsumers
Potentialforintroducingnonnativespecies:Ofpotentiallyover100,000speciesofalgae(166),
onlyahandfulhavebeenwellstudiedanddescribedandadoptedforwidespreadcultivationin
aquacultureandthehealthfoodindustry.Thishasresultedinthemovementofalgaespecies
beyondtheirnativerangesforthepurposesofresearchandproduction.Thismovementcarriesthe
riskforpotentialadverseeffectonwildspecies,eitherthroughintroductionofnewdiseasesor
competitionwithnativespecies.Thereisnoevidencethatdiseaseshavebeentransferredasaresult
ofalgaecultivation,andtheecologicalimplicationsofsuchintroductionsaredifficulttoassess.
Despitethis,thepotentialriskswarrantacarefulassessmentofpotentialimpactspriortothe
introductionofnewspecies.
Publichealthimpacts:Ifchemicalsorflocculantsareusedtoharvestthealgae,concernsarethat
thesemayremainintheresidualbyproducts,thusnegativelyimpactingthehealthoflivestock
consumingit40.Therearealsoconcernsaboutthepossibilityofchangingmicroclimates41,the

40Ifthebyproductisusedtomakeethanol,suchimpactscanberuledout.
41Forexample,theformationoffogandhazeoverlargeareascontainingclustersofalgaeponds,(orPBRs,if

waterisusedtocoolthem).Theremayalsobeglare,fromlightreflectingoffPBRs.

17

dangertowildlife(whichmayfallintoopenpondsanddrown),andthepublichealthrisksifthe
waterisnotturbulentenoughtopreventthelayingandhatchingofmosquitoeggsandlarvae.

3.3 BenefitsofAlgaeCultivation
Doesnotcompetewithfoodorfeedcrops:Unlikefirstgenerationbiofuels,thecultivationof
algaeneedsnotcompetewithfoodcropsforlandorwateras(a)landbasedcultivationdoesnot
dependonsoilfertilityandcanbeconductedonbarrenlandand(b)bothmarineandfreshwater
algaecanbecultivated,soeithersourceofwatercanbeused.Despitethis,itshouldbenotedthat
largescalecultivationwillrequiresignificantamountsoffertilizer,andthiscouldimpactthe
productionoffoodandfeedcrops.
Benefitstosmallscalefarmers:Biofuelscanbenefitsmallscalefarmholdersbygenerating
employmentandincreasingruralelectrificationandincomes.However,thescaleofthesebenefitsis
likelytoremainlimitedwithcurrenttechnologiesasalgaeproductionrequireslargeeconomicsof
scaleandverticalintegrationtobeeconomicallyfeasible(seeSection4.2).
Energysecurity:Algaeproductionforbiofuelssharessomebenefitswithfirstgenerationbiofuels,
suchasthepotentialtoincreaseenergysecuritybyreducingrelianceonimportedfuels.
Mitigationofclimatechange:AlgaearetheoreticallycarbonneutralinthattheyrecycleCO2
otherwisereleasedtotheatmosphere,ratherthanaddingCO2toit(asoccurswhenfossilfuelsare
burned).However,thispotentialneedstobeevaluatedonacasebycasebasis,asitwilldependon
theGHGemissionsassociatedwiththemodeofcultivationchosen(seeTable18).

3.4 PublicPerceptionofAlgaeCultivation
Asinotherformsofaquaculture,theestablishmentandcontinueddevelopmentofaviablealgae
biomassindustryinBCwilldependuponaccessto,andthesustainableuseof,sharedwaterand
terrestrialresources.Thelackofcredibleinformationabouthealthandsafetyissuesand
environmentalsustainabilityhavebeencitedaskeyfactorsinthelossofconfidencebycommunities
intheaquacultureindustry(118;128;146;146).Therefore,publicperceptionofthealgaeindustryasan
environmentallyresponsiblestewardwillhelpfacilitateitsestablishmentanddevelopment.This
canbeachievedbyundertakingpropercommunicationandactivitiestodemonstratetheindustrys
transparencyandconcernfortheenvironment.

18

4 Economicanalysis
4.1 AlgaeGrowthPotentialinBC
Twophototrophicalgaeproductiontechnologies,theopenracewayandtheclosedPBR,were
modeledtodeterminethemaximumyieldsachievableinBC.BothsystemsarefedwithCO2from
fluegasandaremodeledwithandwithoutsupplementaryheating.
1.2.11. AvailableSolarEnergy
Theintensityofavailablesolarenergyvarieswithlatitude,longitude,timeofyearandvarious
geographicalfactors.Whilethesolarradiationfromthesunisconstantat1,370kW.m2,because
thisisaveragedovertheearthssurface,themaximumtheoreticalsolarradiationthatfallsonthe
earthssurfaceis342.5kW.m242.Actualsolarradiationismeasuredatvariousweatherstations43
(seeFigure45inAppendixJ,foranexampleofsolarradiationandtemperaturesatPrinceGeorge,
BC,overathreeyearperiod).Astheproductivityofalgaeisdeterminedbytheavailablesolar
radiation,anunderstandingofthesolarradiationlevelsinBCisimportantindeterminingthe
potentialofalgaegrowthinBC.Figure2showsayearlyglobalradiationmapandFigure3shows
theavailableyearlysolarradiationinCanada.
1.2.12. MaximumProductivityModel
ForarealisticestimationofmaximumtheoreticalalgaeproductionpossibleinBC,animmaturity
algaegrowthmodel(AlgaeG)wasdevelopedbasedonmodificationsofthebasictheoriesdescribed
byLivansky(119).Thisisadailygrowthmodelthatcalculatesthemaximumproductivitiesexpected
inBCusingthefollowingassumptions:

Pondsareveryshallow,thusthewatertemperatureapproximatestheairtemperature.This
modeldoesnotconsiderconditionsoffrozenwater

CO2,nutrients,mixingandallotherfactors(exceptfortemperatureandsolarradiation)are
optimalforalgaegrowth

Thereisnocontaminationorcrashesofthealgaecultures

Radiationandtemperaturearetheonlyenvironmentalconditionsaffectingordetermining
algaegrowth,and

Notalloftheincomingphotosyntheticallyactiveradiation(PAR)isinterceptedbythealgae,
andtheinterceptedPAR(correspondingtoPARm)iscompletelyusedforalgaegrowthand
metabolism.

Themodelalsoincludesmanagementsubroutinestodetermineharvestdatesformaximum
biomassproductivity(avoidingnetrespiratorylosses)aswellaspredefinedharvestingscenarios
ThedetailedformulaeusedinthemodelarepresentedinAppendixJ.
ThemodelwasrunusingChlorellasp.asatestorganismattwodifferentgeographiclocationsinBC:

PrinceGeorge:middleinteriorBC:Latitude:5353.4N;Longitude:12240.8W),and

42Thiscanbereducedbyreflectionofsolarenergybackintospace,bycloudsblockingtheradiation,andby

atmosphericdustandair.

43Thisinformationisavailableindetailedminutelyandhourlydatabasesinelectronicformatfrom

EnvironmentCanadaandonlineatwww.climate.weatheroffice.ec.gc.ca/climate_normals/stnselect_e.html.

19

Nanaimo:southBC:Latitude:493.000N;Longitude:12352.200N).

Figure2:SolarRadiationAroundtheWorld(Kwhr.M2.Day1)(OKSolar(137))

Figure3:AverageYearlySolarEnergyinCanada(inMJ.m2)(NRCAN)

Foreachofthesites,thefollowingtechnologiesweremodeledunderthefollowingscenarios:
Scenario1:Openraceways:15cmdeep,with94%oftheincidentlightpenetratingthecultureand
threecircumstances:
1. Runyearroundwithnosupplementaryheat,
2. Runyearroundwithsupplementaryheat,44and

44NotethatthisoptionwasfoundnottobefeasibleinBCduetothelowwintertemperatures(seeFigure47

andTable11inAppendixK).

20

3. Runonlysixmonthsayear(midAprilmidSeptember)withnosupplementaryheating.
Scenario2:PBR:Assumedtheuseof5cmpathlengthPBRs,with90%oftheincidentlight
penetratingtheculture.ThePBRscenariowasrunyearroundassumingoptimaltemperatures.
Biochemicalcomposition:Openracewaysonlyallowcertainspeciestobegrownsuccessfully.
Thereisthereforegreatuncertaintywithrespecttothecompositionofthealgaethatcanbegrown
inopenracewaysinBC.Suchcultureswillalmostcertainlybeoverrunbynativespeciesandthis
maymeanthatonlythosespeciescanbegrowninthelongrun,withobviousimpactson
productivitiesandoilyields.Ifthisisthecase,thebiomassyieldsandoilcontentmaybelessthan
desirableforcommercialalgaeproduction.Alipidconcentrationof15%wasretainedforalgae
grownintheracewaymodel45.Incontrast,theclosed(ormostlyclosed)natureofPBRsreduces
theirsusceptibilitytocontaminationsuchthatselectedalgalspeciesthatmaynotsucceedinopen
racewaysmaybesuccessfullycultivatedinPBRs.Thisenablesthecultivationofspecieswiththe
requiredbiochemicalcomposition.Alipidconcentrationof25%wasretainedforthealgaegrownin
PBRsinthismodel.TheassumptionsofthecompositionofalgaegrowninracewaysandPBRsare
showninTable8.
Table6:PredictedAverageDailyAlgaeProductionfromBCUsingAlgaeGModeland15%Lipid46
ContentforRacewayproductionand25%LipidContentforPBRproduction.
Algaeculturesystem

Maximumalgae
Maximumalgaeoilyield

biomassyield(g.m2.d1 (g.m2.d1dryweight)

dryweight)

Location

Prince
Nanaimo
Prince
Nanaimo

George
George

Openraceway(unheated)
12months
9.38
11.40
1.41
1.71

Openraceway(heated)
12months
15.47
16.00
2.32
2.40

Openraceway
6months(April
21.60
22.89
3.24
3.43

September)

PBR(25%lipids)
12months
15.30
15.30
3.83
3.83

Algaeculturesystem

Production

period

Production

period

Location

Openraceway(unheated)
12months

Openraceway(heated)
12months
Openraceway
6month(April

September)

PBR(25%lipids)
12months

Maximumyieldof Landarearequiredfor1
biodieselfromalgae
millionlitersof

(ml.m2.d1)
biodieselperyear(Km2)

Prince
Nanaimo PrinceGeorge Nanaimo

George

1.66
2.01
1.66
1.36

2.73
2.82
1.00
0.97

3.81
4.04
1.44
1.36
4.50

4.50

0.61

0.61

AscanbeseeninTable6,operatinganunheatedpondyearroundinPGandNanaimogivesaverage
dailyproductivityvaluesof9.38and11.40g.m2.d1,respectively.Atanassumedlipidconcentration
of15%,thecorrespondingoilyieldsare1.41and1.71g.m2.d1respectively.Ifthepondswere

45InthesearchforoleaginousalgaeundertakenduringtheASP,lipidcontentofthealgaecollectedranged

from5.3%ofthedryweightto31%dependinguponspecies)(24;159;174;180;182).
46Lipidcontentusedforthetwotechnologieswere:15%fortheracewayand25%forthePBR.

21

heatedandoperatedyearround,theaveragedailyproductivityinPGandNanaimoincreasesto
15.47and16.00g.m2.d1withoilyieldsof2.32and2.40g.m2.d1,respectively.Verysimilarresults
arefoundforaveragedailyPBRproductivityinbothPGandNanaimo,althoughoilyields,at
3.83g.m2.d1,areabout60to65%higherduetothehigherlipidconcentrationinthealgaeused
(Table6).Thehighestaveragedailyproductivitiesareobtainedwhenthepondsareonlyoperated
forsixmonthsoftheyear47.Underthisscenario,averagedailyproductivitylevelsinPrinceGeorge
andNanaimowere21.60and22.89g.m2.d1,respectively.However,at3.24and3.43ml.m2.d1
respectively,oilyieldswerelowerthanobtainedinthePBRduetolowerlipidconcentrationsinthe
algaestrainsused.Thedifferencebetweenaveragedailyproductivityobtainedintheopen
racewaysduringthesixmonthperiodcomparedtothatobtainedinheatedracewayscanbe
attributedtoreducedtemperaturesandsolarradiationduringthewintermonthswhichreduces
growth48.

47RunfromApriltoSeptemberwhentemperaturesandsolarinsolationarehighest.
48MethodsthatcouldbeusedtoheattheracewayareconsideredanddescribedinAppendixJ.

22

4.2 AlgaeProductionCost
1.2.13. Introduction
Theeconomicanalysisconductedhereincludesthetwophototrophictechnologiesmodeledin
Section4.1.2,aswellastheaerobicfermenter.Whileitisoftendifficulttoderiveaccuratecost
parametersfromexistingliterature49,wherepossible,thisinformationwasused.Whereactualcost
informationwasunavailable,datafromlaboratoryscale
facilities,previousmodelingexercisesandcommercial
Althoughlargescalemicroalgalculture
facilitiescultivatingalgaefornonenergypurposeswas
hasnowbeenundertakenforover40
used.Carewastakentoupdateolderdatato2008
years,ourexperienceisstilllimitedtoa
dollarswitha2%annualinflationrateandtocorrectly
fewspecies,andevenforthese,our
transferdatabasedonspecificproductivitiesand
understandingoftheirbiologyand
proximatecomposition(i.e.literaturecostdatacan
ecologyisstillveryincomplete.
rarelybetransferredasitisgivenintheoriginal
source).Thecostparametersusedareessentially
(Borowitzka(37))
agnosticofthealgaespeciestobeused,butcertain
designassumptionsmayexcludesomestrains50.
Theconceptspursuedbydifferentgroupstodayarevariedandstressdifferentfactors,suchasyield,
finalproduct(ethanol,biodiesel,biogas,etc.)andplantdesign(openpond,PBR,fermenter,ormixed
concepts).Therefore,todeterminethecostofalgaecultivationandbioenergyproducts,generic
plantconceptsweredevelopedforeachofthethreetechnologies.Thesewerethenusedto
determinetheinfluenceofcostparameters,suchasbiomassyield,lipidcontent,operationalcosts,
energyuseandotherfactors.
1.2.14. OpenRaceways
Landcosts:RecentlistingsontheMLSwebsiteshowthatintheBCinterior,agriculturallandcanbe
purchasedforaslittleas$500perha,withpropertytaxesaslowas$1,000peryear(31).Inthe
LowerMainland,agriculturallandpricesrangefrom$40,000to$120,000perha,whileinthe
Okanaganvalleypricesrangefrom$37,000to$94,000perha(124).Thesehigherlandpricesare
unsuitableforlargescalealgaeproduction.Acostof$2,000perhawasusedforthebasecase
model,whichassumesalargealgaeproductionplantwith400haofponds51.
Racewaydesign:Manysites,especiallyintheBCInterior,featuretillorsandyground.Theyare
thereforeunsuitableforunlinedracewaysandassuch,constructioncostsforlinedracewayswere
used52(37).Itisimportanttonotethattheselandscapingcostsassumeflatterrain,asaslopeof1%
requiresearthworksandthussignificantlyincreasescosts(byover$5,000perha(26)).
Capitalcosts:Severalstudiesandcompanieshavedevelopeddetailedcostdatafortheproduction
ofalgalbiomassinopenponds.Benemannetal.(28)calculatedproductioncostsofabout$100t1of

49Algaecostdatacanvarybyordersofmagnitude,rangingfrom$0.20(27)toseveralhundreddollarsperkg
(35).
50Forexample,Isochrysisgalbanacannotbegrowninopenculturesforextendedperiodsoftime(27),while

otherspeciesmayrequiredesignfeaturesdifferentfromtheonesusedinthegenericlayout.
51Additionallandwillbenecessaryforharvestingfacilities,oilextraction,ancillarybuildingsand

infrastructure.However,becauselandpricesarenotamajorfactorinthebasecase,thisisinsignificant.

52Inadditiontoclay,BenAmotz(20)hassuggestedthatpondscouldbelinedwithsalt.Notehowever,thatthe

useofsaltlimitsonetocultivatingonlyalgaethatcantoleratehighsaltlevels.

23

drybiomassforverysimpleunlinedpondssituatednearbyafluegassourcewithcoveredlagoons
todigestwastematerial.InIsrael,algaeproducerNBTLtd.givesproductioncostsof$340pertonne
(excludingcapitalcostandoverheads)fortheiropenpondswithaconcretebasin,inwhichthe
biomassisharvestedthroughautoflocculationandtheCO2isderivedfromthefluegasofanearby
coalplant(19).Borowitzka(37)reportsdetailedcosts,amortizedovertwelveyearsforcultivation
equipmentandsixyearsforharvestingequipment,ofUS$8.88.kg1($8,880pertonne)forraceways
withharvestingbyflocculationandcentrifugation.
Table7comparesthedatafora400haracewaysystemdevelopedinBenemannandOswald(27)to
thegenericmodelinthisstudy.Toreflectthelowerinputcostsfortheloweralgaeproductivityof
9.38g.m2.d1inthebasecase,costswerereducedby60%forparameterssensitivetoyields(CO2
use,centrifugation,nutrientsandwastetreatment).Whereassumptionswerereplaced,thedata
sourceislistedinthelastcolumn.Backupgeneratorswereadded,assumingacostof$1.W1anda
needof18kWperha.
Table7:CapitalCostParametersfora400haRacewayAlgaeProductionPlant

Parameter
Benemannetal(28) Thisstudy
Source
$perha(400haalgaeculturefacility)

Sitepreparation,grading,compacting
2,500
3,171

(37)
Pondlevees,geotextiles
3,500
150,000(lined)
Borowitzka

Paddlewheels
5,000

CO2supplyanddiffusers
10,000
12,682

Settlingponds
7,000
8,878

Flocculation,centrifugation,oil
14,500
18,390

extraction

Water&nutrients
5,200
6,595

Wastetreatment
1,000
1,268

Buildings,road,drainage
2,000
2,536

Electricityinfrastructure
2,000
2,536

Backupgenerators

18,000
Seetext

Instrumentation,machinery
500
634

Land
2,000
2,000

Subtotal
55,200
226,690

Engineering&contingency(15%)
8,280
34,004

TOTAL
63,480
260,694

Annualcapitalcost
9,522(15%)
36,497(14%) Tampieretal.(175)
Inoculumcosts:Producinginoculumtoinitiateandrestartalgaepondculturescanbeamajorcost
factor,withestimatesofupto10%oftotalproductioncosts(27).However,whetherornotinoculum
isnecessarydependsonthetypeofalgae.Forexample,Spirulinaisgenerallycultivatedwithout
producinginoculum,whileDunaliellarequiresinoculumthatcanbeproducedinopenpondsand
ChlorellarequiresinoculumproducedinPBRs.Forthisstudy,itisassumedthatthealgaespecies
useddoesnotrequiresseparateonsiteproductionofinoculum.
Algaespecies:AsexplainedinSection4.1.2,onlycertainalgalspeciescanbegrowninopenponds,
andengineeredorotherwiseselectedspeciesmaynotsucceed.Thebasecasecompositionofalgae
isgiveninTable8.Asensitivityanalysisisconductedattheendofthischaptertoexaminethe
impactofalgaewithdifferentbiochemicalcompositions.

24

Yields:Intheirstudy,BenemannandOswald(27)assumeayieldof30g.m2.d1.Thishasbeen
correctedto9.38g.m2.d1forthisstudy,basedontheBCmodel.Theseloweryieldswillhavean
impactonseveralotherparameters,suchasfrequencyofharvestingandfertilizeruse.
Harvestingcosts:At$1,000to$1,500perdrytonneproduced,centrifugationisclearlytoocostly
asaprimaryharvestingmethodforalgaebiofuelproduction.However,itcouldbeusedasa
secondarysteptoincreasesolidscontentto20%estimatedtocost$15to$20pertonne(27).
Table8:AssumptionsontheCompositionofAlgaeGrowninRaceways,Bioreactorsand
HeterotrophicFermenters

Parameter
PercentageofDryMatter

RACEWAY
BIOREACTOR FERMENTER

Oil
15
25
50

Protein
25
25
10

Starch
40
30
20

Nitrogen
5.5
5.5
5.5

Phosphorous
1.1
1.1
1.1
Oilextractioncosts:BenemannandOswald(27)proposedthat,insteadofdryingthealgae,oil
extractionbecombinedwiththeconcentrationstepthroughcentrifugation.Similartoexisting
technologyusedforextractingbetacarotene,thealgaemassisintroducedintohotoil,andisthen
separatedbycentrifugeintowater,oilandalgaecake.
WastewaterTreatmentcosts:Thereislittlepublishedinformationonwastewaterdischarged
fromalgaeplants.However,itislikelythatsomepretreatmentwillberequired53.Anindicationof
potentialcostsperliterisdevelopedinthesectiononheterotrophicfermentationbelow.Previous
researchhasdemonstratedthatareductioninnutrientrequirementof16%andwatersavingsof
63%canbeachievedbyrecyclingthemediumaftereachalgaeharvest(120).Iftheculturemediumis
reusedseveraltimeswithoutpretreatment,yieldsmaydecreaseduetoaccumulationofinhibiting
substancesanddissolvedorganicmaterialfrompreviousbatches.Therefore,acomplete
replacementofthemediummaybenecessaryatleastperiodically.Pretreatmentoftheused
medium(usingforexampleactivatedcarbonorexpandedclay)mayalleviatethisproblem.
Howeveritisunclearwhetherthecostswillbecounterbalancedbythesavingsinfertilizerand
wateruse.
Fertilizercosts:Agriculturalfertilizercostshaveincreasedrapidlyoverthepasttwoyears.Diand
monoammoniumphosphatepricesincreasedfrom$272pertonnein2007to$1,230pertonnein
April2008(85),whileureacosts$400pertonne.AssumingcellNcontentof5.5%andPcontentof
1.1%ofdryweight(37),fertilizercostswillbejustover$2,500perha,peryear54.Thisisincreasedto
$3,000toallowforadditionalinputsofmicronutrientssuchasironandvitamins.Whilethereare
claimsthatNOxinfluegascanactasanitrogensource(19;20),thiscouldnotbeconclusivelyproven
(204)andisnotincludedintheanalysis.Norecyclingofthealgaebiomassisassumedasthealgae
cakewillbesold(seebelow).

53Largescalealgaeplantsmaybeinsettingswithoutaccesstosewagesystems,ortheamountsdischarged

maybetoogreatforthelocaltreatmentplant.Thisaspect,however,wasnotinvestigatedastreatmentcosts
areasmallercomponentthanothercosts,suchaslabour.

54Basedonalongtermstabilizedpriceof$1,000pertonneoffertilizerandanassumedyieldof9.38g.m2.d1.

25

Carboncosts:Only2.5tonnesofalgalbiomassperha,peryear,canbeproducedwhenusing
atmosphericCO2asthecarbonsource(26),whileforsaltwater,43tonnesperha,peryearcanbe
grownduetoitsalkalinityandpH55.Forthisreason,acontinuoussupplyoffree56CO2isassumedto
besuppliedfromfluegas.Inaddition,asmallamountoforganiccarbonwillbesuppliedfrom
recycledmediumordigestereffluent.
Powercosts:BenemannandOswald(27)calculatedtotalpowerdemandof44,154kWh.ha1.yr1or
1,472MWhpermonth(equivalentto2,000kVA)fora400haplant.InBC,tariffsforlargeindustrial
usersareaslowas2.5centsperkWh(upto90%ofbasedemandwiththeremaining10%charged
at$0.074.kWh1),plusademandchargeof$5.kVA1ofbillingdemand.Thiswouldcorrespondtoa
$10,000monthlyloadcharge($300.ha1.yr1),plus$1,324inannualpowercostsperha57.
Labourcosts:TheassumptionsoflabourcostsinthesourcepaperweremodifiedbasedontheNBT
case,whereeightworkersarerequiredfora10hectareracewayplant(0.8employeesperha)58(19;
20).Onecompanythatprovideddataforthisstudyreportedemploying1.2workersperhaof
raceways,or0.67perhectareoffootprint(about1workerperhaoffootprintusingthesame
relationasusedinBenemannandOswald(27)).Assumingsomeeconomiesofscaleforasystemwith
400haofponds,0.5workersperhaareusedinthebasecase(seeAppendixMforamoredetailed
descriptionoftasksinanalgaeplant).Thecostof$40,000perworker,peryearused,isassumedto
alsocoverbasicoverheadcosts,suchasadministrativepersonnel,butnotR&D.
OperationalcostparametersderivedforthisstudyarecomparedtotheestimatesofBenemannand
Oswald(27)inTable9.Costparametersdependentonyieldshavebeenreducedproportionately
fromtheestimatesmadeinBenemannandOswald(27),whichwerebasedonayieldof30gramsper
squaremeter,perday,aftercorrectingthecostto2008dollars.Thiswasappliedtoflocculants,
nutrientsandwastedisposal.
Algaecakerevenue:ThemarketvaluesofdistillersgraininIowa(56)wereusedtoestimate
correspondingvaluesforsellingalgaecakeasaproteinsource(asanimalfeed)(Table10),instead
ofdigestingit59.PricingfordistillersgrainisgiveninUSdollarspershortton,whereasthevalueof
algaecakeisgivenindollarspermetrictonne.Whilethesevalueswouldbereducedif
transportationisrequired,forthisanalysis,itisassumedthatthealgaecakecanbeusedlocally.
AsshowninTable11,thealgaecakemayalsobesoldforitsstarchcontentforinstance,toan
ethanolproducer.CornpricesinCanadawerearound$200pertonnein2008(1).Basedonstarch
content,thevalueofalgaecakeforethanolproductionmaybeslightlyhigherthanitsvaluefor
animalfood.However,actualpricingwilldependbothonthespecificmoisturecontentandprotein
content60.

55Thewaterwould,however,havetobereplacedeachdayasthecarbonisdepleted.
56Apartfromcostsassociatedwithdistributionandpumping.
57Theauthorsleftoutthepowerconsumptionrequiredforharvestingforthecaseusingfluegas,whichseems

inconsistentandwasthereforecorrectedhere.

58Thiscomparesto0.5employeesperhainaquaculture(100)and9employeesperhainBCsgreenhouse

sector(notincludingpacking(124)).
59Distillersgrainfromcorncontainsalmostnostarch(whichisusedforethanolproduction)andsomeoil,

whereasalgaecake(fromwhichoilhasbeenextracted)containslittleoilandsomestarch.
60Ifalgaeisgrowninsaltwater,thismayimpactitsvalue.Washingthecaketoremovethesaltandthen

passingitthroughafilterpressorcentrifugeasecondtimeappearstobecostprohibitive.Saltmayalso
reducethealgaesdigestibility.However,thequestionofwhethersaltiscompatiblewithanimalhusbandryor
ethanolproductionwasbeyondthescopeofthisstudyandwasnotexaminedfurther.

26


Table9:AnnualOperationalCostParametersfora400haRacewayAlgaeProductionPlant

Parameter
Benemannetal.(27)
Thisstudy
Source

30g.m2.d1
9.38g.m2.d1
$perhaperyear(400haalgaeculturefacility)

Power,mixing
700
1,600
BCHydro(10)

Power,harvesting,processing
500

Power,watersupply
570

Power,fluegassupply
1,000

Power,other
100

Nutrients(N,P,Fe)
900
3,000
Seetext

CO2
7,400
0
Fluegas

Flocculant
1,000
396

Labour,overhead
3,000
20,000
Staple(171)

Wastedisposal
1,000
423

Maintenance,tax,insurance(5%
3,170
13,035

capitalcost)

TOTALoperationalcost
19,340
38,454

Yield

Table10:DistillersGrainandAssumptionsonAlgaeCakeValue

Valueperton
Protein
Starch
Oil
Moisture

Distillers
Distillers

Grain(wet) Grain(dried)

$40
$132

15%
30%

~0%
~0%

6%
11%

60%
10%

Algaecake,

(wet)

$15*

6%

10%

0.50%

80%

Algaecake,

(dried)

$115*

26%

41%

2%

10%

Table11:CornPricingandAssumptionsonAlgaeCakeValue

Corn
Starch
Algaecake

(wet)

Valueperton
$200
$760
$30*

Protein
7.70%
0.10%
6%

Starch
62%
88%
10%

Oil
3.30%
0%
0.50%

Moisture
15%
12%
80%

Algaecake

(dried)

$130*

26%

41%

2%

10%

*conservativelyestimatedbasedonproteincontent

*conservativelyestimatedbasedonstarchcontent

1.2.15.

Photobioreactors

Capitalcosts:Benemann(25)reportscostsofover$1millionperha($100.m2)forPBRsinSpain,
GermanyandIsrael,(asopposedtocostsofaround$100,000.ha1($10.m2)foropenponds).The
DutchcompanyAlgaeLink,sellsatubularPBRpilotplant(48m2)for69,000,or$2,100.m2(4)a
27

numberthatcanserveasanupperlimit,butwhichisclearlyunrealisticforalargescalealgaefarm.
Dmitrov(60)estimatedtheminimumcostsforaGreenFuelstypePBRat$190.m2,whileGreenFuels
themselvesestimatedcapitalcostsat$125$150.m2(59).Althoughconsideredoptimisticallylowby
someindustryexperts,thishigherestimateof$150.m2isusedforthegenericbasecasePBR61.
Inoculumcosts:Similartothecasedevelopedfortheopenracewaysabove,itisassumedthatthe
algaespeciesuseddoesnotrequireseparate,onsiteproductionofinoculum.
Algaespecies:AsdescribedinSection4.1.2,asaconsequenceoftheclosed(ormostlyclosed)
nature,selectedspeciescanbegrowninPBRsenablingthecultivationofspecieswiththerequired
biochemicalcomposition.ForthegenericbasecasePBRplantconsideredinthisstudy,thealgae
compositionassumedisshowninTable8.Asensitivityanalysisisconductedattheendofthis
chaptertoexaminetheimpactofalgaewithdifferentbiochemicalcompositions.
Yields:Ayieldof15.3g.m2.d1hasbeenassumedbasedontheresultsfromthealgaeproductivity
modeldevelopedforthisstudy.Theseloweryieldswillhaveanimpactonseveralotherparameters,
suchasfrequencyofharvestingandfertilizeruse.
Harvestingandextractioncosts:RecoveryofaunitweightofbiomassfromPBRscostslessthan
inracewaysduetotheirhighervolumetricconcentrations.Assuch,harvestingcostsareassumedto
besimilartothatofthesecondstageusedforopenracewaysasdescribedintheprevioussection
i.e.$500perhaforelectricityforcentrifugation62,andnoextracostforflocculants.Actual
harvestingcostsdo,however,dependonstrainmorphologyandharvestingefficienciesby
centrifugationcanvarybyordersofmagnitude(seeAppendixHforamoredetaileddiscussion).
Wastewatertreatmentcosts:Asdiscussedabove,wastewatertreatmentmayberequiredforthe
algaeplant.TherearemorerestrictionsonwastewaterreuseinaPBRcomparedtoopenraceways
becauseoftheneedtoavoidcontamination.Hencepretreatmentofthewastewaterpriortoreuse
isessential.Anindicationofpotentialcostsperliterisdevelopedinthesectiononheterotrophic
fermentationbelow.
Carboncosts:Similartothecasedevelopedfortheopenraceway,acontinuoussupplyoffree63CO2
isassumedtobesuppliedfromfluegas.
Powercosts:Considerableenergyisrequiredtopushthethickmedia(causedbyhighercell
densities)againstthefrictionobtainedinthenarrowchannelsofmostPBRs64.Currently,mixing
energyequivalenttoabout1030%oftheincomingsolarenergyissaidtoberequiredinsome
cases,whichismuchmorethanthealgaewouldactuallyproducefromsunlight.Onepercentis
currentlydeemedfeasibleonlyinthinlayerPBRs(164).Withanaverageinsolationof3kWhper
squaremeterperdayinBC,this1%correspondsto0.03kWhperdayor109.5MWhperha,per
(365day)year65.Keepingallotherpowerinputsequalasfortheracewaysystem,overallpower
consumptionincreasesto143MWhperha,peryear(equivalentto6,514kVApermonthfora
400haplant).Counting2.5centsperkWh(upto90%ofbasedemand,remaining10%chargedat
$0.074.kWh1),plusademandchargeof$5perkVAofbillingdemand,monthlyloadchargecosts
amountto$32,648.40($977.h1y1),plus$4,280.00inannualpowercostsperha.

61Forcomparison,theBCgreenhouseindustrylistscapitalcostsof$250.m2(124).
62Capitalcostsforthecentrifugeareassumedtoalreadybeincludedinthetotalcapitalcostsestimatedabove.
63Apartfromcostsassociatedwithdistributionandpumping.
64PBRsaregenerallynarrowpanelsortubestomaximizethesurfaceareatovolumeratios.
65Thiscontrastswithamixingenergyof11MWhperhectareassumedaboveforpaddlewheels(basedon

BenemannandOswald(27)).

28

Coolingcosts:Cooling,whichwilllikelyberequiredduringthewarmsummerperiod,canbe
achievedwithwaterorthroughairconditioningandwillincreasecapitalcostandelectricity
consumption.Forthisanalysis,itisassumedthatthesecostsaresufficientlycoveredinthecost
parametersused.However,theneedforcoolingevenintemperateclimates(65;122)underlinesthe
factthatthecostparametersusedherearefairlyoptimistic.
Cleaning:Overtime,lightpenetrationintoPBRsisreducedduetoadherenceofalgaecellstothe
internalsurfaces.Hence,periodicalcleaningisrequired.Replacingtheculturesfromtimetotimeis
alsonecessaryinordertomaintainoptimumyields,orduetocrashescausedbyexhaustionof
culturenutrients,invasionofbacteriaorothercontaminants.Cleaning,whichisexpectedtooccur5
6timesayear(65),canbedifficultinmanyPBRs66andcouldleadtointerruptionsofuptotwodays
eachtime.
Table12:CapitalandOperationalCostParametersfora400haBioreactorAlgaeProductionPlantin
BC

Parameter
Value
Source

Yield
15.3g.m2.d1
Thisstudy
$perha,year(400hasystem)

Capitalcost
1.5million
Dmitrov(60)

Annualcapitalcost(14%)
210,000
Tampieretal(175)

Power,mixing
5,257
Powercostsincreased(see

text)
Power,harvesting,processing
Power,watersupply
Power,fluegassupply
Power,other

Nutrients(N,P,Fe)
5,106
Proportionatetoyield

CO2
0
Fluegas

Flocculant
0
notrequired

Labour,overhead
40,000
Labourincreased(seetext)

Wastedisposal
846
2xraceway

Maintenance,tax,insurance(5%capitalcost)
75,000

TOTALannualoperationalcost
126,209

TOTALannualcosts
336,209

Labourcosts:Dmitrov(60)estimatedlabourcostsof$1.33.m2($13,300.ha1)foraGreenFuelsPBR
plant.ConsideringtheincreasedcomplexitiesofPBRs,salariesmayevenbehigherforaPBRplant
thanforanopenracewayplant.MolinaGrimaetal.(130)listslabourcostsfora26tonneperyear
PBRas1.2fulltimepositions,atacostof$70,000.Assumingproportionalitybasedonannual
production,thepresentcase(56tonnesperha,peryear)wouldthenrequireabout2.4fulltime
peopleperha67.Assumingthatsignificanteconomiesofscalewillbederivedfromthelargersizeof
themodeledplant(400ha),labourrequirementsweresetat1personperha,atacostof$40,000
perposition.Again,thiscanbeconsideredaveryoptimisticscenarioandactuallabourcostsmaybe
muchhigher.

66DuetothenarrowopeningsinshortpathlengthPBRs.
67ThiscomparesfavourablywithexistingPBRsproducingbiomassforfoodorcosmeticproducts,whichcan

employupto17workersperha(65).

29

1.2.16. Fermenters
Capitalcosts:In1995,MartekBiosciencesacquiredafermentationplantinWinchester,KYwitha
capacityof1.2millionlitersofoilfromalgaeforUS$10million(33)($13millionin2008dollars).
Assumingthefermentersareusedat80%of
capacityandthatcultivationofonebatchtakes
Althoughgooddesignandconstruction
sevendays(50weeksperyear),withanalgae
practicesdomuchtoavoidan
1
biomassconcentrationof50g.L andanoilcontent
unnecessaryinflationofcosts,aplant
of50%,about1.4millionlitersofoilcanbe
designedforsterilefermentationis
producedperyear(acommercialfacilitymay
significantlyandunavoidablymore
produce200millionlitersormore).
expensivethannonsteriledesigns,such
Capitalcostsmayalsobeestimatedfromthoseofan
asusedinethanoldistilleries.
ethanolfacility.Whilecostsperannualliter
Grapes(79)
producedinatypicalethanolplantisabout$0.70
(82),themoresophisticatedlignocellulosicIogen
processisexpectedtohavecapitalcostsof$2perliter.Giventhatasterilefermenterismore
complexandcostlythanconventionalethanolproduction,thecostperliterofoilproducedis
assumedtoequalthatofalignocellulosicplant.Thiswouldbeequivalentto$2.8millionforthe
Martekfermenterdiscussedhere.
Yield:IncontrasttoracewaysandPBRs,theyieldfromfermentersisbetterexpressedasgramsper
liter,perday.Algaecelldensitiesofupto51g.L.d1havebeenobtainedinsevendaycultures(117;201),
andupto116g.L.d1havebeenreportedbyothergroups.Whileevenhighercellconcentrationsof
302g.L.d1havebeenachievedbyTheriault(179)inmixotrophiccultures,forthebasecase
fermentationscenariodiscussedhere,ayieldof50g.L.d1isconservativelyassumed(alsoconfirmed
in(7;14)forMartekoperations).Thisisbecauseilluminationmaynotbeusedtosavepowercosts
anddifferentalgaestrainswithdifferentgrowthratesmaybeused.Inaddition,antibiotics,
vitamins,planthormonesetc.mayhavetobeaddedtoachievethehighestyields.Abalance
betweenincreasingyieldsandreducingthecostofprocessinputsmustthereforebefound.
Lipidcontent:Asdescribedinsection2.2.3,heterotrophicallygrownalgaegenerallyexhibithigher
lipidyieldscomparedtophototrophiccultures.Alipidcontentof50%isassumedforarealisticbase
case(Table8).
Harvestingandextractioncosts:foreaseofcomparison,itisassumedthatthesameprocessas
fortheracewayandPBRprocessesisusedtoextracttheoil,i.e.hotoilextractionfromanalgaecake
bycentrifuge.Theoilisthensoldtoaseparatebiodieselproductionfacility.
Wastewatertreatmentcosts:Afermentermustreplacethegrowthmediumaftereachbatchto
maintainsterility.Itcanbeassumedthatthealgaewillonlyuseabout95%ofthecarboninthe
growthmedium,leavingsomeBODtobetreatedinthewastewater.1.07gramsofoxygenis
requiredtotransformonegramofglucosetowaterandcarbondioxide(stoichiometriccalculation).
Assumingthat5gramsperliterofglucoseremainunoxidizedinrejectedmedium,thiswouldbe
equivalentto5.35gramsofoxygendemand.Thisisroughlytentimestheamountusuallytolerated
forsewersystems,i.e.anadditionalfeeapplies.TheCityofPrinceGeorgecharges$0.5756per
kilogramofBODabove500ppm(0.5gramsperliter).Theplantissupposedtoproduce50batches
of960,000litersperyear,or232,800kgofBODabovethe500ppmlimit.Thewastewater
treatmentcostwouldthusbe$134,000peryear,or$0.10perliterofoil.Notethatsemicontinuous
operationsmayonlydischargesomeofthespentmedium,i.e.thisestimateshouldrepresentthe
upperlimitofwastewatertreatmentcosts.

30

Organiccarbonsourcecosts:Behrens(14)presentedsubstratecostsat$0.67perkg,andLietal(117)
usedsubstratecostsof$0.55perkg($1.09perliterofalgaloilproduced).Theseauthorsfurther
suggestedthatcostscanbereducedby40%whenusingstarchandcellulosehydrolyzedsolutionor
6070%byusingcellulosesolutiononly.Therefore,inthebasecase,itisassumedthatcostscanbe
cutbyatleast50%,thisresultsinacostof$0.55perliterforoil.Costscouldbereducedfurtherifa
nocostcarbonsourcecanbeused,suchassugarywastefromsoftdrinkproduction.Theoretically,
thecostofthecarbonsourcecouldevenbecomenegative,i.e.thealgaeoperationcouldobtain
revenuefromtreatingthewastewater.Sincethealgaewill,however,notuseupallcarboninthe
medium,itislikelythatwastewatertreatmentcostsareonlyreduced,noteliminated.Norevenueis
thereforeassumedforusingorganicwastestreamsforthealgaeoperation68.
Powercosts:Thecostofelectricityusedprovidedinthesourcepaper(117)wasnotbrokendown
intoitsenergyunits,hence,acorrectioncouldnotbemadeforwhatthatsameamountofelectricity
wouldcostinBC69.
Labourcosts:Grapes(79)assumesaminimumoftenstaff(twoadministratorsplusfourshiftsof
twopeople)fora4,500tonnesperyearbutanolproductionfacility.Thisassumptioncanbeusedas
themaximumforthealgaefermenterwithamuchlowerproduction.At$40,000perworker,labour
costequals$0.29perliter.
1.2.17. AnaerobicDigestion
Severaloptionsareavailabletointegrateanaerobicdigestionintoanalgaebiomassplant:

Growingandharvestingalgaebiomasstofeedadigesterthatproduceselectricityor
biomethane:thisoptionisnotfeasibleinBCaselectricityproductionfromagricultural
digestersisuneconomicatcurrentpowerprices(9)andbiomethaneproductionwouldbarely
breakeven,evenwithagatefeeof$20to$30pertonneoffeedstocks(11).Usingalgaeina
digestermayalsorequiretheadditionofanothermaterial,suchaswastepaper,toachievean
optimalCNbalanceinthesubstrate.Sincealgaecannotbegrownforfree,thisoptionis
currentlyunfeasible.

Insteadofsellingthealgaecake,itcouldbedigested:Again,electricityproductionwould
generatenegativereturns,andproducingbiomethanewouldatbestbreakeven.Furthermore,
savingsonfertilizercostthroughnutrientrecyclingaresomewhatlowerthanthevalueofthe
cake(Table14),andassuch,thisoptionisalsoruledoutforeconomicreasons(sincesellingthe
cakeisthemoreattractiveoption).

BenemannandOswald(27)suggesteddigestionoftheresidualbiomassafteroilextraction,with
thedigestereffluentthenbeingreintroducedintothealgaepondstoreducefertilizer
requirements(estimatedtobeby75%forNand50%forP)70.Onekgofurea(46%N)is
assumedtocost$0.40andonekgofdiammoniumphosphate(52%P)$171.Table14clearly

68Theorganiccarbonfromthewastestreamwouldalsohavetobeconcentratedbeforeuseandthecostsof

concentrationandtransportationwouldlikelynegateanyrevenuethatmaybeobtainedfromreducingthe
organicloadinginthewastestream.
69ElectricitycostsinBCareexpectedtobelowerthanreportedbythesourcegiventhelowercostsof

electricityfromBCHydro.
70However,recyclingofalgaebiomasscanleadtobacteriatakingoverthecultures,asexcessorganic

nutrientsfromthedigesterortheaccumulationofbyproductsmayinhibitcellgrowth(120)inthepondsafter
sometime.

71Thevalueofnitrogencontainedinphosphatefertilizerwasdeductedfromthephosphatefertilizercostin

thetablebelow.

31

showsthatthevalueislowerthanthatfordriedalgaebiomasscakeestimatedabove.Similarly,
thenutrientsintheeffluentcreatedbythecentrifugesorintheharvestingpondsmaybe
recycled.However,theaccumulationofinhibitorysubstancesandbacteriacausedbyorganic
materialfromthedigesterwillrequiretheexchangeofthemediumfromtimetotime.
Therefore,overallsavingsareunlikelytowarranttheconstructionofadigester.
Table13:CapitalandOperationalCostParametersforAlgaeProductionthroughHeterotrophic
Fermentation(1,200m3fermenter)

Parameter
Value
Source

Oilyield
50%
Seetext

Cellconcentrationatharvest
50g.L1
Seetext

Capitalcost
$2.8million
Seetext
$perliterofoil

Power
0.73
Lietal.(117)

Steam
0.34
Lietal.(117)

Asepticair
0.16
Lietal.(117)

Inorganicchemicals(potassium)
0.08
Lietal.(117)

Carbonsource
0.55
Lietal.(117)

Flocculant
0
Notrequired

Labour,overhead
0.29
Seetext

Wastewatertreatment
0.1
Seetext

Maintenance,tax,insurance(5%capital
0.1

cost)

TOTALannualoperationalcost
2.35

Revenuefromsellingalgaecake
0.05

Annualcapitalcost(14%ofcapitalcost)
0.28
Tampieretal.(175)

TOTALannualcosts
2.58

Table14:FertilizerCostandAssumptionsonAlgaeCakeValue

Fertilizercost
Algaecake(dryweight)

N
$870pertonne
6.5%*

P
$1,740pertonne
1.3%*

Value

$79pertonne

NutrientRecycling

75%

50%

$54pertonne

*afteroilextraction,assumingoilmainlycontainscarbonandhydrogen

1.2.18. Discussion
Costdatareportedintheexistingliteraturevarybyordersofmagnitude,andcanrangefrom$0.20
perkg(27)ofalgaetoseveralhundreddollars(35),dependingonclimate,species,growingsystems
andotherconditions72.

72Assuch,thisdatadoesnotanswerthequestionisalgaeproductionfeasibleinBC?Butratherunderwhat

circumstanceswillalgaeproductionbeeconomicallyfeasibleinBC,andcanthesecircumstancescanbe
created?Thishasbeenachievedbyidentifyingthemaincostparametersandminimumperformancecriteria
requiredtomakealgaeproductioneconomicallyfeasibleinBC.

32

showsthecostparametersforthethreealgaecultivationtechnologies73.Noneofthethreebase
casescancurrentlycompetewithfossildieselprices.Witharawbiomasscostof$2.66kg1,the
racewayestimate(basedonayieldof9.38g.m2.d1),whilelowerthansomeandhigherthanother
estimates(Table16),isfartoohightoproducebiodieselsincetheresultingoilprice(at15%oil
content)is$14.44perliter.Thebiomassproductioncostsarealsomuchhigherthanforcorn($0.20
perkg)andwoodybiomass($0.10perkgwhenharvestedfromtheforest;lesswhenresidues)in
BC.
Table15:ComparisonofBaseCaseCapitalandProductionCostsforThreeAlgaeProduction
Technologies

Raceway
Photobioreactor
Fermenter

InitialInvestment($.L1)
52
111
2

ProductionCost
($perliterofoilproduced)

Labourcost
$4.03 26.69% $2.96
11.90% $0.29 10.88%

Otherproductioncost
$3.71 24.59% $6.37
25.59%
$2.06 78.45%

Capitalcost
$7.35 48.71% $15.56 62.50%
$0.28 10.66%

TotalCost
$15.09

$24.89

$2.63

Creditfromthesaleofalgae $0.65
cake*
Nettotalcost
$14.44

Lipidcontent
15%

Costperkgofalgae
$2.66

$0.29

$0.05

$24.60

25%

$7.32

$2.58

50%

$1.54

*Assumesthatthealgaecakeissoldtoanethanolproducerforitscarbohydratecontent

Despitethehigheroilcontentof25%,thecostofproducingalgaebiomass($7.32kg1)andoil
($24.60perlitre)areevenhigherwhentheyareproducedinthePBR.Thisresultisindependently
confirmedintheliterature(41;150;172).Ofthethreetechnologies,heterotrophicfermentationappears
tobethemostpromisingtechnologywiththepriceoftheresultingalgaeoilbeingclosesttocurrent
fossilfuelcostsat$2.58perlitreofalgaeoil74(witharawbiomasscostof$1.54kg1).Thisresultis
verymuchinlinewithothersourcescitingacostof$2.01perlitre(14)and$1perkgofbiomass(150)
forheteotrophicallyproducedalgaeandalgaeoil.Furthermore,heterotrophicfermentationisalso
independentofclimaticconditions,becauseitiscarriedoutinclosedvessels,andmayberealizedat
asmallerscalethanracewaysorPBRs.
Table16:BiomassCostComparisons
Source
Lee(114)
Benemannetal.(28)
BenAmotz(19)
Behrens(14)

Comments
Actualexperience

$815.kg1 Commercialracewayfacilities

$5.kg1
Smallscale,incl.drying(EarthriseFarms)

$17.kg1
OpenracewaysinIsrael,saltwater,pureCO2

$2.01.kg1
Heterotrophicculture
Cost

73Theseresultsshouldbeseenasestimates,asexactcostswilldependheavilyoneachparameter.
74Evenifthecarbonsourceismoreexpensivethaninthebasecase,thereisstillroomforimprovementin

termsofhighergrowthratesandpossiblyevenhigheroilcontent.

33

Source
GladueandMaxey75(71)
Sheehanetal.(166)
BenemannandOswald(27)
Benemann(28)
MolinaGrimaetal.(130)
Chisti(46)
Lietal.(117)
Dmitrov(60)
Barclayetal.(8)

BenAmotz(19)
RadmerandParker(150)
Thisstudy

Cost
Comments
Theoreticalscenarios

$12.kg1
Heterotrophicculture,N.alba

$0.371.16.L1 OpenracewaysinsouthwesternU.S.;1995dollars

$0.2.kg1
Largeunlinedracewayponds(400ha),30g.m2.d1

$0.1.kg1
Largenaturalpond;nodrying;waterandnutrients,CO2

consideredfree;highproductivity(33g.m2.d1)

$32.kg1
Tubularbioreactors;pureCO2

$0.47.kg1
Photobioreactors.AssumesCO2isavailableforfree,

10,000tonsofbiomassperyear

$0.60.kg1
Racewayponds(10,000tonsperyr)

$2.40.L1
Vegetableoilextractedfromheterotrophicallycultured

algae,50%lipidcontentindrymatter

$5.36.L1
Costofbiodiesel,usingGreenFuelTechnologiesdesign

$1.63.kg1
OpenracewaysinVacaville,California,4hapondwith
productivityof370tonsperyr.Harvestingby

flocculationandcentrifugation.

$2.37.kg1
OpenracewaysinVacaville,California,4hapondwith
productivityof220tonsperyr.Harvestingby

flocculationandcentrifugation

$0.34.kg1
OpenracewaysinIsrael,saltwater,fluegas(capitalcosts

notincluded)

<$1.00.kg1 Biomassfromheterotrophicallygrownalgae

$2.66.kg1
Largelinedracewayponds(400ha),9.38g.m2.d1

$14.5.L1

Individually,themostimportantcost,contributingalmosthalfoftotalcostsfortheracewayand
twothirdsforthePBR,iscapitalcost76.However,forfermentation,thesecostswerethelowestof
allthreeatonlyonetenthoftotalcosts.At27%ofthetotalcosts,labourisamuchmoreimportant
factorinracewayoperationthanidentifiedinpreviousstudies77.Whileincreasedautomationmay
helpreducelabourexpenditures,thedailyrequirementsforpondevaluation,determinationof
residualnutrientlevels,mixing,measurementsandaugmentationofnutrients,adjustmentofflow
rates,cleaning,maintenanceandharvestingmakethereductionpotentiallikelytobeinsignificant.
ForPBRsandfermenters,thelabourcostsweresimilarandmuchlowerthanforraceways,at12%
and11%,respectively.
Atabout25%oftotalcosts,theotherproductioncostsobtainedinbothracewaysandPBRsinBC
(withoutlabourandcapitalcosts)arestilltoohighforphototrophicalgaeproductiontoachieve
priceparitywithconventionaldiesel.Assuch,theseoptionscanberuledoutaseconomicallynon
feasible,evenwithgenerousassumptionsaboutfuturecostreductions78,Theseotherproduction

75Theauthorsdonotprovideacostcalculationbutinsteadrefertotextbooksastheircostinformationsource.
76Whilesignificantwhencomparedtootherstudies,theracewaycapitalcostestimateisbackedupbyother

sources,andwascorrectedupwardsinordertoallowforlinedponds.

77Algaeproductionisalabourintensiveactivity,andtheassumptionsofrequiringatleastonefulltime

workerpertwohaforgrowingandharvestingwasderivedfromtheIsraelicompanyNBTandasecond
(anonymous)company.
78Thisisalsoreflectedintheveryhighinvestmentcostper(annual)literproduced,whichisameasureoften

usedbythebiofuelsindustry.

34

costsformthebulkofthecostsassociatedwithheterotrophicproduction,atover78%ofthecosts.
However,giventhehigherproductivityandoilyieldsobtainedwithfermentativelygrownalgae,
totalproductioncostswerestilllowerthanobtainedwhenthealgaeweregrowninracewaysor
PBRs.
1.2.19. SensitivityAnalysisandMinimumPerformanceLevels
Whereasthereisuncertaintyaroundsomeoftheparametersusedabove,some(suchaslaborcosts,
fertilizercostsandcapitalcosts)areunlikelytochangesubstantially,evenwithincreased
knowledge,andthusgeneralconclusionscanbedrawnfromthisanalysis.
TheparametersusedforthedifferentscenariosinTable17,arebasedonthemaximumpossible
yieldsexpectedfromphototrophiccultivationofalgaeinBC(showninTable6).Usingthese
scenarios,Figure4compareseconomicperformanceofvarioustechnologiesindifferentscenarios
andwithdifferentoilcontent.
Basecases:AsdescribedinSection4.1.2,theyieldpredictionsinTable6arethemaximumyields
thatcanbeexpectedinracewaysandPBRsinBCwheneveryparameterisoptimal(otherthansolar
insolationandtemperatures).Fortheraceway,amixofwildalgaespeciesthatoccurinBCis
expectedtobegrown79anditisnotheated,thereforeyieldingverylittlebiomassduringthewinter.
ThePBRisheatedduringthewinter(ideally,usinghotfluegas)anditisassumedthatahighoil
yieldingalgaespeciesisisolatedandgrowninthePBR.Thefermenterisreasonablyexpectedto
yield50g.L1afteroneweek,withanoilcontentof50%.AswasalreadyshowninTable15,noneof
thetechnologiesisabletoproduceabiofuelinBCthatcancompetewithcurrentfossilfuelprices.
Table17:ParametersUsedforDifferentScenarios
Technology
Raceway

PBR
Fermenter

BaseCase
Unheated
raceway(run
yearround)
Location:Prince
George
9.38g.m2yr1
15%oil
15.3g.m2yr1
25%oil
50g.L1;
50%oil

Scenario2
Scenario3
Scenario4
Heatedraceway Unheatedraceway Unheatedraceway(runApril
(runyearround)
(runAprilto
toSeptemberwithhalfthe
September)
capitalcostsofScenario3)
Location:Prince
Location:
Location:
George
VancouverIsland
VancouverIsland
15.47g.m2yr1
22.89g.m2yr1
22.89g.m2.yr1
15%oil
15%oil
30%oil
15.3g.m2yr1; 6,000gal.ac1yr1
n/a
35%oil
Ethanolsecretion
100g.L1;
n/a
n/a
60%oil

Raceway:Operatingaracewayduringwintermonths,whentemperaturesandsolarinsolationare
toolow,makeslittlesenseasyieldsdroptozero.Therefore,Scenario2reflectsaheatedracewayin
PrinceGeorgethatmaintainsoptimaltemperaturesthroughouttheyear.Assuch,yieldsaresimilar
tothePBR,althoughalgaeoilcontentremainslower,andthecostofthealgaeoilproductionisstill
toohightocompetewithfossilfuels(Figure4).Inanattempttoimproveonthissituation,Scenario
3assumesaseasonaloperationonVancouverIsland,fromApriltoOctober,whenyieldsarehighest.
Underthisscenario,averageyieldsaremuchhigherthantheyearroundheatedoption,butwhile
theoperatingcostsarelower,oilproductioncostsarestilltoohightocompetewithfossilfuels.The
lastscenario,Scenario4,assumesthatitispossibletogrowaspecificalgaespeciesthatyieldstwice

79Asaconsequenceofitsopennature.

35

theoil(30%),andthatcapitalcostscanbehalvedbyleavingouttheliner80.However,onceagain,
evenwiththisoptimisticscenario,theproductioncostsarestilltoohigh,at$2.65perliter(Figure
4),tocompetewithfossilfuels.81
PBR:Whilethebasecaseassumesthatanalgaespecieswith25%oilcontentisgrown,Scenario2
representsaPBRgrowingaspecieswithanoilcontentof35%,achievedthroughspeciesselection82
ornutrientlimitation.Underthisscenario,productioncostsarestilldominatedbycapitalcostsand
thehigheroilyieldsarestillinsufficienttoreducecostsenoughtocompetewithfossilfuels.
Scenario3assumestheproductionof6,000gallonsofethanolperacre,peryear83inamore
southernregion84.Inthisexample,itisnotknownhowtheethanol,whichisexcretedbybluegreen
algae,isseparatedfromthemedium,andassumingenergyintensivedistillation,productioncosts
wouldincreasewelloverbasecaseassumptions.Thecapitalcostswereassumedtobethesameas
forotherPBRs,andtheresultingcostperliterofethanol(evenwithoutdistillationcosts)isstill
prohibitivelyhighat$5.87perliter(Figure4)85.
Fermenter:Despitehavingthelowestcostsofallthreebasecases,fermentationproductioncosts
arestilltoohightocompetewithfossilfuels.However,becausealgaeoilcontentcanbehigherthan
50%(upto70%hasbeenreportedintheliterature),a60%oilcontentwasassumedforScenario2.
Moreover,thegrowthratecouldbeincreasedandyieldsofmorethan100gL1havebeenachieved
inlaboratories(200).Usingtheseparametersforthisscenario,thecostofoilisreducedto$1.54per
liter(Figure4.).Whilethisisstillmoreexpensivethanforexamplecanolaoil86,thiscomesmuch
closertowhatisneededtocompetewithfossilfuels.

80I.e.theracewaywouldhavetobeonclayoruseclayorsaltastheliner,whichissometimessuggestedinthe

literature.
81InregionswithhigherinsolationandlowerlabourcostthanBC,itmaybepossibletoreduceproduction

costsfurtherifallotheruncertaintieswithopenracewayscanbecontrolled.
82Whilevaluesofuptoandexceeding50%havebeensuggestedintheliterature,theseareconsidered

unrealistic.Thisisbecausetheyareeitherbasedonspeciesbeingsubjectedtonutrientstarvationwhere,as
describedearlier,theincreasedoilproductionoccursattheexpenseofproductivity(therebymakingno
differenceinfinaloilyield),orslowgrowingspecies.

83AccordingtotheAlgenolwebsite,fortheirDirecttoEthanolprocess(5).
84Thisprovidesanideaofproductioncosts,basedonindustryyielddata,foraprocessthatdoesnotfocuson

biodieselorbiocrudeproduction.
85Increasingtheyieldto10,000gallonsperha,peryear,apotentialindicatedbytheproducer(5),doesnot

remedythissituation.
86IncludedforcomparisoninFigure4.

36

$30.00
Costperlitreofalgaeoil
$25.00

Costperkgofalgaebiomass

$24.60

$20.00
$17.60

$15.00

$14.44

$10.00

$8.24

$7.64

$7.32

$7.32
$5.87

$5.00
$2.66

$2.65
$1.57

$1.46

$2.58
$1.02

$1.54

$1.54 $1.11

$0.88

$0.35

$0.00
RW,Base
RW,
RW,
RW, PBR,Base PBR,35% PBR, FER,Base FER,100 Canola
Case
heated summer summer,
Case
oil
(ethanol) Case g.L1,60%
(PG) only(V.I.) 25%oil,
oil
50%CC
RW:Raceway;PBR:Photobioreactor;FER:Fermenter

Figure4:
CostperkgofAlgalBiomassandperLitreofOil/EthanolProducedUsingDifferent
SystemsandDifferentScenarios.
1.2.20. Conclusions
Fromtheaboveeconomicandsensitivityanalysis,thefollowingconclusionscanbedrawn:

RacewayscannotcurrentlyproduceoilatcompetitivecostsinBC.Evenwhenassuminga
yieldof20g.m2.yr1andanoverlyoptimisticoilcontentof50%,productioncostsarestill
around$2perliter.However,racewaysmaybeabletoproduceoilatcompetitivecostsin
areaswithhigherinsolationandlowerlabourcosts.

PBRsareunabletoproduceoilatcompetitivecosts;thisismainlyduetotheveryhigh
capitalcosts87.Evenifthesecostsarereducedfrom15%to8%(fullyfinancedbyabank
loan),thiswillnotreducecostsenoughtoachieveparitywithfossilfuels.Basedonthis
finding,PBRsareunsuitablefortheproductionoflowcostproductsfromalgae.Instead,
theywillremainrestrictedtotheproductionofhighervaluecosmetic,food,orhealth
products.

87Assumingacostof$1.5millionperha(acostdeemedlowbymany),capitalcostsalonearebetween$3and

$5perliterofoilproduced.

37

38

Fermentersappeartobethemostpromisingoptionforproducingalgaeoil.However,before
algaefermentationcanbecomecommercial,moreR&Disrequired.Thismustaddressissues
relatedtooptimizationofoilcontentandbiomassyields,andthepossibilityofsubstituting
cheapercarbonsourcesforthoseoftenusedcurrently,suchasglucose.

Algaecultivationisbynomeansasimpleprocess,andasampleofquestionsthatneedstobe
successfullyansweredisgiveninAppendixL.

5 EnergyandGHGBalance
5.1 ComparisonofResultsforBC
Table18showstheenergyandGHGbalancesofthethreebasecases.Thisassessmentisnotan
accuratelifecycleanalysis,butitdoesprovideageneralpictureoftheenergyandGHGperformance
ofeachprocess.Foreachliterofbiodieselconsumedinplaceoffossildiesel,emissionsof3.3kgof
CO2areavoided.
Forthefermenter,apowerpriceof6perkWhisassumed.Thenaturalgasrequirementfor
fermentationwasapproximatedbyconvertingthecostestimationsfromtheeconomicanalysisin
Chapter4directlyintonaturalgasuse,assumingapriceof$8perGJ.ThisisconvertedtoGHGby
assumingemissionsof50kgperGJofnaturalgas.Gridemissionsfromelectricityconsumptionin
BCarecalculatedas50kgCO2perMWh(190).
Fertilizerenergywasestimatedas22.3MJperkgofureaand13.2MJperkgofdiammonium
phosphate(DAP)(89),assumingaminimumuseof109gramsofureaand48gramsphosphateperkg
ofdryalgaebiomassalowestimate,sincethisisbasedoncellNandPcontentandassumesthat
100%ofthefertilizerinputisactuallyusedbythealgae.Nonutrientrecyclingisassumed.GHG
emissionswerecalculatedas732gramsofCO2perkgofurea(55gramsNinonekgofalgae)and
894gramsofCO2perkgofDAP(11gramsofPinonekgofalgae).Theenergybalanceassumesan
energycontentof37MJperliterofalgaeoil.Thecarbonsourceforthefermenterisassumedtobe
carbonneutral.Noenergyconsumptionwasattributedtothisfeedstock,althoughthiswouldhave
tobedoneifitisnotawastestream.TheanalysisissplitintoaGHGbalanceandanenergybalance.
FortheGHGbalance:
AssumptionsusedfortheGHGbalanceestimates:

Emissionsarecalculatedbasedonassumptionsforelectricityandnaturalgasuse(firstline)
andindirectemissionsfromfertilizeruse(secondline).

AGHGcreditisassumedfortheagriculturalinputsforcorncultivation,whichisdisplaced
bythealgaecakeusedinethanolproduction.Thiscreditisbasedontheinputstogrowcorn
withequivalentstarchcontent88(1.9MJor190gramsofCO2foronekgofcornwith60%
starch)(176).

Thestarchcontainedinalgaecakeafteroilextractionisassumedtobeusedforthe
productionofethanolasdescribedinChapter4,andtheenergygainedandGHGemissions
reducedarethereforecreditedtothealgaeoilproduced.Fortheethanolcredit,ayieldof
400litersofethanolper600kgofstarchisassumed,atanethanolenergycontentof29.7MJ
perkg(176).Theenergyrequiredtoproduceethanolfromstarchissubtractedfromtheresult,
basedonGHGeniusdata.

GramsofCO2displacedrepresentsthefossildieselfuelthatisreplacedbybiodieselfrom
algae,andthelastlineshowsthenetGHGdisplacementafterallprocessemissionsare
deductedandcreditsareadded.

TheenergybalanceisstructuredinthesamewayastheGHGbalance,exceptthattheenergyratio
representsthevalueobtainedwhentheenergyintheoilandanyenergydisplacedfromother
processesaredividedbytheenergyconsumedwhenproducingalgaeoil.

88Theseinputsareavoidedasnocornproductionisnecessaryifstarchfromalgaeisusedforethanol

production.

39

TheresultsshowthatinBC,allthreealgaeproductiontechnologiesreduceGHGemissionsandhave
apositiveenergybalance.Incomparison,cornethanolandbiodieselfromcanolaoilhaveanenergy
ratioofaround289,andethanolfromswitchgrassdeliversanenergygainofaround1020%(176),
whichcanbeimproveduponthroughtechnicalinnovation90.Theenergybalancebasecaseforalgae
productionthroughheterotrophicfermentationissimilartothatofcanolaandistherefore
comparablewithexistingbiofueloptions.
Table18:EnergyandGHG(CO2)BalanceperLiterofOilProduced

Raceway Bioreactor Fermenter

DailyBiomassyield(dry)
9.38g.m2
15.3g.m2
50g.L1

Oilcontent
15%
25%
50%

Starchcontent
40%
30%
20%

Electricity(kWh.L1/MJ.L1)
8.9/32.0
10.6/38.0
2.4/8.8

NaturalGas(MJ.L1)
0
0
8.5

Fertilizer(MJ.L1)
20.4
12.3
6.1
CO2Balance(Gramsperliter)

GramsofCO2emitted
444.6
528.3

FertilizerCO2losses
818
491

CornCO2credit
844
380

EthanolCO2credit
3,215
1,447

GramsofCO2displaced
3,300
3,300

CO2Balance(g.L1)
6,097
4,108

245

127

482

3,300

3,117

EnergyBalance(MJperliter)

Totalenergyconsumed
52.4
50.3

Cornenergycredit
8.4
3.8

Ethanolenergycredit
46.7
21

Energydisplaced
37
37

Energybalance(MJ.L1)
39.7
11.5

Energyratio
1.76
1.23

23.4

1.3

37

21.9

1.93

547

Whenthecornenergycredit91iscomparedtotheenergyusedtogrowthealgae,itbecomesclear
thattherelativelylowenergyratioforphototrophicallygrownalgaeinracewaysdespitethehigher
yieldpersurfaceareacomparedtofieldcrops,isaconsequenceofthemuchgreaterenergyinput
requiredforalgaecultivation92.Thishowever,isonlyvalidforthelowarealyieldsestimatedtobe
achievableinBC.Increasingtheyieldto20gramspersquaremeterforracewaysincreasesthe
energyratiotoabout2,similartoalgaefermentationortheconventionalcorntoethanolprocess.If
higheroilcontentisassumedforthephototrophicallygrownalgae(25%forracewaysand35%for
photobioreactors),theenergybalanceisnotsignificantlyincreasedforthePBR,andactually

89I.e.foroneunitofenergyinput,twounitsaregained.
90Suchasreplacingdistillationwithmembraneseparation.
91Whichreflectsthe(avoided)agriculturalinputsforcornthatwouldhavebeenusedinethanolproduction.
92Currently,theenergyneedsforcontinuousmixing,pumping,harvesting,andCO

arehigh.

40

2insertioninalgaecultures

decreasesfortheracewayandtheGHGbalanceforbothsystemsisdeceased,becausetheethanol
yieldwouldbereduced.Thisresult(notshown)illustratestheimportanceofthisbyproductinthe
overallprocess.
Thecarboncontentofdryalgaebiomassandofstarchisapproximately50%,thusabout1.7kgof
corn(60%starch)wouldhavetobeusedtogrow1kgofalgaeinfermenterswhenusingstarchasa
carbonsource.Includingthecornproductionenergyusedintheenergybalanceforheterotrophic
fermentation(i.e.thecarbonsourceisnolongerassumedtobeawastestream,whichismorelikely
forlargescaleoperations),reducestheenergybalancebyabout5.5MJ.L1,thatis,itisstillstrongly
positive
Lookingattheenergybalanceanotherway,fermentationusingcornstarch(asatheoretical
example)canbecomparedtousingcornstarchdirectlytomakeethanol.Table19comparesthese
processesintermsoffuelyieldsandenergybalanceusingthefuelyieldparametersforeachprocess
intheupperhalfofthetable.Thelowerhalfcomparesthenetenergyyieldforconventionalcorn
ethanolproductionandthealgaefermentationbaseandenhancedcasesdescribedintheprevious
chapter.Thefunctionalunitistheenergyobtainedinthefuelproductobtainedforeachkgofstarch
feedstock.
Thebasecasescenarioshowsnoadvantageofalgaetooilovercorntoethanol,buttheenhanced
case,whichassumestwicetheyield(100g.L1)perbatchanda60%oilcontent,hasanalmost
fourfoldenergyyieldcomparedtocornethanol.Alargescaleplantmayalsoproduceitsownstarch
fromalgaecake,suchthatlesscornisrequiredasasubstrate.Thetotalarealfootprintofsuchan
operationwouldthusbelargerthanphototrophicalgaeproduction,butsmallerthanproducing
ethanolfromcorn.Notethatthissimplecalculationdoesnotincluderespiratorylosses,i.e.the
higheryieldscenarioisdefinitelyrequiredtoobtainanadvantageoverfirstgenerationbiofuels93
Table19:TheoreticalEnergyComparisonBetweenCornEthanolandHeterotrophicallyProduced
AlgaeOil

FuelYield

Starchethanolyield
0.67litersperkgstarch

Starchoilyield,fermentationbasecase
1.18litersperkgstarch

Starchoilyield,60%oilinalgae
1.41litersperkgstarch

Energy,MJperkgstarch
InProduct
ProductionLoss NetEnergyGain

Cornethanol
20
10
10

Fermentationbasecase
44
36
8

Fermentation,enhanced
52
14
38
Algaeoilproductioncanbecomparedtotheproductionofoilfromcanola,usingascenario
previouslyanalyzedbasedonGHGeniusdataforthePrairies.Thisinformationisrelevanttocanola
productionintheclimateinnortheasternBC,whichisthemostlikelylocationtogrowagricultural
energycrops.Anoilyieldofaround470literscanbeexpectedforonetonneofcanolaoilseed
harvested,and1.3tonnesofoilseedisharvestedfromeachhectareofland(176).Thiscorrespondsto
anarealoilyieldofonly0.11g.m2d1,butyieldsanenergyratioof2.3.
Moreimportantly,forallthreeprocesses,theGHGbalanceassumestheuseofBCHydrogenerated
electricity,whichisalmostentirelyproducedwithlowemissionhydropower.Indirectemissions

93Relevantbecauseifalgaeistobeusedasanenergyfeedstock,theenergyratiomustbeatleastasgoodas

conventionalbiofuelfeedstocks.

41

fromelectricityusewouldbeamultipleofwhatisusedaboveinmanyotherjurisdictions94.For
example,agridemissionfactorof500kgCO2.MWh1(tentimeshigherthantheoneusedforBC,
reflectingahighshareofcoalbasedpowergeneration)wouldreduceGHGbenefits.Also,the
primaryenergyconsumptionwouldincreasebecausepowergenerationbasedonfossilfuelsisonly
4050%efficient.Fortheenergybalanceabove,akWhwasconvertedtoMJatthenominalfactorof
3.6MJperkWh,whichdoesnotaccountforthewayelectricityisgenerated.Iftheelectricityusedis
madefromcoalat40%conversionefficiency,theenergybalancebecomesnegativeforthetwo
phototrophicprocessesanddropsto8.7MJ.L1forfermentation.Electricitycouldbeproducedfrom
algaecake,insteadofusingittomakeethanol;however,evenif100%oftheelectricityneedscould
bemet,theenergybalanceislessfavourablethanwhenthecakeisusedtomakeethanolfromits
starchcontent.
Comparingtheenergyproductionbyalgaefarmingtocoaltoliquidtechnology,whichcanproduce
abouttwobarrels(318liters)ofFischerTropschdieselpertonneofcoal,providesanillustrationof
analternativeprocessthatcanusecoaltodirectlycreatealiquidfuel.Atonneofblackcoal(at20
MJ.kg1)producesuptotwoMWhofpower,whichwouldyieldabout200litersofalgaeoilina
raceway(at10g.m2d1),plus190litersofethanol95,lesstheapproximately500kWhenergyneeded
toproducefertilizer,approximately25%ofthefuelyield.Takingtheenergyvalueofalgaecake
intoaccount,itappearstobeaslightlybetteroptiontoproduceliquidfuelsthancoaltoliquid,at
leastfromanenergeticperspective,andespeciallysoforregionswithhigherarealyieldsthanBC.
ForPBRsandraceways,thelowalgaeproductionyieldsexpectedinBCdictatethattheenergy
balanceisonlyslightlypositiveandthereisnosubstantialenergygainfromtheprocess.Theenergy
balancethereforeshowsthatphototrophicalgaeproductionispreferablysituatedinmoresouthern
areaswithhigherinsolation.

5.2 ComparisonofBCAnalysiswithotherGHGandEnergyBalance
Estimates
Chisti(47)calculatedtheenergyratioofalgaeoilgrowninracewaysinthetropicstobe2.8.He
assumedanoilcontentof20%,abiomassconcentrationof1%(1kg.m3)andaproductivityof
25g.m2.Hefurtherassumedthatharvestingisbyacombinationofsedimentationandcontinuous
vacuumbeltfiltration(insteadofenergyconsumingcentrifugation),andthat500m3ofbiogasper
drytonneisgeneratedthroughanaerobicdigestion.Theassumedbiogasyieldmaybecorrect,but
consideringthattheoil,(whichcontributessignificantlytothebiogasyield)hasbeenextracted,a
morerealisticextrapolationwouldbearound250m3(2).Refiningbiogastopipelinestandards,
currentlytheonlynearcommercialoptioninBC,wouldrequireabout0.3kWhofelectricityper
cubicmeterofbiogas(11),resultinginamethanegaswith36MJheatcontentpercubicmeter.The
energycontentofbiogasvarieswithmethanecontent,whichmaybeupto65%;however,assuming
50%methane,theestimatedenergyvalueis18MJ.m3,notthe25MJusedbyChisti.Table20
illustratesarevisedenergybalance,basedontheassumptionof20%oilcontentandadaily
productivityof10and25g.m2forBCandtropicalenvironments,respectively.Valuesforthe
TropicshavebeenmodifiedfromChisti(47)asdescribedabove.Constructionandenergyembodied
inequipment(includedbyChisti)isleftoutoftheenergybalance.

94Ifelectricityweregeneratedusingfossilfuelsources.
95Net,afterdiscountingtheenergylosttoproducetheethanol.

42

Table20:
RevisedEnergyBalanceforRacewayCultivationofAlgaeinBCandtheTropicsUsing
AlternativeEnergyParameters
Parameter
Dailyyield

Tropics
25g.m2

BC
10g.m2

Oilcontent

20%
20%
EnergyBalance(MJperkgofoil)
Cultivationenergy
8.77
21.9
Harvestingenergy
0.3
0.3
Fertilizerenergy
14.12
14.12
Oilrecovery
3.17
3.17
Energyforbiogasproduction
0.88
0.88
Energyforbiogaspurification
1.08to2.16
1.08to2.16
Energyinalgaeoil
37.8
Energyinbiogas
18to36
(basedon4kgofdrybiomassperkgofoil)
Energybalance
27.48to44.4
14.35to30.27
Energyratio
2.03to2.51
1.35to1.74
Chistiusesaharvestingandcultivationenergyrequirementofonlyabout12MJperkgofoil(about
10.3MJ.L1).Giventhattestingwithpaddlewheelsresultedinapowerrequirementof100kWhper
hectare,perday(at30cm.s1)96,aminimumof36,000kWh(130GJ)isrequired.Basedonayieldof
18tonnesofoilperhectare(25g.m2,20%oil),thisis7MJperkg.EnergyforCO2supplies,
harvestingandoilextractionhastobeadded.Theenergytooperatethepaddlewheelincreases
exponentiallywithspeed,i.e.itisonly10%at15cm.s1.Thisessentiallyleavesalotofroomfor
uncertaintiesaroundthisparameter,sinceasmallreductioncanyieldsubstantialenergysavings.
Thegeneralassumptionof30cm.s1forracewaystokeepthealgaesuspendedisused.
Chistisassumptionsonenergyuserequireshalfoftheenergyuseforcultivationandharvestingin
BC,showingtheuncertaintyaroundthisparameter.TheresultsforBCremainfairlylow(maximum
74%energygainifanoilcontentof20%canbeachieved)anddonotdiffermuchfromtheresults
obtainedinTable18.IncontrasttotheBCsituation,thereispotentialtoatleastdoubletheenergy
returninregionswithhigherinsolation.
Benemannetal.(26)calculatedenergyusebasedonprimaryenergyconsumption(2,150kcal.kWh1)
andarrivedat1,335kcalpergramofbiomass(assumingabiomassproductivityof22.5g.m2d1,
andthatcarbonissuppliedbyfluegas).Atanoilcontentof15%,thiscorrespondstoenergyuseof
37MJperliterofoili.e.asmuchasiscontainedintheoilproduced.Theseauthorsanalysis
assumedahighdegreeofnutrientrecycling.Notethatatlowerproductivities,energyconsumption
perliterofoilincreasesasthesamedegreeofmixingisstillneeded.BenemannandOswald(27)
foundapositiveGHGbalance(2,800g.L1ofoil)evenwiththeuseofcoalgeneratedelectricity(grid
emissionfactor:880g.kWh1),buttheyassumeahighyieldof30g.m2d1andassumethatthe
digesterwillproduceenoughelectricitytoexporttheexcesstothegrid.Thebasisofthisestimateis
a50%lipidcontentofalgaecellsandahighelectricityyield97.
Fromthelittleanalysisthatcanbefoundintheliteraturesofar,theredoesnotappeartobeany
indicationthatthedatadeterminedforBCinTable18areunreasonable.Specificprocesseswill,

96SeeSheehanetal.p.157(166).
97Aconversionefficiencyof25%yieldsaround30%lesselectricitythanclaimedintheirstudy.

43

however,differinthedetailsandtechnologypromoterswillcertainlycomeupwiththeirown
energybalancesastheyapproachmarketreadiness.
Basedontheprecedinganalysis,thefollowingobservationscanbemade:

Phototrophicalgaeproductioninracewaysrequiresahighyield(15g.m2d1ormore)to
reachanenergyratioof2untilbiomassoilcontentexceeds15%.

ProducingethanolfromalgaecakeyieldsmoreenergyandGHGreductionsthanconversion
tobiogas.

Assumingaconversionefficiencyfrombiogastoelectricityof20%,itmaybepossibletouse
theresidualbiomasstogenerateenoughpowertooperatetheplant(Table20),butahigh
biogasyieldofaround500m3pertonneofcakewouldberequired.

AllthreealgaetobiofuelprocessesyieldGHGbenefits.Howeverthecurrentassumption
thattheGHGbenefitsarisefrombothalgaloilandfromtheconversionofalgalstarchto
ethanolmeansthathigheroilcontentdoesnotnecessarilyincreaseoverallGHGbenefits
sincecorrespondinglylessethanolwillbeproducedfromthealgaecake.

Algaeproductioninareaswithhighsolarinsolation,appearstobeamoreefficientoption
forliquidfuelproductionthancoaltoliquidtechnology.However,thiswouldalsohaveto
competeonacostbasis(coaltoliquidtechnologyisgenerallyquotedascosting$50per
barrel).

Theenergybalanceforafermentationsystemissuperiortothetwophototrophicoptionsin
theBCcontext,evenwhenthecarbonsourceisnotawastestream.

5.3 CarbonCapturePotential
UseofatmosphericorfossilfuelderivedCO2hastheadvantageofreducingtheinputcostsof
microalgaecultivationanditopensthedoorforalgalbiomassproductionforcarboncaptureand
sequestrationaspartofaGHGreductionstrategy.Algaeculturehasthepotentialforsimultaneously
capturingatmosphericorfossilfuelderivedCO2andproducingausefulproduct,decreasingcarbon
capturecosts.ThehighgrowthratecoupledwiththeabilityofalgaetodirectlyutilizeCO2fromflue
gases(19;29;44;63;98;141)hasledtoalgaebeingconsideredforbiofixationofCO2followedbyeither
longtermstorageinsoilsoroceans(sequestration)orforlowcarbonfuelproduction(23).Whilethis
approachhaspromise,theuptakeofCO2bysuchculturedmicroalgaewillnotbeconstantasCO2
uptakevariesdiurnallyandseasonallyinphototrophicsystems:uptakeoccursonlyduringtheday
andmoreCO2willbefixedduringactivegrowthinsummercomparedtowinter.
Currently,thecostofexistingCO2capturetechnologiesrangesfromaround$40pertonofcarbon
forburialinsalineaquifers(IPCC)toabout$150pertonofcarbonusingamineabsorbersand
cryogeniccoolers,whichismuchtoohighforcarbonemissionsapplications(61).Whenexistingcoal
plantsareretrofittedwithcarboncaptureandstoragecapabilitytheestimatedincreaseinpower
generationcostsisbetween2.5and4centsperkWh.
Inviewoftheinterestandpotentialutilityofalgaecultureforcarboncapture,apreliminary
calculationofthecostswasconductedusingourbasemodelscenario,runningfor6months98.As
seeninTable21thecurrentcostofproducingalgaeforcarbonsequestrationinBCis$793per
tonneofCO2.Notethatthiscalculationonlyconsidersthecarbonfixedinthealgaebiomass;fulllife
cyclecarbonlossesduetoelectricityandfertilizeruse,etc.andothercostssuchastransportation

98Adetailedanalysisofcarboncaptureandsequestrationisbeyondthescopeofthisstudy.Interestedreaders

aredirectedtoanexcellentoverviewbyBenemannandPedroni(22).

44

anddeepburialwouldhavetobeincluded,whichwillincreasethecostpertonne.Thiscostis
prohibitivelyhigh,abouttwentytimeshigherthantheestimatedcostofburyingCO2underground,
andatleastoneorderofmagnitudehigherthanthecostofthefuel,indicatingthatatthispoint
carboncaptureusingalgaeisnotcosteffectiveinBC.
Table21:EstimatedCostsForCO2SequestrationusingAlgaeGrownforSixMonthsperYearInBC
(excludescostsoftransportationanddeepburial)
CO2Sequestration(excludesburial)
Algaecost
Production(6months)
CO2
Costofsequestration

45

$60,302.ha1
41,202Kg.ha1
76tonnesofCO2
$793.t1ofCO2

5.4 PotentialtoMeetMandatedBiodieselLevelsinDieselBlendsinBC
InfulfillmentofcommitmentsmadetorenewablefuelsintheBCEnergyPlan,releasedonApril17,
2008,theBClegislaturepassedBill162008GreenhouseGasReduction(renewableandlow
carbonfuelrequirements)Actwhichmandatestheinclusionoffivepercentrenewablefuelsinall
dieselandgasolinesoldinBCby2010.Fordiesel,thisequatestoanapproximatedemandfor183
millionlitersofbiodieselinBC.
UsingthemaximumproductivitymodeldescribedinTable6,raisingalgaewith15%lipidcontent
andaproductivityof22.89g.m2.d1(4mloil.m2.d1),inracewaysforsixmonthsoftheyearrequires
1.36km2ofpondareatoproduce1millionlitersonVancouverIsland(Table6).Therefore,a
racewaysystemoperatingfor6monthsoftheyearwouldrequireapproximately(1.36)(183)=249
km2(24,900ha)toproducethemandated183millionlitersofbiodiesel.IfPBRswereused,the
arealrequirementwouldbe(0.61)(183)=112km2(11,200ha),toproducethemandated183
millionlitersofbiodiesel.
Insection1.2.16,afermentationplantwithacapacityof1.2millionliterswascalculatedtobe
capableofproducing1.4millionlitersofoilannually.MeetingtheBCmandated183millionlitersof
biodieselwouldthereforerequireplantswithatotalfermentationcapacityof157millionlitersof
algaecultureannually.
Asalgaeculturedoesnotrequirefertilesoils,itisnotrestrictedtothelimitedarablelandinBC.
Withatotallandareaof929,730km2(92,973,000ha),thesitingofalgaeplantswouldbemore
dependentontopography.About203,000km2(20,300,000ha)ofthisisnotavailable,being
composedofrock,alpinebarrenicefields,orglaciers,leaving726,730km2(72,673,000ha)that
couldbepotentiallyavailableforalgaeculture.

SatisfyingallofBCsmandatedrequirementof183millionlitersofbiodieselby2010from
microalgaeoilgrowninBCwouldrequirethecultivationof249km2ofopenracewayponds
operatingforsixmonthsayearatacostof$1.5billionannuallyor112km2ofPBRsoperatingyear
round,atacostof$3.8billionannually.Ifthealgaearegrownheterotrophically,anannual
fermentationcapacityof157millionliterswillberequiredatacostof$481.3millionannually.

46

6 ProductionofBiofuelswithHighValueCoProducts
6.1 InitialEconomicAnalysis
Theproductionofalgaeforbiofuelsmaybecomemoreeconomicallyfeasibleifahighvalueby
productisalsocreated.Belowisapreliminaryevaluationofonesuchhighvalueproduct;
Eicosapentaenoicacid(EPA)99.
EPAvalue:WhileadeterminationofthesizeoftheEPAmarketwasbeyondthescopeofthisstudy,
apreliminaryanalysisidentifiedtwodistinctmarketsforpurifiedEPA.Thefirstisforhighly
purified(99%)analyticalgradeEPAestersthatretailsfor$2,154perkg(SigmaChemicals).
However,thismarketisverysmall,andwasthereforenotconsideredfurtherforthisanalysis.A
second,largermarketisforbulkpurified(5075%pure)EPAestersderivedfromfishoils,which
arecurrentlysoldaround$185perkgof70%pureEPAester.
Algaespecies:SeveralmicroalgaesynthesizeEPA,withtherichestalgalsourcesidentifiedas
Phaedactylumtricornutum,NannochloropsisoculataandMonodussubterraneus(52).Acomparisonof
theeaseofextractionandyieldofEPAfromM.subterraneusandP.tricornutumwascarriedoutby
Belarbietal.(16).Theseauthorsreportedthatobtaining1kgofesterifiedEPAoilwouldrequire
56.3kg,70.0kgand15.2kgofP.tricornutum,M.subterraneusandfishoil,respectively,withthe
purityoftheesterifiedEPAobtainedbeing96.5%,91.9%and82.7%,respectively.Theeaseof
extractiontransesterificationofoilsfromP.tricornutumoverM.subterraneusmadeitthesuperior
microalgalsourceofEPA.Thesetwoalgaespeciesaremodeledforthisstudy.
Algaecomposition:Thebiochemicalcompositionofthealgalstrainusedisnotonlyakeyfactorfor
oilproductionbutisevenmorecriticalinevaluatingthepotentialcoproducts.Theanalysisdetailed
belowusesspecificbiorefineryoptionsthatarepossibleforthesetwospecies.Thebiochemical
compositionusedforP.tricornutumwas9.5%carbohydrates,50%proteinand10%lipids(16;130;
162),theresidualalgaeoil(afterextractionofEPA100),isvaluedsimilarlytosoybeanoilusedas
biodieselfeedstockat$0.5perL(54;149).AlgaecakeleftafterremovalofthelipidsfromP.
tricornutumcontained10.5%carbohydrateand55.6%ofprotein,andwasassumedtobesoldas
animalfeedat$246perton101.ThebiochemicalcompositionofM.subterraneususedwas38.5%
carbohydrates,7%proteinand42%lipids(122),andthealgaecakeleftafterremovalofthelipids102
fromM.subterraneuscontained66%carbohydrateand12.1%protein,andwasassumedtobesold
forethanolproductionorasanimalfeedat$200perton103.
Processing:NocostdataforthecommercialproductionofpurifiedEPAesterswerefound.Hence,
thefollowinganalysisdeterminedthemaximumcostatwhichalgaebiomasscouldbeobtainedand
stillproducepurifiedEPAtobecompetitivewithEPAderivedfromfishoil.

99Apolyunsaturatedfattyacidthatisessentialforthedevelopmentofmarineorganismsandimportantin

thehumandiet(173).
100PhaedactylumtricornutumhasatotalEPAcontentof2.63.1%(162)andrecoverableEPAof1.8%EPA(16).
101CalculatedfromTable9,assumingproportionalityofpricingifdistillersdriedgrainwith30%protein

costs$132perton.

102M.subterraneushasatotalEPAcontentof2.33.2%(122),andrecoverableEPAof1.4%(16).
103CalculatedfromTable10,assumingproportionalityofpricingifcornwith62%proteincosts$200perton.

47

Forthispreliminaryanalysis,quoteswereobtainedforbulkcodliveroilof$4.50perkg.Atthis
price,$68.4worthoffishoilisrequiredtoproduce1kgofpurifiedEPAester104.Atthemarketprice
of$185perkgof70%pureEPAester,thedifferencebetweenthecostofbiomassandsalespriceof
purifiedEPAester,$116.60,canbereasonablyassumedtoincludethecostofprocessinganda
profitmargin.IfitisassumedthatthecostofprocessingalgaeoiltoobtainpurifiedEPAwillbe
similartothatforfishoilifsimilarprocessesareused(16),andthatthedownstreamprocessinginto
EPAesterisalsosimilar,thentobecompetitivewithfishoilderivedEPAesters,themicroalgae
musthavearawbiomassproductioncostofnomorethan$1.21perkgand$0.98perkgforP.
tricornutumandM.subterraneus,respectively.
However,thefattyacidcompositionofalgaeissimplerthanthatoffishoil(16;158),makingthe
recoveryofEPAfromalgaeeasierthanfromfishoil.Thisisreflectedindifferencesinthevolumesof
solventsrequired,thepurityofthefinalproduct,andthecheapercostsofdownstreamprocessing
ofEPAfromalgaecomparedtofishoil.Consequently,algaebiomassmayactuallybeproducedat
highercoststhancalculatedaboveandstillbeusedtoproduceesterifiedEPApricedcompetitively
withfishoilderivedEPAester.
Therecoveryof1kgofEPAwascalculatedtorequire9,400L,15,000Land37,500LofsolventforP.
tricornutum,M.subterraneusandfishoil,respectively(16),withtheassociatedsolventrecyclecosts
beingintheratioof1:1.6:4forP.tricornutum,M.subterraneusandfishoil,respectively105.Ifthe
algalbiomassrequiredtoproduce1kgofEPAestercanbeproducedforthesamepriceasthefish
oilrequiredforthis,anditisassumedthattheprocessingcostsforfishoil($116.60)isthetotalcost
ofprocessingintoEPAester,thenthecostofprocessingmicroalgalEPAcanbeobtainedby
multiplyingtheprocessingcostsforthefishoil($116.6),byafactortoaccountforthereduced
solvents(andcosts)used.Thesefactorsare0.25and0.4forP.tricornutumandM.subterraneus,
respectively,fromthesolventrecyclevolumesgivenearlier(16).ForalgaederivedEPAesters,this
resultsinprocessingcostsof$29.15and$46.64forP.tricornutumandM.subterraneusrequiredto
produce1kgofEPAesterrespectively.
Table22andTable23showtheresultsobtainedwhentheestimatedEPAesterprocessingcosts
wereusedwiththepricecalculationsandmodelproductivitiesobtainedinTable15andTable17
respectively.Forthesetables,itisassumedthatthe$29.15andthe$46.64processingcoststo
produce1kgofEPAesterrepresenttheentirecostofprocessingtoobtainthealgalEPAestersfrom
P.tricornutumandM.subterraneusbiomassrespectively,andthat,tobecomparablewithfishoil
derivedEPA,theconcentrationoftheEPAestersobtainedfromalgaeisdilutedto70%.
Thetwoscenariostested(basecaseandenhancedcasescenarios),werebasedontheproductivities
(butnottheoilcontents)asstatedinTable18106,asspecificmonoculturesofP.tricornutumandM.
subterraneuswiththepredefinedbiochemicalcompositionsgivenabovewereusedinthismodel.
Hence,fortheraceways,thebasecasescenariosincludedaproductivityof9.38g.m2.d1,runyear
round,andfortheenhancedcase,thealgaehadaproductivityof22.89g.m2.d1,runforsixmonths
oftheyear.Forthefermenters,theproductivityofthealgaewas50g.L1and100g.L1inthebase
andenhancedcasesrespectively.OnlythebasecasewasmodeledforthePBRastheenhancedcase
onlyincludedanincreaseinoilcontent(notbiomassproductivity).

104Since15.2kgoffishoilisrequiredtoproduce1kgofEPAester.
105Ifassumedtobedirectlyproportionaltotheamountofsolventthatneedstoberecycled.
106NotethatonlytheproductivitiesfromTable18wereused.TheoilcontentofthealgaefromTable18were

notusedasspecificmonoculturesofmicroalgaewithpredefinedbiochemicalcompositionswerebeingused
inthiscase.

48

Table22:AnnualCostsandReturnsfromtheCoProductionofEPAEsterwithAlgaeOilandAlgae
Cake(Protein)usingP.tricornutumgrowninRaceways,PBRsandFermenters

Scenario
Factor
Technology

Basecase
Raceway
PBR
Fermenter

*AnnualYield
28,140kg.ha1 45,900kg.ha1 1,190,000kg

Oilyield(10%)
2,814kg
4,590kg
119,000kg

EPAyield(at96.5%)
500kg
815kg
21,137kg

EPAyield(dilutedto70%)
689kg
1,124kg
29,139kg

EPAvalue(at70%)
$127,473
$207,924
$5,390,631

EPAprocessingcosts
$14,570
$23,765
$616,137

Valueofalgaeoil
$1,157
$1,887
$48,933

Valueofalgaecake
$6,230
$10,162
$263,466

TotalRevenue
$134,860
$219,974
$5,703,029

TotalcostofProduction
$89,495
$359,761
$4,298,137

NetRevenue
$45,356
$139,787
$1,404,892

Enhancedcase
Raceway
PBR
Fermenter

*AnnualYield
41,202kg.ha1
N/A
2,856,000kg

Oilyield(10%)
4,120kg
N/A
285,600kg

EPAyield(at96.5%)
731.83kg
N/A
50,728.24kg

EPAyield(dilutedto70%)
1,008.88kg
N/A
69,932.50kg

EPAvalue(at70%)
$186,643
N/A
$12,937,513

EPAprocessingcosts
$21,333
N/A
$1,478,728

Valueofalgaeoil
$1,694
N/A
$117,439

Valueofalgaecake
$9,122
N/A
$632,318

TotalRevenue
$197,459
N/A
$13,687,270

TotalcostofProduction
$81,638
N/A
$5,160,728

NetRevenue
$115,821

$8,526,542
*AnnualyieldisexpressedinkgperhafortheracewayandthePBR,butisgiveninkgper1,200m3
reactorforthefermenter.

6.2 DiscussionofEicosapentaenoicAcidasaCoProduct
Inthebasecasescenarioforbothalgaespecies,thecombinedrevenuefromthesaleofEPAester,
algaeoilandalgaecakeexceededthecostsofproductionusingboththeracewayandfermenter
technologies.WhenM.subterraneuswasgrown,totalrevenuesslightlyexceededthetotalcostsof
productioninthebasescenariosforbothtechnologies.Theprofitswerewiderintheenhanced
scenarios,whichcanbeattributedtothehigheryieldsofalgaebiomassintheenhancedscenarios.
canbeattributedtothelowrecoveryofEPAfromthemicroalgaebiomass.Despitehavingahigher
oilcontentof42%,comparedto10%fortheP.tricornutum,thelowerrecoveryofEPAfromM.
subterraneus(1.4%vs.1.8%intheP.tricornutum)meantthatnetrevenuefromP.tricornutumwas
higherinboththebaseandenhancedscenarios.Eventhegreatervolumeoftheresultingalgaeoil
forbiodieselfeedstock,valuedat$192,000higherthanforalgaeoilfromP.tricornutum,wasnot
enoughtomakeupthedifference.

49

ThehighunitbiomassproductioncostsofalgaeinPBRs,isreflectedinthecontributionofthe
secondary(EPA)processingcoststototalcosts.Inthebasecasesforbothalgaespeciestested,this
was16.28%,6.61%and14.33%whenP.tricornutumwasgrowninraceways,PBRsandfermenters
respectively,and20.02%,8.34%and17.72%respectivelywhenM.subterraneuswasthetestalgae
species.Asapercentageoftotalrevenueinthebasecases,totalcostswere66.36%,163.55%and
75.37%whenP.tricornutumwasmodeledinraceways,PBRsandfermentersrespectivelyand
87.86%,210.80%and99.25%respectivelywhenthealgaespecieswasM.subterraneus.Thishigh
productioncostresultedinPBRsbeinguneconomicalevenwhenhighvalueproductswere
produced.NoenhancedcasesweremodeledforthePBRbecause,asexplainedabove,theenhanced
casemodelforthePBRassumesincreasedoilyields(notincreasedbiomassproductivities).,which
wasnotrelevantasthismodelwasconductedusingmonoculturesofalgaewithspecificoil
contents.
Althoughtheracewaymodelalsoappearstobeeconomicallyviableinthescenariospresentedhere,
itwasonlyincludedfortheoreticalcomparisonas,withtheexceptionofextremophilespecies,open
systemsareunabletosupportthemonoculturesrequiredfortheproductionofsuchhighvalue
productsatthistime.
Thisanalysishighlightstheimportanceofknowingthefinalproductbeingtargetedbythealgae
productionplant.Iftheplannedcoproductionofahighvalueproductistoimprovetheeconomics
ofproducingalgaeoilforenergy,thenitleadsintuitivelytothechoiceofanalgalikeM.subterraneus
whichproducesmorealgaeoilforenergy.However,thereducedvolumeofthehighvalueEPAco
productresultsinvirtuallynonetprofit107(Table23).Iftheaboveanalysisincludedtransportation
orotheradditionalsalescosts,orfactoredintheeffectofadropinpricesofthehighvalueproduct
asaresultofmassproduction,thenthisapproachwouldnotbeconsideredtobeeconomically
viable.Theotheroptionofproducingthehighvalueproductasthemainproductandthealgaeoilas
abyproductwouldresultinlessoilforbioenergy,butitwouldbemoreprofitable(seeTable24).
Coproductioncouldbefurtherjustifiedifstrainswithhighoilcontentarefoundthatalsohavehigh
quantitiesofeasilyextractablehighvalueproductslikeEPA.
Intheenhancedcases,theeconomicsarebetterforbothcases.Note,however,thatfairlyoptimistic
assumptionsunderlietheseenhancedcases.

107Inthebasecasescenario.

50

Table23:AnnualcostsandReturnsfromtheCoProductionofEPAEsterwithAlgaeOilandAlgae
Cake(Carbohydrate)usingM.subterraneus108 growninRaceways,PBRsandFermenters

Scenario
Factor
Technology

Basecase
Raceway
PBR
Fermenter

*AnnualYield
28,140kg.ha1 45,900kg.ha1 1,190,000kg*

Oilyield(42%)
11,819kg
19,278kg
499,800kg

EPAyield(at91.9%)
402.00kg
655.71kg
17,000.00kg

EPAyield(dilutedto70%)
527.77kg
860.86kg
22,318.57kg

EPAvalue
$97,637
$159,259
$4,128,936

EPAprocessingcosts
$18,749
$30,583
$792,880

Valueofalgaeoil
$5,712
$9,318
$241,570

Valueofalgaecake
$3,264
$5,324
$138,040

TotalRevenue
$106,614
$173,901
$4,508,546

TotalcostofProduction
$93,674
$366,579
$4,474,880

NetRevenue
$12,940
$192,678
$33,666

Enhancedcase
Raceway
PBR
Fermenter

*AnnualYield
41,202kg,ha1
N/A
2,856,000kg

Oilyield(42%)
17,305kg
N/A
1,199,520kg

EPAyield(at91.9%)
588.60kg
N/A
40,800.00kg

EPAyield(dilutedto70%)
772.75kg
N/A
53,564.57kg

EPAvalue
$142,958
N/A
$9,909,446

EPAprocessingcosts
$27,452
N/A
$1,902,912

Valueofalgaeoil
$8,364
N/A
$579,768

Valueofalgaecake
$4,779
N/A
$331,296

TotalRevenue
$156,102
N/A
$10,820,510

TotalcostofProduction
$87,757
N/A
$5,584,912

NetRevenue
$68,345
N/A
$5,235,598
*AnnualyieldisexpressedinkgperhafortheracewayandthePBR,butisgiveninkgper1,200m3
reactorforthefermenter.
Table24:RelativeContributionofAlgaeOilandtheHighValueCoProduct,EPAEster,toRevenues
fromtheProductionofP.tricornutumandM.subterraneusGrowninRacewaysUndertheBaseCase
Scenario.

Factor
P.tricornutum
M.subterraneus

Algaeoilyield EPAesteryield Algaeoilyield EPAesteryield

Weight(Kg)
2,314kg
500kg
11,416.8kg
402kg

Value
$1,157
$127,473
$5,712
$97,637

Grandtotalvalue
$128,630
$103,349

108BiochemicalcompositionofM.subterraneususedwaslipid42%,carbohydrate:38.5%andprotein7%.

ObtainedfromLuetal.(122).

51

6.3 MinimumByProductValueRequired
Intheeconomicanalysissection,valuesforalgaecakeofaround$200pertonnewereestablished,
eitherasanimalfeedorasanethanolfeedstock.Anotherpossibilityistousealgaeasahuman
proteinsource,similartotofu,asamediumvaluecoproduct.AquickInternetsearchshowedtofu
retailpricingofaround$4,000pertonneinJapan.Withoutamoredetailedanalysis,asubstitution
ofalgaecakevaluesintheeconomicanalysismodelshowsthatanopenracewayinBCoperatedfor
sixmonthsperyearcouldproduceoilat$1perlitreifthecakeweresoldforatleast$1,300per
tonne.Comparedtotofu,thispricecouldberealisticifamarketforalgaecakeexistsorcanbe
created.Thiswouldrequirethatalloilextractionandotherprocessingstepsarecompatiblewith
foodgradestandards.Thismaybeachallengewhenworkingwithopenponds.Italsodoesnot
accountforanyfurtherprocessingofthecake,whichisunrealistic.
Theeconomicmodelshowsthatatanalgaecakevalueof$1,300pertonne,oilcostsforthe
fermenterbasecasearereducedtoabout$2perlitre,butforthePBRtheyarestillatover$21per
litre.Therequiredvalueforalternativebyproductscanbeextrapolatedfromthisanalysisby
consideringthatonlyagivenpercentageofthecakecanbeusedandthenmultiplyingtherequired
minimumvalueperkgaccordingly.
Clearly,byproductvaluesmustbeseveralhundreds,oreventhousandsofdollarsperkgiftheyare
tohaveamajorimpactontheeconomicsofalgaeproductionforbiofuelsinBC.

52

7 RulesandRegulations
Thefollowingtableisintendedtoactasaguidetorulesandregulationsthataprojectproponent
mayfaceinBCwhenbuildingandoperatinganalgaeproductionand/orbiofuelprocessingfacility.
FormoredetailoneachoftheseseeAppendixN.

7.1 FederalRulesandRegulations
Rule/RegulationTitle
FisheriesAct

BriefDescription

Managementandregulationoffisheriesincludingaccess,
controloverconditionsofharvesting,enforcing

regulations,protectingfishandfishhabitat.

FisheriesActHarmfulAlterationofFish ProhibitsworkresultingintheHarmfulAlteration,
Habitat
DisruptionorDestructionoffisherieshabitat(HADD)

unlessauthorizedtodoso.
FisheriesActDeleteriousSubstances

Prohibitsintroductionofadeleterioussubstanceintoany

typeoffishbearingwaterswithoutauthorization.

FisheriesActPetroleumRefineryLiquid Regulatesaveragedepositlevelsforvariousdeleterious
EffluentRegulation
substances,includingoils,grease,sulphideandother

substancesharmfultofish.
NavigableWatersProtectionAct

Protectspublicrightofnavigationandregulates

structuresthatinterferewithnavigation.

CanadianEnvironmentalAssessment(EA) EstablishesaprocessforconductingEAofprojects

Act
involvingfederalgovernmentdecisions.
CanadianEnvironmentalProtectionAct
(CEPA)
CEPANewSubstancesNotification
Regulations(Organisms)

SpeciesatRiskAct

53

Providesfederalgovernmentwithwiderangingpowersto

protectandmaintainthehealthoftheenvironment.
Ensuresnonewsubstancesareintroducedintothe
Canadianmarketplacewithoutapotentialtoxicity
assessmentandthatallappropriateorrequiredcontrol

measureshavebeentaken.
Preventswildlifespeciesfromextinctionorextirpationin
thewild,andhelpsspeciesatriskbecauseofhuman

activities.

7.2 ProvincialRulesandRegulations
Rule/RegulationTitle

BriefDescription

LandAct

Mainlegislationprescribingconditionsfortheoccupancyof

crownland.

LandTitleAct

Regulateshowtherightstolandareboughtandsoldinthe

province.

Noticeregardingpollution

Alertbuyersandothersthatseriouspollutionexistsona

property.

Subdivision

Approvalmustbegivenforlandsubdivision.

FarmPracticesProtectionAct

Protectsfarmersfromlawsuitsinvolvingodour,noise,dustand

otherdisturbance.

WasteManagementAct

Regulatesintroductionofwasteintotheenvironment.

EnvironmentalManagementAct

Prohibitsintroductionofwasteintotheenvironmentinthe
courseofconductingaprescribedindustry,tradeoractivity

withoutavalidauthorization,permitorapproval.

EnvironmentalManagementActand Providesexemptionfromtherequirementforawaste
HealthAct
managementpermitforoperationsconductedinaccordance

withtheCodeofAgriculturalPracticeforWasteManagement.
FisheriesAct

Prohibitsthereleaseofaquaticplantsorfishfroman

aquaculturefacilityunlessauthorizedtodoso.

FishProtectionAct

Providesauthorityforwatermanagerstoconsiderimpactson
fishandfishhabitatbeforeapprovingnewlicenses,
amendmentstolicensesorissuingapprovalsforworkinor

nearstreams.

WaterAct

Providesrighttouse,storeordivertwaterinnatural

watercourse(i.e.rivers,streams,lakes,swamps,etc).

Drainage,DitchandDykeAct

Establishesasystemfortheregulationandauthorizationof

ditches,watercourses,drainagesanddykes.

AgriculturalLandCommissionAct

Preservesandencouragesfarmingandagriculturalpracticeson

agriculturalland.

EnvironmentalAssessmentAct

Requiresanenvironmentalassessmenttobedonebefore

certainprojectsarebuilt.

WildlifeAct

Protectswildlife,endangeredspeciesandwildlifehabitat.

54

7.3 MunicipalRulesandRegulations
Rule/RegulationTitle
Subdivision
ZoningBylaws
OfficialCommunityPlans

55

BriefDescription

Approvalmustbegivenforlandsubdivision.

Regulatestheformandcharacterofdevelopment.

Guidesdecisionsonplanningandlandusemanagement.

8 FundingOpportunities
8.1 General
Asthetechnologiesforcommercialalgaeculturearenotreadilyavailableatpresent,thefollowing
fundingsourcesfocusesonearlystagefinancingfortechnologydemonstrationpurposes.Italso
focusesoncapitalinvestment,ratherthanproductionortaxincentives.Thelatterare,however,
consideredintheeconomicanalysisinthisstudywhereappropriate.Thereaderiscautionedthat
thissectionshouldberegardedasonlyasnapshotsincefundingprogramsarecreated,terminated
andmodifiedconstantly.

8.2 FundingAvailabletothePrivateSector
Forademonstrationproject,bankswillgenerallyonlyprovideamaximumof50%oftherequired
investment.Theremaindermustcomefromothersources.Veryoften,highrisktechnologies
requirepublicfundingtoreducetheriskforprivateinvestors.
ecoAGRICULTUREBiofuelsCapitalInitiative(ecoABC)Thisinitiative,deliveredbyAgriculture
andAgriFoodCanada,isafederal$200millionfouryearprogramendingonMarch31,2011that
providesrepayablecontributionsfortheconstructionorexpansionoftransportationbiofuel
productionfacilities.Fundingisconditionaluponagriculturalproducerinvestmentinthebiofuel
projects,andtheuseofagriculturalfeedstocktoproducethebiofuel.Formoreinformation,visit
www.ecoaction.gc.ca/ecoagriculture/biofuelsbiocarburantseng.cfm
AdvancingCanadianAgricultureandAgriFood(ACAAF)programThisprogramisafiveyear,
$240millionprogramendinginMarch2009,aimedatpositioningCanada'sagricultureandagri
foodsectorattheleadingedgetoseizenewopportunities.Fundingisavailableforeligibleprojects
identifiedandcarriedoutbytheagricultureandagrifoodsector.Formoreinformation,visit
www4.agr.gc.ca/AAFCAAC/displayafficher.do?id=1182366508375&lang=e
SustainableDevelopmentTechnologyCanada(SDTC)Thisprogramprovidesgrantsforpre
commercialtechnologyprojects.SDTCrequiresthatapplicantsjoinwithpartnerstoforma
consortium(consulttheSDTCwebsiteformoreinformation).SDTCfundsuptoonethirdofthe
capitalcostofdemonstrationprojects,includingthecostoffeasibilitystudies.Specifically,SDTCs
$500millionNextGenBiofuelsFundsupportstheestablishmentoffirstofkindlarge
demonstrationscalefacilitiesfortheproductionofnextgenerationrenewablefuels.Formore
information,visitwww.sdtc.ca
TechnologyEarlyActionMeasures(TEAM)Thisisafederalprogramsupportingtechnologies
thattackletheproblemofclimatechange.TEAMrequiresthat(privateorcommunity)project
proponentsteamupfinanciallywiththeprovincialgovernments,municipalitiesoreachother.
TEAMwillonlyfundpartofaproject,andadditionalfundsshouldcomefromadifferentfederal
program.Fundingisprovidedasequityinvestment,butrepaymentcanbenegotiatedincertain
cases.TEAMfundsnewtechnologiesthataretobedemonstrated.Formoreinformation,visit
www.team.gc.ca
TheCanadianBiomassInnovationNetwork(CBIN)Thisfundsresearchanddevelopmentof
biomasstechnologies.Itfillsthespacebetweenbasicresearchanddemonstration/pre
commercialization.AllprojectsmusthaveaFederalGovernmentleadandpartners(industry,
academia,provincialormunicipalgovernments,NGOs,etc.).Eligibleprojectswillhavetohavean
importantresearchcomponent.Formoreinformation,visitwww.cbin.gc.ca

56

NaturalResourcesCanadasecoENERGYTechnologyInitiativeThisinitiativeprovidesfundingfor
biomassenergyprojectsatthedemonstrationstage.Callsforproposalsareissuedbygovernment
withspecificthemes,i.e.itisnotpossibletosubmitproposalsunlessasuitablecallhasbeenissued.
Formoreinformation,visitwww2.nrcan.gc.ca/ES/OERD/English/View.asp?x=1603
WesternEconomicDiversification(WD)WDprovidesfundingforeconomicdevelopmentin
WesternCanada,includingenergyprojects.Formoreinformation,visitwww.wd.gc.ca
BCInnovativeCleanEnergyFundThisisa$25millionfundtosupportprecommercial
alternativeenergysources,includingbioenergy.Formoreinformation,visit
www.gov.bc.ca/empr/popt/innovative_clean_energy_fund.html
TheBCBioenergyNetworkFundThis$25millionfundisforbioenergydevelopmentprojects,
particularlyatthedemonstrationstage.However,thefirstroundofexpressionsforinterest
indicatesthisfundwillbeoversubscribed.Formoreinformation,visitwww.bcbioenergy.ca/
GenomeBCThisresearchorganizationinvestsinandmanageslargescalegenomicsand
proteomicsresearchprojectsandscienceandtechnologyplatformsfocusedonareasofstrategic
importancesuchashumanhealth,forestry,fisheries,ethics,agriculture,andtheenvironment.It
couldassistinalgaeresearch,suchasoptimizingfermentertechnologyandidentifyingsuitable
strains.Formoreinformation,visitwww.genomebc.ca
TheEncanaEnvironmentalInnovationFundThisfundinvestsinnewenergytechnologies.For
moreinformation,visitwww.encana.com/responsibility/eif/index.htm

8.3 FundingforMunicipalitiesandFirstNations
Algaecompanieswillneedtoteamupwithmunicipalitiesand/orFirstNationscommunitiesto
accessthesefundingsources.Usually,therearespecificconditionsforusingthesefundingsources,
suchasevidenceforlocalbenefits,jobcreation,andenvironmentalbenefitscreatedthroughthe
project.Additionalsourcesoffundingarealmostalwaysrequired.
MovingonSustainableTransportation(MOST)Thisgovernmentprogrammayapplyto
biofuelsprojectsinBC.Fundingisonlyprovideduptoalimitof$100,000,whichmaybeinsufficient
foralgaedemonstrationprojects.Formoreinformation,visit
www.tc.gc.ca/programs/environment/most/applyingtomost.htm
ecoENERGYforAboriginalandNorthernCommunitiesThisprogram,whichbeganonApril1,
2007,willprovide$15millioninnewfundingoverfouryearstosupportAboriginalandNorthern
communitiesworkingoncleanenergyprojects,includingtheapproximately130remote
communitiesthatrelyondieselpowergeneration.Goalsinclude:catalyzingrenewableenergy
projects,improvingenergyefficiencyandadoptingalternativeenergysourcestoreduce
dependenceondieselfuel.Formoreinformation,visitwww.ecoaction.gc.ca/ecoenergy
ecoenergie/aborignorthautochnordeng.cfm
NorthernDevelopmentInitiativeTrustThisfundingisavailableforlocalgovernments,notfor
profitsocieties,andFirstNations.Formoreinformation,visitwww.nditrust.ca
BCsMunicipalRuralInfrastructureFundThisisspecificallygearedtowardslocalgovernmentsof
communitiesunder250,000inhabitants.Renewableenergyprojectsqualifyforgrantstocoverpart
ofthecapitalcosts.Formoreinformation,visitwww.canadabcmrif.ca/en/guide.htm.Infrastructure
projectsofFirstNationscommunitiesarefundedseparatelyandadministeredbyIndianand
NorthernAffairsCanada(INAC).Formoreinformation,visitwww.aincinac.gc.ca/

57

InnovationsFund&StrategicPrioritiesFundThisprovidesgrantsforcommunityenergy
projectsandplanning(upto100%ofprojectcosts).Localgovernmentscanapplythroughthe
UnionofBCMunicipalities.Formoreinformation,visit
www.civicnet.bc.ca/siteengine/ActivePage.asp?PageID=294#gas%20tax
GreenMunicipalFundsThisisadministeredbytheCanadianFederationofMunicipalities.
Grantsfor50%ofthecostofenergyplanningandfeasibilitystudiesareavailable,aswellaslow
interestloanstowardsthecapitalcostofenergyprojects(1525%oftotalcost).Onlymunicipalities
areeligible.Formoreinformation,visitwww.sustainablecommunities.fcm.ca/GMF/
MunicipalFinanceAuthorityofBCThisprovideslowinterestloans(under5%annualinterest
rate)toBCmunicipalities,RegionalDistrictsandHospitalDistricts.Applicationsareapprovedat
meetingsduringspringandfalleachyear.Formoreinformation,visitwww.mfa.bc.ca
TownsforTomorrowThisisaBCgovernmentprogramthatcancover80%ofenergyproject
costs,toamaximumof$400,000.Onlygovernmentsofsmallcommunities(under5,000people)are
eligible.Formoreinformation,visitwww.townsfortomorrow.gov.bc.ca
RemoteCommunityElectrificationProgram(RCE)Thiswascreatedtohelpprovideelectricity
toremotecommunitiesbyextendingthepowergridorwithalternativeenergyinordertoreplace
dieselgeneration.Formoreinformation,visitwww.bchydro.com/
TheNorthernDevelopmentInitiativeTrustThisisaneconomicdevelopmentfunding
corporationforcentralandnorthernBC.Itprovidesthefundingandabilityforlocalgovernment
andFirstNationstoidentifyandpursuenewopportunitiesforstimulatingeconomicgrowthandjob
creation.Thetrustoffersbothgrantsandloans.Itwillassistwithupto28%ofthecapitalcostof
projectsandcoversapproximately70%oftheProvince.Formoreinformation,visit
www.nditrust.ca.AlsoseetheSouthernInteriorDevelopmentInitiativeTrust(www.siditbc.ca)and
IslandCoastalEconomicTrust(www.islandcoastaltrust.ca)fortheremainingareas.
SuncorEnergyFoundationThisprovidesgrantsforcommunitiesinNortheasternBC(onlynot
forprofitentitiesareeligible).Fundingcoverscommunityprojectsandenvironmentalinitiatives.
Formoreinformation,visitwww.suncor.com/default.aspx?ID=2729
FirstNationscommunitiesshouldalsoconsidertheNewRelationshipTrust
(www.newrelationshiptrust.ca).Othergrantprogramsapplicabletolocalgovernmentcanbefound
atCivicInfoBC(www.civicinfo.bc.ca/18.asp).Financingoptionsformunicipalitiesarealso
explainedintheFundingYourCommunityEnergyInitiativesguideoftheBCCommunityEnergy
Association(www.communityenergy.bc.ca/sites/default/files/CEA%20Funding%20Guide.2008
Apr.pdf).

58

9 ScopeforImprovementandRecommendations
9.1 ScopeForImprovement
FurtherR&Deffortsarerequiredtoachieveimprovementsinalgaeproductivitiesandreduce
productioncosts.Togiveanideaofthescaleoftechnologicaladvancesrequired,ittooktwenty
sevenyearstoachieveaproductivityincreaseof50%incanolaproduction(42).Whileitispossible
thatproductivityimprovementsmayoccuroverashortertimeframecomparedtocanola109,
significantlyhigherbreakthroughsinproductivityarerequiredforalgaetobiofuelstobecomea
commercialrealityinBC(a50%improvementinproductivity,keepingcoststhesamewillstill
resultinapriceof$4.89perliterofalgaeoilifalgaearegrowninracewaysfor6monthsayear).
Clearly,thephototrophiccultureofalgaeforbiofuelsisnotaneartermenterpriseandshouldnot
beregardedassuch.
Improvementsinproductivitycanbeachievedthroughtechnicalandbiologicalapproaches:

Theselectionofalgaespecieswithdesirablecharacteristicsofhighgrowthrates,highoil
content(orthecontentoftheproductofinterest)andthemanipulationofalgaespeciesto
toleratehighlightintensities(eitherbygeneticimprovementoracclimation)areobvious
areaswhereimprovementscouldbemadeandR&Deffortsarealreadybeingdirected.

Otherareasincludeimprovementsinsystemdesignforbetterlightutilizationandimproved
mixing,andasignificantreductionintheinputenergyrequirements.

ThecostofPBRsisthesinglemostimportantconstraintagainstthecommercialrealityof
microalgaeforbiofuelsusingthistechnology.However,PBRsarenecessaryifgeneticallymodified
algaeorselectedstrainsaretobegrownphototrophically.IfPBRsareevertobecomefeasibleinthe
productionofbiofuelsfrommicroalgae,asignificantreductioninthecostsofPBRsisessential.
SincethemaincomponentsofPBRsarebasicmaterialslikeglassandplastic,itwillbedifficultto
achievethis.
ThelimitationimposedbytheavailableamountofsolarinsolationinBC(andCanada)isamajor
constraintthatcannotbeoverlooked.Asthiscannotbeincreased,itmeansthatevenifallthe
factorsnecessaryforimprovingtheproductivityofphototrophicmicroalgaeproductionare
achieved,themajorbenefitswouldaccruetocountrieswithhighersolarinsolation,ratherthanBC
orCanada.BCcanremainrelevantinthisaspectbysupportingorundertakingresearchaimedat
developingintellectualproperty,whichcanbeusedunderlicensebysuchforeigncountries.
However,allthesearestillmediumtolongtermgoals.Asdescribedabove,thecommercialculture
ofmicroalgaeforbiofuelsisnotaneartermenterpriseandstrategicplanningshouldreflectthis.
Oneavenueproposedforimprovingthepooreconomicsofphototrophicalgaeproductionistheco
productionofhighvalueproducts.Initialanalysiswithinthecontextofthisreport,indicatesthat
veryhighvaluesmustbeachieved,butthemarketsforsuchproductsmaybeverylimited,orwould
havetobecreated.Anylargescaledeploymentofalgaeproductionwouldthereforerequiresome
detailedmarketanalysisinordertoconfirmthemarketfor,andvalueofanycoproductsmeantto
providealargepartoftheoperationsrevenue.

109Suchasthedevelopmentofhighthroughputmethodsforscreeningforbeneficialcharacteristicsinalgae

strains,whichwillbefacilitatedbytheshortgenerationtimesofthemicroalgaecomparedtolandbased
plants(seeTable10inAppendixI).

59

9.2 Recommendations
Giventheresultsintermsofachievableproductivities,economicperformanceandenergybalance,
currentknowledgestronglysuggeststhatphototrophicoptionscanberuledoutforBCatthe
presenttime.Despitesomedatauncertainties,theresultsobtainedfromtheanalysisinthisreport
areresilientenoughtoruleoutphotobioreactorsasanoptiontoproducebiofuelsingeneral,and
alsoruleoutracewaysatleastcurrently,asanoptioninBC.Technologyproponentsshouldprovide
convincingevidencethattheyhavefoundawaytoimproveeconomics(e.g.,alargeenoughmarket
forbyproductsexists,andawaytopreventcontaminationifspecificalgaearetobegrown)andthe
energybalanceenoughbeforepublicfundsareinvestedinracewayresearchandtechnology.
Ifresearchonracewaysisundertakenorsupported,itshouldbeconductedwithaviewto
developingIPforeventualuseinareaswithhighsolarinsolationandlowerlabourcosts.Ifsuch
researchisundertaken,theapproachmostlikelytocontributetoimmediateimprovementsisto
identifydesignandcultureparameterswhichwouldremedythelightsaturationand
photoinhibitioneffectandincreasethelightutilizationefficiencyofalgaestrains.Otherareasof
potentialimprovementsincludethedesignofcosteffectivesystemstointroducelighttogreater
depthsinponds,improvedmixingusingefficientmixersandculturemethodstopreventthe
contaminationbyundesirablespeciesinopensystems.Inparallel,waystoreducecapitaland
operatingcosts,suchasincreasedautomation,wouldhavetobefound110.
Algaeproductionbyfermentationwasshowntocurrentlybethemostpromisingavenuetowards
biofuelproductioninBC.Althoughitislikelytorely,atleastinitially,onagriculturalcarbonsources
suchassugarorstarch,itmaybeabletouseotherfeedstocks,suchaslignocellulosicresidues,in
thefuture.Itmayalsohaveadvantagesovercurrentstarchtoethanolpathwaysifalgaeoilcanbe
producedwithconsistentlyhighbiomassproductivityandoilyields.However,itisstillnot
competitivewithfossilfuels,evenusingtheenhancedscenariodiscussedinsection0.
Beforeinvestinginheterotrophicallygrownalgae,moreresearchneedstobecarriedouttoidentify
andisolatestrainscapableofheterotrophicgrowthandoptimizationoftherearingprotocolsto
achieveveryhighyieldsandoilcontent.Biofuelsfromalgaearethereforenotacommercial
technology.Iffuellingtransportisthegoalofsettingupanalternativeenergystructure,solar
photovoltaicsshouldalsobecomparedtoalgae,sinceaquickanalysis(seeAppendixO)foundthat
duetothemuchhigherlightconversionefficiency,poweringelectricorhybridcarswithPVpanels
canbeabetteroptionthanracewaysproducingfuelsforinternalcombustionengines.
Optionstobringalgaefermentationtechnologytomarketreadinessinclude:

LaunchingaRFPforalgaefermentationcompaniestobuildapilotplantinBC.

SupportingresearchonheterotrophicalgaecultivationinBC.

Verifytheenergyandcostbalancesdevelopedinthisreportwithmorereliabledataasit
becomesavailable.

Evaluateandtestalgaefermentationcomparedtotheuseofyeastorbacteriainfermenters
tomakebiofuels.

NetworkwithresearchfacilitiesoutsideBCtoresearchdetailedproblemslinkedto
heterotrophicalgaecultivation,suchasincreasingyieldsandoilcontent,aswellastheuse
ofdifferentcarbonsources.

110Notethatautomationofsometasks,suchaschromatographicmonitoringofraceways,iscurrentlynot

technicallyfeasibleandwouldrequirebreakthroughsinremotemonitoringtechnology.

60

61

Thereisnoimmediateneedtoenactpolicymeasureswithrespecttoalgaebasedbiofuels.
Oncetheprocesshasbeenprovenandcanproduceoilatpricesclosetothoseoffossilfuels,
thegovernmentmayelecttocreatearegulatoryobligationtomixinalgaebiofuelwith
conventionaldieselfuel.Similarpoliciesareinplaceworldwidewithrespecttoelectricity
fromrenewableresources,aswellasbiofuelsmandatesinCanadaandtheUS.Creatingatier
foralgaebiofuelwithinthesemandatescanhelpfinanceearlyventures,untilthetechnology
isfullymature.

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11 Appendices

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