RHIZOLITHIC CALCRETE IN TERIS, SOUTHERN TAMIL NADU:

ORIGIN AND PALEOENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS

Sabu Joseph1 and Thrivikramaji.K.P2

1
Dept. of Environmental Sciences & 2Dept. of Geology,
Univ. of Kerala, Kariavattom 695 581

ABSTRACT

The early-modern red coastal/or inland sands ("Teris") in the coastal tract of southern Tamil Nadu show the
infrequent occurrence of rhizolithic calcretes in the vadose zone. These are reddish brown coloured, cemented and
cylindrical in form. No other types of rhizolith and/or calcrete have been recorded from here. Textural and
mineralogical studies show that these rhizoliths contain notable amounts of acid insoluble detrital sands (essentially
quartz and opaques) and mud, and are presumed to be derived from the host, i.e.,teris. Petrographic studies reveal
that these detritals are embedded in a micritic matrix and the carbonate cement shows rim, vein and blocky structures.
Further, floating, alveolar and clotting textures are also noticed. Clay minerals in the rhizoliths include kaolinite as the
singular component.

Rhizoliths are presumed to be formed by surface weathering and pedogenic processes in the vadose zone.
The pedogenesis of host teri sands might have released Ca2+ ions and were later deposited in the root cavities formed
by the decay and complete removal of the tissues of roots. Another source of Ca2+ would be the calcareous sediments
which underlies part of the teris. The absence of root anatomy is a characteristic feature of these rhizoliths.

A sample of rhizolith collected at Sattankulam at a depth of 2.5m. gives a 14C age of 3680,+or-110 years
B.P. Hence, semi-arid conditions of the present day in the Teri tract of southern Tamil Nadu, should have set in at
least as long ago as 3680+/-110y B.P.

Key words: rhizolith, origin, paleoenvironment, Teris, Tamil Nadu.

INTRODUCTION

Klappa (1980) defined rhizoliths as "organosedimentary structures produced in roots by

accumulation and /or cementation around, cementation within, or replacement of, higher plant roots by mineral
matter". Later, Esteban and Klappa (1983) identified five basic types of rhizoliths viz., a). root molds and /or borings,
b). root casts, c).root tubules, d). rhizoconcretions and e).root petrifications. Among these, only root petrifications
mimic the anatomy of root. Rhizoconcretions are built up of calcareous concretionary matter around, within or both
in living or dead root. Rhizolith, one of the most prominent features seen in many calcic paleosols, is very common
in aeolinites, where deep rooting is typically required to reach water in the well drained carbonate sands (Wright,
1994).
 Infrequent occurrence of calcareous rhizoliths belonging to rhizoconcretionary type occur in Holocene
red dune sands (a.k.a Teris ) at Sattankulam, Kudiramoli and Sayarpuram in the coastal tract of southern Tamil
Nadu (Fig. 1). Other types of rhizolith calcrete (For eg, hardpan, platy and nodular) have not been noticed in the teris.

Red sands of Holocene age occur widely in both coastal dunefields and continental deserts in the tropics and
sub-tropics. The reddening of these dune sands commonly takes place at a faster rate in a humid climate and at a
slower rate in the arid/semi-arid climate (Gardner and Pye, 1981). Hence, most of the intensely coloured (hue= 10R)
Holocene red beds in the arid/semi-arid regions of the world may imply a climatic change at the time of their
reddening. Calcretes are not common in red beds, but common in arid/semi-arid climate (Goudie, 1983), and their
formation indicate a setting where evaporation is more than precipitation. Khadkikar et al(2000) interpreted that Late
Quaternary calcretes in Gujarat alluvial plains associated with sepiolite/palygorskite suggest an arid climate, those
associated with smectite/haematite and absence of hydromorphism suggest a semi-arid climate, and those associated
with a smectite vertisols signify a sub-humid climate. In India, most of the Quaternary calcretes occur in arid and
semi-arid regions with marked seasonality (Singh and Tandon, 2002). Hence, calcrete studies, particularly from
intense red beds of Quaternary period, will be most useful for understanding the directions of climatic change and
climatic variations in the Quaternary sequences of India, particularly those developed in semi-arid/arid climate
(Singh and Tandon, 2002).

In India, rhizoliths similar to the present occurrence, have been reported from the red sediments of coastal
Andra Pradesh (e.g. Durga Prasad Rao et al.,1982;Pitchaiah, 1987). This paper reports textural and mineralogical
characteristics, origin, age and paleo-environmental implications.

Teri sands of southern Tamil Nadu:

Teris occur as isolated patches of partly indurated or unindurated dunes and sheets fringing the coastal land
of the Kattabomman and Chidambaranar districts, southern Tamil Nadu. Teris are classified into inland teris like at
Panakkudi and Vadakkankulam, and coastal teris like at Sattankulam, Kudiramoli, Sayarpuram and Surangudi.
Coastal teris very likely originated in a mixed beach and dune environment, whereas, the inland teris very much
similar to colluvium, formed by mass wasting and fluvial processes (Joseph et al., 1997).

Typical ground elevations in this tract are like 35.0m. (Sattankulam T.), 40.0m. (Kudiramoli T.) and 4.0
m.(Suyarpuram T.), above MSL. Borehole litholog (Rajagopal and Krishnan, 1991) as well as well sections in the
study area, indicate that the teris rest on crystalline basement or younger calcareous sandstone or limestone.
Thickness of teris vary from 1 m. to over 12 m. Water table is situated well below the red sand cover.

At present the area enjoys a semi-arid climate (Trevartha, 1954) with an average annual rainfall of ~700
mm. NE monsoon (October to December) contributes 60% of total annual precipitation and the remainder
contributed by SW monsoon (June to September). The average annual minimum and maximum temperatures are 19º
and 41ºC over the teri domains and its environment (Joseph et al, 1997). The averaged highest and lowest relative
humidities are 75% and 45% respectively. Palmira Palm and thorny bushes typify this terrain.

Materials and methods

Samples of rhizoliths from a profile at Sattankulam T.(at~2.5m.below ground)and also at near surface from
Kudiramoli T. and Sayarpuram T. (Fig.1)were collected. Laboratory studies 0.1N.dil.HCl digestion, mineralogy
(optical, X-ray diffraction analysis-XRDA and chemical composition were done. Sand fraction of the residue was
sieved at 1 interval to determine the grain size distribution. Further, grain mounts (N=9) were prepared to examine
the mineralogy of medium (+120) and very fine (+230) sand of residue. Transverse thin sections (total No.= 10) of
rhizoliths, were used in petrographic and fabric investigations.
 XDRA of three bulk samples was done (Phillips 1840 diffractometers with CuK Target) to identify the
dominant mineral phases in rhizolith and clay mineralogy of same samples (air-dried and heated to 550ºC).

The bulk chemistry of three rhizolith samples was determined by XRF at Wadia Institute of Himalayan
Geology, Dehra Dun.

C14 dating of one sub-surface (depth=2.5m) rhizolith (Sattankulam T.) sample (BS-1801) was carried out at
Birbal Sahini Institute of Paleobotany, Lucknow.

RESULTS

Rizholiths in Teri sands:

Rizholiths of teris (T), are more or less tubular and concretionary on appearance, and are noticed to occur in
the vadose zone, both near and below the ground. In Kudiramoli T. and Sayarpuram T., these are seen to occur closer
to the surface (Fig. 2a), whereas, in Sattankulam T. it is noticed at ~2.5m below the ground surface in exposing a
ferruginous sand stone at the base (Fig. 2b). Rhizholiths are coloured reddish brown (2.5YR ¾), tubular in form
(length.= 2.0-7.0cms; dia.=1.0-2.5cms) sometimes branching. In undisturbed sections, it occurs as stumps (Fig. 2c),
with a vertical, or inclined disposition.

Texture:

In the insoluble residue of rhizolith samples (N= 3), sand and mud together makeup 44 to 59.3% and while
the remaining fraction is soluble carbonate and some clays (Table 1). Sand content widely varies (27.6 - 43.9%), but
mud content shows less variability (11.7 and 17.5%) (Table 1). Medium (+60 = 28.2 - 36.9%) and fine sand(+120
= 30.5 - 38.4%) dominates the sand fraction. The texture is similar to the host teri sands and is well depicted in the
cumulative frequency curves (Fig.3) of calcrete samples and coastal teri sands (Joseph et al., 1997). The curves for
the three calcrete samples and three selected teri sands follow the same trend and confined to a narrow segment.

Petrography:

This report on petrography is based on the study of several transverse thin sections of rhizoliths. In thin
sections only grains of quartz are distinct by their abundance. Opaques are also easily noticeable. Other minerals
present are feldspar, sillimanite, zircon, rutile and garnet. All the detrital grains float in a micritic groundmass of dark
brownish (ferruginous) hue (Fig. 4a). Grains of quartz, the dominant detrital mineral, are sub-rounded to rounded
(Fig. 4a) and mono-crystalline. Some grains show wedging due to deposition of hematite of pedogenic origin along
the grain fractures. Needles of micro-spar have grown perpendicular to the rim of sand grains. This drusy cement
forms halos of cement which shows asymmetrical disposition but uniform in width (Fig. 4a). Some quartz grains
show embayed edges, typifying corrosion features (Fig. 4a). Various pores, branching fissures, veins are filled by
sparite (vein cement) which are identified by their coarser nature, good boundaries and clarity (Fig. 4b).

Floating, alveolar and clotting textures are reported to be characteristic of concretions (Esteban and Klappa,
1983). In floating texture (Fig. 4c), particles of sand and silt sized quartz are seen to be "floating" in a micritic
groundmass. Goudie (1983) suggests that the more carbonate abundance than could be accommodated by the
original void spaces in the host sediment is the reason for floating texture. Inter-granular spaces in the host sediment
is enlarged by the introduction of cement which disperses the original clastic grains so that they do not occur in a
point-to-point contact, but appears to float in a carbonate groundmass. It is typically the case with Sayarpuram T.(S3),
where high carbonate content in the matrix is evidenced by data on insoluble residue, XRDA and chemical
composition. Irregular pores filled with calcite and separated by a network of micritic walls are noted in some
samples. This feature called alveolar texture (Fig.4d) is the result of infilling of voids after rootlets by calcite (Esteban
and Klappa, 1983).

Carbonate cemented ferruginous (hematite/goethite) peloids are noticed in some concretions. It has been
aptly called clotting texture (Fig.4e), for the reason that peloids are held together by growth of a layer of drusy cement
along their edges and blocky cement away from it.
However, these concretions do not show evidences of petrification of roots and hence preservation of the
structure or anatomy of the roots. i.e., typical circular outlines representing vascular cylinders in the cortex portion of
the root are absent. However, certain sections show spar filled tubular voids, indicative of root molds (Fig. 4f) and
root fibres are also noticed in and around these spar filled tubular voids.

Mineralogy:

Mineralogical make up of insoluble residue (medium +60; fine +120; and very fine sand +230) and the
average mineralogy of host teri (Joseph et al, 1998) is given in Table 2 and also in Fig.5 Quartz is the chief
non-opaque mineral in all the samples examined, and its content decreases sympathetically with increase in the
content of heavy minerals like opaques, sillimanite, and zircon (Table 2).

For e.g., in the medium sand quartz is the ubiquitous mineral all samples (ave.= 95.41%), followed by
opaques (chiefly ilmenite and magnetite averaging to 3.23%). Others like feldspar, sillimanite, zircon, and garnet are
present but only in trace (<1%) amounts (Table 2 and Fig. 5).

Though opaques have a better showing in fine sand (11.3%), quartz continues to dominate (ave.=86.3%),
followed by opaques (11.3%) and sillimanite (1%). Mineral likes feldspar, zircon, rutile and garnet are present only
in trace amounts (<1% each).

In very fine sand, quartz content, drops to 70.7%, followed by higher content of opaques (20.32%),
sillimanite (4.33%) and zircon (1.44%). Others are present only in trace amounts (i.e., <1% each).

The mineralogy of calcrete is more or less similar to the host coastal teris except that of feldspar, which
shows a relatively high value in teri. The dearth of feldspar in calcrete might be due to its alteration to clays during
carbonate diagenesis.

Bulkchemistry:

The abundance of various oxides in the rhizoliths is given in Table 3 and their average value is shown in
Fig. 6. In all samples, SiO2 is the dominant component (ave.= 37.08 wt%), followed by CaO (24.99%), Al2O3
(4.87%), Fe2O3 (1.72%), MgO (1.54%) and TiO2 (1.14%). Minor amounts (<1% each) of Na2O, K2O, MnO, P2O5,
Ba, Cr and V are also recorded.

XRD analysis:

Results of XRDA of the powdered samples and of the clay fraction of insoluble residue of the rhizoliths,
confirmed the mineralogical composition (Fig. 7&8). Quartz and calcite are two of the most dominant mineral
species identified. Goethite, the reddish brown cutan, has also been identified. Kaolinite is the only clay mineral
species identified in all the samples. The broad peaks (eg., 7.15 Aº & 3.57 Aº) of kaolinite may be due to its poor
crystallinity.

DISCUSSION

According to Goudie (1983) and Wright (1994) rhizoliths and other structural types of calcrete are features
characteristic of soils in arid and semi-arid climate and has been reported from Quaternary and older sediments.
Esteban and Klappa (1983) attempted a grouping of rhizoliths into five basic types, viz., a) root molds and /or
borings, b). root casts, c). root tubules, d). rhizoconcretions and e). root petrifications. Of these, only root petrification
show plant root anatomy. Rhizoconcretions are concretionary mineral matters around or within living or dead roots.
This is the type of rhizolith noticed in teris.

Based on the textural studies it has shown that majority of the sand fraction in all the rhizoliths are
medium to fine grained, well sorted and sub-rounded nature. The grain size characteristics, mineral abundance
(Table 2) and the nature of clay mineral (kaolinite) present, are all similar to that of the teri sediments (Joseph
et al., 1998, 1999) and hence believed to be derived from the associated teris. Kaolinite in a sediment commonly
indicates a warm moist climate for its formation (eg., Loughnan, 1975). The Kaolinite in host teris has been formed
by the alteration of feldspar grains. Hence, the presence of kaolinite and intense red colour (hue= 10R)of teris
suggest a sub-humid climate for its formation (Joseph et al., 1999). In due time, along with other mineral matters
(particularly quartz), kaolinite also trapped in the root molds and calcified to form rhizoliths. The XRD data (Fig. 7
& 8) support the observed dominance of quartz and calcite in rhizoliths.

In the chemistry of rhizoliths, SiO2 (avg.= 37.08 wt.%) is the dominant component, supported by the
abundance of quartz by both optical and XRDA methods, followed by CaO (ave.= 25.0 wt.%) occurring as
calcareous matrix on which various minerals are embedded. However, among the three samples, rhizolith from
Sayarpuram teri (S3) shows highest CaO (= 29.02 wt%) due to the abundant micritic groundmass, which is
supported by XRDA. The detrital minerals and matrix are coated by goethite.

The rhizoconcretionary type of rhizolith is noticed in teris. They occur in the vadose zone, well above the
present day water table. They are a prominent features and are presumed to be formed by the calcification in the
cavity of the root after its complete decay. The cylindrical form and the absence of root anatomy are characteristics
of these rhizoliths. The petrographic features like absence of ring structures and the identifications of root filled
portions (Fig.4f) clearly support the root replacement origin of rhizoliths.

Genetic Model for Rhizolith

The exact mechanism of calcification of root remains unclear. Several workers (e.g, Semeniuk and
Meagher, 1981; Wright, 1994) have suggested various stages of rhizoconcretion development. Initially a light
calcrete sheath develops around living root, which thickens after the death and decay of that root. In the final stage
after the central core of plant material has rotted away, soil or calcrete fills the central axial hollow or root mold. If
cementation of the soil around this infilling occur, the calcrete becomes enlarged and acquires a cylindrical
morphology, preserving the original infilling of the root mold.

However, in teri sands, the pedogenic origin of rhizolith is assumed to occur. Source of CaCO3 would be
from the surface weathering and pedogenic processes which lead to the local dissolution and reprecipitation of
CaCO3. The intense in situ (pedogenic) weathering of teri sand in the vadose environment, which favours the
formation of red sediment, leads to the decomposition of all unstable minerals including Ca-bearing ones and are
leached downward to the lower part of the profile. Further, it is noticed that part of the teris are underlined by
calcareous sediments. These Ca2+ ions and carbonates underwent dissolution and in the capillary-rise zone CaCO3
got deposited in the root cavities. The presence of notable amounts of calcium in the surface and ground water
support this observation. The infrequent occurrence of rhizolith may be due to the sparse vegetation in the past.

Paleoenvironmental Implications

Calcrete has been reported from Quaternary and older sediments. It is commonly used as an indicator of
paleoenvironmental conditions in stratigraphic studies (Semeniuk and Searle, 1985) and are features of the arid /
semi-arid soils (Esteban, 1976; Goudie, 1983; Wright, 1994) and in addition to this, they are indicators of sub-humid
also(Khadkikar et al., 2000).

It is proposed that sands of teris would have originated from the vast reservoir of shelf sand during the low
sea level stands which coincided with the Last Glaciation Maximum-LGM (Joseph et al., 1997). Several workers
reported the occurrence of an arid and stronger windier climate over major part of India during LGM (eg., Sarnathan
and Hass, 1977, Hashimi and Nair, 1986) which favoured the deposition of teri sand. After its deposition, the climate
would have changed to sub-humid favouring the reddening process and after that it changed to the modern
semi-aridity. This is supported by the studies of Rajagopalan et al (1997) who based on stable carbon isotopic studies
of peats from the mountain regions of Nilgiris, south India recognized the above climatic transitions. i.e., from 40 to
28 Kyr BP an increase in moist condition was recognised and it unchanged upto 18 Kyr BP. At about 16 Kyr BP a
sharp reversal of climate was noticed, indicating arid condition coinciding with LGM. Again, a moist phase was
observed at about 9 Kbr and further, an arid condition was re-established during 5-2 Kyr BP.

From the above climatic transitions in the Quaternary sequences of south India, it is presumed that the
development of rhizolith in teris would coincide with the last semi-aridity which continued till now. This is supported
by a C14 dating of a rhizolith at a depth of 2.5m (No.S1). It gives an age of 3680+/- 110 years (Ref.No.BS-1801) and
signifies that the modern semi-aridity would have initiated at least 3680+/-110 years B.P.

Conclusion

1. The red dune sands (Teris) of southern Tamil Nadu are characterised by the infrequent occurrence
of a reddish brown coloured, indurated, cylindrical forms of rhizolithic calcrete ("rhizoconcretions") in
the vadose zone.

2. Textural studies show that medium and fine sand dominate the insoluble residue (27.6 and 43.9
wt.%)and the mud content ranges from 11.7 to 17.5wt%. Majority of the sand falls in the medium to fine
grained category similar to the coastal teris.

3. Size specific mineralogy of acid insoluble sand reveals quartz, opaques, sillimanite, zircon,
rutile, monazite, and garnet in the decreasing order of abundance.

4. Mineralogy is confirmed by XRD and chemistry of bulk samples of rhizoliths. These mineral matters
are embedded in a micritic groundmass. The microtextures identified include floating, clotting and alveolar
textures.

5. Rhizoliths are presumed to be formed by surface weathering and pedogenic processes in the vadose
zone of teri sands which released Ca2+ ions and were later deposited in the root cavities formed by the
decay and complete removal of the tissues of roots. The absence of root anatomy is a characteristic feature
of these rhizoliths.

6. It is postulated that the source of CaCO3 is local and the age of calcrete is 3680+/- 110 years and
this signifies that the modern semi-aridity in the study area would have initiated at least 3680+/-110 years B.P.

Acknowledgements

The CSIR is thanked for financial assistance (award of RA to SJ) for the study. We also thank Dr. V.
Purnachandra Rao, NIO, Goa (for the XRDA) and Prof. G. Rajagopalan, BSIP, Lucknow, (for the C14 dating) for
their valuable help in completion of this research. Chemical analysis (XRF) was carried out at the Wadia Institute of
Himalayan Geology, Dehra Dun.
____________
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___________

List of Tables

1. Acid insoluble contents (in wt.%) - total residue, sand fraction and mud fraction in rhizoliths

2. Mineralogy of acid insoluble medium (+60), fine (+120) and very fine (+230) sand fractions of rhizoliths
and coastal teris.

3. Abundance (wt.%) of various elemental oxides in rhizoliths.

List of Figures

1. Location map of teri sands showing rhizolith sampling sites

2 a. Snapshots of near-surface rhizolith, Kudiramoli teri. Note the needle or stump like rhizoliths of various
sizes in the ferruginous teri sand (scale= 1:6)

b. Distribution of sub-surface rhizolith in a profile,

Sattankulam teri (scale= 1:3.5)

c. A closer view of rhizolith showing the stump like appearance and the corroded surface (scale=
1:1.8)

3. Cumulative frequency curves for sands of rhizoliths and coastal teris

4. Photomicrographs from (transverse) thin sections of rhizolith:

a. Detrital minerals like quartz, opaques, embedded in a dark brownish (ferrugineous) coated
micritic groundmass, grains are sub-rounded to rounded with almost symmetrical halos of calcitic
needles (sparite) perpendicular to the grain boundary ( showing drusy cement), some quartz grains
showing corrosion features, 50X.

b. Fissures or fractures in matrix are filled by spary calcite or sparite (vein cement) which are
coarser nature, (under crossed Nicols), 125X.
 c. Floating texture in rhizolith displayed by sand and silt sized quartz in micritic matrix, 125X.

d. Alveolar texture due to the irregular pores filled with calcite and are indicative of root replacement,
50X.

e. Clotting texture formed by dense micritic and ferrugineous peloids, 125X.

f. Sparr filled tubular voids, indicative of root molds; position of root hairs are also seen along the
boundary, (Crossed Nicols), 50X.

5. Average mineralogy of acid insoluble medium (+60), fine (+120) and very fine (+230) sand
fractions and average coastal teri sand.

6. Average (N= 3) content (wt.%) of various metal compounds in rhizolith

7. XRDA of bulk sediments of rhizolith

8. XRDA of clay fractions of rhizolith

_____________

Table 1. Acid insoluble contents (in wt.%) - total residue, sand fraction and
mud fraction in rhizoliths

S.No Total Residue Sand Fraction Mud Fraction

S1 59.3 41.8 17.5
S2 55.5 43.9 11.6
S3 44.0 27.8 16.2

Table 2. Mineralogy of acid insoluble medium (+60), fine (+120) and

very fine (+230) sand fractions

Frequency (%)
S.No FL MO GA
QTZ OPQ SIL ZIR RUT
D N R
Medium sand (+60)
96.6 1.6
S1 -- 1.00 -- -- -- 0.66
0 6
98.3
S2 -- 1.70 -- -- -- -- --
0
91.3
S3 0.33 7.00 -- 0.33 -- -- 0.66
3
95.4 0.5
Ave. 0.11 3.23 0.11 -- -- 0.22
1 5
Fine sand (+120)
91.6 1.6
S1 -- 6.00 -- 0.33 0.33 --
0 6
 89.3 0.6
S2 0.33 8.66 0.33 0.66 0.33 --
0 6
78.0 19.3 0.6
S3 0.66 0.66 -- 0.66 --
0 0 6
86.3 11.3 1.0
Ave. 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.44 --
0 2 0
Very fine sand (+230)
71.3 19.3 6.6
S1 -- 1.66 0.66 0.33 --
0 3 6
75.0 17.3 3.0
S2 2.66 1.00 0.66 0.33 --
0 3 0
66.0 24.3 3.3
S3 2.33 1.66 1.00 1.00 1.00
0 0 3
70.7 20.3 4.3
Ave. 1.66 1.44 0.77 0.55 0.33
6 2 3

QTZ= quartz, FLD= feldspar, OPQ= opaque, SIL= sillimanite

ZIR= zircon, RUT= rutile, MON= monazite, GAR= garnet

Table 3. Abundance (Wt.%) of various elemental oxides in rhizoliths

S.No Si2O3 Al2O3 Fe2O3 Ti2O3 MnO Mgo CaO Na2O K2O P2O5 Ba Cr V Total

S1 43.2 5.25 1.88 0.93 0.16 2.32 20.9 0.19 0.07 0.07 0.014 0.004 0.006 75.1
S2 39.7 4.36 1.43 1.19 0.02 0.99 25.0 0.10 0.05 0.04 0.004 0.001 0.006 72.9
S3 28.3 5.01 1.85 1.29 0.03 1.30 29.8 0.13 0.00 0.07 -- -- -- 66.97

Avg. 37.1 4.87 1.72 1.14 0.07 1.54 25.0 0.14 0.04 0.06 0.006 0.002 0.004 71.67

S.D. 6.39 0.38 0.21 0.15 0.06 0.57 3.3 0.04 0.03 0.01

-- analysis not done

Avg.= average; S.D.= standard deviation