Valves

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE VALVE INDUSTRY
A broad overview of the industry to help newcomers better understand the world of industrial valves
AN EDUCATION PROGRAM SPONSORED BY:
The Friends of the Crawford Library, Inc.

and
The Valve Manufacturers Association
An Introduction to the Valve Industry
Slide 1
SECTION TOPICS
SECTION 1: VALVE BASICS
Definition and functions Major valve types Market segments Special service valves Timeline of major valve events
SECTION 2: HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES
Technological changes
Manufacturing changes Standards organizations Pressure and class ratings Testing requirements
Slide 2
SECTION 3: VALVE PERFORMANCE
SECTION TOPICS
SECTION 4: VALVE COMPONENTS Body materials Valve trim materials Seals, gaskets and packings Valve actuation Review of topics discussed Glossary of terms Additional resources from VMA Separate attachment (PDF)
SECTION 5: SUMMARY/RESOURCES
SUPPLEMENTAL NOTES
Slide 3
In this section, you will learn about:

The functions valves perform in a piping system The major market segments the valve industry serves
Slide 4
What is a valve? A device that regulates the flow of gases, liquids or loose materials through an aperture, such as a pipe, by opening, closing or obstructing a port or passageway
Slide 5
How do valves regulate flow?

Isolates flow: on/off functions Controls flow: volume functions Checks flow: directional functions
Slide 6
Isolating valves
Isolating valves also called block valves Possible valve choices for isolating service
Gate Ball Butterfly Plug
Slide 7
Control and regulating valves

Control valves are prime examples Possible valve choices for control and regulating
Globe Butterfly Ball Plug
Slide 8
Check
Swing check most common Many globe valves can be made stop check or non-return types
Slide 9
Safety and pressure relief valves

Special on/off valves Designed to:
Open and relieve excess pressure Re-close after normal conditions are restored Function when normal operating controls fail
Not designed to control normal operating pressure

Most critical valve in pressurized systems Referred to as PRVs
An Introduction to the Valve Industry Slide 10
Basic valve types

Gate Globe Ball Check
Butterfly
Plug
Slide 11
Gate valves
Mature design Simple construction with few moving parts Not recommended for throttling service Relatively easy and inexpensive to manufacture Easy to repair Heavy design compared to butterfly and ball valves
Globe valves
Primarily a regulating or throttling valve Basic design over 150 years old Called a globe due to round body shape
Poor flow path; much fluid friction

Generally not made in very large sizes Usually a unidirectional installation May be made in stop-check configuration Low repair cost
Check valves
Also called non-return Allow flow in one direction only Types: swing, piston, ball, double-disc and silent Metal-seated checks leak, especially swing type Require careful sizing, installation and placement Low repair cost
Slide 14
Ball valves
Relatively new valve style (since 1950) May be resilient or metal seated Can be used for blocking or regulating flow Two main designs: floating and trunnion Resilient seated typically
Use Teflon for seat material Have lower maximum temperature about 450o F rating of
Compact design Moderate repair cost

Plug valves
Oldest valve design, developed 2000 years ago! Available either lubricated or lined Can be used for blocking or regulating flow Lubricated types used for hydrocarbon service Lined types popular in chemical industry In some cases replaced by ball and butterfly designs Moderately expensive to repair
Butterfly valves
Center-hinged swinging disc Low pressure and low temperature designs are resilient seated, usually rubber lined Can be used for blocking or regulating High performance types are metal seated Often double and triple offset to reduce closure torque Relatively expensive to repair
What do valves regulate?

Media
Gases Liquids Loose materials
Slide 18
Where do valves regulate flow?

Just about everywhere!
Slide 19
Market segments
Municipal water and wastewater Home plumbing systems Heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) Fire protection General industry Power Oil, gas and refining
Slide 20
Municipal water and wastewater

Fresh water and sewerage media
Materials: cast and ductile iron Valve sizes: 6" to 84" Operating conditions: ambient, low pressure
Slide 21
Home plumbing
Material: brass Primarily installed in:
Sinks and faucets Hose bibs Furnaces Hot water heating systems
Slide 22
Heating, ventilating and air conditioning

Commercial buildings Materials: iron, steel and bronze Valve sizes: " to 24"
Operating conditions: low ambient to environments 200 F
Slide 23
Fire protection
Commercial buildings, including high rise Materials: iron and steel Valve sizes: 2" to 16" Operating conditions: ambient, low pressure environments
Slide 24
General industry
Examples
Automated assembly lines Hydraulic equipment Compressed air
Valve sizes: " to 2" Operating conditions: ambient, low pressure environments, except for hydraulics
Power fossil fuel plants

Steam generating plants Materials: carbon steel to low alloy Valve sizes: 2" to 16" Operating conditions: high temperatures, high pressure
Slide 26
Power nuclear plants

Extreme quality assurance requirements
Total traceability of materials and processes Extremely high integrity castings
ASME N Stamp required for manufacture of nuclear valves Stainless steels commonly used Cobalt-based hard-facings (Stellite) cannot be used
Oil, gas and refining

Largest variety of materials and types Materials: steel through super alloy Valve types: all Valve sizes: " through 48" Operating conditions: cryogenic to 1000 F, low to high pressures Media: water to hydrofluoric acid
Slide 28
Special service/special valves

Cryogenic (below -150 F): extended bonnets Slurry: knife gates popular Hydrogen: high integrity castings Strong acid: corrosion-resistant alloys Sour service, hydrogen sulfide (H2S): limits on material hardness Oxygen: all oil and grease must be removed Hazardous media: extra QA (quality assurance) and NDE (non-destructive examination)
SECTION 2: HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

Events that brought about major changes in valve design and manufacturing during the last two centuries
The advances made in valve technology between 1900 and the 21st century
Slide 30
Valve history timeline

Roman Empire (first valves) 25 AD James Watt (steam engine) 1775 World War II 1939 Jack Kilby (integrated circuit) 1959
25 AD 1775 1959
0 1939
2000
Slide 31
Roman Empire: 25 AD
Built the first valves Used valve and piping designs for a variety of water service applications
Roman Plug Valve 25 AD
Slide 32
Steam power: 1775

Demand for larger and higher pressure valves Development of large integrated valve plants
120" Valve Circa 1915
Slide 33
Valve technology: 1800-1900

Steam industry drove virtually all valve designs. Materials: brass and bronze, then cast iron Globe valves were predominate. High pressure in 1890 was 200 psi.
1892 Valve Patent
Slide 34
World War II
Enormous need for additional piping and valves Demand for 100-octane aviation fuel
Integrated Valve Plant Circa 1947
Assembling Valves During WW II
Slide 35

Valve design requirements driven by:
Steam until WWII High octane fuel in 1940s
Birth of steel valve, 1900-1910 Pressure-seal bonnets, 1940-1945 Teflon enabled the modern floating ball valve New corrosion-resistant valve materials
Slide 36
Technology revolution: mid-20th century

Advancing digital technology Emerging nuclear market
Pneumatic Positioner
Nuclear Power Plant
Slide 37

Smart valves and fieldbus control New designs
Triple-offset butterfly valves Metal-seated ball valves
Improved materials
High Cr/Mo alloys: C5, C12, C12A Super alloys
Advances in welding technology

Hard facing overlays Extended-life seating surfaces
21st century changes

Technical
Digital control systems Improved fugitive emissions control
Manufacturing
China and the Far East Commodity valves become cheaper
Slide 39
Technical changes
New and improved high-temperature alloys Advanced computer control and actuation Bigger valves becoming more common Sharper focus on fugitive emissions
Network-integrated Control System An Introduction to the Valve Industry Slide 40 State-of-the-Art Butterfly Valve
Manufacturing changes
Through the 1970s, United States was world leader in valve manufacturing Most commodity steel valves now made or cast in China or India
Chinese Investment Casting Foundry
Slide 41
Chinese manufacturing
Chinese Furnace
Casting Cleaning
Modern Chinese Valve Plant
Slide 42

Organizations responsible for establishing standards for valve manufacturing Differences between American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) class ratings and water, oil and gas (WOG) ratings Valve testing procedures
Slide 43
Valve standards organizations

American Petroleum Institute (API) Manufacturers Standardization Society (MSS) American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) International Organization for Standardization (ISO) American Waterworks Association (AWWA) Instrument Society of America (ISA) NACE International (originally National Association of Corrosion Engineers)
Slide 44
API
American Petroleum Institute Covers refinery, chemical and petrochemical industry
Slide 45
API standards
API 6D, Pipeline Valves API 594, Check Valves API 598, Valve Testing & Inspection API 600, Gate Valves API 602, Compact Steel Gate Valves API 607, Fire Testing Requirements API 608, Ball Valves API 609, Butterfly Valves API RP 591, Valve Qualification API RP 621, Valve Repair
Slide 46
MSS
Manufacturers Standardization Society of the Valve and Fitting Industry Oldest U.S. standards organization 78 valve and fitting standards, including:
SP-25, Marking System for Valves SP-45, Bypass & Drain Connections SP-91, Guidelines for Manual Operation of Valves
ASME
American Society of Mechanical Engineers Standards include:
B16.5, Pipe Flanges B16.10, Valve end-to-end dimensions B16.25, Buttweld ends B16.34, Valves, Threaded, Flanged and Buttwelding
Slide 48
ASME B16.34
Contains pressure temperature ratings for different materials Non-destructive testing procedures NDE acceptance criteria Many useful tables and important data
Slide 49
ISO
International Organization for Standardization Many valve standards parallel to U.S. standards Some joint ISO and API standards
ISO 6364, Valves for Cryogenic Service ISO 5208, Valve Testing
Slide 50
Pressure relief valve (PRV) standards

ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
Section I: Power Boilers Section III: Nuclear Section IV: Heating Boilers Section VIII: Pressure Vessels
National Board of Boiler & Pressure Vessel Inspectors

Certifies PRV OEMs and repair facilities
Slide 51
Boiler and pressure vessel safety valves

Regulated by the ASME Fired Pressure Vessels (B&PV) Code Designated as ASME Section I Safety Valves
ASME Section I Safety Valves Symbol
Slide 52
Pressure ratings: methods

Specifications:
Class ratings WOG (water, oil and gas) ratings
ASME Class ratings

Very similar to class ratings for flanges; often the same
WOG (water, oil and gas) ratings

Valves working pressure typically up to 100 F (same definition as cold working pressure [CWP] for class ratings)
Class ratings
Example: ASME Class 150 is defined as a dimensionless number indirectly related to the pressure-retaining ability as the function of temperature of the component. The class defines the maximum allowable working pressure at a specific temperature for a specific material. Classes primarily derived from ASME B16.34
Slide 54
Class ratings (continued)

Often shown as spreadsheet table with:
Pressure classes on top Temperature on side Single table for each specific material group
Common steel class ratings: 150, 300, 600, 900, 1500, 2500 & 4500 (also Class 800 only for small forged valves for API-602 standard) Class number formerly referred to the rated pressure at 750 F except for Class 150
Sample class ratings table
Slide 56
Sample ASME pressure standards

Maximum working pressures listed by media in ASME B16.34 For example, a Class 150 valve, WCB material, can be used safely on services up to 800 F. At ambient temperature, the maximum working pressure of that valve is 285 psig. At 800 F, the maximum working pressure of that same valve is only 80 psig.
WOG ratings
Usually defined by only two points
Pressure at 100 F Pressure at the highest allowable temperature of the materials used (often a PTFE seat or seal)
Often portrayed on graph or chart, appearing as a straight line rating
Slide 58
Sample WOG ratings graph

WOG ratings common for:
Ball valves Other soft-seated valves
Slide 59
Testing requirements
All ASME and API standard valves inspected and tested Vary by:
Product type Size Pressure class
Common test media

Water Air
Testing a Linear Actuated Valve
Slide 60
Testing requirements (continued)

Shell (body integrity) test
150% of rated maximum cold working pressure (CWP)
Seat (leakage) test

90 psi (air) or 110% of the rated maximum CWP (water)
Testing Class 800 Valves
Slide 61
Typical valve test requirement

12" Class 300 WCB gate valve (to API-600) Test requirement API-598 ASME B16.34 300 Class CWP (working pressure @ ambient) = 740 psig
Pressure (psi) Shell test Seat test Backseat test HP seat test option
Duration (sec.) 120 120 60 120

Slide 62
1125 90 (air) 825 825
Control valve seating and shut-off requirements

Control valves are usually tested to standards that differ from other valve types. The joint Fluid Control Institute (FCI)/ American National Standard Institute (ANSI) document ANSI/FCI 70-2-1991 is usually applied.
Slide 63
TABLE I
Leakage Class Class I (See 4.2.1) Class II (See 4.2.2) Class III (See 4.2.3) Class IV (See 4.2.4) Class V (See 4.2.5) See Paragraph 4.2.1 Maximum Seat Leakage Test Procedure None
0.5% of rated valve capacity
Type A (See 5.1) Type A (See 5.1) Type A (See 5.1) Type B (See 5.2)
5 x 10 ml per minute of water per inch of orifice diameter per psi differential (5 x 10-12 m3 per second of water per mm of orifice diameter per bar differential). Leakage per Paragraph 5.3.4 as expressed in ml per minute versus port diameter
Class VI (See 4.2.6)
Type C (See 5.3)
Slide 64
SECTION 4: VALVE COMPONENTS

The types of materials used in valve manufacturing Materials commonly used to manufacture valve pressure containing parts Four non-pressure-containing parts used on valves Two major categories of valve trim material The difference between gasket seals and packing seals
Slide 65
And you will learn:

How to identify three types of valve gaskets About the types of common end connectors that are used on valves The most common problems with installed valves What conditions to consider when selecting a valves gasket material and packing material
Slide 66
Bonnet designs
Screwed or threaded Union bonnet Bolted bonnet, flat gasket Bolted, ring-type joint
Welded
Pressure seal
Slide 67
Screwed or threaded
Oldest commercial design Usually on bronze valves Used on some hydraulic valves Not allowed in most refineries and petrochemical plant process service
Slide 68
Bolted bonnet, flat gasket

Most popular current design Utilizes a minimum of four bolts Adaptable to many gasket types Not used much for pressure classes above 1500 Higher pressure classes (above Class 1500) have gone to pressure seal type bonnets
Bolted ring joint type

Similar to regular bolted bonnet Uses a carbon steel ring gasket softer than the body and bonnet material if possible Useful for higher pressures and temperatures than flat gasket bolted bonnets
Slide 70
Pressure seal bonnet

Invented in early 1940s Much lighter than bolted bonnet Employs a soft wedge-shaped carbon steel ring, sometimes plated with silver
Newest designs use a stainlesssteel-contained graphite filler Not for pressure classes below 600 Require internal pressure to energize seal
Pressure Seal Ring
Slide 71
Welded bonnet
Used in sizes through 24 before pressure seals were invented Commonly used on API 602 valves " through 2" Used in combination with a bolted bonnet as a lip seal Excellent for fugitive emissions containment
Slide 72
Common end connections

Threaded (" to 2") Socket weld (" to 2") Buttweld (generally above 2")
Flanged (generally above 2")

Raised face Flat face Ring-type joint
Slide 73
Common end connection examples
Flanged Ends Raised Face
Flanged Ends Ring Type Joint
Flanged Ends Flat Face
Welded Ends Buttweld
Slide 74
Other end connections

Raised face tongue and groove Brazed ends Mechanical clamping
Grayloc Victaulic Sanitary
Slide 75
Valve components and materials

Valve materials
Pressure-containing parts Non-pressure-containing parts Valve trim Seals: gaskets, packing
Slide 76
Pressure-containing parts
Valve body materials Require material rating and class rating for pressure Popular pressure-containing materials
Bronze Cast and ductile iron Carbon steel Low alloy steel (up to 9 Cr) Stainless steels Exotic, high and super alloys
Slide 77
Bronze
Oldest valve material Maximum temperature 500 F Relatively cheap to manufacture Low pressure and temperature only Good corrosion resistance Typically not repaired
Cast and ductile iron

Developed in 1850s Brittle and limited to lower pressures Maximum temperature 450 F Not suitable for very low or cryogenic temperatures Not easily welded Typically not repaired, except largest sizes
Carbon steel
Industrial valve workhorse material WCC, WCB, A105 Temperatures from -20 F to 1000 F
Ductile
Strong Relatively easy to cast Moderate cost Easy to weld
Low alloy steel

Up to 9 Cr maximum Maximum temperature 1200 F Cast grades: WC6, WC9, C5, C9, Forged grades: F11, F22, F5, F9,
Most require PWHT (post-weld heat treatment) when welded
Slide 81
Stainless steels
Corrosion resistant, stainless, with chrome content above 10% Austenitic: 304, 316, 317, 321, 347 Highly resistant to most chemicals Excellent for cryogenic applications Easy to machine and weld Precipitation hardening grades (PH) much stronger (i.e., 17-4 PH)
Exotic high and super alloys

Highly resistant to volatile chemicals at high temperatures and pressures Monel, titanium, Hastelloy and Inconel Very expensive
Often difficult to machine and weld
Slide 83
Non-pressure-containing parts
Yoke Mounting pads Miscellaneous Trim: components affecting valve closure
Seat Closure element (disc, ball, etc.) Stem
Slide 84
Trim materials selection considerations

Process fluids
Erosiveness Corrosiveness Solids Other fluid characteristics
Other
Pressure drop Temperature Flow Velocity
Valve action
On-off Throttling Emergency
Valve trim materials

Soft seated: elastomeric polymers such as EPDM and plastic polymers such as Teflon
Advantage: tight seating closure Disadvantages: wide temperature range and easily damaged
Metal seated: bronze, stainless and hard facings

Advantages: high temp and not easily damaged Disadvantage: harder to get bubble-tight closure
Slide 86
Metal-seated valve trims

Defined by API Examples for gate and globe valves:
Trim 8 13 CR stem & disc with Stellite 6 HF seat Trim 5 13 CR stem with Stellite 6 HF disc & seat Trim 10 316 SS stem, disc & seat Trim 12 316 SS stem & disc with Stellite 6 HF seat Trim 16 316 SS stem with Stellite 6 HF disc & seat
Valve seals
Gaskets
Between non-moving valve components Typically between outer pressure-containing parts
Packings
Between one non-moving component and one moving component Typically between some part of outer shell and an operating component, such as stem
Slide 88
Valve gasket seals

Gasket Locations
Globe Valve
Ball Valve
Slide 89
Types of valve gasket

Crush gaskets
Flat graphite/steel laminate sheet Oval corrugated soft metal Flat Teflon (PTFE) or reinforced formulations
Controlled compression gaskets

Spiral wound, typically stainless steel with PTFE or graphite
Pressure energized, or assisted, gaskets

Typically soft iron or graphite elastomers
Gasket selection considerations

Service conditions
Handles max and/or min temperature of the fluid Handles the (possibly) corrosive nature of the fluid
Appropriate joint design

Appropriately smooth seating surface Proper installation Proper maintenance
Slide 91
Valve packings
Packing Locations
Compression Packing
O-Ring Packing
Slide 92
Valve packing materials

Historically
Braided fiber materials Asbestos until about 1985
Graphite or Teflon most common today

Graphite for higher temperature services Teflon (PTFE) for more corrosive services; requires temperature de-rating of the valve to about 450 F even at low pressure
Packing selection considerations

Service conditions
Handles max and/or min temperature of the fluid Handles the (possibly) corrosive nature of the fluid
Valve design
Smooth stuffing boxes Extremely smooth stem surfaces Straight and concentric stems Operation without undue torque
Proper installation Proper maintenance

Fugitive emissions
Increased scrutiny on emissions control today, especially volatile organic compounds (VOCs) Requirements vary from a maximum of 50 ppm VOCs to 250 ppm Valve designs require type testing and qualification U.S. and international testing standards are not equal
Slide 95
How to control fugitive emissions

Bellows seal best design, but expensive Live-loaded packing sometimes helpful Easier to contain fugitive emissions with quarter-turn valves Low fugitive emissions success requires:
Proper packing construction and material Smooth and straight stem Smooth stuffing box
Slide 96
Valve actuation
Manual (requires operator)
Lever or gear used
Automated (no operator)

Needs a power source:
Electricity, pneumatic pressure or hydraulic Which are available? What is the environment?
Slide 97
Manual valve actuation

Manual gears
Help reduce opening and closing operating torques to easily manageable amounts, usually a maximum of 70-100 ft/lbs.
Bevel gears
Used for rising stem valves such as gates and globes
Worm gears
Used for quarter-turn valves such as ball, plug and butterfly valves
Slide 98
Automatic valve actuation

Uses
Frequently operated valves Control or regulating operations Valves in hazardous locations Valves in remote locations Difficult to operate valves
Automatic actuator types

Pneumatic powered Hydraulic powered Electric powered
Valve repair
Factored into the total cost of ownership Fewer valves repaired today due to low cost of new commodity valves Valves below 12" Class 150 and 6" Class 300 usually scrapped unless alloy material Some valves expensive to repair
Triple offset butterfly Metal seated ball
Common valve problems

Leakage
Casting leaks, due to poor casting quality Leaking gaskets, due to improper joint adjustment Leaking packing, due to improper compression adjustment, stem scratched, or lack of sealant Seating damage, due to incorrect trim materials or in-line trash from construction
Operation
Incorrect valve sizing Component breakage
Valve selection questions

What is the fluid? What is the temperature and pressure? Will I need to block flow, regulate it, or stop back-flow? Will the valve be operated often? How much room do I have to install the valve? Will I need to service it often?
What is my budget?
You have learned about

1. The functions valves perform in a piping system 2. The most common valve types 3. Major market segments served by the valve industry 4. Organizations responsible for establishing standards for valve manufacturing 5. ASME class ratings and WOG ratings 6. Valve test medias: air and water
Slide 103

7. Three types of valve components: pressurecontaining, non-pressure-containing parts and seals 8. Materials commonly used for valve bodies 9. Non-pressure-containing parts; yoke, mounting pads and trim 10. Soft-seated and metal-seated valve trim 11. Crush gaskets, controlled compression gaskets and pressure energized gaskets

12. Raised face, ring joint and flat face flanged ends, and butt-weld connections
13. The distinct functions of gaskets and packing seals

14. Selection of valve gasket and packing material 15. Fugitive emissions and how to control them 16. Actuation: manual and automated 17. Leakage and operation problems in installed valves 18. Valve selection questions
Slide 105
Glossary of terms
Actuator A device that applies force to operate valve; provides force or torque. ANSI American National Standards Institute AOV Air-operated valve API American Petroleum Institute ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers Automated valve A valve that is powered by a source other than a human operator.
a-co
Blowdown The difference between the set pressure and the closing pressure of a pressure relief valve, expressed either as a percentage of the set pressure, or in pressure units. Also, to discharge fluid through a safety relief valve by opening the valve. Bonnet A component sitting on top of the body of a valve that contains valve stems and bushings. Buttweld Weld in which adjoining edges are parallel and facing each other. Cavitation The result of vapor bubbles collapsing and releasing energy and noise into a flow system. Check valve A valve that allow media to flow in only one direction. Cr Chromium Cock A device, such as a faucet or valve, for regulating the flow of a liquid.
AWWA American Water Works Association, which establishes and maintains valve standards for the waterworks industry.
Bleed To drain or depressurize a valve Block and bleed A valve configuration in which flow through a valve is blocked while the valve is bled through another small port.
Slide 106
Glossary of terms
Control valve A valve that regulates the flow of media. Cryogenic Characteristic of temperature below -150 F. Cv The flow coefficient; the amount of material that can pass through a fixed area at a certain differential pressure DCS Distributed control system Diaphragm A thin, flexible elastomer or metal sheet through which forces or pressures are applied Disc Closure member in a valve Ductile Capable of being drawn out into wire or thread Eccentric plug A half plug design used in valves Elastomeric Characteristics resembling those of rubber ESD Electrostatic discharge
co-id
Ferrous Characteristic of relating to or containing iron. Flange connection A connection mated by means of bolts inserted through holes in the flange face. Gasket A seal between non-moving valve components. gpm Acronym for gallons per minute.
HART Hybrid signal containing characteristics of both analog and digital signals.
HPBV High-performance butterfly valve HVAC Heating, ventilating and air conditioning Hydraulic device A device that is moved or worked by liquid pressure. I.D. or ID Inside diameter
Slide 107
Glossary of terms
ISA International Society of Automation ISO International Organization for Standardization Isolating valve A valve that turns the flow of media on and off. Lift and turn Hybrid of linear and rotary valve actions LNG Acronym for liquid nitrogen gas. Media The gases, liquids or loose materials that flow through an aperture, such as a pipe MOV Motorized valve MSS Manufacturers Standardization Society NEMA National Electrical Manufacturers Association NRS Non-rising stem O.D or OD Outside diameter
is-pi
Offset design A design in which a valve controller is installed off geometric center of the valve. Operator A person who applies force to operate a valve. OS&Y Outside screw and yoke Overpressure The pressure increase over the set pressure of a pressure relief valve. Also, the amount of pressure in a media flow system that is over the set pressure of the pressure relief valve. P1 Inlet pressure, expressed in pound-force per square inch P2 Outlet pressure, expressed in pound-force per square inch Packing A seal between moving valve components Pig A cleaning or inspection device used in media flow systems.
Slide 108
Glossary of terms
Pneumatic device A device that is moved or worked by air pressure. PRV Pressure relief valve. psi Pounds per square inch. psig Pound-force per square inch gauge. PTFE Refers to Teflon PTFE, short for polytetrafluoroethylene. Q Required media flow, expressed in gallons per minute. RS Rising stems.
pn-s
Safety relief valve A pressure relief valve for liquid or vapor/gas service Safety valve A pressure relief valve for vapor/gas service Seat The fixed surface on which a valve rests or against which it presses Set pressure The inlet gauge pressure at which the pressure relief valve is set to open
QA Quality assurance
Relief valve A pressure relief valve for liquid service Relieving pressure The sum of the set pressure and overpressure pressure relief valve Resilient Capable of withstanding shock without permanent deformation or rupture; tending to recover from or adjust easily to misfortune or change.
Severe service A valve application in which the valve will be exposed to excessive conditions such as temperature, vibration or corrosion.
sg Specific gravity Slurry A watery mixture of insoluble matter (as mud, lime or plaster of paris)
Slide 109
Glossary of terms
Trim Valve components that make up the actual closure elements of the valve or that control the closure and are surrounded by the media inside the valve. Trunnion A pin or pivot on which something can be rotated or tilted TT Total torque Valve Device that regulates the flow of gases, liquids or loose materials through an aperture, such as a pipe, by opening, closing, or obstructing a port or passageway.
t-w
Valve seal General term used to refer to valve gaskets and valve packings Vena contracta A point in a flow system at which the maximum velocity is obtained. VOC Volatile organic compounds. WOG Water, oil, gas Worm A self-locking type of gear
Slide 110
Additional resources
Next Valve Basics Seminar & Exhibition
Oct. 28, 2010: Baton Rouge, LA
Back to Basics article compilation Valve Magazine (print & digital)

Free subscription Order past issues and articles
Coming later in 2010: Valve Basics in a Box

A complete Valves & Actuators 101 program for onsite education; watch VMA.org for details!
Slide 111
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE VALVE INDUSTRY was developed by Greg Johnson, Chairman of the VMA Education & Training Committee, and President, United Valve, Houston, TX. VMA would also like to acknowledge the contributions of the entire VMA Education & Training Committee whose efforts made this program possible.
For additional information on VMAs Education & Training program and other educational products for sale, please visit VMA.org.
2010 Valve Manufacturers Association
AN EDUCATION PROGRAM SPONSORED BY:
The Friends of the Crawford Library, Inc.

and
The Valve Manufacturers Association
Slide 112
An Introduction to the Valve Industry: Supplemental Notes

Slide 1
June 16, 2010
This program serves as an introduction to the industrial valve industry and is designed to inform newcomers to the industry about basic concepts such as valve types and components, materials, design, history and standards. Valves perform three basic functions: Isolating service: These are sometimes called block valves and are used in on/off service. Isolating valves are designed to operate in either the full open or full closed position. In critical applications these valves are often motor-operated. Controlling and regulating: Usually control valves, these can be; globe, ball, butterfly or plug types and used to regulate the amount of flow in a line. Control and regulating valves regulate the flow in a line. They are designed to operate in the less-than-full-open position. The oldest and still most popular regulating valve design is the globe. Gate valves should never be used for throttling or regulating unless the flow velocity is very low. High velocity flow in a gate valve used for regulating can quickly destroy the seating surfaces and result in leakage when fully closed. Check or non-return: These valves allow free flow in one direction only and block the flow from returning in the opposite direction. Check valves are the one-way street controllers of the valve industry.
Slide 6
Slide 7
Isolating or block valves are the no, no-go decision makers in the valve industry. There is no grey area when it comes to block valves. They are designed to be either open or closed, just like most light switches are used to turn lights on or off. The most common type of isolating valve is the gate valve, but other types have made inroads, especially over the past 25 years or so.
Slide 8
The control valve is required in every process plant or facility where the rate of flow has to be controlled. For effective flow regulation the flow rate should be proportional to the amount of closure of the stem. However certain control applications require flow rates that are not proportional with the percentage of closure of the stem, such as a quick opening response. The most accurate flow control is performed by control or regulating valves operated by a controller and an actuator, rather than by manual operation. Check or non-return valves only allow flow in one direction. They are marked with a flow arrow on the exterior surface to ensure they are installed in the proper orientation. Many pieces of process equipmentincluding pumps, turbines and boilersare protected by check valves. Unless they have soft, elastomer seating inserts, check valves will leak to some degree. In most cases, unless soft-seated, they should not be counted on for absolute shut-off.
Slide 9
2010 Valve Manufacturers of America

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June 16, 2010
Safety & relief valves are the silent sentinels of the piping system. Relief valves are used for liquid service, safety valves for vapor service and safety relief valves for liquid or vapor/gas service. Basic gate valve design has not changed much over the past 100 years or so. Although other valve types, such as the metal-seated ball valve, have threatened its existence, the venerable gate valve is still produced in vast numbers all over the world. Gate valves can be manufactured in sizes from through 144. Most gate valves are made from castings, but forged and fabricated valves are also common. Some of the largest gate valves in the world are parallel disc types used in giant dam and waterworks projects. The globe valve was the principal valve type during the 19th century. As other valve types matured over the next 75 years or so, globe valve usage began to be reserved only for flow control and regulation applications. Home faucets and outside water spigots are both usually globe-type valves. Percentage-wise, there are more globe-type control valves than any other type. Check valves run the gamut from being able to fit in the palm of your hand size to large waterworks valves that you can walk through. Check valves are used in tandem with a gate valve in many situations, even for backflow control, because metal-seated check valves usually have high allowable leakage rates. Check valve sizing and application issues account for a high percentage of in-plant refinery valve problems. The proper sizing of check valves is critical to optimize their performance. The invention of Teflon led to the creation of the floating ball valve. Virtually unknown before World War II, the ball valve exploded on the PVF (piping/valves/fittings) scene in the 1950s and 60s. Floating ball types are usually 12 and smaller, while trunnionmounted types can be built in very large sizes. At one time plug valves were a primary choice for refinery service, but other valve types have taken over in many of those applications. Today sleeved plug valves are used in many harsh chemical applications. Cu/Ni (copper-nickel) all-metal plug valves are often used in HF (hydrofluoric) alkylation processes. The control of distributed natural gas is still handled to a great extent by lubricated plug valves. Butterfly valves have come a long way from their early days as rubber-lined water service block valves. Today, double- and triple-offset, metal-seated butterfly valves are used in some of industrys toughest applications. The offset design is popular because of the decreased opening and closing torque required to operate the valve, compared to non-offset types. Valves are used to regulate fluids from the thinnest gases to heavy slurries full of suspended solids. Valves can be manufactured of hundreds of different materials and alloys to handle the harshest service conditions.
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June 16, 2010
Valves are used in many industry segments, and they are all around us. From the plumbing in our house, to refineries and power plants, they all contain valves. Most valve professionals are familiar with their own segment or segments of the valve industry. But the entire valve industry is very broad shouldered, with very diverse segments that feature products oftentimes totally different from the segment with which we are most familiar. Municipal water and wastewater service uses millions of basic valves, from fire hydrants (a form of globe valve) to huge 16 butterfly valves on giant water delivery aqueducts and everything in between. Since the temperatures and pressures are relatively low, these valves are usually manufactured out of cast or ductile iron and occasionally bronze. The seating in these valves is often a resilient rubber, so they hold very well. The primary valve organization for the waterworks industry is the American Water Works Association (AWWA), which establishes and maintains valve standards for the waterworks industry. This is a 60 resilient-seated butterfly valve on one of the main water intake lines running from Lake Michigan to the Chicago water purification system.
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In home plumbing applications, the common hose bib or faucet is actually a globe valve. There are many other globe valves throughout houses all over the country. Every bathroom faucet is a globe valve. Hot water systems and furnaces also contain gate, globe and regulating valves. Heating, ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems use a number of valves, especially in large buildings. Valve sizes range from through 24 and virtually all types of valves are found. Chilled and hot water systems in skyscrapers may contain valves rated up to class 600 to handle the high lift required to reach the top floors and maintain pressure. Fire protection sprinkler systems primarily contain ductile iron gate valves, although other valve types are beginning to be used as well. The pressures required to pipe water to the upper floors of tall buildings usually dictate that cast steel valves be used instead of cast or ductile iron. Shown here is a set of ductile iron valves on a typical automatic sprinkler system. The check, gate and globe valves are ductile iron and bronze.
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Automated assembly lines and compressed air systems are just some of the general industry valve applications. These are usually small valves, to 2, but pressure ratings can be very low for compressed air to nearly 10,000 psi for hydraulic systems.

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June 16, 2010
For the first 100 years of the valve industry, steam power and generation drove nearly all of its product enhancements and improvements. Steam generation is still an important user of critical valve components. High-temperature and high-pressure applications now dictate the use of 9 Cr (chromium) materials such as ASTM A216 grades C12 and C12A. The primary domain of the pressure seal bonnet is in hightemperature, high-pressure steam service. A typical power plant has a multitude of valve service conditions and hundreds of valves, from the smallest forged-steel types to large pressure seal gate valves. With todays cycle type generating plants, the stress on valves is great, and they must be designed to handle the rough operating conditions. Most power plant valves are buttweld end types, so they must be repaired in place, which is more costly than removing them and sending to a repair shop.
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The unique environment of nuclear power facilities requires that everything used in their construction meet critical quality assurance standards and specifications. Since failure is not an option in this service, the valves must be perfect in every way, from defect-free castings to ultra-reliable control systems. Oil refining and petrochemical service is the cafeteria of valve selection. Valves of virtually every type and material can be found in these plants with their maze of piping. Operating temperatures range from cryogenic to 1000o F. Corrosives such as hydrogen sulfide and hydrofluoric acid, which require special valve materials, can be found in these facilities as well. Special service applications require valves that are either specially built or are processed in unique ways. For instance, in cryogenic service (below -150o F) requires bonnet extensions so the packing will not freeze and render the valve inoperable. And in oxygen service, valves must be completely free of all oils and greases. The first valves were manufactured by the Romans over 2000 years ago. They were primarily used in domestic plumbing systems. Interestingly, the chemical analysis of these ancient valves is extremely close to todays ASTM B61 and B62 bronzes. Another interesting fact is that the name of the valve builder was not stamped on the valve or the plumbing components. If a name was stamped on the valves it was the owner of the house where the piping was installed. The early Roman valve and piping designs were used in a variety of water service applications. These initial basic plug valve designs would not change much in the coming 2000 years. Like other scientific developments, the Dark Ages also inhibited the growth of flow control technology and it wasnt until the birth of the steam-powered Industrial Revolution that valve designs began to change and develop. The 1800s would see huge developments in valve design.
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June 16, 2010
After a half century of growth spurred on by the steam industry, valves became a commodity and Americas capability to meet the demands of larger and higher pressure valves was met by the construction of large integrated valve plants throughout the Northeast and Midwest. The control of higher pressure and temperature steam continued to drive most valve developments through the first decades of the 20th century. It took World War II and its industrial growth to fuel new developments in the valve industry. Until the late 1800s valves were predominately low pressure designs of 200 psi or less and primarily made of bronze and cast iron. Most of the major valve manufacturers (Crane, Lunkenheimer, Powell and Jenkins) attained their first valve patents during this period. Virtually all of them were versions of bronze globe valves! During this period there were dozens of valve patents issued each yearsome good, some bad and some ugly.
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World War II created a huge need for additional piping components, including valves. During the war, a young man-depleted workforce was augmented by women and the retention of older workers. One of the key drivers of valve technology during this period was the quest for 100 octane fuel for aircraft. Prior to the late 1930s, 80- to 90-octane was the best that could be obtained through conventional refining processes. The perfection of the cracking processes helped the United States to leap ahead of the rest of the world in this regard. The cracking units and affiliated process equipment created the need for valves that had not been invented or perfected yet. The U.S. valve companies met that need and more. It is said that the 100-octane fuel used to power the RAF during the later stages of the Battle of Britain helped defeat German air power. And U.S. industry, including the valve manufacturers, played a big part. This 160-acre Crane valve plant was located in southwest Chicago in the mid-1940s. The plant was integrated, meaning it poured its own castings and assembled, tested and shipped the final product. The Crane plant was so large that it had its own railroad with over five miles of railroad tracks. Today the site is a parking lot for semi-trucks and trailers at the nearby BNSF railroad yard.
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The age of the steel valve dawned with the birth of the 20th century. As steam pressures and temperatures began to rise, industry began the shift from bronze and iron to carbon steel for these tough applications. The nuclear industry was a huge driver of both valve technology and valve manufacturing quality systems development. The digital age was manifested in the valve industry as well, particularly in the control valve industry with sophisticated control capabilities and fieldbus systems.
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June 16, 2010
Although most valve designs were quite mature during the second half of the 20th century, the butterfly and infant ball valve types continued to evolve. The double- and triple-offset butterfly designs were developed during this period. The metal-seated high performance butterfly also continued to evolve and take market share away from traditional gate valves. Welding technology advanced to the point that the Cr/Mo alloys could be effectively welded, which led to a huge increase in buttweld end valve designs. Advances in welding technology also helped drive valve manufacturing to new levels. The common use of hard facing overlays, such as Stellite #6, created seating surfaces that would last much longer than previous hard materials such as 410 stainless steel.
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Digital control systems have had a huge and beneficial impact on the valve industry. With the dawn of a new century came a growing environmental consciousness that was manifested in the industrial sector by increased concern for volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions. This concern has resulted in new fugitive emissions control measures to be instituted for valves to help eliminate them as a possible leak source. The shift of valve manufacturing to the least expensive countries has been nearly complete for all valves, save for some highly engineered products. There have been concerns over quality from low-cost countries such as China and India, but increasing scrutiny by valve users and the resulting corrective actions by offshore manufacturers will hopefully correct the problems.
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The new century created new valve challenges and creative valve solutions. Hightemperature alloys, such as C12A, a 9 Cr alloy, were improved and additional information was published on their fabrication and use. Computers and digital communication became common place in control valve applications and on motorized valves (called MOVs). Engineers seeking greater plant throughput are designing larger and larger process lines that require the valve designer to counter with new and larger valves. Fugitive emissions control concerns, which started first in California, have now migrated across the country. This has required valve manufacturers to concentrate on emissions containment in packing and seals. The new threshold of containment is now less than 100 parts per million. A large-diameter fabricated butterfly valve made out of 304H stainless steel for use in high temperature flue gas service is shown here. It is hydraulically controlled.

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June 16, 2010
The United States was the leader in valve manufacturing through the first six to seven decades of the 20th century. Huge worldwide demand for U.S. valves in the 1970s created a shortage of products for internal consumption. U.S. manufacturers began to look abroad and this opened the door for imports from Eastern Europe and the Far East. The low cost of the imports vs. the high cost of very mature U.S. manufacturing plants, led to the closure of most domestic integrated manufacturing facilities. The economic downturn of the 1980s further pruned the number of U.S. valve manufacturing facilities. Offshore sourcing, especially for commodity valves, became the norm for most manufacturers as the 80s rolled into the 90s. The very low labor costs in India and China have caused virtually all commodity steel valve production to become centered in these low-cost nations. These countries also provide components and castings to many U.S. manufacturers that still have a manufacturing presence in the United States. China is the nation of choice for most worldwide valve production today. The very low cost of manufacturing there, combined with Chinas own internal growth and appetite for valves has created literally thousands of valve plants within her borders. Many U.S. companies have joint ventures in China and some of the plants are very impressive in size and scope. This is a typical interior view of a Chinese investment casting foundry. In this image workers are preparing the wax molds that will be used to produce the final patterns.
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At this time there are still some quality issues to be overcome, particularly in the area of quality castings. In Chinas defense, until recently they had not been required to produce valve castings to the standards required of the United States and most of Europe. A typical low-tech Chinese electric furnace charged with ASTM A217 grade WCB steel is shown here. This is hardly a state-of-the-art facility, but as of 2009, castings for the U.S. market are still produced here. Note the wooden cart on the left. In the top right photo, note the worker who is cutting off the risers from some investment castings. Where is his protective equipment?!
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API publishes many valve standards that are the defacto industry standard for particular products such as gate valves (API 600), pipeline valves (API 6D), as well as many others. API standards are used in refineries, chemical plants and general industry applications. API has been publishing valve standards since 1939. The most popular standards are API 598 and API 600. ASME publishes many valve standards that are used in all segments of industry and for all types of valves. B16.10 is the standard for end-to-end dimensions which keeps valves interchangeable. B16.25 details the geometry that all buttweld valve ends need to have in order to match up to the appropriate pipe for welding in the field. ASME publications cover pressure temperature ratings for different materials; nondestructive testing procedures; NDE acceptance criteria; many useful tables and other important data.
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June 16, 2010
ASME B16.34 is the parent document from which most industrial valves are designed. This specification also publishes pressure-temperature tables for virtually every common metal and alloy used for valve construction. If an engineer wishes to know what pressure and temperature he can operate a valve at, the answer is found in ASME B16.34. For those valves that dont fall under specific design standards such as API 600 or API 608, B16.34 contains pressure testing requirements and acceptance criteria. Due to their purpose, pressure relief valves must adhere to very stringent standards in their design, manufacture and performance. These standards are written by ASME, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. The ASME requirements for pressure relief valves are part of some of the most stringent quality standards in the world. Four ASME codes apply for pressure relief valves: Section I Power Boilers; Section III Nuclear; Section VI Heating Boilers; Section VIII Pressure Vessels. Companies that manufacture pressure relief valves are required to have a special ASME certification, the V stamp. There are two main methods of indicating the pressure rating of a valve: class rating and WOG rating. WOG stands for water, oil and gas and refers to the rating of the valve at ambient temperature. It is also called cold working pressure (CWP). Class ratings vary depending upon their number: 150, 300, 600, 900, 1500, 2500 & 4500. Class numbers were created in the early 20th century and except for class 150 they refer to the materials pressure rating at 750o F. For example, class 300 is rated at 300 psi at 750o F, class 600 is rated at 600 psi at 750o F and so on. For some reason class 150 (actually 170 psi) is based upon 500o F. To use this table, match the pressure class across the top with the operating temperature down the left side and scan across to where they meet for the operating pressure at that temperature. This data is derived from ASME B16.34. There are dozens of material tables like this one in B16.34 covering virtually every material valves are made of. The most important fact to remember about pressure ratings is that the operating pressure DECREASES as the temperature RISES. Nowadays WOG ratings are usually applied to some ball valves. In years past the WOG rating was used for all types of valves including gates and globes. You can see by this table that due to the reduced high temperature strength of the elastomer seat material, the valve in question is only suitable for 100 psi at 450o F.
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June 16, 2010
All valves require testing at the end of their manufacturing cycle. Tests include a shell or body integrity test, to test the pressure boundary and a closure test to test the valves ability to stop flow. The shell test is usually performed at 150% of the rated ambient working pressure. The seat test is often 110% of the rated ambient working pressure or in some cases 60-100 psi air, depending on the testing specification. Common testing specifications in use today include API 598, API 6D, MSS SP-61, ASME B16.34 and ISO 5208. An experienced testing technician, along with the right equipment and a calibrated test gauge, are the requirements for a good valve pressure test. Valve testing specifications and acceptance criteria are very black and white. However, for the sake of manufacturing efficiency, the test durations are relatively short. The most commonly applied testing standard for a control valve is the American National Standard Institute, ANSI/FCI 70-2-1991. This document provides criteria for establishing classes of leakage rates, and it specifies leakage rates from very liberal to virtually zero. This table, which is published in ANSI/FCI 70-2-1991, shows some of the possible control valve leakage rates, from the very stringent Class VI to the liberal class I acceptance criteria. In the case of most gate and globe valves the two parts are the body & bonnet. The bonnet area sits on top of the body and contains the stem and bushing. Many designs have been developed to hold these two parts together. Threaded bonnet designs are some of the oldest dating from the mid 19th century. Except for small plumbing valves, the bolted, welded and pressure seal are the most common bonnet joints. A screwed or threaded bonnet bronze globe valve built today looks virtually identical to one built a hundred years ago. Although the design is rare in critical service applications, there are literally millions in use around the world in mundane commercial applications. Due to the fact that the bonnet could be loosened from the body if excessive force is used in opening, this type of valve is banned from most refinery and chemical plant applications. Bolted bonnet valves are the workhorses of todays valve industry. From Class 150 through Class 1500, bolted bonnets are found everywhere in industry. They are relatively easy to manufacture and assemble and easy to disassemble if repairs are needed. Higher pressure classes have gone to pressure seal type bonnets. A typical class 300 carbon steel bolted bonnet globe valve is shown. The circle of eight bolts holds the body to the bonnet, with a gasket sandwiched in between the two components.
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June 16, 2010
Ring joint bonnets are excellent for high temperature/high pressure applications. They rely on the soft metal ring joint gasket being slightly deformed as it is compressed between matching grooves in the body and bonnet of the valve. This creates a very tight seal that is usually leakproof. The pressure seal bonnet was designed to eliminate the huge amount of mass required for high pressure bolted bonnet connections in class 600 and higher valves. It is unique in that the higher the pressure exerted in the bonnet, the better the pressure seal gasket seals. One limitation of pressure seals is they do not work well in low pressure applications, because there is not enough pressure-induced force to keep the gasket energized. Pressure seal valves also require more expertise than conventional bolted bonnet valves when they need to be repaired. Pressure seal valves are available in gate, globe and check styles and classes 600 through 4500. A typical pressure seal gate valve showing the pressure seal ring (yellow) and the segmented spacer ring (orange) above it.
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Before the advent of pressure seal bonnets, the welded bonnet design was used in sizes up to 24. Today, most welded bonnet valves are made in size 2 and less. The welded bonnet is also very popular in bellows seal valves, as the combination of a bellows seal on the packing and a welded bonnet, eliminates the two primary leak paths in a valve. Valves come in a number of end connection types. For low pressure bronze valves the threaded type is most common. For steel valves through Class 600, flanged end types predominate. Higher pressure valves are often weld end or ring-type joints (RTJ). Small forged steel valves are usually supplied in either socket weld or threaded ends. Most flanged end steel valves are raised-face type. Flanged cast iron valves are the flat-faced type. When connecting a steel-raised-face flanged end valve to a cast pipe flange or valve, the raised face of the steel flange must be machined flat, or the brittle cast iron flange will break when tightened. The RTJ flanged end is good for intermediate pressures and is often used in classes 600 to 1500. The joint with the highest integrity is the welded end, which if welded correctly has virtually zero chance of leaking. Other end connections are sometimes used for ease of assembly and disassembly. They include the Grayloc, Victaulic and sanitary types. The Grayloc type is sometimes used for high-pressure applications at 2000 psi and above.
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June 16, 2010
From a catastrophic failure standpoint, the pressure-containing parts are probably the most important. These shell components of the valve must be of the correct material to ensure that they will handle the media and pressure they are required to contain. Correct body material selection can be made by answering the following questions:
What is the operating pressure? What is the operating temperature? Is the fluid corrosive? Is the fluid erosive?
Questions 1 & 2 are answered by referencing American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) document B16.34 and checking the material/pressure/temperature charts. Questions 3 & 4 need to be answered by a design engineer or other parties with information on the fluid to be contained. Slide 78 When it comes to valve materials, there are probably more bronze valves sold each year than any other type. Bronze is the oldest material still in use for valve construction. The most common bronze valve material specifications are ASTM B61 & B62. Bronze is also an excellent material for cryogenic valve manufacture. Although bronze cannot be welded, it can be brazed. Ductile iron is the Cadillac of irons. It has a yield and tensile strength close to cast steel. It also a ductile material so it has some give to it before it breaks. Ductile iron is a prime choice for valves in water distribution. Carbon steel, with its carbon content at about .030%, is the workhorse material for industrial valves. ASTM A217 grade WCB cast steel and A105 forged steel are the most common valve materials in use in petrochemical, refining, chemical and power plants today. Cast steel is relatively inexpensive, relatively easy to cast (compared to Cr/Mo alloys) and easy to weld. The weldability makes it a good choice for buttwelding or socketwelding of valves to other piping components. When temperatures exceed the range of plain carbon steel (WCB & A105), low alloy steels are specified. They commonly come in four casting grades: ASTM A216 grade WC6 (1-1/4 Cr), WC9 (2-1/4 Cr), C5 (5 Cr) and C12 (9 Cr). The equivalent forged-steel grades are ASTM A182 grades F11, F22, F5 and F9. Due to their air hardenability, these materials almost always require special care when welding, including control of preheat temperatures and post-weld heat treatment after welding.
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June 16, 2010
Stainless steel is the corrosion-resistant commodity material of today. The common cast grades are ASTM A351 grades CF8 (304ss), CF8M (316ss), CF3M (316L) and CF8C (347ss). The equivalent forged grades are ASTM A182 grades F304, F316, F316L and F347. Austenitic stainless steels are easy to weld and generally do not require any special requirements such as post-weld heat treatment. Stainless-steel valves are made in all types of end configurations including threaded, socketweld, flanged and buttweld end. When stainless steels and carbon steels are not good enough, there is a host of high alloy materials that are available. They include Monel, Hastelloy C, Inconel and others. These alloys have unique high-temperature and corrosion-resistant properties that make them useful to extremely harsh service environments. Some are relatively easy to weld, while some such as cast Monel, ASTM A494 grade M35 is not weldable. Non-pressure-retaining parts can vary a bit from the alloys that contain pressure and contact the media. They usually need only to be able to handle the direct stresses that they see. A valves trim is defined as the components that make up the actual closure elements of the valve or that control the closure and are surrounded by the media inside the valve. On a gate valve, the trim is considered the seating areas of the disc and seats, as well as the stem and backseat. These materials must have enough corrosion resistance to withstand the effects of the fluid and additional stresses induced by the closure function of the disc or wedge against the seat or seats. An additional factor in trim material selection is the added high velocity that occurs when a valve is slightly open. For example, when highpressure steam is being controlled, the seating trim material of choice is usually Stellite #6, a hardfacing material. It is highly erosion and corrosion resistant.
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Soft-seated trim materials are found primarily in quarter-turn valves, although occasionally multi-turned valves will be soft-seated by the installation of elastomer seals in either the disc or seats. Elastomer-seated valves are required to hold bubble tight (zero leakage) when tested. The biggest disadvantage of soft-seated trim materials is their high temperature limit of between 400-500o F. In addition, soft-seated valves are usually limited to Class 600 and lower. Metallic trim is the standard for gate, globe and most check valves. The trim materials vary in accordance with the fluid being handled. One document that details metallic trim materials is American Petroleum Institute standard 600, Steel Gate Valves.
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These are some of the trims listed in API 600 and API 602. There are 18 different trim choices in these documents. Trim 8 (also called Stellite) is the most often used trim for commodity valves, with trim 5 (also called full Stellite) running second in popularity.
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June 16, 2010
Seals such as packings and gaskets are usually non-ferrous although some gaskets utilize a mixture of ferrous and resilient components. Valve sealspacking and gasketsare where the rubber meets the road or actually where the inside meets the outside on a valve. Packing is the seal between the shaft or stem and the bonnet or body of the valve. Packing must be resilient yet it must also be stout enough to contain pressure inside the valve. The most common packing materials in use today include graphite and Teflon. Gasket materials usually match stem materials but often contain other materials such as stainless steel to give them added strength.
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There must be deformation or compression, however slight, for most gaskets to work properly. Even the solid metal pressure seal ring gasket is constructed of soft steel so that it will conform to the geometry of the pressure seal valve body and bonnet connection. The crush-type gaskets are found on many valve types, however, the 150 class valves with their oval bonnets use this design exclusively. The controlled-compression, spiral-wound type of gasket is normally provided in only circular configurations. It is the gasket of choice for Class 300 and some Class 600 valve applications. The pressure seal gasket is normally limited to Class 600 and above due to its inability to seal well at lower pressures. Soft iron or silver-plated soft steel gaskets have been used for many years as pressure seal gasket material. However, more manufacturers are now shifting to graphite and stainless-steel composites for these applications.
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It is not good enough to just have the correct gasket. The mating surfaces in contact with the gasket must be of proper surface finish to match to gasket. Also, the bolts that compress the gasket between valve components must be torqued correctly. Like gasket seals, packings rely on deformation to seal. In the case of compression packings, the material selected must meet the corrosion resistance criteria and be able to handle the pressure and stresses exerted on the packing. Many quarter-turn and some ambient temperature valves, such as pipeline valves, use elastomer O-rings for packing. Compression packing: multiple stacked rings, used for multi-turn and quarter-turn O-ring packing individually contained rings, generally used for quarter-turn
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Today the primary packings are graphite or Teflon. Teflon is the prime choice in corrosive service where temperatures are low. Teflon can be provided in a rope-style or molded into rings. Graphite packings use compounds of graphite and carbon and occasionally a corrosion inhibitor.
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June 16, 2010
Fugitive emissions testing is still partially art and partially science. As governments around the world impose tighter fugitive emissions standards, newer and better testing protocols will have to be developed. As of 2010, The EPA is developing fugitive emissions testing requirements for valves to be used in domestic plants. There is still a disparity in results between tests performed with the two popular testing media, methane and helium. Buying premium packing is no guarantee that a valve will not leak at the packing area. Other factors are just as important. Many times packing leakage will be blamed on the packing itself, when actually poor machining or not adhering to tolerances are the fault. Another helpful measure sometimes used to reduce fugitive emissions from packings is live loading the packing set by installing carefully sized Belleville washer assemblies on to the packing gland bolting. Actuation of valves can be anything that aids the operator in opening and closing a valve. The valve types that are actuated include, gate, globe, ball, plug and butterfly types. The most basic actuator is a manual gear assembly that multiplies the operators applied torque. Sophisticated automated actuators range from simple air cylinder devices to highly exotic, fail-safe electrically controlled units.
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The two most common types of manual actuators are worm and bevel gears. The worm gear is used to aid in the operation of quarter-turn valves, while the bevel gear aids in operating rising stem or multi-turn valves. If a valve is very difficult to operate and manual actuation is still desired, spur gearing can be added to the basic gear actuator to further lower the required operational effort.
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Automatic valve actuation is a huge industry in itself. There are many applications today where automatic or remote power aided actuation is required. Automatic or powered actuators are usually powered by electric motor or hydraulic or air cylinders. Oftentimes the cylinder actuators will have an internal spring assembly that returns the valve to a preferred orientation if the power fails, usually called a fail-to-open or failto-close design. Sometimes piston-powered actuators on pipeline valves use the internal gas pressure of the pipeline to operate their pistons, thus saving external energy or eliminating long utility lines. Most expensive valves will be repaired many times during their lifetime. Designing these valves from the start to be more repairable will result in a lower total -cost-ofownership for the valve owner. Unfortunately today many good valves are scrapped rather than replaced, because their replacement cost is lower than the potential repair cost.
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June 16, 2010
Unwanted leakage is among the most common valve problems. Usually it is in the form of excess leakage when valves are in the closed position. The most common cause for this leakage is debris in the pipeline that has fouled or scored the seating surfaces. Gasket leakage comes second. Usually it is the result of vibration, either in transit from the manufacturer overseas to the U.S., or in-line vibration, or improper bolting torque. In most cases a re-torquing is all that is required to correct the problem. Casting leaks are also encountered, and these minute leak paths are usually undetectable during the standard OEM test program. Some casting leaks can be repaired in line, while others require the removal of the valve and a trip to the valve shop. After all of the technical questions have been answered in valve selection it usually comes down to a choice of three items: 1. Price 2. Quality 3. Delivery You can only choose two!
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Valves

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Valves

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AN INTRODUCTION TO THE VALVE INDUSTRY

The Friends of the Crawford Library, Inc.

The Valve Manufacturers Association

An Introduction to the Valve Industry

SECTION 2: HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES

SECTION 3: VALVE PERFORMANCE

An Introduction to the Valve Industry

An Introduction to the Valve Industry

SECTION 1: VALVE BASICS

In this section, you will learn about:

An Introduction to the Valve Industry

SECTION 1: VALVE BASICS

An Introduction to the Valve Industry

SECTION 1: VALVE BASICS

How do valves regulate flow?

An Introduction to the Valve Industry

SECTION 1: VALVE BASICS

An Introduction to the Valve Industry

SECTION 1: VALVE BASICS

Control and regulating valves

An Introduction to the Valve Industry

SECTION 1: VALVE BASICS

An Introduction to the Valve Industry

SECTION 1: VALVE BASICS

Safety and pressure relief valves

Not designed to control normal operating pressure

SECTION 1: VALVE BASICS

Basic valve types

An Introduction to the Valve Industry

SECTION 1: VALVE BASICS

SECTION 1: VALVE BASICS

Poor flow path; much fluid friction

SECTION 1: VALVE BASICS

An Introduction to the Valve Industry

SECTION 1: VALVE BASICS

Compact design Moderate repair cost

SECTION 1: VALVE BASICS

SECTION 1: VALVE BASICS

SECTION 1: VALVE BASICS

What do valves regulate?

An Introduction to the Valve Industry

SECTION 1: VALVE BASICS

Where do valves regulate flow?

An Introduction to the Valve Industry

SECTION 1: VALVE BASICS

An Introduction to the Valve Industry

SECTION 1: VALVE BASICS

Municipal water and wastewater

An Introduction to the Valve Industry

SECTION 1: VALVE BASICS

An Introduction to the Valve Industry

SECTION 1: VALVE BASICS

Heating, ventilating and air conditioning

Operating conditions: low ambient to environments 200 F

An Introduction to the Valve Industry

SECTION 1: VALVE BASICS

An Introduction to the Valve Industry

SECTION 1: VALVE BASICS

SECTION 1: VALVE BASICS

Power fossil fuel plants

An Introduction to the Valve Industry

SECTION 1: VALVE BASICS

Power nuclear plants