Int. J. Rock Mech. Mining Sci. Vol. I, pp. 93-103. Pergamon Press 1963. Printed in Great Britain.

THE RESOLUTION OF STRESSES IN ROCK U S I N G STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

RICHARD E. GOODMAN Department of Mineral Technology, University of California, Berkeley Abstract. This paper shows how to find the shear and normal stress on an arbitrarily oriented plane of weakness in a known three dimensional stress field by manipulations on a steteographic projection. First are found graphically the direction angles of the normal to the plane relevant to co-ordinate axes in principal directions. Knowing the magnitude of the principal stresses and the direction cosines of the plane, the magnitude of the resultant stress across the plane is calculated. The direction of the resultant stress is found by calculating its direction angles and plotting these angles as small circles centered about the principal directions, the point of intersection of the small circles being the stereographic projection of the resultant stress. The angle between the resultant stress and the plane of weakness is read directly from the stereographic projection, facilitating calculation of the magnitudes of the shear and normal stresses of the plane. Finally, the direction of the maximum shear stress in the plane is found graphically, making use of the fact that the normal stress, shear stress, and resultant stress must be coplanar. The principles of stereographic projection are reviewed and an example of stress resolution is worked out. 1. I N T R O D U C T I O N ANALYSIS o f the safety o f a rock mass under an engineering load requires that we define the three-dimensional state o f stress in the rock, define a criterion for failure in three dimensions, and c o m p a r e the two. Stereographic projection facilitates the mathematics involved in stress analysis by making it convenient to choose principal directions as reference axes and by allowing one to read direction angles directly without computation. Furthermore, stereographic projection facilitates the statement o f failure criteria in three dimensions for rock containing planes o f weakness. This paper discusses in detail an example o f stress resolution in a rock with a plane o f weakness. R o c k differs from m a n y engineering materials in that it is traversed by flaws and weaknesses that c a n n o t be avoided. The complete description o f a rock mass for engineering purposes must include such elements. In working with such materials as soils, which have no tensile strength in any direction, it is customary to confine analysis to the plane that provides the most severe combination o f two o f the three spatial elements. F o r example, landslide analyses consider a cylindrical sliding surface, the axis o f which parallels the contour. In most problems involving rock, a three-dimensional analysis should be attempted. Fortunately several methods o f projection can allow visualization o f the three-dimensional elements on a single two-dimensional base. The most well k n o w n o f these is stereographic projection, which is in wide use by structural geologists and crystallographers. The principles o f stereographic projection will be reviewed below. The reader is referred for more complete discussion o f the properties o f stereographic projection to the references listed at the end o f this paper. 2. P R I N C I P L E S O F S T E R E O G R A P H I C P R O J E C T I O N The stereographic projection o f a geometrical element is a plot o f its spherical projection 93

94

RICHARD E. GOODMAN

onto a common plane. A spherical projection is simply the intersection of the element with a containing sphere centered on a point of the element. The projection plane is chosen to be horizontal. The spherical projections of a horizontal and an inclined plane are shown in Fig. l(a). In stereographic projection, only one of the two hemispheres of the spherical projection is used. Structural geologists prefer to use the lower hemisphere while crystallographers work with the upper. We will adopt the use of the upper hemisphere. The manner in which the spherical projection is projected stereographically is shown in Fig. l(b).

CONTAINING SPHERE SPHERICAL

PROJECTION

///
! ~

OF INCLINED PLANE

SPHERICAL
P R O J E C T/ON OF

HORIZONTAL
PL A N E

FIG. l(a). Spherical projection.

CT/ON LINE
SPHERICAL PROJECTION O F 1NCLINED LANE

ROdECT/ON

"

.....

\/I

" \ ~
S TEREOGRAPH/C \ P R O d E C T/ON O F HORIZON TAL PLANE, /

Wi//ROJECTION ~ / / / OFINCLINED
PLANE.

TEREOGRAPHIC ,I

"'POINT O F PROJECTION

Flo. l(b). Stereographic projection.

By constructing the stereographic projection of a system of planes parallel to a given axis, a Stereonet is prepared. A 2 Stereonet is shown in Fig. 2; a spare copy is also included with this issue. This will be useful in following the text and may be mounted on cardboard, with a thumbtack sticking up at the center.

THE RESOLUTION OF STRESSES IN ROCK USING STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

95

Figure 3 shows the stereographic projection of a plane and its normal, and of the plunge and pitch of a line in the plane. This drawing is of a lower hemisphere plot but the results for the upper hemisphere are similar. The only difference is that the normal (or pole) to a plane plots in the dip direction from the center of the net when the upper hemisphere is used, whereas the pole appears on the opposite side when the lower hemisphere is used. Figure 4 is the stereographic projection of a plane dipping 30 to the S 60 E (striking N 30 E). The plunge and bearing of a line in this plane which pitches 40 from the N E is equal to 19 to N 66 E. These values are read directly from the net. Note that using the upper hemisphere, the bearing and plunge of a line plot across the net from their map positions.

1
8 0

I0

I0

"

FIG. 2. T w o degree Meridian Stereonet.

96

RICHARD E. GOODMAN

",~if"
,,
/ ~ \ -~
, . ~ ~. .~/.

..::.'_;. ~.:%~._;<..
s

, ,\~ ] Jy-. i~-j-i ~,\JS~" .'i;':-~.'- ~ "//." C~:~/." 'iI'~". .', ; 7 H

-:--~.,,-~,~'? ,
%,T c

/--~__ ".,

/.-.
s"

I./

,"
s i

it

,,'\
,

,
I
.

,
~

"_. \
x

\\

_-~'~C/ ~.S""\
.;

./

,' , /

; :

', ' ',

'3

FIG. 3. Stereographic projection of components of a dipping stratum (after DONN and SHIMER,[2]).

/ DV IPP EI N G

/
I

~-IVORMAL TO J

i
OF L I N E

1
.tx~ 16"\\ o

PL./ve
/

IMEASUR~O " ~ . ~
DOW/V FROM AlE OR UP 66 ~

j/

FROM

SW)

FIG. 4. Stereographic projection of a plane.

THE RESOLUTION OF STRESSES IN ROCK USING STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

97

Projection of cones: small circles A useful property of stereographic projection is that a small circle on a spherical projection plots as a small circle in stereographic projection. A small circle in spherical projection is generated by a cone, the apex of which coincides with the center of the projection sphere. For example, the locus of lines equiangle from the normal to a plane is a cone that intersects the projection sphere in a small circle. The stereographic projection of this locus is likewise a circle (see p r o o f in [1]). The plotting of such a locus is demonstrated in Fig. 5. In this Figure the locus of lines 30 from the normal to a plane dipping 56 to the N 53 E is required. First the normal N is plotted by rotating the point B (which is 53 East of North) to the east-west diameter where the inclination of the normal, 34 , is laid off from the circumference of the net. Two diameter points of the required small circle are defined by points A and C, found by marking off points 30 to either side of N. The center of the projected circle is not, in general, coincident with the axis of the conical locus.
lq

STEREOGRAPHIC

PLOT

OF

LOCUS OF LINES 3 0

FROM NORMAL TO PLANE DIPPING 56 TO N 53E.

FIG. 5. C o n s t r u c t i o n o f a small circle lying entirely within u p p e r hemisphere.

I f one of the other small circles lies partly off the net, it may be constructed by rotating the axis of the cone to the horizontal and then to the N or S position of the net. In this position the small circles on the stereonet serve as guides for drawing the required small circle. Finally, rotate the small circle back to its initial position. A method of constructing small circles of any diameter which does not require tracing from the net is illustrated in the example below and in Fig. 6. The justification for this construction is presented in [1 and 3]. Required--to find small circle of radius 70 about a line segment (A) which plunges 65 to the S 30 W. Procedure--Rotate A to equatorial diameter. Extend equatorial diameter beyond net. Mark point P over South position. Draw line PA meeting outer circle (primitive circle) of net at A'. F r o m A' measure off 70 arcs in either direction marking points R and Q. Locate

98

R I C H A R D E. G O O D M A N

R' as intersection of PR and the equatorial diameter. Similarly, locate Q' as the intersection of PQ and the equatorial diameter. Bisect R'Q' to find X. The required small circle has center X and radius XR'. Part of the small circle drawn lies outside the primitive great circle of the net (outer circle); i.e. the lower portion of the cone drops below the horizontal. However, since the vertices of all angles lie at the center of the projection sphere, the locus of lines equiangle from a given line is in reality a double cone. Any line segment lying in this cone which falls below the horizontal on one side of the projection sphere, will rise above the horizontal on the other side of the sphere.

J
j
FIG. 6. Construction of small circles; general case. The problem is to construct the projection on the upper hemisphere of the loci of lines making an angle of 70 with a line segment directed S 30 W and plunging at 65 . One end of this line is at A ; the other end of the line intersects the projection sphere in the lower hemisphere and hence its stereographic projection lies outside of the primitive circle, at ,4. The position of ,4 can be found as the intersection of the equatorial diameter with a line drawn 90 from PA passing through P. The construction of a small circle of radius 70 about `4 is done exactly as for the conical center A. Line P`4 interesects the projection sphere at `4'. Angular distances of 70 either direction from `4' are laid off to give/~ and 0. Rays PR and P 0 intersect the equatorial diameter at _~' and ~ ' . The center of the required circle is at the bisector of,R'Q' and its radius is R ' O ' (Fig. 6). Note, it is not necessary to construct point ,4; what is required is A' which must lie diametrically opposite A'. Also it must be noted that there is nothing wrong theoretically with working outside of the primitive circle. Small circles outside of the primitive may, however, plot an infinite distance from the center of the net. (Consider the projection on the

THE RESOLUTION OF STRESSES 1N ROCK USING STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

99

upper hemisphere of a line directed vertically downward.) Hence it is convenient to restrict the region of projection to the area confined within the primitive.

Angles between lines

The angle between two lines is found by rotating the overlay until the points which are the projections of the two lines lie along the same great circle, i.e. until they are in the same plane. The angle is read directly as the difference in the pitch angles of the two lines in the common plane. For example, the angle between lines (I) plunging 30 N 40 W and (2) plunging 70 to the north 20 E is 52 as shown in Fig. 7. The angle is read by counting small circles along the common great circle.
N

FIG. 7. Measurement of angles between lines.

A line is fixed in space by its direction angles, the angle it makes with a given orthogona set of axes. The direction cosines of a line are the cosines of its direction angles. If x, y, and z are the co-ordinate axes, and the direction angles are a to the x axis,/3 to the y axis and 7 to the z axis, then the direction cosines of the line are 1 = cos a, m = cos/3, n = cos Y-

Magnitude of the resultant stress across any plane

The resultant stress across any plane is given by
R2 = o1212 --~ o22m 2 @ r82n 2

(1)

if: the direction of ol coincides with the x direction; o~. is in the y direction; and cr3 is in the z direction (i.e. 1 = cos ~ where ct is the angle to the ol direction; m = cos/3 where/3 is the angle to cr2 direction; and n = cos 7 where y is the angle to the 03 direction). In real problems in rock mechanics, ~rl, ~rz and ~'3 are not in general horizontal and vertical. For example, the stresses in the ground near a deep valley are in general inclined; one principal stress is more nearly perpendicular to the walls of the valley than vertical. The general problem of stress analysis in rock mechanics therefore requires us to be able to define the stress across arbitrarily oriented planes under an arbitrarily inclined stress field. The method of solving such a problem, using equation 1, is illustrated as follows:

100

RICHARD

E. GOODMAN

E x a m p l e . W h a t is the resultant stress across a plane which strikes S 45 E and dips 70 to the S W ? The stresses in the region are as follows: ai dips 38 to N 9 E; c,z dips 36 to the S 45 E; and aa dips 32 to the S 70 W. O' 1 = 10, 0" 2 = 5 , 0"3 == 3 kips/inL In Fig. 8, the stresses a n d the normal to the plane are plotted on the upper hemisphere projection. The reader can satisfy himself that these stresses constitute a right-handed orthogonal set by rotating any two of the three points to a c o m m o n plane (to the same

\ 'i" /"'"
O-j O'z 0-~

/
5 70"W J2 N 9E J7

S 46"E 3 6 *

FIG. 8. Stereographic plot of principal directions and plane across which stress is to be resolved.

great circle) a n d then reading the angles: (1) between the two points in the plane; a n d (2) between the plane and the third point. A system of stresses is right handed if in going from al to crz to cra one proceeds in clockwise fashion. This is true for both the upper and lower hemisphere projections. In Fig. 8 ~rl makes angles of: 36 with the negative direction of ol 123 with the negative direction of a,~ 76 with the negative direction of a,_, Thus: a = 144 , f l = 104 , y = 5 7 1 = -0"81, m = -0.24, n = +0.54 I z ---- 0.65, m z = 0.06, n z = 0.29 (check I z = m e + n 2 = 1.00) R~ --= 100 (0.65) + 25 (0.06) .'-- 9 (0.29) Kips/in 2 Rz=65.0+ 1.5--2.6 R = V'69"1 R = 8.3 Kips/in 2

THE RESOLUTION OF STRESSES IN ROCK USING STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

101

The direction o f the resultant stress across any plane The direction of R can be obtained by calculating its direction cosines, using the following relation: Rz Ry Rz In = - ~ , m n = , nn = --R
R x = trll, R v = ~2m, Rz = ~ a n SOl

In--

all R
tr~n --R

mR

(2)

txan nR~--- ~ -

L
For the previous example:
In = 10 t 8.3 ~ _ ,0 8 .1 ,

0.975 3 ( 0 . 5 4 ) _ +0.195 8.3

na -mR =

5 / (-0.24) ........... --8"3

0.144

Thus" a R = 167 = 180 - 13 fin = 98 = 180 -- 82 7 n = 79 = 180 - 1 0 1 From the negative ends of ~1, ~2, and era (which are what we must plot using the upper hemisphere for the given data) construct small circles of radii given above using the method described earlier. In Fig. 9, ~rl, ~2, and aa have been replotted and small circles are plotted of radii: 13 about - a l ; 82 about - a 2 ; and 101 about - a a . These intersect to give R which is thus an upward directed stress. There is no a priori reason why R must be directed upwards; it can in general be in any direction across the plane. If in fact it were a downward directed stress, no intersection of three small circles would be found in the upper hemisphere. However, by drawing the opposite ends of the lower hemisphere portions of the conical loci an intersection would be found.
Resolution o f the resultant stress into normal and shear stress It is useful to resolve the resultant stress across any plane into normal and shear components. Since the normal stress must lie in the direction of N,

% ---- R cos 3 and Tmax = R sin 3 where 3 is the angle between the direction of R and the normal to the plane.

102

RICHARD E. GOODMAN

The angle 8 can be read from the stereonet. In Fig. 10, in which the locations o f R a n d N have been replotted, ~ is read directly as 26 .

FIG. 9. C o n s t r u c t i o n o f small circles to find direction o f resultant stress.

PLANE O N

WHICH ANALY,.~S I
oF stresses

~,
'

/s aehva

/J

FIG. 10. Stereographic construction to find direction o f m a x i m u m shear stress in plane.

"rmax =

c,n = 8"3 cos 26 = 7.4 Kips/in z 8"3 sin 26 = 3-6 Kips/in 2

To complete the description o f the state o f stress in the plane, we require the direction o f "rmax. W e can m a k e use o f the fact that ~n, "rmax, and R must be c o p l a n a r , i.e. "rmax must be on the plane o f ~rn a n d R. F u r t h e r m o r e 7 must be in the plane on which it acts. The great

THE RESOLUTION OF STRESSES IN ROCK USING STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

103

circle projections o f these two planes can be traced from the stereonet as in Fig. 10. T h e intersection o f these great circles is the direction o f rmax. The most useful representation o f this direction is the pitch o f ~, in the plane on which it acts which equals:48,~up from the south-east. The complete description o f the stresses acting on the plane is shown in Fig. 1 I.

\
FIG. 11. Complete description of the stresses acting on the plane of Fig. 8. REFERENCES 1. PHILLIPSF. C. All Introduction to Crystallography, Chap. 2. Method of Projection, Longmans, Green and Co. (1949). 2. Do~q WILLIAML. and SHINIERJOHN A. Graphic Methods in Structural Geology, Appleton-Century Crofts (1958). 3. TER~'rRA P. and C.ODDL. W. Crystallometry, Longmans (1961).