l0

TheIlawthorne Dxoeriments
Frederick J. Roethlisberger
The.e seemsto be d dsunpiion today thar se oeed d conpler ser ofideas to handle lhe codpler problens of this conplex worLd in which we l1ve. we 4sume th!! a bic !.oblen needs a bis idai a conplex problem needsa conplex idea for ift slution. As a r*ult, ou thinkins tends !o becone nore dd more rormous a.d huddled. Nowhere is dris noie he rhm in nattes ofhunan behavior.l. seemsto ne thar the road back to saniry-,nd here is vhere ny
ey Fi ofilsracd.r frar we cm make

t. ln tnowing wery clearlr the cla$ of Flenomena ro which our ides dd nelhods relatc. Now, this is deFly a way of saling, 'Do not use a sas d a hanner." A sa{ is a usetul loolpre, cisely because ir is linited md de. sigred for a certain purpoF. Do no! cnici4 the usetulnes ofa saw be.ase it dos lor make a good hannei . . . It n my sinple thsls that a hlman

prcblen requnes a humd solurion. Inst, we have to leam torecocnize a hunan 1. In ]Evins a few shple dd clear ideas problen when we seeoner ed, scond, aboutthe xorld in which re live. upon rccognizbg ir, we have to lea6 to 2. In conpliatins our ideas, nor in a deal with it as such md not d if it yerc Yatuun, bD! only in Elerence ro somethins else. Too oftn at lhe verbai thinss we can obsere, see,feel, hear, lerel se talk sl,bly about rhe inportmcc a touc!. Let u not eeftralize flon verbal denniti.$i ler !s know in lao of the huhm {actor dd too seldon at the concrcre level or behavior do we rec. {hat we de raltins rbour. J In having a very sinple nethod by o8lize a human lroblen for whar it is neans of shich we cad explore our aqd deal silh ir as such. A nlllm Folcospld world. \ve nee,l a r@l which btu to be brclsht tu t hmn \atLtian te, wili alld usro sct nlc idd, &on whch qtircs l aM dotd and hmh toak. h is our sdcEli:atios areb b. dra*r \t/e my pu.pose b use the Wsre.n ElecEic needa simpleskill to lee! c in iolch researches as an illNrari.n of what with sh3r is sometnnes refened to d I nean by this $aieneni, becaus, if they desen'e the lublicity and acclain 4. tn bcinc tough-ninded, i.e.,innot lettincouEelves Le roo disappointed {hich ther have receivcd, ir is becaue, becaNethe coqilci Norld n*e. qu,re in ny opinion. they hare s. concludenonsrFted rhis poio!. In ths tulflls oui non chBnsledexpecra, siveLy ridnsof ir. Let us renember.hatthe seNe rher are tie road back to siry in concretephenonenaril ali?ys elude noagemen.emproy.e.]abos.

Softri R9dnted bt permissionof dr. pltlishe ton Nlan s|lrnr dndMmL bt r I. RoetlLnblss, canbddse, MN.hsetar Hawai! univesirr ?rd, cdptnghr e) t94L br L\e ?mide.r 3nd Fcllo{s of Harurd couecej o 1969by t J. R.{htLteqei

142

'Itu Hd@r[mE4.rtm6 EXPERIMEIITS TNILLUMINATION

143 allored to telieve that the inteNitv ot alilLumination vas-Leing decreased, rhouph aE.in, inract,no actuardrnge worke6 Lonpl,ined wa' .aa" fl. s.newha! ab@t dt loorer lighrbg' bur again ihec ws no aplreciable effed on

The \(/*rm Electic research$ sFrted abou! sixtee. yeas aso, in the Hawrhome piant, with a seriesof er?eri' nents d illuminafion. The PurPosew* And frnally. in another expernen!' to ind out rhe relation of the qualirv Ms deinrensiry o{ illtnination the efd' and qldmity of llluninalion to the a foor cmdle, which is ciencv of ndusdal workeG These stud- .reased ro .06 of illumination apProrl ies laited severallears, and l shall not the intensitt of to that of odinart dscriie fiem in detail. lr will suffice to natelt quivalenr this poini 'as unril Not quite moonlight. difwe.e reRlls dut the loint out deappreciable anv ms there rerched fere.r {;on rhat had been expec.ed. ote In one experinent the wo.kes were cline in lhe output What did the exPerimentersleaoj divide{i into two croups. One grolp' "test Siuatt Chase said' there called the srou!," was to wotk Otviouslr, d "sdewy." but the erpe* vs somdhing intsities unde.differo!illuninalion "control who or wMt quite sue nor were meni6 The othe. glouF, called the themslvs, the sub_ ws s*eNr-they g.oup," wd ro work under an imesitY One thiig ms cLar: constmt a! iects. or rhe rdlt' of illuoinadon d tanr vere neeative. Nothins of a ihe results e:Petinent, the 6st During rosjblep 6 , r i v e n a r u r b a d b e nl e a m e da b o u i ihe Ie$ erc!! {as slbnitted to three to Ddud.rL d iff-eniinrosities of iLlumination o{ ;he ieladon of tllumation euis were to be taten If the efficlmcv. ? 0 a n d 2 4 , 4 6 n a g n r t l d e ncre*Lic n would appear L\ar foot randtes What were the resul$ or at their face value, leMeen ilhnioa_ no relation ts there in' Production expeinenti earLy this Hovevt'' effccncn md indusrrial tio. .re.sed in borh rccms-in both the ren {ere not ler qutre wk rte investistos the contol the and srouP-and srou! corduion- Ther r-ea1 iise in output vas rouchlv of the same rne to dmw rhrs oftsdne ior rh elfecr Se d,i{culEv Eed 'nbuth.aR! mdgn,tude in a siiuation Nhere ltriable a sinsle of LLent th exFerimenr, In another variabla unconcolied were nany there under wl'ich rhe ter srcu! vorked {as thar anorher rherefore thouFht It {as candles, to I foot 10 fron decreased le devised in shich Nhile the conrolctoup worked. as be' exDelinent ;hould "riervaiiaLles affectins the outPut of fo., under a costan! 1e"el of lluni@' worken could be bener connolled tion intersitt. In this casethe oltput A fe{ ol the touch-minded exPeri' nte in 6e t$t Crou! wmr uP irnead or alieady *e.e beginninc to sut nentes coniiof in tbe s-ent uP dom. lt also pect their basic idasand a$umptons erouP motitanon' LrocIn 'trll "noth-erPenment rhe qo|k- vi& epard to human roubh $6 nor the theD ihd -,rcd io rllurhe e lhN *" sde allo"edobdE qith d,e results d wirh rhc s$ninaron tas beins increded, althoueh, somuch iecs as n wd with then norion eeardin fact, no change in inresiq M nade were suposer The workers codoented iavonbl! on inc rhe tat deir subjecs norion ol a simlle behave-the ro blt condition. liehtine rhe inproved directrelationshipbethere wasno app*ciabLe chanse in out- .ause-ed-effect, changesin the certain Neen $ere Phtsical totLers time, rhe put- Ar anothet

------.-

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TheH@.hm

Exlailmb _

145

tos were happl beGuse thir coDdi' slonses would be unin{uenced by so' d@ of work v*e beins imprcved, dEy elled "psrcholoci] lacto6." were eaming more hont and they ln onltr io ttrine dris abolr, the invee vere objec$ of considerable aitention ticaroE did evel]thinc in ihen lower to 6@ to! hmgement. But llen one in' secue the conplete @opention of Lhen v$dgaror-ne of those torsh-ninded subjecs, wiln the tsuLt that alnost a1l fellovHusssted dEr they rsrore the rhe !ctics comon to rhe shop weE orisinal condnions of Nort, that is, so alteled. The oFeratois {ere consulted back to a tu1l forty'eieh.hour $eek about |he chans6 ro be nade, and, in' without rests, lMcha and what not- deed, seveEl plms *ere abodoned b' Thn was Pe.iod Xll. Then the haply cause fiey met with rhe disapprovai of stale of affain, when crerythinc was tie CirLsThey were qlestioned synpa. going along as ir theo.eticallr should, thetically abou! their reactions to the wenr sour Ourput, in$ad o{ raking conditions imposed, dd mdy of th*e the expecrednosedive, minrained is confererces rook place ia the ofice of lhe srperimendenr. The gnk vere al' "bogey" Asaifl dr invesrisaro$ were fo.cibLt iored to talk at wo.k thei! rs reninded thar hu@n sitlations are elininated. Theii lhysical healfi and 1i!eb ro be compld. In my hunm siru- well-teing becme naft6 ofgrat @nation, whenwer a sinple chdge is intecem. Their opinioN, hopes, ed fears duced-a !e{ pause. for exanplewere eageiy soughr. VlEt happened othei chaneer, mrnrd md mmrici' was thar h ihe very piocss of setting the conditiom fc the tst-a so'ol1ed lated, may also be blought about. What i am sating here is very simple. lf one "contolled"exlerinent theexperiexleriments on a $one, rhe srone does menten had compleely aftercd &e sorct know it is being experinerted cial situailon ofthe r@m. IGdvertendt upon a1l o{ which maks i! sinple for a chsnge had bem ntoduced ehrch * s people experinentins on nones. But if 6r nore ifrpotant thm the llmed exa humd being G being expednenled lelimental imovationsi the cutomary upon, he is likely to koov u. Thereiore, supeNision in |h ron had been .evolu' his aftirudes rosard ihe e4enment dd tioni*d. This accouAted io. the b!!e! toward the experihenteE lecome rert anituds of the cirLsand thei. ihploved inportdt factoa in deremining his re, slooses ro rhe situaiior, Nov that is whar happcned in the Relay A$enbly Te$ Roon To rhe in- TIIE DDVELOPMDNTOF A vestigalo6, it vas e$ential rhat the NEW AND MORDFRUITFUL POINT OF VIDW workeis cii'e their full ad whole' heded c@petion ro L\e expeinmL After Penod Xil in theReiay A*embit Ther did nor wer the oleGrors to $ork Te$ Rooh, the inleslicltoa decided !o harder oi esier dependinc upon rheir chance their ideasradlcally. What all attitud roward lhe conditior: thar vere rhen exlennenrs had dGnali@lly and inposed. Ther wanted theh io rork as concLusivelr denotrtated was dre im' ther feh, so that they could he sur l}lat porance of employee adtuds and sendrc dltrercn! lh]Eical conditios of wort rinens.It wascLear thar $erespo.ks vere solelr esposible for rhe vadarions of worlers to what wm happening about jn ou+ur. loi each of _,ie *pelinental rheh vere dependeAt ulon the signii(hce tF,eseeventi had fo. them. in nos! challg$, ther wanGd subjss wh6e rc'

146 wo.k situarios rhe neanins of a cbange is llkely b le as imporrant, if Dor nore so, dtr lhe chanse iseLl ThG vas rhe crear d.l,ir.6pmenr, rhe new iLlunina, tion, drar ene ftom the rcsearch. tt was an illuminarion quite different ftom whar they had expected ftom rhe illuni, nation studi6. Cu.iousLr enouch, this discorcry is nothing very nes or $ar. tlins. k js $nethhg ivhich anyhe who has had sone concrcte experience in hmdlmg orher pple intuirively rccog, Whether or not a pe.son h going ro give hc srvices vhoLe,heartedly to a grcu! depen ls, in sood part, on rhe var he feels abour hs iob, his rellow workes. and supeflisord,e neaiinc {or hin ofrhat s halpenns abour hin However, when rhe expedments becm to iackle rhe prolteD ofenployee aritudes and the f,cios detemining such atiiiudeF hen rhey besan ro ra.kle the problem ol 'deains"-they entered a sort of iwilishr zone where rhings are nerer quire what they seem. Moreover, ovemicht, as ir were. thet were robbed of alL the rools tney had so carefullr forged; lor alL then previous iools rere noohuean tools concemed {ith the neastremenr ofoutput, ren, peature, huniditr, etc, and rhesewere no Lonser Lsetulfor the hman dda thar rher now Nadted ro oltain. Whar the erperinenres no$ r&ted to kno{ M ho* a peEon feh, {hat his iotinar thinkine, reflecrions, and preoccupa, rions were,and what he Likcd lnd disliked about hs Noik nvnonnenr. ln shor, what did the whole blooninc busin$s his job, his supeNision, his workiq conditions-nean ro himl Norv lhs $as human stu6 and rhere seie no ro.h, or at leat rhe expei, nenre6 hne$ !i nore, ior obrainine and evaluari.c fiis kind of narenal. fortuarelrl iheie weie a feqcourageols soutsamone ure eipenmentes. Thcse nn x,ere nor meraphasicians,

Modwlion psycholosGB, acadeoici.ns,profso$, inretlectuals,or what have you. Thet w* nen o{ connon sensea.d of pmc, tical atraiis. They were not driven by any ereat heroic desire to chmg rhe woi1d. Ther weie true experinenreG, that is, nen compelled to fo ow rhe in, plicarions of lheir own mo.Ier busins. All the evidence of rhei! sludies was

w""H'h"' i:;Inufi;l;f, :T:::*

EXPERIMENTS IN INTERVINWIIIG WORKERS
A few touch-ninded e\perinentes decided to go into the shops and-onpletelt disarned and denlded of then elaborate logical equipmenr ad in all hnility-ro seeif lhey couLdleam hoiy to cet the works to ralk abour dinss that were inportmr to rhem dd could leam to undeErand wh.r rhe wo.leis were n-yinc ro reli then. This E a erohtiodarr idea i! rhey$r 1928,whcn this imenieNing progan salled-the idea of serting a roiter ro raLkto yoq bd ro lisren sympatleticallr,hut inre1. Licenlly,ro what he had ro say.In that lear a nev era of pesonnel relations begd. lt v6 dle frsr leal atrenpr ro ser hunan data and to rorce huoan rcols to get them. In rhar year a novel idea was bom; dinly rhe expeiimentes p(ceived a neq nethod ofhuma. conrol. h rhat year the Rulicon sas cro$ed Iiom which therc could be no retum ro t1E "good old days." Nor dur rhe expe. inenb6 ev*vdted ro rctlm, because they nos entered a world so exckine, so in lrieuine, and so fuU of pronise thar ir made the "sood oldda)6"seen Likethe pnrle and plar of childrcn When dese exp*imenrc$ decidd ro dre. rhe worid of "neains," wdr !e.t fe{ rools, bxt widr a sllonc seme of crriosity and a willingne$ ro 1m, rher had man! inte.estins adventLres.Ii rould be t.o long a rorr ro rell aLlof dren, or

144 loei.rlcapacins werebejnC lsed h dre \eryice of rh 6 *lf-nEF,, , Cdualh md partrtultlh Se throf rhe evideice.*h ch q oretuhetniry, rh epftimenG6 had bem forced ro abadon this .onceprio. oftie vorler andt 6 belMyor Cu) wiri a nq qdknc hr!otr66 could rley sEte se4e of the data rhey had collecred. The ..ncelrior of the vorler which drev deretoped is actually nothing rery nev or nadir\gi it is one which any effective adninnfiator i4tuiti}ely recosnres ard pEciicesilhedlhC l!mb bemps. ftre, riey found rhar rte beha,ioro{ workers could nor be und;rsrood aDatt fron rheir feeliqs or sdtidor! i;hatl use the-void hentihert,, herealie. ro retn not onry b such rhhcs s teelincs dd enonotu, bur rlsoro a nrrch wider rance of phenomena which hay nor be exprssed ir violent reelinds .r emodon*ph{onha drar de JeFed b by,Nctrwordsa 'loyaLq,,, miegrirv," Secondlr, dey found that sarioens are ebily dsgxised, and heoce are difi_ cuLt ro re@cnize and ro study. Manfestanons ot sentioent talie a nunh..f different folm. feelines of psoet in, tec.iry, tot emlle, can be exDrssed b! a hudrhale; thev co atso be mres*.i shen violaEd, by a sitdo{n_srike. Moreoret, peoFle like to radonalre thetr sentinenrs and ro obiectifa then. We &e qot m tikdy |osr.] fe;lhad., as to sar 'The woltd is bad.,,tn other words, we like to ndow dre wodd vuh rr,or arbibue nd qla]tret qhrchliLl jsriry bd ac.ouft for L\e feetrn8shd sentments *e have bvard it; ve rend ro prcjecr ou setuinenb o! rhe ouside Thirdly, they found rhat nanLGsr.rhons oi senrifrert coutd nor be undel stood 6 n\ings in dd by theGelves. bur only ir retu of rhe toral siruati@ of rte leson. To comprehend*hy a pe6on

tlk iuin felt the @y he did, a vider Ense of,he, nomtu had to b. *plotd. The 6lLwi! tue dcn@ r suateroushly dt deveLopmsl ot ilxs poin r of view

t.

\ , / Annudes (semimenrs)

. ,
PeFonal rristory

/ /

\ \
Sodatsiualion al Md<

It will !e edeml'ded ilai at i6t the investisarors Asuned a simple and dL rcct reLauon bedeen ceitain physical changesin rhe workls envnomenr md hG responses !o then. This sinpte sbre ofmind is iliGtmred in diasdn t_ But all rhe evidence of dre early exper:nens shoed c\at tne repoues oiemployees!o chaneesin their immediare working envimndent can te ude6t@d oaly iD tems of thei. artiluds_th. *Ted,nB' L|aE chmces have for .hem. r h 5 p o , n t o r v i e wk r e p r g o t e d h d i a _ eram Il Hoq-ei, Lhe'memh,,wh rh rh$e .hbs6 tuve foi rhe 'orke. E nor stictLy and primrily tosicl fc drcy de iEucht wEh hma feelinss and vat,Fs The "neanins," rherefo.;, which an! Indrvidurl edltq sngrs b2 lartnuta. ctmse depenGupon (l ) htr social.con

Thelldutlmu

rrtmngE

149

diiionins," or {hat senrimens (vatues, This rcon @ntained fofteen {orknen grouF hopes, feas, expectatios, eic ) he is iepEdting dne @uparional brineiog !o rhe vork situation because vneme!, soldemen, Dd insPectots These men were on eroup liecevork of hn De!,ou hmny md srou! ssoci.' where the nore they $med out rhe rion., and hence rhe relauon of *e chmee o ilese sentinents; and (Z) the more thet eameil. ln such a siruarion one niEht have expecred that theY lind;f hund sarisfacrion he is deda{ould have been inrerested in naining Fron his soci,l participation with taining total outPlt and drat the fste. othei wo.ke6 and super*os in rhe im' vorkds vould have Dut Pre$ut on the he G a mediare vork crouF of 'hich nedber, and hence the effect of the slower $orkes to impioYe then effrchanqe on his cusron*y interPesonaL ciency. But 6is wd no! dE case OPer !eht;ns. ThG way ofreeardinc the re_ aring wirhin this gbup were lou bdi. smnses of worten (bo$ ve$al and sentiments. which can be dpressed brie0y d followsi (1) You should not o;ert) h repressred in diasran lli lt rur1l out too 4uch vork; if You do' You sys brie{\a Sotimells do not alpear ln "rate buster" (2) You shouLdrct de a the cone ou! of iheY do no! vacuuG a too liltle wo.k; if you do, tou oqt rurn blue; they alpear in a social com*t. "chiselel" (3) You sholld not say They hale ble.cNrde-Rd in terN ot ae a whrch would anvlhinc to supe^Go_! rhaLcontexr, and apet ftomrt thef de ftrcr to de dhmdtol onE.r vou e l&eb to be nbmde$tood. 'lquealei" sociaies; if you do, you are a One futher point should be nade (4) be too of6ciosi.dEt should not Y@ about that 6pect of the vorkels etrvi"Socbl Situarion at is, iJ lou m d ispecto! ]ou shonld not d$lFated r6mot Worl" in diasrah lil. What is meot is of the . To be an arcepted nenb* rhat the vorler is not an isolated, accoroance ro act n man bad a of. 40u! a neober he i6 individual; ' aronic ;irh lilise social srmda.di. One nan in eroup, or of s,ou!s. Wrthrn *ch oJ thesesroupsthe i.di!iddaisha"e reL thr ercuo erceededthe crouPsudrd ines and senriments bwaril each other, of*hatcomrirued a fair da1s vork Se cial Fsule *as lut on hin to conloo, 'hich lhd rhem toeeiher io coUaboE but withour avail, since he enjoved colLective these dre effort. Moteoler, doi.s Lhi.gs rhe orhers disliked The senlimenb can, md do, becone a! tached io etelt item dnd object in the bestliked pe$on i^ rhe Erotr! was lhe industrial environneni+ven to our' one who kept his oltput exacdy wheie put. Material goodsi outplt, wagesi ihe grcut lcreed n should belnasNch s the opsa!fts vere aseed houa of worl, and so on, camot be s to what @stitued a day's wo*, one ftated asAbst in rheNeLv$ Istead, rate ot outpnt to 6er ox$ be interlreted as carrie$ of niphr hale exDecred h.;boui *,e s;ne foi each nenbd or the crou! Th6 sd hr no me:n; the (ase. c\*e vere markeddLfteren.6 AL OIIIPUT AS A FORM OF nrst 6e expe.inente6 frolsht lhat rhe SOCIAL BEIIAVIOR difleieDcesin indiridual penomdce ser ielateCto diffeences in abjli+ so Thar outlut is a fom of sial leh:vior they conpued each workels .elative wa, wel i]iustated in a $udr made hl ralk in output with his rehtn'e iank in calied the Hawthone expeineoteft, intallieence and dexteriq as measured the Banl Wi.ine Obscnalion Roon

150 by certain tests.Th r.sultsseie inren $tins: Thc low$r lroducer n the rcon enked tct in inrelligenceand L\ird in dexterityi .he hishe$ prodlcer in the roon w6 seyenrh in delteriry dd toq. es in inteuisence. Here sueiy wd a siruation in which the narive calachies of the den were Aor inding expresion. fioh rhe vierpoinr of losicat. econonic behavio4 thb room did nor nule sese. O . l y L nG r m s o f p o u e . t u t s { n m e n t s could rhese nd,\ duat d,fteren.es in oralt tevelbee.ph,ned. ta.h wo .e/s level 01o!rput relle.redhs posirion in the ldtornal organization of the grolp.

Mati$dm of the company as a whole. Thev danined rhe social c@ditio6 ud* {hich ii is nore likely fd the enptoyee eioup ro separarereLr out i^ oppciti@ to the F_ mdderof drcroups whjch makeu! dre roial o,cdnizitior In \ucl Dhenomen: they felt that rhey had at last arrived ar the hed of the prcblen of efiecllee collaboarion. They obtained a new e iehtenment oi the presentindu$rial scenej hom.rhEloinr ofsew, mhy lerpLer n problem beone morehrellErb e. s o m e p o p L e . t , , nf ,o r e t r m P t e , dEr . th streot lhe p,yenlelope s Lhemaror demdndwh,ctrte empio!* tr tuk,nc o r h s l u b A l t r h er o r k e r w a n 6 r b b e btd-FhJt odo and b serp$d for dons Ir rt wernuk a r h i m M J h i s l o bn r e m ot senrioents, rh6 is far from being s gene.arlytne s we would like to beljeve Mct of us ranr the satisfacdon thai come5ftom beins accepkd and recoE, nded aspeopleof trotrh by ou fi,enas and work associates. Money is onlv a smail pd of dis social recoenition. ite wav w. ire rcded b! our b6s, bemc aked ro hrpi newlomer. beincaked to keep an cye on a dilicuLr ole.arion. br'ne eivn a job requinns sireciatskilL_ at ot rhe\ee acB.f so.13lfe..prir.n. hey relLu how we srand In aur wo,k gloLp. We all wanr i@cibLe eridence of our social inpftance. We *,ant ro have a skill rhst is socialiyrecosnneds se, ful. We wmr the feetincoaseclrir,lnat cones not so mlch flom rhe ahour or hoqey we have inthe bank s iioa teine an accepred menb-oi asroup.A nr w h o . ej o b i s w ( h o u r $ c E r u n c f l o nt r Ike : mm $irhout a .oL nrry, ihe ac(v r} ro wnLcthe bA o$ve dle marore. r on af his I f a robbed or aI hr;.. heming m.l sie.ilidc. ... sunmary, therefore, the W$hn -,In rLe..r. iescarcbeA seem !o ne tike a beginnins on the road back ro sanity in employee relations ba$e { i ) thev otr. a ftuidll workine hwothsis, a 6w sin,

WIiAT MAKES TflE WORKER NOT WAT1T TO COOPERATE

As a BU I of rle BJnt w j n np Obsem_ rion Rcon, se Hawrhome ;seaichcE be@e moreed hde intd*ted in Se hrofrat employee Eroupswhich rend tu toqn within the fomat org,nLarion of the company,and which are norlikelv to be repfesenredin the orgdizarion cnarr. they becanc inrerested h rhe belieft and oeeds eiich iave the elfecr otnaking each individuai feet d inte, crar pa.t ot rhe s.oup and which make me Crotrp appear as a sinsLeunir, in &e social codesand n.ms ofbehavior bv means o 1 w h c h e n p t o t e e sa u r o m r r i crrrl work r.tctlrer in r eroLp u rrhour ).rv coruc'o s ch.ice A b qherher dley q t r r o r q r r n o r . o o F e E r cT . he) \tudred the rmlonant social tun.rioos these sroupspe.foq for rheir nenbes. the histo.Es of th$e infomt eork sroups, nov rhet spontaneoustrappar,how rner tnd ro nerPeruareihemsel\e5 hurfprf, rnd dBapprrj tror $ey are ra con\hr ieopJd\ fron dl nialLhtrce, an hen@ ho$ rhey tend o resa m. vado. In panicuLar, they bcan inteL e \ t d , h _ r h o rg r o u p s whose .!rm\ and c!de\ or behavior a r ea r v a l a r c u , r h the technical and econotuicobiectives

TIEH@tltuExqeins'a Dle and rclativelt cld ids fo. t] studY of hulM situatiotr od uddtmding (2) theY irffer a simPle in bsin6s: of vhich we cm exmethod bv 6l:d plorc dd del wift dE onPld h!t]F rrobLemsin a busins oisdEard;ha nethod isahlll]trnethod: itdeals to Peowith i:hinss which de inpdiet "1.' md (3) rhe! tuowa newiiehlon for etrerire ollaboniheoemdrdo ri.n'- Too ofrn we thinl of @liabom' tld 6 emerhine which (a be loFczIY EIec' or legaly contri"ed The VsIm dic sludi* iodi@te &at it is i4 n@ a natter of satiment than a oatte! of losic. Vdkds ar not isolated' utueb;ed individu"ls; ihev de $cial mimab ad shotd ie rrered * wdr -fhis

151
the qo&{ i5 a so' sardenr cial mi@i dd should be neted * $cL-is simple. blL dE stse@tic at!] @$istst pEcrice ot rh6 poororvrew is flot- lf ir were systemticallt PBcric.d ir would doluoodE Pedt{zy work Ou Khnoloeical de' oe!ffiel in de P6!t hundEd Yed ha ieloDdst Ou Det]iods of hdhem ftnsdous dlins pe.ple are sti arhaic fthG 'iviliaiion ir to ssive, we o$t obhh a of humm motivane{ undstsdbe orsmiation dd behavior nl bsind be which 6 _The md6teding tioran simply bur e#ecivelv pcbced conbNre V,rdtem Elect ic rtgrchs a 6sr step in this direcdoa