1. IRRIGATATION Irrigation is artificial application of water for the purpose of crop production.

Irrigation water is used supplied to supplement the water available. 1. Rainfall 2. Contribution of soil moisture from ground water In many areas, the amount and timing of rainfall are not adequate to meet the moisture requirement of crops. Hence, irrigation is essential. Scientific management of irrigation water provides best insurance against weather induced fluctuations in total food production. Water is being a limited source; it should not only meet the requirement of crop production, but also meet the requirement of 1. Growing industry 2. Human and livestock consumption 3. Hydro-electric power generation 4. Recreation and 5. Navigation Classification of Irrigation works: Classified into three categories based on the irrigated are it generated in the scheme. a)Major irrigation Projects b).Medium irrigation Projects ha c). Minor irrigation Projects Irrigating < 2,000 ha The minor irrigation schemes consists of irrigation tanks, canals, diversion works and almost all ground water schemes. Main types of Irrigation I. Direct irrigation or river canal irrigation phases: i) Diversion of water from river ii) Conveyance of water to land iii) Application of water on land. II. Storage irrigation: phases: (same as above) III. Sub-soil water irrigation: Phases: a) Lifting of water from wells b) Application of water recycling. Irrigating area of >10,000 ha Irrigating area between 2,000 and 10,000

Benefits of Irrigation: 1. Irrigation works are a paying concern to the Govt. 2. It assures proper and successful growth of crop because assured supply water. 3. Irrigation protects people from the occurrence of famines when rain in any year is severely deficient. 4. The owner of agricultural land is a gainer as the value of his land will increase if it is served by a near-by canal system. 5. Hydro-electric power can be generated from the fall on some canals or by the water stored in a storage reservoirs. 6. Some large canals can serve the dual purpose of irrigation and land navigation. Disadvantages of Irrigation: 1. If excess water is applied, the land becomes saline and water logged, thus become infertile or barren. 2. Excess irrigation remains into pools on the surface of the ground. Will greed mosquitoes, cause malaria in the round about area. Some other terms: 1. Flow irrigation: When irrigation water in canal is available at such all level that it can flow over the adjoining land by gravity is known as flow irrigation. 2. Lift irrigation: When water has to be lifted up before it could be applied on land by gravity is called lift irrigation.

WATER REQUIREMENT OF CROP It is necessary to know about the cropping seasons (i.e crops grown in each season) and the amount of water required by each crop during its period of growth for proper water management. For successful growth of the crop, it requires: 1. Proper warmth 2. Proper moisture 3. Proper agriculture soil 4. Proper aretion and 5. Proper method of cultivation There are two principles of cropping seasons in India 1. Kharif season (June - October) and 2. Rabi season (November February) Kharif crops require about twice to thrice the quantity of water require by rabi crop. Duty and Delta: Each crop requires certain amount of water after certain fixed interval of time throughout its period of growth. The time that a crop take from the instant of its sowing to that of its harvest is called the period of its growth. The time between first watering of a crop at the time of sowing to its last watering before harvest is called the base period of the crop and is expressed in days. Delta: The total depth of water in cms required by a crop to come to maturity is called its Knowing the area under crop and its delta, we can find out the amount of water in cms that must have to be applied on the area to mature that crop. Duty is the ratio between the irrigated area and the quantity of water used. It is expressed in liters per second per hectare and indicates the continuous flow requirement per hectare of cropped area. The relation between the quantity of water availability and the crop area matured and the required to mature is known as duty of water. Relationship between Duty, delta & Base period Let there be a crop of base period B days. Let l Cumec water be applied to this crop on the field for B days is = B X 24 X 60 X 60 cubic meters Let it be equal to V V = B x 24 x 60 x 60 cubic meters

Let V cubic meters of water mature D hectares of land = D x 10,000 sq. meters Let this quantity equal to A V Delta = -----A = B x 24 x 60 x 60 Dx10,000 B meters D

= ------------------------------ = 8.64 -------

864 x B / D cms.

Factors affecting duty: 1. Kind of crop 2. Season 3. Rainfall 4. Nature of soil and 5. Methods of cultivation Duty is of two types: 1. The duty expressed as Lts/sec/ha is flow duty. It will usually be expressed in direct irrigation. 2. In storage irrigation, the duty is normally expressed a hectares/one million cubic meters of water this type of duty is known as quantity duty. Importance of duty: 1. It helps in design of irrigation canals is proposed in an irrigation project. 2. It helps to check efficiency of working of a cannel system. Problem: A tank has a water spread area of 40 ha with an average depth of 3 cm water that can be irrigation of the duty is expressed as : i). 160 Hectares per cubic meters/sec ii). 110 Hectares Cm and iii). 30 Hectares/million cum of water. Solution: Total water available = 40 x 3 x 100 hectare cms Delta = 864 x E/D = 864 x 120/960 = 108 cms

40 x 3 x 160 i) Area that can be irrigated = ----------------- = 111 hectares 100 40 x 3 x 100 ii) Area that can be irrigated = ----------------------- = 100 hectares 110 40 x 3 x 10,000 iii) Water available in million cum. M = ---------------------10,000 40 x 3 x 10,000 x 20 Area that can be irrigated = ---------------------------10,00,000 Problem: II A water course has a culturable command area of 2600 hec out of which the intensities of irrigation for perennial sugarcane and rice crops are 20 and 40 respectively. The duty for these crops at the head of water course are 750 hec/cume and 1500 hec/cume respectively. Find the discharge at the head of the water course. Solution: Area under sugarcane = 2600 x 0.2 Area under rice = 520 hectares 1040 hectares 520 Water required for sugarcane = -------750 Since sugarcane is perennial crop, it will require water throughout the year. Hence the water course must carry a total discharge of (0.694 + 0.577) = 1.271 Cumecs. = 0.694 = 2600 x 0.4 = = 100 ha

2. WATER LIFTING DEVICES

Lift irrigation requires that water is to be raised from its source to the field surface. Devices for lifting irrigation water range from age old indigenous water lifts to highly efficient pumps. Pumps operated by electric meters/oil engines have come into prominence in all large lift irrigation schemes becomes of high output and efficiencies. Selection of water lifting devices for a particular situation depends on. 1. The amount of water to be lifted 2. Depth from which water is to be lifted 3. Type and amount of power available 4. Acreage to be covered 5. Economic status of the farmer. Water lifting devices may be classified into four groups based on the kind of power used for their operation. 1. Manual devices - Swing basket, picottah or counter poise, Archemedian screw 2. Animal powered devices 3. Wind powered 4. Mechanically operated. MANUAL DEVICES: 1. Swing basket: This device consists of a basket or shovel like scoop to which for ropes are attached and two men facing each other swing the basket between them. 2. Piccotah: 3. Archiemedian screw or counter poise lift Counter poise lift: Is known as picottah and is commonly used to lift water from shallow wells. Motion of effort Velocity ratio: --------------------Motion of load Now: (W + W2) Z = W3 Z2 = Z2 ---------Z1 = a --b

W1=W2 -------------W3 a W3 = ---b ARCHEMEDIAN SCREW: (W1 +

Z2 --------Z1 W2) = 2000 = b

a --------1.2m to 3m

to

2300 litres.

The device consists of wooded drum with interior

portion in the form of a screw or augur rotated by means of a handle fixed to a central spindle. When the handle is turned, water moves up through drown the filed channel and discharges. The screw will be 2.1 to 2.4 m long and the length of the spindle is 4.2 m. The discharge and the mecemical efficiency will be maximum which the lower end of the screw is only half submerged in water at an angle not more than 30. Height from which water can be lifted 0.6 to 0.9 m. Discharge ------------------16000 litres/hour

ANIMAL POWERED DEVICES: Rope and bucket lift: Is also popularly known as Monte or charsa charge and is the most common water lift in India to draw water from deep wells. This device consists of a bucket or a bag having a capacity of (180 to 225) liters and made of leather or galvanised iron frame work at the top. It is attached to one and of the long strong rope. The rope passes over a pulley and a pair of bullocks hitched to the other end of the rope and provide the power to lift the bucket. It works up to 30 mts depth. Discharge expected from 15m depth - 9000 liters/hr. Self emptying bucket: It is also same as above in construction except that a leather spout is attached to the bottom of the bucket. A second lighter rope is fastened to the lower end of the spout. The second rope passes over a roller. On the lip of the receiving through. Both the ropes are tied together and then hitched to a bullock yak an their lengths are so adjusted that the spout doubles up along the side of the bucket is being raised from the well. Device suitable to lifted no exceeding 9m Discharge : 8000 lits/hours.

Two bucket lift: Two bucket: it is known as circular moths and is common in some parts of south India. Two buckets are used in this lift, which alternately raised, emptied lowered and filled. i.e. while on bucket is lifted full, the other is lowered empty into the well. A rope and pulley arrangement what a central rotating level permits reciprocating action while the bullocks move in a circular path. Each bucket is of about 70 litres capacity. This devices is suitable for lifts up to about 5m. It capacity is about 14000 litres/hr. Person wheel: consists of a chain of buckets, a large open spoken drum and a suitable driving mechanism. Two parallel loops of rope or chain having carthen ware pots or metal containers attached to them at intervals, pass over the drum and loop into the water in the well. A horizontal shaft extends from the axle of a small vertical gear. The teeth of the vertical gear mesh with the teeth of a large horizontal wheel. The shaft of a large wheel have a pole extended from it horizontally and the animals are hitched to this pole. The Persian wheel lifts water up to 10m. but its efficiency is considerably reduced when the lift exceeds 7.5.m. with the increase of height, the number of loaded buckets are increased and this nuts a heavy strain on the animals. Average discharge of a Parisian wheel is about 10000 lit. Wind powered water lifting device Wind Mill: The wind mill utilizes the natural power from wind. It consists of a large diameter vane wheel or when a strong wind blows, it rotates the vane wheel, which in turn works and water is lifted up, in average daily output of 1,36,000 litres is possible under prevailing wind. The minimum wind velocity required for operation is (16 Km/hr) Classification of pumps: On the basis of the depth of pumping water level with respect to the ground surface, the pumps are classified as SHALLOW WELL pumps and DEEP WELL PUMPS. Shallow well pumps As one which can lift water from pumping depth of 6 m or less when they are placed on the ground surface. This is the normal recommended depth from which the pump can lift the water efficiently. Reciprocating and Centrifugal pumps are the examples of shallow well pumps.

The most common types of pumps used for lifting water from shallow Wells and Deep wells are given below: a) Centrifugal pump b) Deep well turbine pumps c) Submersible pumps Reciprocating pumps are in limited use in irrigation because of their low efficiency. Centrifugal pump Among modern water lifting devices centrifugal pumps are the most widely used for irrigation purpose, they are (1) economic in cost (2) Easy to operate & (3) give steady discharge. Centrifugal pump employs the centrifugal force in pumping liquids. This pump mainly consists of two parts. (1) Impeller or rotor: Which adds energy to the water in the form of increased velocity and pressure (2) Casing which guides the water to and form the impeller. The impeller is a wheel mounted on the device shaft and provided with a number of vances. The casing T called, the volute is in the form of a spiral with a cross sectional area increasing towards the discharge opening. The impeller is rotated at very high speed by the motor or engine. Water coming at the centre eve of the impeller is picked up by the vanes and accelerated to high velocity by the rotation of the impeller and thrown out by the centrifugal force in to the volute a discharges. Classification of Centrifugal Pumps: 1. Depending upon energy conversion (a) Volute (a) Vertical 3. 4. 5. 6. Type of impeller (a) Open (b) Semi-open (c) Closed Number of stages. (a) Single stage (b) Multi stage Suction (a) Single suction (b) Double suction Method of drive: (b) Belt drive ii) Flat belt drive iv) V Belt drive (b) Diffuser (b) Horizontal 2. Plane of rotation of the impeller plane of rotation

(a) Direct driven i) Close coupled iii) Mono block

BASED ON ENRGEY CONVERSION: (a) Volute type In the volute-type pump which is the most commonly used, the impeller discharges into a I progressively expanded spiral casing as shown in fig. The casing is proportioned to reduce gradually the velocity of the liquid as it flows from the impeller to the discharge, thus changing the velocity head into pressure head. (b) Diffuser type: The impeller is surrounded by diffuser vanes pending passages formed by stationary guide vanes. In these expending passages the direction of flow is changed and the velocity head converted to pressure head before the water enters the volute. In this type, the velocity head leaving the impeller is more completely converted into pressure head than the volute type. Hence its efficiency is slightly higher. II. Based on plane of rotation of impeller: 1. Horizontal centrifugal pump: In this type the pump shaft is horizontal and the impeller is mounted vertically on the shaft. This most commonly used for irrigation purpose. It costs less. Easier to install and more accessible to inspection and repair. 2. Vertical Centrifugal Pump: In this type the shaft is vertical and the impeller is mounted horizontally on the shaft. For satisfactory operation the suction lift of the pump should not exceed 4.5 to 6.0 m. Impeller: It is a rotor or circular disc provided with vanes. It is made of cast iron. The basic function of impeller is to add energy to the water and converts the velocity head into pressure head. Thus, it lifts the water through suction pipe, energy water and converts velocity head into pressure head by delivering water through delivery pipe. Types of impellers: The design of impeller greatly influences the efficiency pump and operating characteristics of the pump. There are four types of impellers. They are: i. Open type: Open type impeller does not have the supporting plates to the vanes. The impeller vanes are just welded to the central hub of impeller. This type of impeller is generally used where water is contaminated with semi-solids and sand. The vanes are subjected to damage after prolonged use.

ii.

Semi-Open type: In this, one side of vanes will be protected by having side plate or shroud and other side of vanes is exposed to water. It can be used to lift the water, having some amount of suspended sediments.

iii.

Enclosed or closed type: In this, the vanes are enclosed between shrouds or side wall on either side. It is designed to pump clear water. They develop higher efficiencies, especially in high pressure pumps.

iv.

Non-clog type: Non-clog impellers are specially designed for sewage lifting. They have vanes which are well rounded at their embrace ends and have large passage ways between the vanes. They can handle sewage water containing solid particles and other impurities. All the impellers are shown in figure.

Other important parts of the centrifugal pump: 1. Stuffing box or gland: Where the shaft leaves the casing, there is a gland and stuffing box to prevent leakage of air, to enter the casing and prevents water to come out from the causing. 2. Bed plate: For mounting the pumps and to fix properly on the foundation for avoiding vibrations. 3. Foot valve: The foot valve is an integral part of a centrifugal pump installed to lift water from open walls, rivers, canals and ponds. The valve is fixed at the end of suction pipe It avoids every time priming of centrifugal pump when it is operated. It is also restricts entry of foreign material, especially floating debris and acquatic plants etc., into the suction pipe. Hence, a strainer forms an essential part of foot vale. The valve is one-way flap piece made of leather or rubber and hinged to valve body. The flap rests on a well machined base plate when pump is not working and prevents return flow of water from suction pipe into well. Thus, water is retained in the pump casing and suction pipe, eliminating the need for priming of the pump every time when it is started. The foot valve is made of cast iron, however, due to more friction and energy loss in cast, iron foot valves, they are now replaced by energy efficient foot valves, made of RPVC. The main purpose to retain water in the pump and suction pipe and there by eliminate the need for priming each time the pump is operated.

Pump accessories: They include couplings, bends, flanges, gland and base plate etc., Coupling and flanges are used for joining pipes. Flanges are generally used at both suction and delivery points of pump. 90C bends are used at both suction and delivery of pump. Gland is a packing material used in stuffing box at the entry of shaft into pump casing so that there is no water leakage. Pump base plate is fixed to the concrete foundation by bolts and nuts so that there are minimum vibrations when pump is in operation. Priming The process of remover air from pump casing and suction pipe. It can be done by following methods. 1. By installing foot valve at the bottom of the suction pipe and pouring water through delivery side till the pump casing and suction pipe are filled. 2. By using auxiliary exhaust pump. 3. By giving water connection into the suction pipe from a tank located at a higher elevation. 4. By providing self priming pump. Installation of a Centrifugal pump on foundation: For a centrifugal pump to continue to operate at its designed efficiency and also to prolong the life of the equipment the pump should be correctly located the following points should be kept in view while installing the pump set. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. avoided. Pump troubles: When the centrifugal pump fails to operate or the discharge or pressure drops, the case of troubles should be investigated immediately and steps may be taken the calumniate it. Easily accessible for inspection and maintenance. Cover to protect the unit Safeguard against flood conditions The alignment of pump and motor must be correct The proper foundation should be provided to avoid vibrations. Suction and discharge pipe lines should be supported

independently of the pump, so that strain on pump casing can be

1. Pump fails to prime: a) Air leak in the suction line or in the pump in the threaded connect on coat with white lead. b) Foot value may have debris lodged between rubber flap and valve seat c) Gaskets may shrink-tighten the bolts. d) Rotary shaft seals may load. 1. Pump fails to develop sufficient pressure or capacity a) Check pump speed since capacity varies directly with speed b) Check the suction line for air leaks and foot value c) Check function lift-too high reduce the pressure d) Check for the worn-out parts e) Check for the impeller clogging causes reduction in capacity and pressure. 2. Pump takes too much power: a) Check the speed which may be high b) Head may be lower than the pump rotating, there by pumping much water c) Check mechanical defects like bent shaft, misalignment find box etc., Characteristic curves: The inter relationship of capacity head, power and efficiency and best shown by graphically and these are curves are called characteristic curves of the pump. These curves serves as a basis for (1) selecting a pump to provide the required head and (2) the capacity for the range of expected operating conditions at or near the maximum efficiency. These curves vary in shape and magnitude depending on the size of the pump, type of impeller and overall deign. Characteristics of the centrifugal pump: i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) Smooth and even flow Adapted to high speed operation Capacity and head depend upon RPM and impeller diameter and width. R.P. is function of capacity, head and pump efficiency. When the speed is kept constant Capacity decreases When the speed is changed constant Capacity decreases as head increases and power is reduced. Like wise when the head is reduced power applied goes up and capacity increases.

vii)

Whom the operating speed in changed, capacity will head change square of the change in speed while H.P. change it cube of the charge the speed.

viii)

When the capacity various directly with the diameter of the impeller directly, head take with the square of the diameter and H.P. varies as the cube of the diameter.

Installation: Direct connected pumping sets are always mounted in a horizontal position on a level foundation. Concentrate foundation with-foundation bolts imbedded in the concentrate are in general and satisfactory arrangement. Suction Pumping: It should be direct and short as possible. The submergence of the foot value should be sub out 60 cm below the pumping water level. It is necessary that the streamer is kept at least 1 m. Above the bottom of the well. Sharp bends fitting should be avoided and it should be air, tight, of the section pipe should be equal to or larger than the suction opening of the pump. Deliver opening: U bends, elbows, tees and other fittings should be minimum. When pumping to distant places or under height head and reflux valve or non return valve near the pump will help the pump from water hammering. Sluice valve is provided to have smooth flow. SUBMERSIBLE PUMP: A vertical turbine pump close coupled to a small diameter submersible electric motor is termed as a submersible pump. The pump element and motor operate entirely submerged. Such an installation elements the long vertical shaft in the column pipe. Efficiency is increased by the direct coupling of the motor and its effective cooling by submerge in water. The principle advantage of the submersible pump is that it can be used in a very deep tube wells. Where a long shaft would not be practical. Submersible pump has no working part above the ground. The submersible pump consists of 1. Pump element: Is similar to the vertical turbine pump. 2. Electric motor: Submersible electric motor has the same diameter as the pump bowl but it is much longer the ordinary one. The electric cables, leads from the motor to starting box on the ground surface are water proofed. Submersible pumps are adapted to tube wells of 10 cm. Diameter or larger.

Common troubles and remedies: 1. Pump fails to start 2. Pump starts and discharge is steady But reduced amount of water 1. Motor running in reverse 2. Pump operating against a head greater than 3. Pump is air locked 4. Voltage low When discharge is below normal: i. ii. iii. Faulty in power supply Mechanical friction in pump Pump is worn out by sand 1. Fuse blow 2. Over lead trip flies short circuit

Limitations: 1. Pump and motor required to be pulled out from the well for repairs 2. Life of the pump is effected due to abrasion and encrustation by sand 3. No. oil engine can be used here Estimating the pump capacity: The required pump capacity for the irrigation can be computed by the formula 28 A.D Q = ----------EH Where Q = Discharge in liters /sec. A = Area in hectares D = Gross depth of irrigation in centimeters E = No of days permitted for irrigation H = No of hours of operation. In crop rotation system, the capacity of the pump designed for the maximum requirement of water in a particular month. The following example for an area of 20 hectares with crop area shown below. 1. 8 ha maize (irrigated) Irrigation interval 5 days in sandy loam and 15 days In heavy soils 5 cm irrigation

2 6 ha groundnut (Irrigated) Irrigation interval 8 days in sandy loam and 10-12 days in heavy soils. 3. 4 ha of paddy (Irrigated) Irrigation interval 10 days in heavy soils Irrigation period (Interval = 10 days No. of working hours/day So, water requirement for AD Maize = C = 28 x ----EH = 28 x 8 x 5 --------------------------- = 7 LPS 10 x 16 28 x 6 x 5 Ground nut = Q = -------------------------- = 3.25LPS 10 x 16 28 x 4 x 10 Paddy = Q = ---------------------10X16 Total capacity required = 7 + 3.25 + 7 = 19.25 LPS. = 7 LPS = 16 hours 10 cm irritation The following may be assumed for all three crops mentioned above: 5 cm irrigation

Power requirements and efficiency: A pump operates most satisfactorily under a head and at a speed for which it was designed. Terms and definitions: Static head is the vertical distance between the water surface at the source and at the out let. Static suction head, is the vertical distance between the water level and the counter line of the pump. Static discharge head: is the vertical distances between the centre line of the pump and the point of free delivery of water. head = static discharge head. Static head = static suction

Friction Head: is the head required to over come the resistance of the pipeline and fittings (including strainer elbows, bends, reducing sockets, tees, valves etc.,) in the pump system. 4 f1 v2 hf = --------------2gd Where f L R V D for new pipes. V2 Velocity head: = ----------2g Velocity head is the distance through which the liquid must fall to acquire a given velocity and is calculated from the formula: h = Velocity head in meters, V g = 9.81 Total head m/sec. = Static head + Friction head + Velocity head. Discharge in liters per second X Total head in meters WHP (Water Horse Power) = --------------------------------------------------------------75 WHP SHP (Shaft horse power) = ------------------------------------Pump efficiency Power to be supplied by engine or electric motor (Brake HP) With direct drive (drive efficiency100% ) Then BHP = SHP = h = v2/2g : Where velocity of the water in m/sec., = = = = = Coefficient of friction of pipe Length of pipe in m. Hydraulic radius in m. Velocity m/s Diameter of pipe.

Friction coefficient f is assumed to be between 0.01 for old pipes and 0.005

WHP BHP = --------------------------------------------------Pump efficiency x Drive efficiency.

In case of electric motors, the input horse power is calculated by WHP IHP = -------------------------Motor efficiency Overall efficiency = Pump efficiency X drive efficiency X Motor efficiency Energy consumption in Kilowatt hours per hour is = (Input HP) X 0.746

3. Water conveyance system

T D C
d

Z:1

B Fig :Open channel Open channels: It is defined as any conduit in which water flows with a free water surface. Rivers canals and un-covered flumes are open channels. Design of open channel: The design of open channel consists of deciding the following parameters. a) Shape of the channel b) Dimensions or the channel c) Longitudinal slope of the channel The elements of open channel are shown in the figure: T = Top width of channel D = Depth of channel after free board is added d = Depth of flow in the channel B = Bottom width C = Wetted sides of the channel Angle between the sloping side and horizontal (angle of report Definitions: 1. Wetted perimeter (p): Sum of the lengths of the sides of channel which are in contact with water. P= C+ B + C = 2C + B of the soil)

2. Area of cross section (A) (B + T) A = -------------- x D 2 3. Hydraulic radius (R) : Is the ratio between cross sectional area of the stream and the wetted perimeter. A Hydraulic Radius R = -----------------------P 4. Hydraulic slope: Is the ratio of its vertical drop h for a length of i of the channel and is given by H S 5. = ---------L Free board: Is the expected vertical distance between highest water level anticipated in the design and the top of the retaining banks. It is provided to prevent Over topping of structures because of Wave action. Generally 20% of the designed depth is taken as Free-board. = (B + T) x D

Estimating the velocity: The design is based on mean velocity of flow which is obtained by standard formula: R2/3 X S l/2 V = -----------------------------------n Where V = Mean velocity of flow in m/sec. S = Hydraulic slope = H/L A R = Hydraulic radius in meters = ---P n = Roughness co-efficient 0.03 to 0.04 Meanings formula is commonly used in the design of water courses and field channels. Values of n changes according to condition of the channel such sides and bottom. (Mannings formula)

Discharge capacity of the channel: Discharge capacity of the channel is obtained by the following formula. Q = AxV where Q = discharge capacity in gum/sec. A = Cross Sectional area in sq.m V = Velocity of water in mts/sec. Advantages of earthen channels: 1. They are easily understood and accepted by farmers. 2. Low initial cost 3. They can be built and maintained by unskilled persons. Side slopes: Normally, a channel should have slope about 0.1%. Where earthen channels is a semi-circle, as the wetted perimeter would the be a minimum and its hydraulic radius is max the best section i.e. when depth is d = b/2 The best hydraulic section of a trapezoidal channel under favorable structural conditions is: B = 2d tan /2 In which b = bed width D = depth of flow of the water = the angle between the side and the horizontal. Channel location: The channels must be located high enough above the land so that water can be readily diverted to the fields. Lined channels: Earth channels are lined with impervious materials to prevent: 1. 2. Excessive seepages Growth of weeds on the channel. Length of the water course. The seepage

ranges from 20 to 40% of the water delivered to the channel. One of the main problem in the use of earthen channels is the control of weeds. Weeds obstruct the flow and also weed seed flows through irrigation water to the fields. That is why, certain channels needs continuous maintenance to control mass and weed growth and to repair damage by livestock, rodents and erosion.

Lining of channels provide: 1. Equal distribution water among farmers 2. Reduce the labor cost in maintaining the water course 3. Eliminate water lagging caused by seepage 4. More land will be available for cultivation since the cross-sectional area is less. Materials for lining water courses: The most common material for channel lining include: 1. 4. Concrete 2. Stone or brick masonry 3. Natural clays of low permeability Clay tiles 5. Various rubber, plastic and asphaultic compounds 6. LDPE sheets. Well mixed and well made cement concrete lining and also single layer bricks or stones laid in cement or lime mortar (1:3:5) provide virtually water proof channel lining. flows. The other lining materials are susceptible to damage by trampling by livestock, insect, weed growth and erosion by high velocity Their short life often makes them un-economical unless special protection is provided. Pre cast concrete channel section: Pre cast concrete is a term applied to concrete units that are manufactured at a central place and hauled to the job site. These may be made in semicircular. U-sections and in one meter lengths. The area of the land occupied by this channel is greatly reduced when pre cast concrete sections are used since side embankments are un-necessary. They can be joined with cement mortar. (1 cement : 2 sand)

UNDER GROUND PIPE LINE SYSTEM An under ground pipe line water distribution system consists of buried pipes for conveying water to different points on the farm and allied structures required for the efficient functioning of the system. The system offers many advantages over open channels in water conveyance and distribution. Advantages over open channels: 1. Entire area can be brought under cultivation, where as in open channels 2 to 4 % of land being wasted. 2. No culverts or other structures are required 3. Pipes do not interfere with farming operation 4. When properly installed, they have long life and low maintenance costs. 5. Eliminates water losses by evaporation and prevents damage to the pipes since they are placed below the ground. Disadvantages: With this under ground pipe line system is that it requires higher initial cost. Since the under-ground pipe lines operate under pressure, they can be laid up hill or down hill, thus permitting delivery of irrigation water to areas not accessible by open channels. With an under ground pipe line system, wells need not be located at the high points of the farm but may at a location that provides the best water supply. The pipe lines do not clogged by vegetation and with blow material. They are ideally suited to undulated topography to reach water to fragmented and isolated. Locations on the farm and in the areas where land is costly. Pipes for under-ground water distribution system: Under-ground pipe lines are usually constructed with factory made reinforced concrete pipes, verified clay pipes asbestos cement pipes, and plastic or PVC pipes, where high pressures are involved RCC p1,p2,p3 pipes are to be used. P1 pipe - Up 8m. head P2 pipe - Up to 8 to 20 meters head P3 pipe - above 20m head. The choice of the material for the pipes depends on the conditions under which the pipes is to operate and the relatives costs. Under most field conditions, concrete pipes are the most economical. Where soils contain salts in quality a chemical analysis should be made to find out what salts are predominate. If sulphates are high, concrete should be avoided. Asbestos pipes are most costly than concrete

pipes. They give long service and adopted to wide range of water pressures. Plastic pipes are specially suitable in the smaller diameter for high pressure under ground pipe lines used for sprinkler irrigation. The R.C.C. pipes used in India are manufactures according to I.S.I. (I.S. 458). They are usually available in sizes. 15 cm, 22.5, 30, 37.5, 45 cms. The length varies from 2 to 2.5 meters. The concrete mixture 1: 1 Testing of irrigation pipe: Irrigation pipes are tested (1) for water absorption (ii) for strength. To test the water absorption, samples of the pipe are boiled for about 5 hrs. and gain in weight by moisture absorption is noted. The standard irrigation pipe should not exceed 8% of the originally dry weight. For strength, it should be tested on standard testing machines. Discharge through irrigation pipe line: The discharge through a pipe line can be determined by applying the Darcys equation: V = ( h d g / 2fl) Where V= Velocity of flow through the pipes: cm/sec h = available head causing the flow-cms. d = Diameter of the pipe cms. g = acceleration due to gravity cm/sec l = Length of the pipe in cms f = Darcys roughness coefficient Q = A X V litres/sec. Example: Determine the discharge capacity of an under-ground concrete pipe line from the following data. Dia. Of pipe = 15cm, length of pipe = 150m. f = 0.009 difference in elevation between water level at pump stand and discharge point = 2.6m. 260 x 15 x 981 V = (hdg / 2fl) = -------------------------- = 2 x 0.009 x 15000 Gross sectional area of the pipe = TD2/4 = 22/7 x (0.15)2 x 22/28 Discharge capacity = A x V = 0.0176 x 1.0176 x 1.0 = 0.0176 cum/sec = 17.6 lit/sec 100 cm/sec. = 1.0 m/sec. : 3

Spacing of the pipes: When the prevailing land slope is in one direction only, the spacing between pipes varies from 100m. to 200 m. closer spacing are suitable for sandy soils and farther spacing for heavy clay soils. Installation of concrete pipe: following steps. 1. Selection of depth and grade of laying 2. Lowering the pipe and squeezing 3. Sealing the joint 4. Back filling the trench
To prevent damage of pipe lines, they must be kept at least 45 cm. below the ground. The width of the trench should be 70 cm for working convenience. Structures for under ground pipe line: Specialized structure are used with under ground pipe lines system to control the water and protect the pipe line from damage. Structures include (i) Inlet structures, (ii) Diversion structures, (iii) Air release vents (iv) End plugs and (v) Out lets. PUMP STAND is an inlet structure required to be constructed to develop full low capacity of the pipe line, to maintain water surface elevations sufficient to distribute water to the different points on the farm. The minimum diameter of the pump stand should the kept not less than 60 cm. GATE STAND: It is a diversion structure and they are provided to control the flow into laterals when pipe lines branch off into water different directions. AIR Vents: Are vertical pipe structures to release air entrapped in the pipe line and to prevent vacuum. Entrapped air must be removed to avoid water hammer and even flow. They are normally installed at the following points (1) about 80 to 100 cms downstream from the pump stand, (2) at all high points in the line, at sharp turns, (3) at any abrupt change in grade (4) at the end of the pipe line. END PLUG: The end plug is provided where the line terminates, the function of the plug is to close a line and (to absorb the pressure developed at the end of the lines on account of water hammer. Riser valves: Riser valves are installed at regular intervals on the pipe line to provide controlled delivery of water on to the fields at any desired location. Alfalafa valves are widely used as riser valves in under ground water distributions system. Hydrants: Hydrants are devices placed over riser valve out lets as a means of connecting portable gate pipes to the pipe lines.

The process of laying the pipe line involves the

4. MEASUREMENT OF IRRIGATION WATER

It is essential to measured the quantity of water to (i) apply correct quantity of water when needed; at the rates based on intake rates. (ii) and to prevent land damage by applying more quantity. Units: The commonly used units of water is of two kinds. 1. Units of volume: refers to water at rest. Ex. Litres, cum, har cm. etc (kg). Cft. Gallon, acre - inch. 2. Units of flow: Refers to water in motion. Litres/sec. cu-m/sec (MKS). Cft/sec. gallons/min (FPS). Methods of measuring water: There are three methods used for measuring water (1) volumetric measurements (2) velocity for measuring water/area method, (3) Direct discharge method with measuring devices. I. Water Measuring Devices: They play an important role in applying required quantity of irrigation water during the distribution to different field crops. Water measuring devices can be grouped into four types. A. Volumetric measurements It is the simplest method and involves collection of flowing water from stream into a known volume of container (preferably bucket) over a period of time. The time may be measured with stop watch or wrist watch. The rate of flow can be calculated by using the formula. Volume of water collected (Litres) Discharge rate = -------------------------------------------Time of filling container, (seconds) This method can be used to determine the discharge rate of pumps and other water lifts like Persian wheel and leather bucket lift. It is frequently used to caliberate other devices and instruments for measuring flow in hydraulic laboratories.

B. Velocity area method The flow rate passing a point in a pipe or open channel is determined by multiplying the cross sectional area of the flow at right angles to the direction of flow by average velocity of flow. Q = Where, Q = A = V = a x v -----------(14.2) discharge rate, m/s cross-sectional area, m average velocity of flow, m/s

The cross sectional area is determined by measuring the size of conduct and the average velocity is determined by using current meter for accuracy and by float method for approximate values of discharge. C. Float method This method requires a straight section of channel which is uniform and free from surface disturbances and cross currents. Float measurements should be carried on windless days to avoid wind induced float deflections. For accuracy, a string or tape should be stretched across the beginning, mid point and end of channel section. These locations in channel must be far enough apart to allow accurate travel time measurements. The float should be released at a sufficient distance up stream for it to attain stream velocity before it enters the actual test section. The times when the float passes each station should be noted and recorded. Wide channels are often divided into segments and a float used to determine the velocity of each segment. The average velocity of the stream is computed with the following equation. V Where V CF Vf = = = = (CF) Vf average velocity of the stream, m/s velocity correction factor from Table (14.2) float velocity, m/s

Table 14.2 : Correction Factor (CF) for float method ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Average depth (m) 6.1 C.F 0.80 0.66 0.68 0.70 0.72 0.74 0.76 0.77 0.78 0.79 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.7 3.7 4.6

D. Current meter It is a small instrument containing a revolving wheel or vane that is turned by the movement of water (Fig.14.4). It may be suspended by a cable for measurements in deep streams of attached to a rod in shallow streams. The number revolutions of the wheel or vane in a given time interval is obtained and the corresponding velocity is obtained from caliberation table or chart of instrument. Standard procedure is to divide the cross section into segments and use the current meter to measure the average velocity in each segment from, two depth measurements. In the two depth method, the velocity is determined at 0.2 m and 0.8 m of the depth in each segment. The average of these two values gives the average velocity of flow for ordinary conditions. D. Water meter Water meters utilize a multi blade propeller made of metal or plastic or rubber, rotating in a vertical plane and geared to a totalize (counter) such that a numerical counter can totalize the flow in any desired volumetric units. Water meter are available for a range of suitable sizes of pipes, commonly used on the farm. There are two basic requirements for accurate operation of water meter. a) The pipe must flow full at all times and b) The rate of flow must exceed the minimum for the rated range. E. Co-ordinate method It is used to determine the velocity of water jet from pumping plants discharging horizontally. For pipes discharging horizontally, it is necessary to measure both horizontal (x) and vertical (y) distances. These distances are called x y Co-ordinates are measured form the centre of the end of the pipe to the centre of jet as shown in Fig 14.5. The formula used for estimating velocity of jet is: V Q Where Q C A X Y G = = = = = = discharge rate, m/s co efficient of contraction, dimensionless ( c = 1.0) cross sectional area of pipe, m x-co-ordinate, m y-co-ordinate, m acceleration due to gravity 9.81 m/s xg = -------------2y = c x a x V and

II. Measuring Structures These include weirs, flumes and orifices. These hydraulic devices are used in situations where natural control is not available and they provide a stable stage discharge relationship. 1. Weirs There are two types one is sharp crested and the other is broad crested weirs. Sharp crested weirs will have minimum surface contact with flowing water over the crest. Board crested weirs will have width of crest which maintains contact with overflowing sheet of water. The flow characteristics of these two are different. Generally, Sharp crested weirs are widely used in farm irrigation installations.

Terminology Weir : A weir is a notch or opening of a regular form through which the irrigation stream is made flow. Wire pond : It is the portion of the channel immediately up stream from the weir. Wire crest: It is the bottom of the weir notch. Head: The depth of water flowing over the weir crest measured at some point (4H) in the weir pond. End contraction: The horizontal distance from the end of the weir crest to the sides of weir pond. Weir scale on gauge: The scale fixed in the weir pond to measure depth of flow (H) Nappe: The sheet of water which overflows a weir. Bottom contraction: It is vertical distance from the weir crest to the bottom of the channel. Weirs consist of a smooth, vertical and flat plate installed across the channel and [perpendicular to flow. The plate obstructs flow causing water to back up behind the weir plate and to flow over the weir crest as show in Fig 14.6. Thin plate weirs are most accurate when the nappe completely springs free of the upstream edge of the weir crest and air is able to pass freely around the nappe. A head of at last 6 cm and a crest thickness of not more than 1 or 2 mm are required for water to spring free of weir crest (James, 1988). The crest of thin plate weirs may extend across the full width of channel or be contracted. The most common notch shapes are rectangular, triangular and trapezoidal (Cipoletti wier).

i.

Rectangular weirs

Full width weirs: Full width weirs are called suppressed rectangular weirs, because their sides are coincident with the sides of the approach channel and no end contractions of nappe are possible. The discharge rate of suppressed weir can be calculated from the equation. Q Where Q L H = = = discharge rate, l/s. (Litres/second) crest length, cm head over the crest, cm = 0.0184 LH/2

Contracted weirs: When the length of crest is less than the width of approaching channel, then end contractions are produced to the nappe. This requires that the distance from the sides of the weir to the sides of approaching channel be at least twice the head, but not less than 0.3 m (James, 1988), as shown in Fig., 14.7 The following equation is used to calculate the discharge rate. Q Where Q L N H = = = = discharge rate, l/s crest length, cm number of end contractions head over the crest, cm. = 0.0184 (L 0.1 n H) H/2

ii. V-notch (Triangular weir) It is accurate flow measuring device for flows ranging from 30 l/s to 300 l/s. A full contracted V notch is given in Fig. 14.8. The head discharge relationship for V-notch is : Q Where, Q H ii. Cipolletti weir = discharge rate, l/s = head over crest, cm. = 0.0138 H

It is a trapezoidal fully contracted weir inclines outward at a slope of l horizontal to 4 vertical as shown in figure (14.9). Cipolletti weirs should not be used for heads less than 6 cm nor for heads greater than 1/3 the crest length (V.S. Bureau of Reclamation, 1975). The Head-discharge relationship for the Cipolletti weir is:

Q = 0.0186 LH3/2 Where Q = discharge rate, l/s L = crest length, cm H = head over the crest, cm Standard conditions for installation of weirs: 1. The weir should be set at lower end of the long pool. Sufficiently wide the given even and smooth velocity. 2. The weir must be vertical 3. The centre line of weir must be parallel to the direction of flow 4. The crest of the weir should be perfectly level 5. The distance of the crest above the bottom of the pool should be about two times the depth of flow and the sides of the pool should be twice the depth of the flow. 6. The depth of flow over the crest should not be less than 5 cms. 7. The weir gauge or scale may be placed on the upstream side of the weir structure at a distance of about 4 times the approximate head. iv. Flumes A flume is a specially shaped channel section that is constructed or installed in open channels to obtain a stable stage-discharge relationship for flow measurement. The principal advantages of flumers and that they cause small friction losses and not sensitive to velocity of approcach. In addition, most flumes are not subject to deposition of silt and debris because of relatively high velocities through tem. Among the different flumes, parshall flume is widely used for measuring irrigation water at farm level. .Parashal flume: It is having three principals sections. 1. Converting or contracting sections 2. Constricted or throat section 3. Diverging or expanding section a. The floor or converging section is level and threat section includes downward and the floor of diverging section slopes upward. The parshall flume can abe constructed in a wide range of sizes to measure the discharge from a very small fraction of cum. To more than 100 cu.m/sec.

Discharge through the flume can occur either under two different conditions of flow i.e. (1) free flow condition and (ii) submerged condition. To determine the rate of discharge two depth gauges at converging section (HA) and threat section (HB) are provided. Only HA needs to be measured under free flow condition. Free flow conditions can be satisfied if the ratio of HA/HB are within the following limits. With of throat 2.5 cm to 7.5 cm 15 cm to 22.5 cm 30 cm to 240 cm 3m to 15 m HA/HB (Free flow limit) 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

After deciding the flow conditions the discharge can be obtained from calibration charts. The size of the flume is expressed on by the width of the threat. Advantage of parshall flume over other measuring devices. 1. There is no need to provide weir pond in the upstream side 2. The flume does not clog easily with floating trash and it keeps itself clean of sand and silt 3. It can be used even in relatively shallow channels like irrigation furrows with flat grades. III. Orifice: Orifice in open channels are usually circular or rectangular openings in a vertical bulk head through which water flows. The head causing flow through the orifice is determined by measuring the actual difference in elevation between the water level on the upstream side of the orifice and on its down stream side. Q = 0.61 x 10 -3 A2 gH (MKS units) Were: Q = Discharge in LPS A = Cross sectional area of orifice in sq.cm. H = Head causing flow in cm. G = Acc. Due to gravity 981 cm/sec Orifice can be used to measure water in comparatively small streams like the flow into borders, furrows and check basins D. Tracer method: They are independent of stream cross-section and can be used without fixing any structures. The discharge rate is calculated by balancing the concentrations of tracer at both upstream and downstream ends of flowing water.

5. Micro irrigation systems - Sprinkler irrigation

In the sprinkler method of irrigation, water is sprayed into the air and allowed to fall on the ground surface some what resembling rainfall. The spray is developed by the flow of water under pressure through small orificies or nozzles. The pressure is usually obtained by pumping. With careful selection of nozzle sizes, operating pressures and sprinkler spacing, the amount of irrigation water required to refill the crop root zone can be applied nearly uniformly at a rate suit to the infiltration rate of the soil, thereby obtaining efficient irrigation. Adaptability of Sprinkler Irrigation: 1. It is not suitable in very fine textured soils where the infiltration rate is less than 4 mm/hr. 2. Particularly suitable to sandy soils that have a high infiltration rate. 3. Shallow soils unfit for land leveling, can be irrigated by this method. 4. Specially suitable to steep slopes or irregular topography. 5. If soil erosionis is a hazard. This method can be used. 6. Flexibility of sprinkler equipment adapted to most topographic conditons. 7. Well designed sprinklers distribute water better than any other method. 8. Soluble fertilizers, herbicides and fungicides and fungicides can be applied through irrigation water with little extra equipment. 9. Labor costs are usually less than other methods 10. This method of irrigation doesnt interferes with the movement of farm machine. Limitations: 1. Wind distracts sprinkler patterns and causes uneven distribution of water. 2. Ripening soft fruit must be protected from spray 3. The water must be clean and free from and debris 4. Requires highest initial investment 5. Power requirements are usually high since sprinklers operate at 0.5 to 10 kg/cm. 6. Fine texture soils with low infiltration rate, cannot be irrigated properly in winds 7. If water is applied at low rate, evaporation losses and wind drift increases.

Types of Sprinkler Systems: 1. Rotating head system: Nozzles placed on riser pipes and fixed at uniform interval. The most common device to rotate the sprinkler heads is with a small hammer activated by the thrust of water striking against the vane. These may be high pressure (2 kg per cm) or low pressure system (1.4 hg per cm) or less. 2. Perforated pipe system: Consists of holes perforated in the lateral irrigation pipes in a specially designed pattern to distribute water fairly uniform. This is designed for low pressure of 0.5 to 2.5 kg/cm. It covers a strip if 6 to 15 metres. Suited for irrigation of laws of gardens and vegetable fields. Sprinkler irrigation systems are generally classified into 1. Permanent 2. Semipermanent 3. Portable. Permanent systems: Are those having the pipes permanently located. Usually they are build and not interfere with tillage operations. Installation costs are much higher, but labour and maintenance costs are less. Semi-permanent: Usually have the main lines buried and the laterals portable. The water supply is from fixed point. Installation costs are some what less than the permanent system, but lab our and maintenance costs are more. Portable system: Have both main lines and laterals portable Installation costs are less, but lab our and maintenance costs are higher. These systems are designed to be moved around the farm from field or even from farm to farm. Components of Sprinkler System The components of sprinkler irrigation system include: A. Pumping unit The pumping unit is required to lift the water from the water source drawn from either open wells or bore wells and distribute the water through the network of pipe line. Pumps may also be used to boost up the pressure within distribution lines where there is insufficient pressure developed by the pump at source. The capacity of pump can be calculated based on the water requirement of crop, area to be irrigated, irrigation interval, hours of pump operation and system efficiency. Both centrifugal and deep well turbine pumps can be used for operating sprinkler system depending upon the depth of water in the wells. Electric motors and Diesel engines can be used to drive the pump. Electric motors are used for fixed

installations of sprinkler system, where as diesel engines are useful for portable type of sprinkler systems. B. Main pipe line Main pipe line may be permanent or portable. Permanent pipeline are used on the farms where boundaries are fixed and crops require full-season irrigation. However, portable pipe line is more economical when sprinkler system is to be used on number of fields. Generally, PVC pipes can be used for permanent type and HDPE or Aluminum pipes can be used for portable pipe line. C. Lateral pipe lines The lateral pipe lines are usually portable. A quick coupled aluminum pipe is the Best for most portable laterals. The lateral pipes are available in lengths of 5,6 0r 12 m. D. Risers Risers are small GI pipes fixed to the lateral pipes at sprinkler spacing. On top of the riser, the sprinkler heads are fixed. The size and length of riser will be decided based on pressure consideration and discharge. E. Sprinkler head Sprinkler head is the critical component of a sprinkler irrigation system. The suitability and efficiency of sprinkler system depends on the operating characteristics of sprinkler head. The operating characteristics of sprinkler head are affected by varying pressure and wind velocities. The spray of water can be developed by two ways. One is by using revolving head sprinkles with one, two or more nozzles depending upon the diameter of wetted circle. The other is pipe with perforations which is not in practical use. Sprinkler heads may range from small single nozzle sprinkler to gaint multiple nozzle sprinkler that operate at high pressure. Single nozzle sprinkles are used for low water application rates. Two nozzle sprinkler heads can apply water at higher rate and results in more uniformity than single nozzle sprinkler head. Revolving head sprinkles are classified according to pressure range and their position in relation to irrigat6ed crops. Table 15.4 presents the range of sprinkler operating pressure, sprinkler characteristics and their adaptability.

F .Debris screens and Desilting basins Debris screens are required when the source of irrigation is surface water. The function of screens is to keep the system free of trash (Stics, plant straw, weed, seeds etc.,) which may plug the sprinkler nozzle. Desilting basins may be required to tap sand or suspended silts when the water is drawn from streams, open ditches or well water with silt. A. Booster pumps Booster pumps are used when a sprinkler irrigation system works with existing pumping unit installed in a well and there is insufficient pressure development to force water through sprinkles. This situation may arise when the area at higher elevations is to be irrigated by sprinklers. B. Flow control valves and take off valves Flow control valves are fixed in the system to regulate pressure and discharge of individual sprinkles along the laterals. They are seldom used on leveled land and even ground surface. Take off valves are needed to control ;pressures in the lateral lines. They are required when there are significant differences in the main line pressure at different lateral take off points. C. FERTILIZER APPLICATOR Soluble fertilizers as in the case of drip system can be injected through sprinkler system to the crops. The fertilizer can be applied at the desired depth to the crop in soluble and readily available form. The equipment used for injecting into sprinkler system is similar to as that of drip system. When applying fertilizer through sprinkler system, it is desirable to operate the system long enough to wet soil and plant foliage. Then, the fertilizer solution is injectged through the system for 30 minutes. After this, the system is operated for another 20 minutes to flush it from sprinkler pipe lines. The quantity of fertilizer to be injected into the sprinkler system can be quantified by using the formula. Ds x Dl x Ns x Wf Ws = ---------------------------------------10,000 (15.2)

Where, Ws Ds Dl Ns Wf = = = = = amount of fertilizer per setting, kg distances between sprinklers, m distance between laterals, m number of sprinkler and recommended fertilizer dose, kg/ha

Sprinkler selection and spacing: The actual selection of the sprinkler is based largely upon design information furnished by the manufactures of the equipment. The choice mainly depends on: (1) Diametre of coverage required (2) Pressure available (3) Sprinkler discharge. The required discharge of a individual sprinkler is a function of the water application rate and the two way spacing of the sprinklers. following formulation. Sl x Sm x I w = ---------------------360 Were: w = Discharge capacity of each sprinkler in liter/sec Sl = Spacing of sprinkler along the lateral in metres Sm = Spacing of laterals long the main in metres. I = Optimum application rate in cm/hr High of sprinkler raiser pipe: Sprinklers are located just above the crops to be irrigated and therefore, the height of risers depends on the maximum height of the crop. Capacity of the sprinkler system: It depends upon the area to the irrigated, the gross depth of water applied at each irrigation and the next operating time allowed to apply water to this depth. The capacity of the system may be calculated by the formula. Q = 2780 X A x D f x h x e Were: Q = Discharge capacity of the pump litres/sec A = Area to be irrigated - (Hectares) D = net depth of water application - cms. F = No. of days allowed for the completion of one irrigation H = No. of actual operative hours/days E = Water application efficiency in percent. It may be determined by the

6. DRIP IRRIGATION
Drip or trickle irrigation is one of the latest methods of irrigation which is becoming increasingly popular in areas with water scarcity and salt problem. It is a method of watering plants with a volume of water approaching the consumptive use of the plants, there by minimizing conventional losses such: i. ii. iii. Deep percolation Run-off Water evaporation

This method of irrigation is accomplished by using small or Drippers at selected spacings to deliver water to the water slowly to keep the soil moist within the desired for plant growth. The initial cost of the drip irrigation equipment is considered to be its limitation for large scale adoption crops like grapes, sugarcane, banana, guava and papaya and most other types of fruit trees and vegetables have been found to respond well to drip irrigation. Drip System Components D. Water source It may be open well or bore well from which water is drawn for irrigation. Before using the water from any source, its suitability for irrigation must be checked. Any major contamination in the water source will lead to frequent clogging of emitters and requires frequent washing of emitters and laterals either by acid or chlorination. Bucks et.al (1979) classified the water into different classes based on physical, chemical and biological parameters . E. Control head It includes centrifugal pumping system, filtration unit and fertilizer applicator. The pump size can be determined by knowing the water requirement of crop under drip irrigation and the total head available for pumping water from water source. For gravity operated system, over head storage tank is required for supplying water through drip system. Water soluble fertilizers can be effectively and efficiently applied along with This process is known as fertigation. irrigation water through trickle system.

Reduction in labour energy and equipment costs when compared to conventional methods of fertilizer application are the direct benefits available from fertigation. Plant nutrient levels can be maintained at required level through out the season. However, materials such as inorganic forms of phosphorous that form chemical precipitates and cause clogging should not be injected into trickle irrigation system. Soluble fertilizers which can be administered through drip system are given in the Table (15.3). However, fertilizers compounds like aqueous ammonia, calcium nitrate, calcium ammonia nitrate, potassium sulphate, zinc nitrate and ferric sulphate should not be applied through drip system. The fertilizer applicators like venture injection system and pressure differential injection system can be used for injecting fertilized into drip system. These units must be attached in the system before sand filters as shown in Fig:15.2. Filtering unit consists of primary fitter (Gravel or Sand fitter) and secondary filter (screen filler) as its components. A typical ravel filter is given in Fig. 15.3 indicating different layers of gravel pack with varying sizes. It is more effective against light suspended material such as algae, non corrosive metal or plastic material. They are specified by the size of the holes in the screens (in mm. micron or mesh i.e. no of holes per inch). The most common mesh selected for drip irrigation is 100-200 mesh (0.15-0.08 mm dia). B Main and Sub main pipes: Main pipe conveys water from the source to the main control points in the field and supplies the required discharge to each sub main/lateral. The size of pipe varies from 25 mm to 75 mm depending upon the area, crop and discharge of the well. Both HDPE and RPVC pipes can be used for main pipes with wall thickness of 2.5 to 3 mm with rated pressure of 4 kg/cm. These are buried beneath the ground surface at 30 to 45 cm deep to avoid exposure to UN-rays from the su, which will give more life to the pipe. Submain provide a means of grouping laterals into zones, the number of which depend on the area, shape of the field, topography etc. on small areas, a single sub main may suffice or may be omitted if the main line can substitute for the sub main. For the sake of minimizing pipe sizes, both sub mains and laterals can be arranged to split the flow of water into two directions to minimize the friction

losses. The diameter of pipes very from 25 to 50 mm depending upon the length of laterals, crops and emitter discharge rate. These pipes are made of HDPE or PVC which are buried in the ground at 30 to 45 cm depth. F. Lateral pipe The lateral of the pipes are very flexible in nature and made of low density 16 mm based upon the discharge polyethylene (LDPE0 or Linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE). The size lateral varies from 12 mm to requirement of the emitters. The laterals are connected to sub mains using various techniques including undersized drilled holes into PVC sub mains, saddle connections, various adapters and pipe tee joints. The emitters are connected to the laterals at crop spacing intervals. The lateral down stream end is closed with an end plug or simply crimped over. The entire pipe system can be lied on surface or sub-surface. G. Emitters Emitters or drippers are the devices which allow water flow from lateral pipe to the soil in the form of drops at atmospheric pressure. This is very crucial part in drip systems. They are made of injected hard plastic material. Basically, there re two types of emitters namely pressure compensating and non-pressure compensating. The functional pressure discharge relationship of emitter devices is given by. Q = Kh Where, Q = discharge rate of emitter, l/hr K= Proportionality constant H = Pressure head, m and X = emitter discharge exponent whose value ranges from 0 to 1 When x value approaches to 0, the emitters are classified into pressure compensating, other wise wmitters are non-pressure compensating. Pressure compensating emitters deliver constant discharge for any pressure range applied. Emitters are again grouped into two as in line and online emitters based on the arrangement. Inline emitters are fixed within the lateral pipe while manufacturing the lateral pipes or by cutting the lateral line. Online emitters are fixed by punching a hole on the lateral and by thumb pressing of emitter into the lateral. Besides these, microtubes, diameter ranging from 0.5 to 3 mm can also be used as on line emitters. The discharge rate of emitters varies from 2 to 10 lit/hr at rayed operating pressure. ---------------(15.1)

Biwall is a twin chamber tube with one chamber of larger diameter than the other . There are orifices at spacing of 0.45 to 1.8 m apart between chambers. There will be 3 to 6 outer orifices for each inner orifice. A part from these, another group of emitters include spitters, foggers etc., which are used in most of the green houses for increasing relative humidity in the growth chambers. sprinklers. H. Other control and monitoring equipment The control and monitoring equipment include fixing of pressure gauges before, after and within the frame work of control head to study pressure variation within the fitters and fertilizer applicator etc., and by pass valve to regulate discharge into the system and water meter for knowing the total volume of water pumped into the system. They also include various control valves within the pipe network to regulate discharge rate. The drip system can be operated in the pressure range of 0.25 to 2 kg/cm. Field layout of drip irrigation for row spacing of 1.0 meter components of the system: Drip irrigation system essentially consists of 1. Main line 2..Sub-mains 3. Laterals 4. Emitters or drippers. The PVC material is preferred for drip system as it can with stand irrigation water and is also not effected by chemical fertilizers. The laterals may be designed to operate under pressures as lowers 0.15 to 0.2 kg/cm and as high as 1.0 to 1.75 kg /cm. These resemble mini

RUN OFF Run-off is that portion of the precipitation that makes its way towards stream channel, lakes etc., as surface flow: or sub-surface flow. Before run-off and occur, the precipitation must satisfy the demands of 3. Infiltration and 4. Surface storage. Run-off will occur only when the rate of prescription exceeds the rate at which water may infiltrate into the soil. The water after satisfying initial detention or depression storage starts moving towards streams on the surface of the land. Such type of run off is known as surface run-off. Sub-surface run-off is that portion of infiltrated water which penetrates shallows depths, travels laterally and is intercepted by channels or emerges on the surface. Appreciable amounts of sub-surface relative to the total storm run-off or likely to occur where permeable surface soils lie over slowly permeably or impervious horizons at shallow depths. Factors effecting run-off. The factors effecting run-off may be divided in these factors associated with the precipitation and those of factores associated with water shed. Rainfall duration, intensity and aerial distribution influences the rate and volume of run-off. Total run-off where as a storm of the same intensity but of long duration will result in run-off. Watershed factors: The factors which effecting run-off are (1) size (2) shape and topography, nature and extent of vegetative cover over the surface. Both run off volume and rate increases as water shed size increases. Long and narrow water sheds are likely to have lower run-off rates than more compact watersheds of the same size. Watersheds having extensive flat areas or depressed areas without surface outlets have lower runoff than areas with steep, well defined drainage patterns. Estimation of the design run-off To design soil conservation structures with the proper capacity to meet the needs of their respective conditions it is necessary to estimate peak run-off rates. The rational method is commonly used in predicting peak run-off rate of small water sheds. The intense storm may actually decrease the infiltration rate because of its destructive action on the structure of the soil surface. 1. Evaporation 2.Interception

Q = 0.0276 CIA Where: Q = Design peak run-off rate in cum/sec C = Run-off coefficient The values of C per different soils under different slopes can be had from a table. I = Rainfall intensity in centimeters/hr for a duration equal to time of concentration A = Watershed area in hectares The rational method is based on the following assumptions: 1. Rainfall occur at uniform intensity for a duration at least equal to time of concentration of watershed. 2. Rainfall occurs at a uniform intensity over the entire area of watershed. 3. This method is applicable to watersheds of less than 1300 hectares.

7. SOIL EROSION PRINCIPLES Soil conservation: Soil conservation is preservation of soil from deterioration and loss by using it within its capabilities and applying the conservation practices needed for its protection and improvement. Soil erosion may be defined as the detachment and transportation of soil through the action of water in motion, wind and by beating action of the rain drop. The chief agents which causes erosion are 1. water and 2. wind. Erosion is broadly classified into i. ii. Geological erosion or natural erosion Accelerated erosion

ii. Geological erosion: It is a process that in action since the formation of earths crust. The heat of sum, the rain drops, the severe blast of the wind, the roots of the plants the insect like, the bacterial file and the human life are based upon the crust of the earth resulting in tremendous biological, chemical an physical change. As a combined result, the earths formation as well as destruction is balancely maintained by nature. This is a natural and very slow process going on through ages. iii. Accelerated erosion: When the vegetation is removed and land is put under building and soil removal is cultivation, the natural equilibrium between soil

disturbed. The removal of surface soil takes place at a much faster rate than it can be build up by the soil forming process. This known as accelerated erosion or abnormal erosion. ACCELERATED EROSION Accelerated erosion is of three types: 1. Water erosion 2. Wind erosion 3. Rain drop erosion 1. Water erosion is the removal of soil from the land surface by water in motion. It is of four types: a) Sheet erosion: It occurs on gentle slopes on. The top fertile layer is ripped off in thin films/every year by running water from over entire area. After flow ceases. The field look the same as before but slowly the yields being to decline.

b) Rill erosion: This is second stage of sheet erosion. In this stage, small finger like rills begin to appear on the land slope. Year after year, the rills slowly increase not only in number but also in their shape an sixe. There get winder and deeper. This progress of erosion bigings to hinder the movement of farm machinery, reduce the actual area under cultivation and results in declining crop yields. c) Gully erosion: Gully erosion is the removal of soil by running water, with formation of channels, that cannot be smoothed out completely be natural cultivation. Gully erosion is an advanced and widened a very year and begins to attain the form of fullies. d) Streambank erosion: Stream bank erosion is the scouring of material from the water channel and the cutting of banks by running water. Stream bank cutting is most common form of channel erosion and in particularly noticeable on the outside bank at the beginning of bends in meandering streams. Bank cutting is accelerated by the removal of vegetation by overgrazing or by tilling too near the bank. The main causes of soil erosion 1. Heavy destruction of natural protective cover like trees, grasses, forest fires and over grazing. 2. Mal practices in the use of land such as up and down cultivation, successive growing of crops, removal of organic matter and faulty method of irrigation. Ill effects of soil erosion: 1. Loss of productive soil: The surface soil last with run off or wind coasists of rich productive soil and fresh or active organic mater which is very essential for plant development. 2. Deposition of sand on productive in fields: In the plains, fertile lands have been made unproductive by the deposition of coarse material brought down from the hills by streams and river or by wind at the farm whirling and cyclonic. 3. Silting of lakes and reservoirs: Soil erosion from the catchment areas of reservoirs resulting in the deposition of soil, thus reducing their storage capacity and shortening their useful life. 4. Silting of drainage and water channels. Deposition of silt in drainage ditches, natural streams and rivers reduces their depth and their capacity to handle run

off. As a result, overflows and flooding of down stream areas increase with damage to crops. Water Erosion Control Measures: The water erosion control methods can be grouped into two types. I. Agronomic measures A. Contour farming: Contour farming is the practice of cultivating land along the contours laid across the slope of the field. It reduces the flow velocity of water and retards soil erosion. Row crops like maize, sorghum, pearl millet are well suitable for contour cultivation. B. Strip cropping It involves growing of different crops in alternate strips across the slope of land they serve as vegetative barriers to control erosion. Strip cropping can be practiced in three ways. They are contour strip, field strip and buffer strip cropping as shown in Fig. 17.1. Countour strip cropping consists of growing alternate strips of erosion permitting and erosion resisting crops along the contours. In field strip cropping, the strips are laid across the slope in uniform width without taking exact contours into consideration. This is useful on uniform slopes with high infiltration rates. In buffer strip cropping, permanent strips of grasses are located either in badly eroded areas or in areas that do not fit in to a regular rotation. The width of strips of erosion permitting and erosion resisting crops depend upon the factors like slope, soil texture, rainfall characteristics, type of crops. In general sleeper the slope the greater is the width of erosion resisting crop and smaller the width of erosion permitting crop. However, strip cropping is not followed in India on large scale. Had given the width of strips for different slopes s given in Table 17.1 Slope (%) 1 2 3 Width 50 30 15 of erosion Width of erosion resisting crop (m) 10 6 5 permitting crop (m)

Conservation tillage It is any tillage system which leaves at least 30% of the soil surface covered with residues after a crop is planted. It implies that a greater quantity of plant residues would be present at all times during the interval between crops. It may also be any tillage sequence that reduces loss of soil or water relative to conventional tillage, which is a form of non-inversion tillage that retains protective amounts of residue on the surface. Different conservation tillage methods for row crop and small grain agricultural are given in Table. Row crop agriculture 1. Narrow strip tillage No tillage Zero till Slot plant Strip rotary tillage 2. Ridge planting Till plant Planting on ridge 3. Full width-no plow tillage Fall and /or spring disk Fall or spring chisel 4. Full width-plow tillage Plow Small grain agriculture Stubble mulch farming Stirring machines One way disk Tandem disk Chisel plows Field cultivators Mulch treaders Subsurface tillage Sweep plows Rod weeder with semi chisels Eco fallow Direct drill

II.

ENGINEERING OR MECHANICAL MEASURES A. Contour bunds Bunds constructed along the contours or with permissible deviation from

contours are called contour bunds (Fig.17.2) bunding is preferred in the areas where annual rainfall is <500 mm and soil moisture is limiting factor for crop production. Mostly, bunds are constructed on the land slopes varying from 2 to 10%. For the lands below 2%, agronomic measures can be adopted for in-situ moisture conservation. Contour bunds are preferred in the permeable soils like alluvial, red

and shallow balck soils. However, bunds are not preferred in the clay soils or deep black soils. Design of contour bunds involves fixing vertical interval and horizontal interval between two consecutive bunds, their deviations from actual contour and the cross-section of the bund. Vertical interval (VI) can be caluculated by using the formula. S VI Where, S = land slope, % A,b characteristics, Cropping program of the area. VI Horizontal interval (HI): ----------- x 100 s The criterion for spacing of contour bunds is to intercept the water before it attains erosive velocity. This depends on slope, soil, rainfall, cropping pattern and conservation practices adopted. The non-erosive velocities one 0.5 m/s for sandy soils and 0.6 to 0.75 m/s for clay soils. The cross-section of bund can be determined based on the volume of water impounded between on contour bunds, and the seepage line across the bund. Graded bunds consists of constructing wide and shallow channels across the slope very near to the contour ridge. These channels induce and regulate the excess runoff water and remove the same with non-erosive velocities. Graded bunds are preferred in the areas whose channel rainfall area is > 800 mm. The grade of the channel varies from 0.2 to 0.4% depending on soil type. Bunds with growing of vegetation along sides and top of the bund to protect from raindrop impact, biotic interference etc., are called live bunds. Generally, grasses like khus-khus, cenchrus ciliaris and legume like gliricidia are preferred for the above purpose. --------(17.2) = Constants depending upon the soil, and rainfall = (--------- + b) A ---------(17.1)

B. Terracing i. Broad based terraces: They are also called as ridge terraces or broad bunds. The terrace consists of a channel with a ridge on its lower and whose function is to drain surface run off or it absorb runoff. Thus, these are called drainage or absorption terraces as shown in Fig. 17.3 These can be adopted in slopes < 10%. ii. Bench terraces: Bench terraces are preferred in the land slopes varying from 10 to 33% on hill slopes. As the cost is limiting factor in adoption of bench terraces, they are adopted where intensive agriculture is practiced on hill slopes. Bench terraces consist of constructing step like fields along contours by half cutting and half filling. Original slope is converted into level fiels eliminating all hazards of soil erosion. a) Level or Table top bench terraces Bench terraces with level tops are adopted in the medium rainfall, having deep and highly permeable soils. As there is no slope given to the benches, most of the rainfall falling over the area is to be absorbed by the soil and very little water goes as surface drainage. These terraces can be used for paddy cultivation where irrigation facility is available. b) Inward sloping bench terraces Terraces with benches sloping inward are adopted in the high rainfall areas where a major portion of the rainfall is to be drained as surface runoff. In such terraces, a suitable drain at the inward end of each of these terraces is to be provided to remove excess runoff to a suitable outlet. c) Outward sloping bench terraces Bench terraces with outward sloping benches are adopted in low rainfall areas with permeable soils. In these terraces, a strong bund with spill way arrangement would suffice to remove excess runoff occurring in case of heavy rainfall events. Excess runoff will flow from one terrace to another. d) Puertorican type bench terraces (California type) In this type of terrace, the soil is excavated little by little during every plowing and developing bench terraces by pushing the soil down hill against vegetative barrier laid along contour. Such a terrace is developed over the years above bench terraces are given in Fig. 17.4

e) Stone terraces They are small embankments constructed with stones across the hill slopes. These are justified where stones are available in adequate quantities near to the site. These can be used for growing annual crops and perennial tree plantations. Design of bench terraces consists of determining type of bench terrace, terrace spacing, terrace width and terrace cross-section. Selection of bench terrace depends upon the rainfall and soil conditions. Terrace spacing is the vertical interval between two terraces. It depends on the depth of cut. The factors that limit the depth of cut are the soil depth and land slope. The terrace spacing is so selected that depth of cut and fill are balanced. The width of terrace is designed such that it enables economic and convenient agricultural operations. As in the case of contour bunds, the vertical interval between terraces can be determined from the eqn 17.1. The width of terrace is calculated from the following formula. Ws VI Where, VI = vertical interval, m W = width of ferrace, m N = batter slope (1/2 : 1 to 1:1) S = land slope, % Design of bench terraces: The design consists of (1) terrace spacing (2) terrace grade and length and (3) tefface cross-section. In India the design criteria developed by central soil and water conservation, training centres located at (1) (2) Dehradhun and (3) Bellary are adopted at different places. (b) Broad base terracing: Is a broad surface cannel or embankment constructed areas the slope of the rolling land. The distinguished characteristic of the enter race is ferment ability. On the basis of primary function, the broad base terrace is classified into (1) grade (2) level terrace, Graded terrace may be constructed with variable or uniform grade in the channel. This will be more useful on poorly drained soils with slopes less that%. Ooty = -------------------------100-ns (17.3)

Level terrace is a constructed on the contour and are generally recommended in areas where the soil is sufficiently permeable to prevent over topping of the ridge and serious damage to the crops. The level terrace is after used for moisture conservations on slops of less than 2% or loss. From functional aspects, graded terraces are classified as interception and diversion types and level terraces as absorption type. Terraces are further classified into (1) channel type and (2) Ridge type. Channel type is mostly used on soils where controlled removal of water is of prime importance. It is built largely form one side and the important feature is to dig channel for carrying the water. Ridge type are usually used where the water holding capacity is priaciple function. The ridge type terrace is usually built from both the sides. In this type a shallow flat sided channel is also provided at the upstream side with flat slope to remove the run off water at controlled rate. Depending upon the width of the base the ridge type terraces may be classified as narrow base terrace and broad base terrace. A narrow base terrace is similar to a broad base terrace in all respects except the width of ridge and channel. The base width of a narrow base terraces is usually built from both the sides. In this type a shallow flat sided channel is also provided at the upstream side with flat slope to remove the run off water at controlled rate. Depending upon the width of the base the ridge type terraces may be classified as narrow base terrace and broad base terrace in all respects except the width of ridge and channel. The base width of a narrow base terrace is usually 1.2 to 2.4 m (4 to 8 ft). The main draw back with the narrow base terrace is that the ridge cannot be cultivated. The second method is more suitable under the present conditions of farming in India, since less attention is required for maintaining the bund at the time of cultural operations. The channel on the other hand, may silt up in a short time. Unless conservation farming practices are followed after bunding. The design of graded bund involves the selection of the vertical interval, provision of suitable grade and cross-section for the bun and channel. The criteria for fixing the vertical interval and grade are the same as discussed under graded terrace.

CONTOUR BUNDING The important principle to be kept in conservation and utilization of water are: 1. Increasing the time of concentration and there by allowing more runoff water to be absorbed and held by the soil. 2. Intercepting a long slope into several short ones so as to maintain less than a critical velocity. 3. Protection against damage due to excessive run-off. The above objects can be achieved by putting a series of bunds or terraces across the slope of the land. Contour bunding is the construction of small bunds across the slope of the land on a contour so that long slope is out into series of small ones and each contour bund acts as a barrier to the flow of water thus making it walk rather than run and at the same time impounding a great part of it for increasing soil moisture. In the case of contour bunded fields, the field between two adjacent bunds is its own catchment, its own reservoir and its own command. The object is to prevent run-off as far as possible and retaining in the soil and incidentally to prevent erosion of the soil. Like graded bunds, no cultivation is allow on the earthern embankments. Under contour bunds at area of about 5% is lost under the bunds, and not available for cultivation in addition to controlling soil erosion and maintaining soil fertility the construction bunds helps in better infiltration of water through the soil, ultimately replenishing the underground storage. A considerable rise in water table has been observed in contour bunded field. Watershed Management Watershed is a manageable hydrologic unit with common boundary draining runoff from farthest point to a common outlet at the lowest elevation point. The size of watershed can be selected based on the possibilities of developing it with soil and water conservation structures with 3 to 5 years time. Mini or micro watershed can be the basis for planning and execution. Objectives of watershed management 1. To protect, conserve and improve land resources for efficient and sustained production. 2. To protect and develop water resource by moderating floods 3. To reduce silting of tanks and reservoirs

4. To increase irrigation and conserve rainwater for crops, by mitigating droughts 5. To utilize the natural local resources for improving agriculture and allied industries (small cottage industries) so as to improve socioeconomic conditions of local habitants. 6. To increase ground water recharge of water facilitating both irrigation and drinking.

10. SURVEYING PRINCIPLES Surveying is the part of making measurements as well as determining the relating position of points in the surface of earth in order that the shape and extent of any portion the earths surface may be ascertained and decertified on a map or plan. It is essentially a process of determining the positions of points in a horizontal plan. Leveling is the art of determining and representing the relative highs or elevations of different points on the surface of the earth. determining positions of points in a vertical plan. Objectives of Survey: The primary object of a survey is the preparation of plan or map. The results of surveys when plotted and drawn on paper constitute a plan. Plan is therefore the representation to some scale of the ground and objects upon it as projected on a horizontal plane which is represented by the plan of paper on which the plan is drawn. The representation is called a map, if the scale is small, while it is called a plan if the scale is large. Eg. A map of India, plan of estate or a building. On plan, horizontal is plane only are shown: Primary division of survey: Divided into two general classes 1. Geodetic Survey: Is also called trigonometrically surveying it is necessary to take into account the curvature of earth, since large distances area covered. The object geodetic surveys is to determined the process positions on the surface of the earth of system of widely distant points which form control stations to which surveys such as engineering typographical, cadastral etc., may be referred.Such surveys are conducted through the agencies of government. In India they are conducted by the survey of India department. 2 Plane Survey: In plane surveying, the curvature o earth is not taken into account as the surveys extend over smaller areas, the earths surface is considered as a plane, the line connecting any two points as a straight line it is therefore involves knowledge of geometry and plan trigonometry. It is the process of

USES OF SURVEY: In all engineering projects the preparation of accurate plans and sections is the first necessary the earliest surveys will chiefly confined to land and establishment of boundaries. Measurements: There are two kinds of measurements use in plants surveying viz: 1. Linear and 2. angular. 1. Linear: May be further sub-divided into (a) Horizontal distances and (b) Vertical distances. In surveying it may be remembered that the distance between any two points on a plan or map is always the horizontal distances between them irrespective of their elevations. 1. Angular measurements: May also be sub-divided into (a) Horizontal angles and (b) Vertical angles. The angles measured with the odiolite are always horizontal angles. Units of Measurements: A). Linear measurements: The Fundamental units of length, breadth, hight, In metric system Metre, G.K.mm, Kilo metre in British system yeard. Inches. B) Area of the figures are expressed in sq.units Metric system lane angle: Radian as the units of plane angle and is defined as the angle between two radium of a circle which out off on the circumference and are equal in length to the radius. 60 seconds () = 60 minutes () = Land surveying: Land surveys are made for one or more of the following purposes: 1. To secure the data for exact description of the boundaries of a piece of land (or tract). 2. To determine its area. 3. To secure the necessary date for making a plane. 1 minute 1 degree = = 10,800 radian. 180 radian. sq.cms, sq.mets, Hectares. In British system - sq. inch. Eq. feet, sq. yard acre. thickness, radius, diameter, length of pitch etc.,

4. To re-establish the boundaries of ten piece of land. 5. To divide a ;piece of land into a number of units. Measurement of Distance: There are two main methods of determining distances: i) Direct and ii) Competitive. In direct method, the distance are measured on the ground by means of chain, tape or other instruments, which in the commutation method, distance are obtained by calculation. The following methods are adopted in direct method of measuring distance. a) pacing b) by using passemeter c) Pedometer d) Odometer e) Speedometer f) Perambulator g) By judging the distance h) Time measurement i) Chaining. a). Pacing: Where approximate results are required, distances may be determined by pacing. This method consists in walking over a line and counting the number of paces. Known the average length of pace (May be taken as 80 cms)., the required distance may be contained by multiplying with number of paces by the average length of pace. The length of the pace varies with the individual and also with: 1. His age, height and physical condition. 2. The nature of the ground 3. The speed of pacing. Through the this method in rapid, is very monotonous to account number of spaces for a long distances. the

INSTRUCTUMENTS USED IN CAHIN SURVEY: 1. Chain: Is used to measure distance on the ground between two points. It is composed of 100 pieces of galvanized mild steel wire of 4 mm in diameter called links. The different components of the chain are shown are shown in figure. The ends of the chain are provided with brass handles for dragging the chain on the ground. Metallic tags are fixed at various distinctive points of the chain to facilitate quick reading of fractions of a chain, Shivel joints are provided at the ends of the chain to turnaround without twisting. 1. Types of Chains: a) Metric chains: Metric chains are made in lengths of 20 more 30 m the length are marked over the handle to indicate the length and also to distinguish from non-metric chains. Chains are provided with tags at every 2 m distance. The length of each link is 0.2 m since the 20 m chain is divided into 100 links and 30 m chain is divided into 150 links. b) Steel Band: Consists of a ribbon of steel with a brass survel handle at each and it is 20 or 30 m long and 16mm wide. It us would in a closed case. For accurate work it is preferred. It must be protected from rust by frequent cleaning and oiling. c) Gnters chains: It is 66 ft. long and divided into 100 links each 0.66 ft. long. Convenient to measure distance in miles, furlong sand area in acres 10 sq. G. Chains 1 acre. 2. Tapes: They are divided into four classes: a) Cloth tape or liner tape: It is easily effected by damp. If wet, it shrinks. It stretches easily and likely to twist. It is therefore little used in surveying. b) Metallic tape : The tape is made of yarn in weft. It is available in lengths of 5, 10, 15, 20,30, m it is commonly reqinds into the case. This is costly and also little centre is required to clean it before it is reminded. c) Invar tape: For work of highest precision this tape as generally used. It is made of an alley of steel nickel and posses a very low coefficient of thermal exspansion. It is available in lengths 30, 50 and 100 m. 3. Ranging Rods: Are used for marking the positions of stations conspicuously and of ranging the lines. They are made of with well seasoned weed circular in shape of 3 cm dia with a cross show at the bottom of 15 cm long. The length is 2 m in prior

to make them visible at a distance, they are pointed alternately black and white. When they are at considerable distance, yellow or red or white flags of 25 cm square, are fastened at the top. 4.Arrows: They are made of good quality hardened and tempered steel wire 4 mm in diameter and 400 mm in length pointed at one for infesting into ground and bent into a ring at the other and for facility to carry. To mart at the end of each chains length, the arrow is inserted into the ground. 5.Cross staff: There are three types of cross-staff, i). Open type ii) French and iii) Adjusting type. The open type is in common use. In setting out a right angle at point on the chair line, it is held vertically over the given point on the chain line and turned until the ranging at the either and of the chain line is bisected by the line of sight through one Bailiff the opposite slits. The line of sight through one the other paid of slits will be at right angled to the line of sight obtained through the first pair of slits. 6Optical square: Optical square is also used for the same purpose as a cross-staff but it is more accurate. It is a compact small hand instrument, looking like a metal circular box of 5 Cm. dia and 2 Cm. width. On the base of the circular box 2 mirrors are fixed at an angle of 45 the description of the instrument is as follows: H and I are the two mirrors placed at an angle of 45 to each other. The mirror H called horizon glass is half silvered. The mirror un known as index glass is wholly silvered. Three openings are out a like in the rims of the box and cover. j) a is a pin hole for the eye (ii) b is a small rectangular slot or sperture for horizon sight, placed diametrically opposite to the pin hole and iii) C is a large rectangular slot for index sight placed at right angle to line joining the pin hole and the small rectangular slot. A person with the optical square holding his right hand moved on the chain line. Seeing through hole a until that time, the image of the ranging rods of and the ranging red to station B or none line vertically. A ray of light from the ranging rod of on the line or strikes the index glass I one is reflected along IH. The reflected ray again strikes the silvered portion of the horisen glass H and then reflected along HE. Thus the observer locking through the right hole in the directed EH, sees the ranging rod at B directly through the un silvered portion of the horizon glass and the imagine of the ranging rod at o in the silvered portion of the horizon glass exactly above (or below). If the ranging red o (is

exactly on the line of i.e. BHO is right angle, the imagine of o is seen considering with the ranging rod R and look one above at. Testing of a chain Testing of a Chain: It is always necessary to check the testing length of chain before commencement of each days work and at frequent intervals. Other wise the measurements will become unreliable. Before testing the chain, the serve or should that the links and rings are free from mud and that there are no links or bent links. The chain is tested by comparing it with i) the chain standard ii) with the steel tape which should be kept in the serve your office or this sole purpose. At least gauge suitable to chain standard, may be established by driving two stout pages at the required distance a part (20 m or 30 m) and inserting nails into their tops to marks exact distance. It is advisable to have a permanent test gauge established is close proximity to the serves office. During the first use, the links become best and, consequently the chain is shortened. It is also shortened by mud clogging the links when working over muddy ground. On the other hand, it gets clogged due to i) weat of 600 wearing surfaces ii) Strentching of the links and joints and opening out of the small rings iii) rought handling in pulling it through edges and fences. Adjusting the chain: 1. Closing up the joints that are depend out 2. Hammaring back to the shape the elongate rings 3. Replacing some of the worn out rings with known once 4. Removing on or more small rings. Too short chain: 1. By straightening any bent link 2. By fattening some of the small connecting rings 3. Replacing some of the worn out rings with new ones 4. By reaching a few of the rings by these of the large size 5. By inserting new rings as required

12. Errors in chain measurement It may be noted that measurements taken with a chain which is too long or too short, can be correct by calculation, using the formula: L There length of a line = ---------------- x measured length of a line L L L Where: L = ( ------------) L = in correct length of chain or tape L L too short. Formala: Let A = measured (or computed) area of the ground A = actual or true area of the ground L Then, True area = ( ------------) X measured area L L A OR Let V = measured or computed volume V = actual or true volume. L Then, true Volume = measured volume x (------) 3 L L1 V = V1 (----------) 3 L = AX ( ------) L = (L e) where, e = correction factor = true length of chain or tape

Use + sign when the chain is too long and positive (-) sign when the chain is

Errors in chaining: The errors that occur in chaining are classified as 1. Variation in temperature 2. defects in construction 3. personal defects in vision. Compensation errors: are these which are liability occur in either direction and hence tend to components i.e. they are not likely to make the apparent result too large or too small, compensating errors are caused due to: 1. In correct holding of the chain 2. practional part of the chain may not be correct 3. During stepping operation, operation, crude method of plumbing. Cumulative errors: are these which occur in the same direction and tend to add up or accumulate i.e., either to make the apparent measurement always too long or to short. Procedure for unfolding and folding the chain: Unfolding the chain: To layout the chain on the ground, take both the handles in the left had and through the chain well for wall with the right hand. The leader, taking one handle of the chain, moves forward until the chain is extended to its full length. This operation is also called undoing/unfolding the chain after unfolding the actual chaining starts. Folding the Chain: After the work is over the chain should be folded into a bundle. To do this bring the two halves of the chain so as to lie along side each a herby pulling the chain by the middle. Commencing from the middle, take two pairs of across the others in the left hand. This operation is also known as doing/folding the chain OBSTACLES IN CHAINING: Various obstacles or obstruction such as weeds, weeds, hills, ponds, rivers, buildings etc., are continually met obtain chaining. It is however, essential that chaining would be continued in a straight line. Special that chaining would be continued in a straight line. Special methods are therefore employed in measuring distances across the obstructions. The various obstacles may be classed as: 1. Chaining free, vision obstructed: Ex: raising ground or a intervening. In these type of obstacle, the ends of a line are not indivisible. There are two cases under this.

a). Both ends a may be visible from intermediate points on the line in this case the difficulty may be got over the by reciprocal ranging. b) Both ends may not be visible from any intermediate point. This case occurs when it is desired to run line across a wooded field (the trees, and underbrush) preventing the fixing of intermediate stations. In such cases, the method of random line is most suitable. 2. Chaining obstructed, but vision free: Ex: pond, plantations, tank, river etc., The problem is to find the distance between two convenient points on the chain line on either side of the obstacle. There are two cases: (1) In which it is possible to chain round the obstacle Ex: Ehorny Hedge. Pond etc. (2) in which it is not possible to chain round the obstacle Ex: river. The following may be adopted to a overcome such type of obstacles. 3. Chain and vision both obstructed. In this case, the problem consists in prolong the line beyond the obstacle and determining the distance across it. A building is a typical example of this class of example.

11. CHAIN TRAINGULATION The principle of chain survey is triangulation It is the system of surveying in which the sides of the various triangles are measured directly in the field and no angular measurements are taken. It is most suitable when: 1. The ground is fairly level and open with simple details. 2. Plans are required on a large scale such as those of estates, fields. Fields etc. 3. The area is small in small in extent. In consists of the arrangement of frame work of triangles, since the triangle is the only simple plan figure, which can be plotted from the lengths of its sides alone. The frame work should consist of train ingles which are nearly equilateral as possible, such triangles. Being known as conditioned or well shaped 120. Survey stations: A Survey station is a point of importance at the beginning and end of a chain line. Statistians are of two kinds (1) main and (2) subsidiary or the stations. Main stations are the ends of the lines which commands the boundaries of the survey, and the stations are the points selected on the main survey lines where it is necessary to run auxiliary lines to locate the interior details such as fences buildings etc., where they are distinct from the main line. Selections of stations: The following points should be kept in view: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Main stations should be mutually visible All the triangles should be well conditioned The survey lines should be as few as tractable The survey lines should over as level ground as possible The survey lines should be so arranged as to avoid obstacle to range and triangles. A triangle is well conditioned when it contain of angle smaller than 30 and no angle greater than

chaining. 6. A number of subsidiary lines called Tie lines should be run to located the

details and to avoid long off sets.

Base line:

Survey is generally regarded as the base line. It is generally most

important line. It fixes up the directions of all other lines, as on the base line built up the frame work of a survey since the accuracy of the whole of the details measured twice for its accuracy. Check line: A check line is also termed as Proof lines is a line joining the apex of a triangle to some fixed point in the opposite side of the frame work, as the length of a check Line as measured on the ground should agree with its length on the plan. TIE LINE: A tie line, is a line joining some fixed points termed as tie stations on the main survey line. A tie line usually fulfills a dual purpose. 1. To check the accuracy of the frame work 2. To locate the interior details which are far away from the main chain line. OFF SETS: In survey, the positions of details such as boundaries, buildings, fences, roads etc. are located with respect to the survey (or chain) lines by means of lateral measurements to the subjects present either on right or left of the chain lines, are called offsets. Offsets are of two kinds: i) Perpendicular offsets which are always taken at right angles to the chain line ii) oblique offsets which are not straight angles to the survey line. Every offset involves two measurements 1. The distance along the chain line called chain age 2. The length of the offset The offsets are usually measured with metallic tape long offsets should be as far as possible be avoided. Offsets should be taken that no offsets are missed. Offsets should be taken at all points of divergence in the out line of the objects.

Ranging: In measuring the length of a survey line, it is necessary that the chain should be laid out or the ground in a straight line between the end stations. If the chain line is long or the end station is not clearly visible, it is necessary to place intermediate ranging rods to maintain the direction. The operation of establishing intermediate points on a straight line between the terminal points is known as ranging. Regaining should be done prior to chaining. Ranging is of two kinds: 1. Direct Ranging: It is called direct when intermediate ranging rods planed in line by direct observation from either end, direct ranging is possible only when the end stations are inter visible. 2. Indirect Ranging: Indirect ranging is resorted to when the ends of alien are not indivisible due to high ground or hill intervening and also when the ends of a line are not distinctly visible from one another due to distance being too great. In such a case intermediate points can be fixed in the line by a process known as reciprocal ranging. CHANGING A LINE In all chaining operations two men called chairmen are required. chairmen at forward end of the chain is called The leader, while the chairmen at the rear of the chain is known as follower. The duties of leader are: (1) to drag the chain forward, (2) to insert arrows at the end of every chain, (3) obey the instructions of the follower. The duties of the follower are (1) to place the leader i9n a line with the ranging at the forward station, (2) to call but instructions to the leader (3) Always to carry the rear handle in his hand and not to allow it to drag on ground (4) to pick up the arrows inserted by the leader. All the chain lines are measured by the follower and leader by using the code of signals. Since the chain is marked by tallies/legs at every 2 meter length, no difficulty should arise in reading the chain. The

Field work: A chain survey may be executed in the following steps: 1. Reconnaissance survey: The preliminary inspection of area to be surveyed is called reconnaissance or reconnoiter. The surveyor should walk over the whole area and thoroughly examine the ground so to decide upon the best possible arrangement of the work. During the reconnaissance the survey should prepare a meat hand sketch called a INDEX SKETCH or KEY PLAN fairly resembling the plan, of the ground so as to showing the boundaries, the principal features such as buildings roads, balls etc. The sketch is drawn in the field black: Marking Stations: Survey stations should be marked on the ground as detailed below so that they can be readily discovered when required. 1. If the survey is of temporary and can be finished in a single day, survey station can be located by fixing a ranging rod. 2. If the survey work continues for days and the stations are to be re-located, they can be done with the help of REFERENCE SKETCHES Reference sketches are necessary to find the positions of stations in case the station marks are displaced or lost or required at future date. They should be neatly drawn in the field book. To draw a references sktch the surveyor, facing the north direction should draw the relative positions of the reference points and the station and record the measurements. Having finished the preliminary work, the routine of running a survey line consists in chaining the line and locating from it the nearly detail. To do this, chain in stretched in the true alignment and arrows are inserted at the end of every chain line. Off sets are then taken to the adjacent objects and are the books by the survey or in the field note book after checking them. The process of chaining and offsetting is prepared until the end of the line is reached. Other lines are similarly deal with.

Booking the field notes: 1. The book in which, survey work is recorded by measurements and sketches is called the field book. In the field book there are two liens 1.25 cms a part, ruled at centre of each page. In this column which represents the chain line are entered the chainages. The space on either side of the double line, is utilized for drawing sketches of the objects located from the chain line. In booking the field notes we start at the bottom of the page and work upwards as If we are writing them on the mutual chain line. At the commencement of the line in the book is written as: 1. The name and number of survey line 2. The name or number of survey station 3. The symbol denoting the station The direction of the survey line starting off from or ending at the station should clearly be indicated. The initial and closing chainages should clearly6 be enclosed in the symbol. All distances along the chain line. (Chainages) are entered in the central column and the offsets written opposited them on the right or left of the column. As the work proceeds, the nature and form of objects to which off sets are taken should be sketched with conventional signs and with names written. The scale is not drawn to the scale. It is advisable not to crowd the entries. But they should be spread out over a large portion of booking the field notes. The following points should be kept in view in booking the field notes. 1. Each chain line should be recorded on a separate page. 2. All measurements should be recorded as soon as they are taken. The recorder always face the directions o chaining while book in the field notes. 3. The notes should be complete. Nothing should be left to memory. 4. Figuring should beneath and writing legible. 5. Sketches of the various features located should be neat and lucid.

6. Entries should be recorded in pencil. 7. The complete record of the survey should include: i). Title of the survey ii). General sketch of the area to be surveyed iii). Reference sketches iv). Record of the chain lines. v). Date of survey vi) The names of the members of the batch. Plotting a chain survey: Before commencing to plot a survey, the scale of the plan should be chosen and will determine the size of the paper required to contain the plan. A border line may be drawn of the paper leveling a margin of 2.5 to 4.00 on ground the sheet with plain or ornamental corner. In the rectangle so drawn the position of survey, North line, scale, title etc., should be so arranged that the completed plan will appear to the best advantage. A survey should always be plotted looking north, so that the top and bottom, right and left represent north, south, east and west respectively. To begin with the base line, being the longest line of the survey, is first drawn in its proper position and its length accurately scaled. The triangles built on the base line are then drawn in position. Having plotted. Great care should be exercised in guarding against the common mistakes in plotting the detail such as scaling chainages from the wrong end of the line, emitting offsets, platting, offsets, on the wrong side of the chain line drain instruments required: The following drawing instruments are generally used in drawing office work:1. Drawing table (size 2.4 x 1.2 m) 2. A drawing board of good quality (900 x 650 ) mm 3. The square with ebony edge (lengths vary from 500 x 150 mm )

4. Set squares - required for drawing parallel perpendicular lines. 5. An instrument box 6. Protractor 7. A set of French curved figures 8. A steel straight edge of 2m long for drawing long line. Conventional symbols: Symbols more or less standardized by custom are used to sagest various feature. The following are the common symbols. Lettering title etc: The title should be printed in the lower right hand corner. It should include the same of the area name etc. The north point must be shown on plan in any convenient blank space on the paper preferably at the top pointing upwards. The scale should be drain under the title or just inside the border at the bottom of the drawing (refer fig.No.)

12. MEASUREMENT OF AREAS The areas enclosed between the adjacent survey lines and the curved boundaries are determined by ordinates. An base line is take through the areas and divided into a number of equal parts. The ordinates at each of the points of division are drawn and scaled. From these lengths and their common distance apart. The area may be calculated by (1) the mid ordinate rule trapezoidal rule (4) simpsons rule. 1. Mid-ordinate rule: In this method the ordinated are measured at the mid points of each division and the area is calculated by the formulas. h1 + h2 + h3 -------------Areas = d X h (2) the average ordinate rule (3) the

--------------------------------------------------h1 + h2 + h3 ------------Hn

Or Where

= d X ------------------------------------------------------= d = l -----N

Hi, h2, etc., = the ordinates are the mid points of each division 1 N D = length of the base line = number if equal parts into which the b ase line is = Common distance between the ordinates.

ii) The average ordinate rules: In this method the ordinates are drawn and scaled at each of the points of division of the base line. The average o these ordinates multiplied by the length of the base line given the required area. Where: Oo , O1 etc. L N divided. iii). Trapezoidal rule: This rule is more accurate than the firt two ones. In this method the area is divided into series of transzoids. The rule may be stated as follows: To the sum of the first and last ordinates, and twice the sum of intermediate ordinates. Multiply the total sum thus obtained by the common distance between the ordinates. One hails of this product gives the required area. Area x 1/n ( ) (Oo + 2 O1 + 2 O2 + ------- 20 x 9n = = = the ordinates at each of the points of division Length of the base line number of equal parts into which the base line

D (O0 + On + O1 + = --------------2

+ O2 ----------- O n-1)

When the base line cuts the boundary at one or both ends of the figures 20o or On or both are x zero. However they must not be omitted from the formula (refer the figure given for average ordinate rule. iv) Simpsons rule: To the sum of the first and last ordinates, add twice the sum of the remaining add ordinates and four times the sum of all the even ordinates., Multiply the total sum thus obtained by one-third of the common distance between the ordinates and the results was the required area.

Area: ( On-1)

) ( Oo + On) + 4.O2

+ O4) + On-2 + 2(O1 + O5 + -------- +

Note: D1 P3, O5 to (the 2nd 4th

6th etc, from the end are ever ordinates and D2

P4 M6 etc (the 3rd , 5th 8th etc from the end) are ordinates. N.B. the solved examples given in surveying and leveling by T.P. Knethkar may be worked out.

13. LEVELLING Levelling: Levelling may be defined as the art of determining the relative heights or elevations of points or objects on the earths surface. It deals with measurements in a vertical planes. Instruments used in leveling: To determine the elevations of points, two instruments are required (1) level and (2) leveling staff. The level furnishe4s a horizontal line of sight and the leveling staffs used to determine the vertical distances of the points below the horizontal line of sight. Level: Level essentially consists of (1) the leveling head (2) the limb. (3) telescope and (4) Bulb tubeassembly. There are various types of levels available (1) Dumpy level (2) Why or Y=level (3) Cooks reversible level (4) Cushings level (5) Tilting level (6) automatic level (7) Hand level and farm level. Dumpy level: Out of the above, the dumpy level is most commonly under the for leveling purpose. The dumpy level is simple, compact and stable. The telescope is rigidly fixed to its supports and therefore can neither be related a bought its longitudinal axis nor can it be removed from its supports. Leveling staff: There are various types of graduated staves. Out of all the sop with telescopic staff is commonly used. Telescopic staff: This staffs available in lengths of 4m when fully extended. The solid top length of 1m 25m. slides into the central box, of 1.5 m length. The bottom box is 10 cm broad and 5 cm deep. Each length when pulled out to its full length, is held in position. By means of a broad spring catch. It is made of well seasoned timber. Each meter is subdivided in to 200 divisions the thickness of graduation being 5 mm. The graduations are inverted when seen through the telescope and hence the staff has to be red from top to the bottom.

Definitions of terms used in leveling: 1. Datum Surface: Datum surface or line is any arbitrarily assumed level

surface or line from which vertical distances are measured. In India, the datum adopted for G.T.S. bench marks is the means sea-level at Karachi. 2. Elevation: The elevation of a point, it vertical distance above or below the datum. It is also known as the reduced level (R.D) the elevation of a point is plus or minus according as the point is above or below the datum. 3. Difference in Elevation: (H.O.) between the points is the vertical distance between the level surfaces passing through the two points. 4. Bench marks: (B.M.) is a fixed ference point of known elevation. There are four kinds of bench marks. a) G.T.S. Bench mark (Great Trignometrical survey) they are the bench marks established with very high onecidion at intervals all over the country by survey of India department. Their positions and elevation above the standard datum are given in the catalogue published by the department. b) Permanent BenchMarks: They are the fixed points of reference established between the G.I.S. bench marks by the Government agencies such as P.W.D. on clearly defined and permanent points such as top of the parapet wall of a bridge or culvert corner of a plinth of a building, gal pillar etc. c) Arbitrarily bench marks: The years the reference points whose elevations are arbitrarily assumed. They are used in small leveling operations. d) Temporary bench marks: They are the reference points established at the end of the days work or when there is a break in the work when resumed and is continued with reference to these bench marks. 5. Line of Culmination: is the line joining the intersection of the cross-hairs to the of light. optical centre of the object glass and its continuation. It is called the line

6.

Axis the telescope: is the line joining the optical centre of the object glass to

the centre of eye-piece. 7. Axis of the level Tube or rubble Tube: is an imaginary line tangential to the longitudinal curve of the tube at its middle point. It is also known as the bubble line it is horizontal when the bubble is centered. 8. Bank sight: Also termed as back sight reading, is a staff reading taken on a point of known elevation, as on a bench mark or a change point. It is also called a plus sight. It is the first staff reading taken after the level is set up and leveled. 9. Foresight: is also called foresight reading, is a staff reading on point whose elevation is to be determined as on a change point, it is also termed as minus sight. It is the last staff reading denoting the shifting of the instrument. 10. Intermediate sight: Is any other staff reading taken on a point of unknown elevation from the same setup of the level. All sights taken between the back sight and foresight are intermediate sights. 11. Change point: It is a point denoting the shifting of the level. It is a point on which the fore and back sight are taken. Any stable and well defined object is used as change point. It is also called a Turning point (T.P). 12. Station: Is a point whose elevation to be determined or a point which is to be established at a given elevation. It may be noted that it is a point where staff is held and not the point where the level is set up. 13. Height of instrument (HPT): Is the elevation or the (RL) of the plane of culmination (or plane of sight) when the instrument is correctly leveled. It is also called the height of plane of collimation or the collimation. 14. Focusing: Focusing is meant the setting of the eye piece and objective at proper distance part for the clear vision of the object sighted. The focus of the objective and that of the eye piece must coincide with the cross hair of the diaphragm, as the diaphragm is placed at the common focus.

15. Parallax: It is the apparent movement of the image relatively to the cross hairs when the image formed by the objectives does not fall in the plane of diapharam. It is due to poor focusing of the objective. It can be tested by moving the eye up and down. If the image appears to move tin the same direction as that of the eye. It is in from of the disphram and the objective must the before be moved inwards by the focusing screw. If however, the image appears to move in the direction opposite to that of the eye, it is beyond the diapharam towards the eye piece and the objective therefore, to be moved outwards by the focusing screw. It may be noted that the parallax is eliminated by means of the focusing screw. EQUIPMENT REQUIRED FOR LEVELLING: 1. Level (2) leveling staff (3) Chain or tape for measuring horizontal distances and (4) level field book for recording the staff readings, distances and other field notes. Taking our the instrument from the box: Before taking out the instrument from the box mark the position of (a) object class (b) eye-piece and (c) the clamp and tragent screws, so that it can be re-placed in the box in its proper position without any difficulty after the work is completed. Adjustment of the level: The adjustments of a level are of two kinds (i) Temporary and (ii) Permanent. The permanent adjustments are one only in the laboratory since precision instruments are required to set it in order. Temporary Adjustments: Are those which have to be performed at each set up of the level. They are necessary proprietor to taking retiring. They are two in number (i) setting up the which included (a) Planting the tripod, (b) setting leveling up following steps. (ii) Focusing the eye-piece and object glass to eliminate parallax. They are made in the

A) Setting up the level: 1. Fixing the Instrument on the trip stand: Release the clamp screw of the instrument, hold leveling instrument in the right hand and fix it on the triped by turning round only the lower part with left hand screw the instrument firmly. 2. Leg Adjustment: The tripod stand with instrument can be fixed at desired height and it can be adjusted with the help of triped legs until the bubble in the bubble tube of the instrument comes to centre. It is only approximate leveling. 3. Levelling up: Place the telescope parallel to a pair of foot turning these screw equally either both inwards or both out wards. Turn the telescope through 90 so that it lies, over the third food screw and centre the bubble repairs in the center of its run in both positions. Once this operation is completed the bubbled should remain in the centre for all the directions of the telescope. (B) Focusing: 1. Focusing the eye-piece: Remove the lid from the object glass and hold a sheet of paper in front of it. Move the eye-piece in and out until the cross hairs on the diaphragm are can distinctly. 2. Focusing the object glass: Direct the telescope towards the staff, and on looking through the eye-piece bring the image of the staff between two vertical airs of the diaphragm, by lightly tapping the telescope. Adjust the objective by turning the focusing screw until the parallax is eliminated. Booking the staff reading: The following points may be born in mind in entering the staff reading sin a level field book. 1. The reading should be entered in the respective columns and in the order of the observation. 2. The first entry on the page is always a back sight and a last one always of + sign.

Bench marks, change points and other important points would be verify but accurately described in the remarks column and their sketches drawn on the left hand side of the page. REDUCTION OF LEVELS: There are two systems of working out the reduced levels of points from the staff readings taken in the field (i) the rise and fell system. 1. The Collimation System: It consists in finding the elevation of the plane of collimation (H.I) for every set up of the instrument and then obtaining the reduced levels of points with reference to the respective plane of collimation. This system is used in profile leveling. The following examples illustrates the method. Arithematical check: BS - FS = RL of the last point RL of the first point. 1.25 - 0.85 = 0,04, 100. 4-100.00 = 0.04 RISE AND FALL SYSTEM: In consists of determining the difference of level between consecutive points by comparing each points by comparing each point after the first with the immediately, proceedings it. The difference between their staff reading candidate. Rise or a fall according as that staff reading at the point is smaller or greater than that the proceeding point. This method is adopted in differential and check leveling. The following example illustrated the method. REDUCTION OF LEVELS BY RAISE AND FALL METHOD Arthematic check: BS - F.S. = Raise - Fall = R.L of last point R.L. of last point BS - FS = 6.05 - 5.98 = 0.07

Raise - Fall = 2.07 - 2.00 = 0007 R.L. of last point R.L. of last point R.L. of 1st point = 100.70 - 100.000 = 0.07 Hence the calculation part of reducing the levels is correct.

PRINCIPLES OF LEVELLING Simple leveling: It is the simplest operation in leveling, when it is required to find the difference in elevating between two points, both of which are visible from a single position of the level. Note: i). When the point is lower, the staff, reading is greater while it is higher, the staff reading is smaller.

ii). The bubble must traverse, i.e. keep its mid position while readings are taken. iv) If the true difference of level between best to points is required, the level must be setup exactly midway between them. CLASSIFICATION OF LEVELLING: There are 8 types of leveling: 1. Differential leveling 2. Differential leveling 3. Profile leveling 4. Cross-sectioning 5. Reciprocal leveling 6. Barometric leveling 7. Hypsometry 8. Trigonometric leveling. 1). Differential leveling: It is the operation of leveling to determine the

elevations of points some distance a part or to establish bench marks the method is used in order to find the difference in elevations between two points:

a) If they are too apart b) If the difference in elevation between them is too great c) If these are obstacle intervening. The method of simple leveling is employed in each of the successive stages. The process is also known as compound or continuous levelling. 2). Profile leveling: The object is to determine the elevation of the points at known distances apart along a given line and thus to obtain the accurate out line of the surface of the ground. It is also called the longitudinal leveling or sectioning. Plotting of a profile: To plot the profile, a horizontal line is first drawn as a Datum line and the chai9nage of the staff points are marked along this like to a convenient scale. Perpendicular lines are then drawn at each plotted chainage, and on each of these lines, the respective levels are set-off. The plotted points are then joined by the straight lines to obtain the out line of the ground surface. The horizontal scale used in plotting the distances of the points is the same as that of the plan, but the vertical scale used in plotting the levels is always exaggerated i.e. larger than the horizontal one (about 10 time the horizontal scale), the object of using on exaggerated scale for the vertical dimensions is to make the inequalities of the ground more apparent. Working Profile: After the design of an Engineering scheme a working profile is prepared on the same plotting, for the use of construction Engineer, the working profile exhibitions i). The original ground level ii) The formation levels ii) iii) iv) v) The finished surface levels The depths of cutting and heights of bank The proposed gradients Any other information, which is likely to us used during construction of the work.

FINISHED SURFACE FINE LONGITUDINAL SECTION Scale: Hor. 1 cm Ver. 1 cm = = 50 1 mm mm

3). Check leveling: It is the operation of running levels for the purpose of checking a series of levels which have been previously fixed. At the end of days worm, a line of levels are run, returning to the starting point of that day with a view to checking the work done or that day. 4). Reciprocal leveling: It is the method of leveling. In which the difference in elevation between two points is accurately determined by two sets off observations when it is not possible to set up the level midway between the two points. 5). Barometric leveling: It is the method of leveling in which the altitudes of points are determined by means of a barometer, which measures atmosphere pressure. 6). Hips Metry: It is the method of leveling which the heights of mountains are found by observing the temperature at which water tails. 7). Trigonometric leveling: It is the process of leveling in which the elevations of points are computed from the vertical angles and horizontal distances measured in the field.

14. CONTOUR SURVEY The elevations and depressions of the surface of the ground are shown on a map by means of contour lines. Contour: is defined as imaginary line of constant elevation on the surface of the ground. Contour Interval: The vertical distance between only two consecutive contours is called contour interval. Horizontal Interval: The horizontal distance between any two consecutive contours is known as the horizontal interval. It depends upon stee pens of the ground. Characteristics of the Contours: 1. Contour lines run close together near the top of bill, representing very step grown and wider apart at the foot of hill indicating the flat ground. 2. A uniform slope is indicated when contour lines uniformly spaced 3. Plane surface is indicated when the contours are straight and equally spaced 4. Contour lines cross ridge lines or velly line at right angles. (Fig. 3 & 4) 5. Contour lines cannot merge or cross one another on the map 6. Contour lines cannot end any where, but class on themselves either within or without the limits of the map 7. Series of closed contours on the map indicated a depression or a summit according as the lower or higher values are in side them (Fig. 1 and 2).

USES OF CONTOURS: 1. By inspection of a contour map, information regarding the character of the eract of the conjontry is obtained. 2. The most economical or suitable site for Engineering work such as a

reservoir, cannel, road etc., may be approximately selected. 3. Quantities of earth work may be computed from the contour maps basis and the capacity of the reservoir 4. Contour may be assumed to deter-mine the area of the drainage basin and the capacity of the reservoir 5. A route of a given grade line can be traced on the map. Locating Contours: The various methods of locating contours may be classified as (1) Direct and (2) Indirect. 1.) a). Direct Method: In this method the contours to be plotted are actually located on the ground with a level by marking various points on each contour. These points are then urveyed and plotted on plan. This method is very slow tedious, but most accurate, and is used for contouring small areas, and where great accuracy is required. c) Method of Radial Lines: If the areas to be contoured is not very extensive, it is more convenient to rant out radial lines from a common control by the do ite or compass, in direction of greater utility. Their relative position are fixed by measuring the angles between them or by chain survey. For checking the levels, the bench marks are first established at the centre and near the ends of the radial lines, and the contour points are located on these lines either moving the staff in sward or out wares . They are them plotted on the plan, and the contours drawn by joining all the corresponding points of equal elevation. 2). Indirect Methods: The indirect methods are sheaper, quicker and less

laborious than the direct method. The reduced level of a point on the surface of the ground (ground point) is called the spot levels, or spot height in these methods, the

spot levels are taken along a series of lines laid out over the area or spot levels at several representative points, representing ridge and alloy lines, submits, depressions and important changes in slope scattered over the area are observed. Their positions are then plotted on the map and the contours are then drawn by interpolation. The following of the indirect methods of locating the ground points. 1. By cross-section: This method is most commonly used in route survey. Crosssections are run transverse to centre line of road railway line or canal and points of change in slope are located. The spacing of the cross-sections depends upon the character of the ground. It is usually 20 m. in hilly country and 100 m flat country, The reduced levels of various points a long with section lines are plotted on the plan and the contours are than interpolated. 2. By sources: This method is suitable, if the area is not very extensive. In this method, the area is divided into a series of squares, and the corners of the squares are marked with pegs. The elevations of the ground at the corners of the squares are determined with a level. The square my very from 5 m to 20 m depending upon the nature of ground the plan of the area i drawn sheet and the grid points and their elevation are shown on the plan. The contour lines are then drawn by interpolation. N. B. : The corner points of each square are called Grid points. Inter-pollution of Contours: By interpolation of contours is meant the process of sparing the contours proportionally between the plotted ground points, Contours may be interpolated by: i). Estimation: is a rough method, used on small scale maps. Positions of contour points are estimated & contour lines are then drawn by joining points of equal elevation with free hand. ii) Arithmetical calculation: It is used where great accuracy is required. In this method it is assumed that the ground elevation between two grid points varies are uniform rate.