TOPOI

STUDIES
AND

IN

LOGIC

THE

FOUNDATIONS

OF

MATHEMATICS

VOLUME

98

Editors

D.

A.

BARWISE, KAPLAN, H. J. KEISLER, P. SUPPES, S. TROELSTRA,

J.

Madison
Los

Angeles
Madison

Stanford
Amsterdam

Advisory
K.
L. H. J.

Editorial

Board Santa Clara

i.

BOUVERE, HERMES, J. HINTIKKA, SHEPHERDSON, E. P. SPECKER,

DE

Freiburg
Helsinki

Br.

Bristol

Zurich

NORTH-HOLLAND
AMSTERDAM

NEW

YORK

OXFORD

TOPOI

THE

CATEGORIAL

ANALYSIS

OF

LOGIC

ROBERT
Victoria

GOLDBLATT

Unixxrsity
New

of
Zealand

Wellington

Revised

edition

C]

1984

NORTH-HOLLAND AMSTERDAM

NEW

YORK

OXFORD

ELSEVIER

SCIENCE

PUBLISHERS

B.V.,

1984

All

rights

reserved.
in
any

No

part

transmit ed,

form
otherwise,

or

of this by
without

publication
any
means,

may

be

electronic, prior

the

permission

reproduced, mechanical, of the

stored

in

retrieval

system,

or or

photocopying, copyright
owner.

recording

ISBN:0444 First
Revised

86711 edition:
edition: 1979
1984

Publishedby:
Elsevier 1000 The Science P.O.
BZ

Publishers Box

B.V.

1991 Amsterdam

Netherlands

Sole
Elsevier

distributors
Science 52
New

for

the

U.S.A.

and

Canada:
Inc.

Publishing
Vanderbilt
Avenue

Company,
N.Y.
10017

York,

Library
Goldblat , Topoi,

of

Congress
Robert. the
in index.

Cataloging analysis
and
p.

in

Publication

Data

categorial
logic

of foundations

logic.
of

(Studies Bibliography:
Includes

the

mathematics;

v.

98)

1.

Toposes.
1983

1.

Title.

I.

Series.

QA169.G64
ISBN 0-444-86711-2

512'.55

83-11599

PRINTED

IN

THE

NETHERLANDS

To

My

Parents

"Though precisely how of everything we itself,

human
on

we

may

never

see

pre-

the have and

protean

dancingstuf
becomes

endlessly

ful
ultimate

choice, of desire,
no

being
but
to

go

perpetually

vision.

forms,
may

idea

force, processis
crucial

of within form the final shape of change, us. The elude pursuit of the t h e form of of formeven endlessly of interacting clarity
The
man's

seeking

inevitable,

cru-

need"
John
Unterecker

PREFACE

No

doubt write

there them. of and of its

are

as

many

reasons

for served

writing
by
can

books

as

there

are

people
been the
of
sense

who

One author. this the

and
a

function Translations

this

particular
sometimes
true

work
create

has
a

edification

explanation,
account

seemed book
to

to

me

particularly being
a

of

the

alternative

mathematical
gave

constructions
me

produced
within which
in
I
some

by
to

category
confirm

theory.
that the
as

Writing impression
end much
I knew
a

framework
its

work
deal
as
a

through
more

ramifications when
of

detail.
the of that

At

great
at

than it seemed of

began,
the
me

so

that much

result
my
own

is I had

recording
And

reconstruction
end into

progress

understanding.
dwelt
As others have
on

the

to

that

had
the
more

finally

fal en

place.
the book
-1 Less

to

public
prospect
write
of
an

functions
of
a

hope

that

it the
as

provides
I

with tried audience mathematical.

is
a a

the
to

similar

experience.
that wil
for in
of

presumptiously,
to

possible
the

exposition logicians
in

be the

accessible motivated

widest well
as

the
accounts

philosophically
style
an

This,

part,

that
to

I have

adopted.
material

There
in

highly
come

tendency systematised
before for

in

much

contemporary

literature
which
abstract
that
a

present
definition
the of

fashion,
the

wil

typically
motivation

list is
not

that
the

definition.
student evolved-and
of

approach
how and

is

that

examples Paedogogically, actually

is

reveals the

original
of

shown
from

why
of

they
creative

thereby
the

mechanisms

il usory
of All

impression inflating
of
a

thinking. completedness,
to
to
me

Apart

taught lending
method
in also

disadvantage genesis nothing

the

this
-

concepts
about the
an

topic
the
of
to
as

often

has the

drawback

prerequisites
this
seems

understanding. particularly
more

dangerous
than
once

case

category
"abstract
that of
move

theory,
nonsense".
are

discipline
In my
to

that

has

been is
the

referred result of

experience,
the

that

reaction

features
to

not

intrinsic
of from

subject
The

itself,

but
I have

are

due taken

merely
here

the

style
to

some

its

expositors.
the

approach
to

is

to

try
the

always
the

particular
process until
are

the
the

general,
abstract
the

fol owing
concept
"first for
the
emerges

through

steps
The and
at

of the had

abstraction

naturally.

starting
finish
it

points
would
at

elementary

(in

principles"
reader the
to

sense),
feel end of
that

be the

just

arrived

quite subject,

appropriate
rather than

(s)he
story.

reached

the

PREFACE

As

to

the the of

specific
functorial

treatment

of

category

theory,

have
an

play
the basic
sense

down

"first-order")
of

perspective approach,
structure

initial y
using
that familiar
as

and

take

attempted elementary
of combinatorial

to

(in
the than

the is

same

kind
of

manipulation
theory
In

algebraic
any
terms

employed
objects
are

of

of

the

more

in developing pure-mathematical
more

study.
groups,
I should

these

categories
etc.

structures

no

rarified

lat ices,

vector-spaces

explain
May
while
of
I

that

whereas
the
on

the
in the The Oxford

bulk

of
14.7

the and

manuscript
14.8
which
were

was

completed
writ en
a

around
later

1977,
was

sections
leave from

11.9,
Nuffield

year
a

(during
Foundation,
additional
material

time whose
was

held

Travelling
am

Fellowship
pleased
to to

assistance

I
ap-

acknowledge).
11 and that in
In

simply
is

appended
than reorganisation. construction the earlier

Chapters
it
was

14,
at

since,
that
there

although
stage wil
to

the

arrangement
a

less the

ideal,
I

impractical
however

begin
readers
do
not

major
interested
to

reorganisain wade

imagine
of material
etc.

be

number-systems Chapter
order and it in
on

in 14
to

14.8
on

who Grothendieck
the

wish
of
as

through
elemenin continuous

topologies,
definition Dedekind-reals classical
the of in be of used
to

elementary sites
the real-valued
that construction

fact

in

fol ow

topos
topos

of

,0-sets,
functions,
11.9.
the

their would The

representation
suffice ful of
for the the have
to

have

absorbed
version

description
this
construc-

of but first

given
further
of

sheaf-theoretic /2-sheaves
lat er introduction would

depends 14.1,
of the both of them

theory
as

developed
read the the

14.7,
the

sufficient
pages

preparation
at

few
on

least

far -1

as

axiom word The

COM

page A

362.

point
where while of has
to

terminology:
literature
can serve as

ial" that second domain "absolute".

uniformly adjectival
a

consistently employs
forms
and from its

"categorreason

"categorical".
of the
noun

is
the in the of

"category",
usage

already
that

has
derives have

dif erent
known

theory
be

one logic, Logicians no categorical

established long ordinary-language the

One work of of
one.

meaning
Godel this
book that
set

since
have

axiomatisation.

function

wil

explain
are a

to

them

why
of of the

it

does

categorial
like
to to

There in the

number
of

people
book.
of its
I
to

who
am

I would

thank

for

their for

help
her and for

skilful
the

production typing
Mathematics

indebted
the
Internal

Shelley
Research
of

Carlyle
Commit ee

the

manuscript; Department
cost;
and

the
to

Victoria
Pat

University
Suppes
Fredriksson
for

Wellington

substantial y
to

it,

and

subsidising supporting

responding
and Thomas

favourably
van

it;

to

Einar

den

PREFACE

xi

Heuvel

for
and

the

expertise
with

and

cooperation logic
M.Sc.
and
access

with

which

they

organised
working
from

its

editing My
with
many

publishing.
categorial
on

involvement Mike
conversations other
Dana and

gained
studies,
to

impetus
and

through
have
on

Brockway
with

his him

I
notes

benefited
several

his
at

obtaining
zalo service

unpublished
Scott,
a

material

was

Reyes.
his
the

by
much the sheaves

his

provided
approach
structure
to

hospitality appreciated
and

particularly Oxford, opportunity

In

helped

topics. by Gona

In

performed
to

similar

aquaint
the

myself
material discussions
teachers

with
about

their
I Burden. here
at
was

logic.
greatly
my

preparing
assisted

of
also
a

continuum Charles
to

by
to to

with

Scott,

and

with
the

Finally,
and

it

is

pleasure
in

record
group

indebtedness

my
my

colleagues
Max

logic
and
my
concerns

VUW,

particularly
and
to

doctoral

advisors their

Cresswell
in
the

George
and

Hughes,
encouragement
a

Wilf of

Malcolm,
my

for
progress

involvement time

throughout
Where did
on

that

have

been

student

of
the

mathematical

logic.
to

topos

theory
Peter

come

from?
and

In

introduction
two

his

recent

book
in
that the
a

the

subject,
of

Johnstone

describes

lines

of It of i.e.

development
seems
a

fields
ful in

algebraic perspective
area

geometry

category
the
to

theory.

to

me

historical
the We

requires
conern

teasing
this
with

out

third

strand

of
model
the technique
a

events

of
may

theory. independence proved

of

specific begin
continuum
to

book,
Cohen's
et.

logic,
work
in

especial y
1963
techniand
on

this
the

account

of
to

the

hypothesis
universe of
But

al.
set
soon

His

forcing
theory,
the method

be

the

key
of

classical
as

led
had

to

wave

exploration
in
the

that

territory.
itself of
took

as

been

reformulated
the and

A965), ing"
in
on

possibility
thereby

Scott-Solovay presented
the
and then

theory

of Indeed

Boolean-valued "Boolean" Scott

made

models

replacing
it
up

by
this

"Heyt-

generalising
lecture-notes

enterprise.
of intuitionistic

his
the

1967

in

his

papers

A968,
independently
category
of of included
a

point 1970)

topological
the

interpretation
notion Lawvere's
became in

analysis.
topos
axiomatise
with the had the
sets.

Meanwhile

of

an

elementary
to

emerged
The the
two

through developments
of
way

attempts
linked

together
was

study
under have
and

cartesian-closed
earnest
once

categories
it while the first the

by subobject
that

concept
classifiers

sheaf:

(topoi)
all
the
was

got
Grothendieck
seen

realised

they

sheaf-categories,
to

provided
over

sheaf-models
Scott

Heyting
in

examples algebras
with

for
that

topological interpretation a general axiomatic was subsequently

Michael
Fourman

theory
devised

of

by
14.7
and

developed

association

(cf.

xii

PREFACE

14.8).
initial with
an

In

this

lat er

context

(many
the

of is

whose

ideas

have

precursors
p.

in of

the

Boolean

work),
denned

earlier

partial y
existence
to

entities
whose
an

problem elegantly
denned of that the
to

(Scott
resolved

1968,
by
To
some

208)
introduction
a

dealing
of
of
the

the

predicate,
which
out

semantical
is

extent

individual
whole demonstrated the

and

round

this

progression
is

interpretation (exists). ideas,

category
the
sense.

is

measure

complete unpublished
of
sheaves

the

picture,
work
over

of

sets

Denis

Higgs
Boolean

A973)
in

complete
and

functions
And what

algebra) original
future?
results

equivalent
Scott-Solovay
for
the the

category
is
the

of

B-valued

of
Theorem

the

What,
to

instance,
that there

likely topoi
not at

impact
in which

of

the the
com-

latest

independence
numbers be

effect

exist
are

Heine-Borel

fails,
square-roots
-

Dedekind-reals
etc.?

real-closed,
this
well

complex
think
"classical"

lack

Predictions

stage
be
to

would
dubbed

I which

premature

after

all

today's
The
goes and
to

pathology
intel ectual
back
to
a

may

by
theory
was

some

future
a

generation.
contribution
the

tradition time
when
when

topos
mathematics

is

small

mathema-

closely
Greeks

tied

to

for

the

only
that
independent
structure

relatively
it
became

really recently,

had

physical something
with
the
see

visual
do

world,
land-measurement. of

"geometry"
It
was

with

advent

non-Euclidean
as

possible
and
that

to

that

existence

significance.
concerned that

discipline Analogously,
those
structures

having
that

quite
of
the

geometries, indepenstudy
has

part
called

of

is
a

with lies
But
as

evolved

to

principles
has
no

of
more

point reasoning).
consequences

beyond
the
to

its

original
from
true nature

grounding
this of decide
external

(the

separation
the

"logics" analysis authority

than either does

of

the
about The
structure

existence
the
laws that
true

of of

non-Euclidean

geometries
properties
algebra
in
a

reasoning anything

way

geometrical Heyting
is manifest deliberations

of
a

visual rich of
the
and
contexts.

space.

embody

profound
It

mathematical arises of
from
the

variety
Brouwer,

epistemological
of of set-theoretic

of
and
the

topologisation
formulation
set

(localisation)
theory,
This ubiin fact it all

notions, although weight,

instead
such
terms to

categorial
are

which,
lends

interrelated,
not to

independently
that
rather
-

motivated.
the
to
correct

ubiquity
intuitionistic

the

suggestion
but

logic
that
way
correct
us more

is
that

of is

classical,

the

recognition
the the
same

thinkis

thinking in inappropriate
At
ever

simply
without
these

speak
time,
the

inappropriate qualification
developments
of in
the
structures

in about

geometry.

the

same

have

shown
we

clearly depend
on

than the

just

how

principles fine-tuning

of

logic
that

we

properties employ
been

study

studying
to

them.
the

Particularly
modern

striking
logical/set-theoretical

is

the

has

given

PREFACE

xii

articulation
to

of
was

the
not

structure
a

of
set

the

intuitively
at

conceived

continuum
an

(which
in
a

Euclid it Other

of
the

Indeed
currency

seems

that
to

points deeper
article

all,

let

alone
goes

object
the
less

topos).
be the

the

probing
in references

wil

given
areas

the

definite mathematics
autonomous

to

"the

continuum".

of
become
even

(abstract
activities
have

algebra,
of
mental

axiomatic

geometry)
creation,

have

long
and
to

since

just
represen-

as

painting
representational intel ectual mathematical representation is
and Were

music substantial

long (in
some

since
cases

progressed

beyond
could
be

the

aquire
components.
of

all-consuming)
said
to

subjective
be

and

similar
absence

situation of
we

logic. things
and

In
"out

the

that
may
not
no

external
so

authority
readily
so

arising (the
understand

in
rep-

there") just
about the
many

determine
easy
to

what

worthwhile
make
we

significant,
valuable

as

it

is

longer
that

considerable
decide
the last what
two

judgements to identify period

is
the

contemporary
with

aesthetic whose
be

developments.
value before
over

is
the

lasting,
we

of
and
or

winnowing
what
so
we

might
is
see

well

required
back
that
structures
weave

could

wheat

chaff. several

Looking
strands

progress

of
to

decades
current

together
as

present

interest evolution of
be
way
a

in

Heyting-valued
substantial
we
area

the

natural

product
Wherever

of it

the
may

of

mathematical
locate

thought.
its

heading,
it has for
has

may
a

already
number

permanent

importance theory,
in
that the
we

in

the

brought
category
made
to

of

disciplines
under
one

(logic,
roof,
of
the

set

algebraic
contribution

geometry,
it

theory)
to
our

together

and

thereby
ourselves

understanding
in. contentious

house I hope

mental y
doubt

build
these remarks
be

live
well. wil

No
that

wil

be

thought
as

by
it have
fulfil ed

some. or one

they

wil
to

found
to

provocative
them,
this

Should

inspire,

incite,
of its

anybody
intended

respond

book

functions.
R.

Wellington
Autumnal

I.

Goldblat

Equinox,

1979

PREFACE
This intended between due

TO
contains
to
a

THE
new

SECOND

EDITION
entitled

edition
Grothendieck
to

chapter,
reader
and
to

Logical
theory
model-theoretic main
about the

introduce
Makkai
a

the

the
the The

of
aim

topoi,
and

Geometry, geometric rendering

of
existence is class
the

which

is

morphisms
of
this

theory explain morphisms

classical

Reyes.
to

chapter
of

is

to

why

theorem,
Set
to

due certain

Deligne,
"coherent"
Theorem

geometric
to

from

topoi
for
a

equivalent
of
of

the

logical
formulae.
also and In false I have

Completeness
taken
the

certain
number been

"geometric" typographical supplied

first-order

opportunity
most

to

correct

errors,

assertions,
there
are

of

which
to

have

kindly
9.3.3,
nature
-

readers.

particular
14.3.7.
on

changes
the
statement

Exercises
as

14.3.4,
reals in

14.3.6,
/2-Set CHA's
and with
a

Also,
page 414

to

the

requires

for
is
s

certain
necessary

U.
sufficient countable

For

spatial
condition

qualification (topologies),
the d'un
statement
to

it

Fourman
to

by 11.5.4, of the Cauchy holds for only has given

11.5.3,
true,

be

which,

in

spaces
P.

basis,
des

equivalent
et

local
XVI

connectedness
structures

(cf.
lisses
sur

M.
un

Fourman,

Comparison
elementaire,
Cahiers
more errors

reelles

topos;

topos
No

top.
remain:

doubt reader.

for

geom. these

dif .,
I
can

A976),
crave

only

the

233-239). indulgence

of

the

Wellington,

1983

R.

I.

Goldblat

CONTENTS

Preface Preface Prospectus

to

IX

3. 4. 5.

Definition
First

of

topos
sheaves

84

examples
and
actions and 100
103

85 88

Second

Edition

XIV

Bundles

6.
7. 8.

Monoid
Power

fl

objects comprehension 5.
Structure: First Steps

107

Chapter
Mathematics
1.

1.
=

Set

Theory?
6

Chapter
Topos
1.

Set

theory
of
as

109
109 110

2. 3.

Foundations
Mathematics

mathematics
set

13

Monies

theory

14

equalise
of
arrows

2.
3. 4. 5.

Images
Fundamental

Chapter
What
1. 2.
3.

2.

facts

..

114

Categories
Functions
are

Are
sets?
of first
.

17
. . .

Extensionality
Monies

and

bivalence

115
123

and

epics

by

elements

17 20 23 25

Composition Categories:
The
Basic

functions

Chapter
Logic
1.

6.
Classically
Motivating Propositions
The

examples
of

Conceived
topos
and

125
. .

4. 5.

pathology examples
3. Instead

abstraction

26

logic
truth-values
calculus

125

2.
3. of

126
.

Chapter

propositional algebra
semantics
as

129
133

Arrows
1.

Epsilon
.

37
37 39 39 41

4. 5. 6. 7.

Boolean

Algebraic
Truth-functions

135

Monic

arrows arrows

arrows

136 140

2.
3.

Epic
Iso
arrows

^-semantics

..

4. 5.

Isomorphic
Initial Terminal

objects objects objects

. . .

Chapter
Algebra
1.

7.
of

43 44

6.
7. 8. 9. 10.
11.

Subobjects
intersection,
union

146
146 151

Duality
Products

45
46
.
. .

2.
3. 4. 5. 6.

Co-products Equalisers
Limits

54 56 58 60
.

Complement, Sub(d)
Boolean

as

lat ice external

topoi
vs.

156 159 its and

Internal

and

co-limits
.
. .

12.
13.

Co-equalisers The pullback

Pushouts

Implication
Fil ing Extensionality
two

implications
..

162

63

gaps

166

7.

revisited

168

14.
15.

68
.
.

16.

Completeness Exponentiation
4.
Topoi
..

69
.

70

Chapter Intuitionism
1. 2.
3.

8.
and its

Logic

173
173

Chapter
Introducing
1. 2.

75
75

Constructivist

philosophy
calculus
.
.
.

Subobjects Classifying

subobjects

79

4.

Heytmg's Heyting Kripke

177 178

algebras
semantics

187

CONTENTS

Chapter
Functors
1.
2.
3.

9.

Chapter 194
Arithmetic
1. 2.
3.

13. 332
as

The

concept
transformations

of

functor

194
198
. .

Topoi
Primitive
Peano

foundations recursion

332 335 347

Natural
Functor

categories

202

postulates

Chapter
Set
1. Set

10.
Concepts
concepts
and

Chapter
Validity
in classifier
arrows

14.
Truth
Stacks

211
211 213 in Set"
.

Local
1. 2.
3.

359
sheaves stacks

2.
3.

Heyting
The The

algebras subobject
truth

and

359 and
sheaves

215 221

Classifying
GrothendieCk

368 374 378

381
..

4.
5.

topoi
sites

6.

Validity Applications
11. Truth
The language Formal idea of
a

223
227

4. 5.

Elementary
Geometric

modality
semantics
as

6.
7. 8.

Kripke-Joyal
Sheaves Number

386
. .

Chapter
Elementary
1.
2. 3. 4.
5.

complete
as

fi-sets
sheaves

388 413

systems

230
first-order
and
seman-

lan-

Chapter
230

15.
and

Adjointness
1. 2.
3. 4.

Quantifiers

438
438

language

semantics Axiomatics Models Substitution in models and

free
sets
a

234 237 238

Adjunctions
Some The

adjoint
fundamental

situations
theorem
.

..

442
.

449

topos
and

soundness

249 256 264

Quantifiers

453

6.
7. 8. 9. 10.

Kripke Completeness
Existence

Chapter
Logical
1.

16.
Geometry
Preservation Geometric
Internal

logic

266
274

458
and
reflection
. .

Heyting-valued High-order
12.

logic

286

459 463 483

493

2. 3. 4.

morphisms logic

Chapter Categorial
1. 2.
3.

Geometric
Theories
as

logic
sites

Set
of numbers
set

Theory

289
290

5.

504

Axioms Natural
Formal

choice

objects theory
sets

..

301
305 313 320

References

521
of

4. 5.

Transitive

Catalogue
Index
of

Notation

531 541

6.

Set-objects Equivalence

of

models

..

328

Definitions

..

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CHAPTER

MATHEMATICS

SET

THEORY?

"No the

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1.1.
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<p(x).

CH.

1,
set

1.1

SET

THEORY

The

corresponding

to

the

property

<p(x)

is

denoted

{x:
This
true

<p(x)}
is
to

expression
of
x".

be

read

"the

set

of

all

those

objects

such

that

<p

is

Example

1.

If

<p(x)
xe

is
A

the

condition

"x

and

B"

we

obtain

the

set

{x:
of
all

and

xeB}
to

objects
have and is in

that
common.

belong briefly
condition

both

and
as

B,
the B.

i.e.

the intersection

set

of

objects
of the

that
sets

A A

and
and

This

is

known

B,

denoted

by
"xeA

Example Comprehension

2.

The
the

or

xeB"

yields,

by

the

Comprehen-

Principle
{x:

set

xe

or

xeB}
elements
the
union

consisting
none

of others.

all It

of is

the

of

together
of
A

with
and

all

of
A

those
U

of

B,

and

called

B,

writ en

B.

Example Thus

3.

The

condition

"xe

A"

determines

-A,

the

complement

of

A.

is
A.

the

set

whose

members

are

precisely

those

objects

that

do

not

belong

to

These

examples
define Thus from
sets

all

directly
sets.

by
"^"

yield using
we

new

sets

from
that do

given
not

ones.

We
to

may

also

conditions

refer

any

particular

obtain

the

set

of distinct
0 that

all

those

from
has
we
no

objects itself,
members.

such is

that

is
that 0

not
can

there

nothing
reason our

equal satisfy
known
from
to
as

to

x.

Since

no
x

object
x,

is i.e. Notice

the the the

as
a

property
empty
set
set.

For

this
"widened with

is

have
a

conception
has
to
no

of

set

as

already something
at

ontology"
admit

members notion
to

original something
is

concepthat

members
at

all.

The tends

of think

an

empty
of

collection
sets
as

often built

dif icult
up

accept

first.

One

initial y

objects

in

MATHEMATICS

SET

THEORY?

CH.

1, 1.1

rather
0

concrete

way
us

out

of

their
0

constituents
sets to
as as
an

introduction of
One that

forces think
in common". of members. in

to

contemplate
references
a

abstract
alternative
of

(elements). "things-in-themselves".
form "A and is that definition and

The

introduc-

could "=0"

of is
0

of

words,
have
show

e.g.
no

short-hand

way

saying

elements
the

Familiarity
as an

and

experience
enhances
set

admission

actual
0

object
the

eventually simplifies
there
can

that

the be

theory.

The
set
as

justification
with
embodied
no

for
the

calling
This

empty
from

only
of

one

fol ows

the

of

equality

sets

Principle

of

Extensionality:

Two

sets

are

equal

if

they

have

the

same

elements.

It
must

fol ows
be
an

from

this

principle
that
no

that

if of

two
one

sets

are

to not

be the

distinct
other.

then

there

object
have

is elements

member

but be
so

Since
and
set.

empty
so

collections

they

cannot

distinguished
one

the

Extensionality

Principle

implies

that

there

is

only

empty

Subsets
The the

definition
notion of

of of
A

equality
A
set

of
A

sets

can

alternatively
subset
B. of
set

be

conveyed

through
,
if each

subsets.
is
also

is

B,

writ en

member

member

of

Example

1.

The

set

{0,1,2}

is

subset

of

{0,1,2,3},

{0,1,2}c

{0,1,
Example

2, 3}.
2.

For
A.

any

set

A,

we

have

A^A,

since

each

member

of

is

member

of

Example

3.

For element
all.

any

set

A,
of
0 that

A,
did

for
not

if

was

not to

subset
However

of
0

A,
has

there
no

would elements

be
at

an

belong

A.

Using

this A=B

latest

concept
if
Ac
we

we

can

see

that,

for
.

any

sets

and

B,

may

and write
A

If

but

<=

(A

is

proper

subset

of

B).

CH.

1,

1.1

SET

THEORY

Russell's

Paradox and of of
sets to

stating explanation
In
what
sort
our are

using
what be
a

the

Comprehension
"condition
let er
x

Principle
is

we

gave

no

precise
indeed
elements

entities

the

pertaining referring
like

to

objects
Do
we

x"

is,
the

nor

to.

intend
or

of
or

physical
be

they
about
V

to

abstract collection

objects, things,

tables,
numbers,

people,
or

the
sets

Eif el themselves?

Tower,

like

other

What

the
=

{x:x
equal
then
to

x}?
to

All

things,
set.

being
Is it
be V

themselves,

satisfy
in
the

the

denning
world
a

condition

for
as

this should

include
to
a

everything

restricted

particular
of
to set

kind
these

of

object,

(itself particular
we

well)
universe

or

of
To

discourse? demonstrate

the

significance
is
easy the
to

questions
sets

consider
not two

the

condition
themselves. and its
A

"x^x".
For
1.

It

think

of
is collection distinct

that

do

belong
elements itself

to

example
so

{0,1}
of
a

from
that

its includes "the

It

is

not

easy

think

amongst
of
all sets".

members.
somewhat "x

One

might
derived

intriguing
is
a

contemplate example
from
in less
the

something
derives from
22 has less the

like condition

set

set

Comprehension
than words
than 22

Principle
of

by
and
so

denning
defines
a

condition
The
set
sentence

in satisfies the

expressed quotation
its
own

marks

English". words,
so-called

that

denning

condition.

Using

Comprehension

Principle

we

form

the

Russell

set

R={x:x?x}.
The crunch
x?"
comes

when

we

ask

"Does
the

itself
so

satisfy
it Thus We ReR. But for
has

the

condition
to

denned

Now

if that
to

R?
condition,
the

R,

it

does

satisfy
which
is
the

condition,
hence ReR.
ReR.

belongs
the
must

the

set

by
leads

R,
conclusion

assumption
therefore it

R<jtR reject
R

contradictory
and

this is
an

assumption,
element of

accept
must

alternative
the

ReR,

i.e. which is both This is

R,
This

it in

satisfy
the

denning
ReR
So
now
an

condition
lead have of

R,
to

.
contradiction,
ReR

Thus
so

R<?R.
it is

time
favor both
R

rejected
i.e.

of

assumption R<?R.
and Russell's is

contradic-

we

and
an

hardly
The

R<?R, acceptable
argument,
Russell in of

is,
as

not,

element

proven itself.

situation. known
1901. Set Cantor.

above
the

Paradox,
itself

was
a

discovered decades
earlier with

by
the

Bertrand with

theory
Cantor's

began
concern

few
was

work

George

initial y

10

MATHEMATICS

SET

THEORY?

CH.

1, 1.1

analysis becoming
has

of
of "more"
the

the

real

number
was

system,

and

his

theory,
to

while

rapidly insight
into

becompropernumbers
this
to
same

intrinsic infinite
sets

interest,
of real
than

largely
numbers the
set

intended

give
set

properties of

(e.g.
of rational made

that

the the of

of

irrational

elements

numbers).
first the and The constituted

During
attempt
laws
the
so was

period
definition formal

logician
of "number"
and
set

Gottlob
and

logic
in
a

theory.
much
as

Frege development system Frege's

a

found
on

of

arithmetic

included

Comprehension
shown of
a

Principle
inconsistent

form other of
were
a

we

have

(contradictory) along
with

by
set-theoretical theoretical

Russell's basis

later,

it, given paradox. paradoxes,

for

to

be
the the

appearance

crisis

in

development
Mathematicians
ideas inconsistencies. about
sets

mathematical of
in
such

knowledge.
revising
a

faced
and

with

the

problem
them
one

their
way
sources
a

intuitive
as

This

reformulating challenge
in this

to

avoid

provided
of
a

of

the

burgeoning
amongst
method other

growth things,
itself.

century
undertakes

mathematical

major logic,
of

for

the

subject
the

which,
axiomatic

detailed

analysis

NBG Set

theory
each John
von

now

has
a

them,
refined
group

offering
Neuman and

rigorous particular

axiomatic

formulation of in and NBG. the Kurt Its be the

in

fact

several later is is and

a

of

resolution
a

paradoxes.
mid-1920's
Godel. central between of of
that
was

proposed
by
known
as

solution

developed
axioms

Paul
the

Bernays
system
are

The feature
sets
as

outcome

of and entities is

very

simple
All

yet referred
to

powerful
to
our

conceptual
in NBG notion classes
"x that set"

distinction
to

classes. which
The of

thought
themselves
short-hand

classes,

correspond
"set" reserved The such that
we

intuitive for
those

of is
are

collections
are

objects.
members
for "there
proper

word other
a

classes.

statement

is

then
not

is

class

xey".
think
is of

Classes them
as

that

sets

are

called
The
x

classes.

Intuitively
Comprehension be
sets.

"very

large"
the
we
can

collections.

Comprehento

Principle
Thus
of

modified
a

by
condition
that

requiring <p(x) satisfy

objects
form
This is

referred the denoted class

there

to
sets

from
other
x

of

all

(elements

classes)
is of
a

q>(x).

{x:
The definition
R

set

and

<p(x)}.
class
and
must
now

the

Russell
is
a

be

modified

to

read

={x:x

set

}.

CH.

1, 1.1

SET

THEORY

11

Looking
out.

back
In order
to

at

the

form ReR
true

of

the
we

paradox
would need

we

see

that
extra

we

now

have

way

derive
were

the would

assumption
as

that

R
so

is
we

set.

If

this it
as

the
Thus than
an

contradiction
the
a

obtain
and
a

before,
the

and

reject

false.
more

paradox
proof
of class
that
any

disappears
R

argument
i.e. In
a

becomes collection

nothing
that

is

proper

class

large

is

not

element

other

collection. take

particular
to

R<?R.
Another class

example {x:
is
are

of

proper

is

V,

which

we

now

be

the

set

and
all

x}
sets.

whose

elements
that V
=

the
no

In
a

fact

NBG

has

further

axioms

that

imply

R,

i.e.

set

is

member

of

itself.

ZF A
was

somewhat

dif erent

and Ernst of Zermelo

and

historically
in is from
now

prior
1908.
known There certain This
as

approach
system
ZF. It
was can one

to

the later be kind

paradoxes
extended

proposed
Abraham
as a

by
Fraenkel

by regarded
the

informally
of
one can

theory
are

"set-building".
up

is
ones

only
(in
,
as

entity,
start

set.

All

sets

built

simple
intersection
ZF

fact
union
when

just
operations
been R
are

with be

0)
effected.

by

operations
The axioms

like
of
can

U,
such have classes opera-

and

complementation-.
can

legislate
be

to sets

They
and
the constructed

only
is

applied
a

to

that proper relative

a

already
like

constructed,
never

result

always
within
ZF.
now

set.

Thus be used

actually
we

The

Comprehension
i.e. but
set. cannot

Principle
collect those
In
we

can

only objects
to

to

given
condi-

set,

together already
is Given

all

satisfying
members of

certain

condition,
denned
Separation
set

only

know
as

be

some

previously

ZF

this

known
set

the
A

Principle.

and members

condition

<p(x)
A

there

exists

whose

elements
set

are

precisely

those

of

that

satisfy

<p(x).

This

is

denoted

{x:xeA Again
set
we can

and<p(x)}.
no

longer
=

form

the

Russell

class

per

se,

but

only

for

each

the

set

R(A)

{x:xeA

and

}.

12

MATHEMATICS

SET

THEORY?

CH.

1, 1.1 and

To

obtain is resolution

contradiction
we

involving
would need
to

the

statements

R(A)eR(A)
R(A)eA.
Our

R(A)<?R(A)
then element the

know
In

that

conclusion
no

simply
of

that

R(A)<?A.
so

fact

in
the

ZF

as

in

NBG

set

is lat er

an

itself,
in

R(A)=A.
-

(Note

similarity
by
the

of
A

this
makes

argument
the

to

NBG
to

replacing
former.)
some answers

everywhere
to

formally
NBG

identical and
uses

the

ZF

then

offer

questions
may

posed
well all entities
sets.
as
a

earlier.
be

In have
are

practical objects. a conceptual

"abstract"

of
axiomatic rather

set

In

theory, presentations
than whose
a

members of

of
set

collections

physicial

theory
The
are

however

objects
considered NBG

material
members

existence.
ZF
can

"larger" NBG,
that
mean

are

members

collections, than ontology of consisting not proper). by a "condition of themselves,

wil wil look
not
come

themselves be construed

offers
of classes what
are we

ZF.
the

Indeed of
stil NBG have

part
We
the

that
not to

refers
shed
any x"

only
real

to

sets,

subsystem (i.e.
on

light
sets

pertaining
"less
in

objects
22
or

(since
condition clarification

never

than

words" Some formal

mentioned of
and ZF.

earlier
notion
closer

be
the

admissible
later when of
the

ZF

NBG).
for

this
a

we

consider
axioms

languages
like

take

at

details

systems

Consistency
The

fact

that

particular
it

system
i.e.
in either
the
two

avoids

Russell's
free NBG stand

Paradox

does It
an

not

guarantee
known
an

that in been
any
to

is

consistent,
and and
so

entirely
ZF
or

of would
or

contradictions.

is

inconsistency
have

the

inconsistency other, intensively

contradiction the
was

imply
fal last is
a

inconsis-

systems
studied
However that
no

together.
60
real
or so

They
years

without barrier found.

possibility
demonstrated of
decade
any

of

extensively emerging. proving

by

in
there

the

conceptual
wil
ever

such around
have

contradiction

be in

This
that
own

Godel,
would

1930,
to

who
on

showed

effect
whose themselves.

proof consistency
In

consistency
was

depend
that
a

principles
and mathematiof

no

more

certain
Godel's
to

than

of
the

ZF

NBG

the

prior
had

to

work establish

group

of so-called of
whose

mathematicians lead

by
and

David mathematics
methods

Hilbert

arithmetic
methods.

attempted generally
confined

consistency

by
to

using
the

These

are

particular,
evident
never

directly
by
establish
the
as

direct
the

perceivable inspection. consistency

of
of the

objects,
Godel showed
any

and that

only description principles

that
was

finitary
concrete,
truth could is

such

methods

of

system
whole
events

powerful
This of
the
many

develop regarded impact

arithmetic
one

ordinary
mathematical
was

numbers. but

enough discovery
20th

to

is
Its
have

major
program

century.

on

Hilbert's

devastating,

people

CH.

1,

1.2

FOUNDATIONS

OF

MATHEMATICS

13

found
creative

in

it
nature

source

of of
that As
the

encouragement,

an

affirmation
and

of

the

mathematical mind
can

thought,
be has
human

evidence
modelled
as

essential y against
a

the

mechanistic

thesis

adequately
put
mind

physical
is
too

computing big for Bergamini

While

device.
the it
human

Godel
or

himself
the

it,
is absolute

"either
more

mathematics
than
a

mind,
seem

machine." of
an no

(cf.
the

[65]).
would of
there
can

be the

no

demonstration of
it

consistency
and

ZF,
if the in

there

is

considerable for
were

justification,
belief
the
case

experiential
contradicthe
more

epistemological
Certainly
of
at

nature,

that

contains
in
a

contradictions. role
be is
seems

opposite
contemporary
the is
a

then,
a

view
deal
set

of of

central would

set

theory
than

mathematics,

great
set

stake of
a

simply
and

adequacy
"better"

of
treatment

particular
of with

postulates.
The

Which

ZF
matter

NBG of
widest is

largely
to

philosophical
popularity
constructions

taste,

together
amongst
to

theory? practical
sets

choice

need.

ZF

enjoy
of
set

the

mathematicians

generally. closely
where
sets

Its the

principle
way

relativising
theory

particular
mathematics,
defined
been
sets
an

reflects
are

specified (universes).
most

within
The

clearly
collection mathematicians. within
a

actually given,
of
all
sets

used

in

mathematically
has
not

contexts

(uniconcern
can

working
be
the

Indeed small

the

that
ZF.
a

object they
It is for

of need

for
gener-

generally
with

obtained advent

of

category

fragment theory
than

of
that

only
need
a

very

recently,
has arisen

genuine
a

amongst

mathematicians
collections.
These
and

(other
needs
have

set-theorists)
are

means

of
way

handl-

handling large
class-set
even

met
a more

in

more

flexible role is that

to

by
NBG

the

dichotomy,
stronger

offered
from

significant

and is

systems.
to

The "correct"

moral
way

be
to

drawn
set
on

these
The
he

observations

there

no

do

theory.
what

system
wishes
to

mathematician

chooses

to

work

with

wil

depend
of

achieve.

1.2.
The
nature

Foundations
aim of
or

mathematics
studies is
to

of

Foundational

produce
involves

a a

mathematical

reality.
of be

This mathematical
and
use

rigorous precise
so

explication
and

of defini-

the

formal
that

definition,

representation
can

concepts,
their

their

interMost
to

interrelationships approaches
used
description.
and the

clarified

properties
axiomatic
itself in definition
a

better method.

understood. The
and

to

foundations
then

the

language
formal their

be

is

first

This

introduced, language
of

generally
serves

precise
of

descripnotions

for
or

the

mathematical

statement

postulates,

axioms,

concerning

properties.

14

MATHEMATICS

SET

THEORY?

CH.

1,

1.3

The

axioms
The

behaving.
statements

codify theory
derived
rendered from

ways

we

of

these

regard objects
axioms

mathematical is then

objects developed
of from
this in
the

as

actually
form
that
are

of

the

by
to out

techniques
infer
of which when
there

deduction
that reflects the
We may
or
as
an a

themselves
It

explicit.
somewhat

would
act

be The
content

misleading
as a

foundational
is

systems
created. essential

primarily artificiality
of does real number
not

basis
that

mathematics
one

actually
that

of mathematics

view is
on

is

evident its existence.

the made
the

already
for
decimal be be said enbodiment

before

basis

is

explicit,
think number

and

depend
as an

it

for

example
on

of

infinite
it

expression,
introduced class
to

point
element

line.

Alternatively
ordered
cut.

could
could

of
or

a a

complete
Dedekind
of
and

field,
None number of in is.
not

an

equivalence
Each is of
the
nature
an

of
be

Cauchy
the of but
rather
correct
an

sequences,

these

explanation
intuitive
in
terms

what
we

real
in

notion
of deducits

evalute

it,

terms

its

effectiveness
Mathematical deductive

explicating discovery
It

correctness, of
means

the
a

real
matter

number of and

system.

is

along
to

procedure. paths
describe
to
to

involves

by insight,
lead the

no

imagination,
nowhere. Axiomatic

that and that

sometimes communicate in

systematic long presentations

often
in
a

explorations
serve
a

fruits arrived overview

the

of

this
at.

order

which

they
matter,
our

were
an

activity, They
of
its
extent

dif erent
and be used does
may

lend

coherence

unity
Having
for
have
to
new

their clarified

subject

and may

limitations.
then

intuitions,
It

formal
level
that

framework
the
a

further
a

exploration.
creative internal
and

is

at

this the

axiomatic

method

role.

The

systematisation
or

of

particular
of

theory
similarities with

lead
other
to

discoveries,
their mathematics.

recognition
This
as

theories

subsequent
As

unification. far
the
house the

however studies Foundational

as

belongs
are

the

"doing"
the
not

of
role
so

Foundational
A

concerned

of much

axiomatics
to

is
prop

largely
up

descriptive.
of
house

system
to

serves

mathematics
was

clarify
first

the

principles
"Foundations"

and

methods is
a

by

which that
can

built
a

in

the

place.
world

discipline
the
rest

be

seen

as

branch
to

of describe

mathematics
the

standing
in which

apart
the

from

of

the

subject
lives.

in

order

working

mathematician

1.3.
The

Mathematics

as

set

theory
with
set

equation
seen
as
a

of
summary

mathematics
of wil have the

theory
that

can

with in

some

justification
has

be

direction
heard of
the

mathematics revolution school

taken
curricula

in

modern

times.

Many

CH.

1,

1.3

MATHEMATICS

AS

SET

THEORY

15

called
of
set

the

"New

Math".

This

has

largely
education with
that the

revolved and

around indicates Of
theories all
set

the the the

introduction

theory
mathematical
that

into
have

of widest
NBG

the

elementary community
been and
an

preoccupation
foundational

subject.
attention.
and

frameworks

proposed,
most

have

enjoyed
like of
the
on a

the
ZF

acceptance

the

detailed
Paul

Systems

and basic
the

provide
that the

elegant
mathematician
the

formalisation
uses.

explanation
Cohen,
in whose

notions

work
to

independence
explosion
arguments
most

of of fundamental set-theoretic

Continuum

Hypothesis

1963

lead

veritable
is the

activity,
became convinced of
because
the that

has

said
that

"by
the

analysing
notion
role in

mathematical

logicians
from,
has
to
or

of

"set"

concept

mathematics."

Apart

perhaps
dominated

of,
stage
case.

its
of

central

Foundations,
This

set

theory
intended

also

mathematical think
in
the

practise.
set-theoretical

is

not

imply
is
very

mathematicians often
the
Rather

concepts,
is
that
set

although
the

that

point
It

theory
the
terms

is of
be be it
set-

basic for of
to

tool
an

of
enormous

communication

and

exposition.
of

has

provided
in It

vehicle

proliferation
and
range
on or

mathematics,
and
mathematical

both

quantity
hard

knowledge
a

of
any

topics
pure

applications.

would

find

recent

book

subject,
that

algebra,
theoretical
The

geometry,

analysis,
of
French

probability
who 1935
the

theory,
work
in volumes

used
the

no

symbolism.
group Bourbaki

mathematicians
in

under task

name

of
a

Nicolas

undertook

formidable
to

of

producing
The

"ful y
over

axiomatised
40
the years, has

presentation
been and

of about
that

mathematics
many
1 of

entirety".
date,
work for

result,
over

ranging
is
the

algebra,
to

analysis theory
Bourbaki
as

topology.
sets,
has

Book
which

this
the

influential framework
mathematical

devoted whole
may
on

of

provides
A949)
of
the

enterprise.
be

said
I
can

"..

all
the

theories

regarded
present
The

extensions
that be

general
up

theory
whole
of

of
the

sets

..

these of

foundations
the

I state

build this

mathematics

day".

point
has is
no

to

made
the

in

book

is

that

the

emergence

of

category
Cohen's
case

theory
statement

changed longer
mathematical in
the

even

the certain
.

objects
that

of

future

perspectives prima study wil they

wil
continue be
some

described, just facie acceptable. can be thought be so regarded.

to

and
It may
as

that be
the

that

of

sets, doubt
tool of
the

but
the

it

is

not

No

basic

language
collections
themselves
development

of
of
as

set

theory

be
But

an

things
sets

are

to

dealt of

with. its alternative.

the
It

has

lost

prominence

important conception through

seems

whenever the

of

natural

and

attractive

indeed

very

things developlikely

16

MATHEMATICS

SET

THEORY?

CH.

1,

1.3

that

the

role wil

of

set

foundations
wrong

be
be

theory declining
have

as

the
one

lingua
in
French Rene Thorn the

universalis
years
to
come.

for

mathematical
In
case

the

impression
it
the of

should

been
the

conveyed
mathematicians

by [71]
structures

the

last

quotation
have

above,
amongst
old
a

should
first
to

noted

that

been
that "the

recognise
to
see

this.

has

writ en arise

hope hierachy doubtless,

"In the

Bourbaki,
of

mathematical
their

naturally
combination,
in

from

sets,
an

from il usion".
the

subsets,
And
in
an

and

from address
statement:

their

is,

only
made
years

given
occurred,
of
dif erent of from
the the
as

1961,
you branches
essence

Jean

Dieudonne

fol owing
1920

prophetic
and
the

between of necessitated

1940 classification
a
new

there

know,
of of Cantor

complete
mathematics,
mathematical
and mathematical

reformation

by
itself,
the

conception originated
the

thinking
Hilbert.
From

which
there

works
axiomatization

of

lat er in
What
to
one

sprang and
you may
a

systematic
the

of

science
structure.

entirety
go

fundamental
be
unaware

concept
of
at

of is this
the

mathematical
mathematics
moment.

perhaps
second
way

that very first

too

is This is

about
the which

through
is in
a

revolution
the

which

completing
mathematics

work from
the

of

revolution,
narrow

namely,
conditions estimation
..

is it
or

releasing
is
the

far is

by
of
its
from

'set';
range

theory

of of

categories
its
consequences

and

functors,
stil

for
too

which

early

".

(Quoted

Fang

perception [70].)

CHAPTER

WHAT

CATEGORIES

ARE

"..

understanding
one

consists

in

re-

reducing
another."

type
Claude

of

reality
Levi-Strauss

to

2.1.
A

Functions

are

sets?
of
the way

good
a

il ustration
mathematical
A

in

which

set
an

theory

formalises of
the
a

an

intuitive

idea function
to
as a a

is is
an

provided
association
one

by
and
which
way

examination

notion
It

of
be

function.
that

between

objects,
one

corresponmay
to

correspondence

assigns
of associated
process,

given
or

thought
its

rule,

object operation,
A

only
is

other
to
a

applied

object. something
is

obtain

thing.
a a

useful

of box"

envisaging
(see

function
For
For

as

an

input-output
the

kind

of

"black

figure).
output.
which
number
are

function 6x2

produces

uniquely
6" determines
associates

determined
a

instruction

"multiply
=

by
12,
24
to

function
the

for
1 the

given example, input

a

input
the 2

gives
6,
of
the
are

output
which

which

with
on.

number
that

assigns
and

4,
outputs

and

so

The
or

function

the

values,
a

inputs images
and
x

called
the
an

arguments

of

inputs
input,
then

they
the The
corres-

produced corresponding example f(x)

=

by.
output,
may

If
then

/ denotes
the

function,
of
x

image
be

under
as

/,
that

is

denoted

displayed
appropriate
2,
of
we

function
to

f(x). / given
/ (in
and
our

above
the rule

by

6x.
is
the the
set

If wil

of number

all

inputs
but
the that A
not

function

example

A
set

include all
as

the

Eif el
of is
a

Tower),
A

is
B.

that

includes
Tower

the

/-images
then

members

(and from
the

possibly
A
or

the
to

Eif el This of is

well),
as

say
or or

/
B.
A

function called

symbolised
and

/:
codomain

-^

is

domain

source

is

the

target.

Function

input

output

f(x)

__

Fig.
17

2.1.

18

WHAT

CATEGORIES

ARE

CH.

2,

2.1

How
the

does notion
as

set

theory
an

deal ordered

with

this
as

notion?

To

begin
of
two

with

we

introduce
with
one

of

pair,
the
x

consisting
second.
element

designated
the

first,

and

other
as

as

The

notation

as

objects (x,
second.
if
x
=

y)
The
z

is

used
essential

for

ordered
of
now

pair
this
define This writ en
that
an

having
notion
a

first

and

property
We

is

that

(x,
relation
the

y)

(z,
as

w)

if

and
a

only
set

and

are

w.

(binary)
formalises
a

being
idea

whose
an

elements

all

ordered
to

pairs.
earlier.
R

intuitive
of

of

association and

referred

is

relation
then
we

(set
think
For

ordered
of
x

(sometimes association
establishes

xRy)
R

pairs) being
the

(x,

y)eR
to

represents.
between
x

example
numbers

assigned expression
determines

(someby
than"
set

the

"is
the

less

association

and

{(x,
Note may From
that associate
a

y): pairs
several

is

less

than

y}.
A,
to

the

A,2)

and

3)
a

both

belong
one.

to

this

set,

i.e.

relation

objects
we

given
relation of

function

obtain

the the

/
To

{(x,
those

):
feature

is

/-image
that

x}.
functions
we

distinguish
the
one

relations of

represent

have

to

incorpro-

incorporate
produces
the

central

functions,
output.
of
the

namely
This
means

that

given
that each
That

input
x

uniquely
element

corresponding
of

can

be

first

only

one

ordered
then

pairs

in
z.

/.

is

(*)
This ordered often
definition. used
then

if
is
our

(x,

y)e/
set-theoretical

and

(x,z)ef,
characterisation condition
-

of
What (*). representation

function;
next

as

set
a

of

pairs
in It
a

satisfying
mathematics
is
statement

the

happens
becomes
all

is
an

ploy
actual
the

formal
in books
that

quite

common, to

at

levels,
is

to
a

find
set

near

beginning pairs
How

the

effect

"a

function

of function

ordered

such

that. .".

successful

is
it

this
works
But

set-theoretical
very

formulation
well

of
an

the

con-

concept?
the

Technically
theory
on

and
are a

allows number

easy

development
that the
set
can

of
be
not
course
a

of
the
at

functions.

there

of
say

rejoinders
that

made

conceptual
all,
co-ordinate of
the
as

level. is the

Some

would

/
of

is

function
comes

but

graph
geometry.

of
If

the
we

function

/.
in
a

The

word
the

from
is
over

plot
obtain

the

plane
line
=

points
(see
This
like
the usage

with

co-ordinates which
carried
topology

form
the

known
to
more

(x, graph
writers

6x)
of
contexts,

we

the

function

straight /(x)
in

figure)
is

6x.

general
where

and

analysis,
from
the
can

often
as

f-.A^B
the
two

notions

graph easily

of f
lead

the
to

particularly explicitly set {(x,/(x)):

subjects
xeA}.

topolfunction of

distinguish

Conflation

confusion.

2,

2.1

FUNCTIONS

ARE

SETS?

19

6x

'<x,6x>

Fig.

2.2.

Another

dif iculty
as as a

relates of
set

to

the
we

notion
can

of

codomain.
recover

Given
the

function

/
(set
of

simply inputs)

set

ordered

pairs
for codomain
of
some

readily

domain

the

dom
But what

f
the

{x:

(,

)
Recall

/}.
that

about
all
or

the

of

/?
outputs

this

can

be
form the

any

set

that

includes
range

outputs
of
=

/.

The

themselves

so-called

image

/, symbolically {y:for
be called
a

Im/ general and Im/cB.

In
not

some
a

x,

(x,y)ef}.
from
A
as a

/
a

can

function

to
set

whenever

dom does

Thus

function
determined

given
codomain.

simply
with is

of
seem

ordered
a

pairs

have

uniquely
to
an

This

but

it

leads

interesting
This
to
a

complication
function

may the

trifling f(x)
Each
=

point,
notion
x, set

very

important
the

of
the
has

identity
output
its whose
A^>
own

function. assigned identity

domain
A. On the
a

characterised
is
the Thus the

given
set

input
called
A.

just identity

that

function,
is subset
to
we

by input function
of

rule

i.e.
A

itself.
on

A,
is
also

denoted

idA, idA:
Now

the

image
idA

idA x): f(x)

x
=

A,

i.e.

set-theoretic

account, of
a case

={<x,
rule
the

e
x

A}.

if

is
A

set

B,
we

then

the

provides
from
new

function
A
to

from

B.

In
reserve

this

talk
the

of A^>B.

inclusion
The
use

function of function
even a

B,

for
a

which

the It

symbol
conveys

word

indicates
to

dif erent
the elements

intention. of
on

sense

of
B. map However

the

include

amongst
and
as

those
the

of

acting though
to

the

identity
the way
to

function

inclusion

from

A
are

are

i.e.

conceptually exactly
One

quite
same

dif erent,
set

set-theoretical

entities

they

identical,
definition
of
the

of
this way.

ordered

pairs.
would be
to

cope

with

point
Firstly
of
are

modify
A

the

function

in
set
or

the

fol owing
Cartesian first elements

for
A
A

sets

and be
the

set

we

define all in
B.

product pairs

product
in

and and

to

of

ordered This is

whose

second

elements

20

WHAT

CATEGORIES

ARE

CH.

2,

2.2

denoted

AxB,

and

so

AxB={(x,
A

y):xeA
now

and
as a

yeB}.
of

function
from
and

is

defined
to

triple
(x,
in
the

relation
one

A
one

(the
for

graph
which

/ /),

(A,
such

B,
that

R),
for
Thus

where each the

RgAxB
x

is
e

there

is and
the

only (B)
the
a

codomain
outset.

are

yeB incorporated
modified
as

y)eR.
definition does
a

domain function lit le

a

(A)
from
it static of
a

of

Although
presents

definition

tidy
set
or

things
some

up

a
-

stil
the

function fails
to

being
the

object.
concept.

It

convey

basically "operational"
a

of
to

kind

fixed,
aspect
of

"transitional"
an

One
on as a

talks

of

"applying"
There

function definite of
the
arrow

argument,
of

function
even

"acting" motion, terminology,

"transformation"

domain.

is the
The
use

impression
symbol,
for
is
move

action,
the

of

evidenced
and and

by commonly "mapping". on acting

Indeed

source-target
like
to
or

used

synonyms

"function"

"transforthat

impression
to

analogous
(rotations,

of
it

physical
another

force

an

object
geometry,
functions forces

it

somewhere,

replace
reflec-

by

object.
dilations
in

in
are

transformations
that
are

reflections,
while This
the

etc.)

applied
of model

mathematics

dynamical meaning

quality
the

that

we

have

been
as

quite actually describing

it

literally
modelled
is used in
It
a an

describe
as

motion,
functions.

essential

part
The formal
that
set-

of

word
the

"function" does intuitive

but
not not

is

mathematics.
is
a

"ordered-pairs"
theoretic
an

definition
of
the

convey

this.

idea its ful

of

function,

model

captures

aspect

of

idea,
of

significance.

2.2.
Given
the
source

Composition
two

functions
and
we can

functions
of
the

f:A^>B
other,
x

g:

>

,
an

with

the

target

of the rule

one

being
"apply
hence
an

obtain

new

function
element

by
of of
A

/
x

and

then
to

g".
g.

For

A,
g
a

the

output
the

f(x)
element

is

B,
codomain

and passage

input
to

Applying
establishes

gives
function

g(f(x))
domain

and

The

from

It

g(/(x))
the rule

with
g,

is

called
the

composite g/(x)

of f and
=

denoted

g/,

and

symbolically

denned

by

g(f(x)).

CH.

2,

2.2

COMPOSITION

OF

FUNCTIONS

21

Now whose

suppose domains

we

have

three

functions
are so

f:A->B,
related
A
to

g:

we are

and

h.C^D
the
two

and
to

codomains
a
we

that D. There

can

in
to

succession do function

get
we

function
can

from first
form

this,
D.

since
Then

the
the

composites
rule

apply actually g/:A-^C

then

three

ways and

hg:B
the

fol ow
or

either
the rule

"do

/
and

and then

/ig",
/",

giving

(hg)f,

"do

g/

giving

the

composite

h(gf).

In
we

fact find

these that

two

functions

are

the

same.

When

we

examine

their

outputs

while

g)
Thus
the the
same

h
have

g(/(x))
the
same

h(g(f
domain

(x))).
and

two

functions

codomain,
amount to
are

and
the

they
rule
same

give
"do

output
then
g,
we

for and
have

the then

same

input.
/."
the In other

They
words,

each

/,

and and

they

the

function,

established

fol owing.

Associative

Law

for

Functional

Composition.

h(gf)
and

(hg)f.
hgf
functions
without
-

This

law

allows
Note that
makes
are

us

to

drop
law when
as

brackets does described

the
not

simply
to
a

write
any

ambiguity.

the
sense

apply
"fol ow
above. notion used

three

the

equation
and
The
very

only
targets
last

they

path",
commutative

i.e.

their

sources

arranged
is
an

figure
we

important
(here

aid

to
mean

diagram
arrows arrows

simply representing
g,

of example understanding a display functions)

is another

of
in

diagram,
theory.

category

By
with
some

of

some

objects,
the

together

/,

as

shown

linking diagram.

objects.

The

"triangle"

of

22

WHAT

CATEGORIES

ARE

CH.

2,

2.2

It
two

wil

be

said from

to

commute

if

paths
same

to

C,

either

The g/. by composing

=

point
to

is fol ow
the the that
are

that

the

diagram
and
then
amount one,

offers
g,
or

/
two

by
to

fol owing
the be
are

directly.
A
more

thing.

commutative
themselves

when

Commutativity complex all possible

This
at
same

means

that

paths
of
the

diagram, triangles
means same

like
that

previous
parts
two

is
of
same

said

to

diagram
arrows

commutative.
that
to start

any

paths
at

in

the compose

diagram

the

object
function.

and

end

the

object

give

the

overall

Composing
What

with

identities when
we we

Given
x

happens f:A-B
e

compose

function

with

an

identity
outputs
we

function?

can

fol ow

/ by

idB.

Computing

find,

for

A,

that

idB/(x)

idB(/(x))=/(x).

Similarly,
xeB,

given

g:B

we

can

precede
g(x).
source

by

idB,

in

which

case,

for

gidB(x)
Since
have

g(idB
the

(x))
same

idB
established

and

/
the

have

and

target,

as

do

gidB

and

g,

we

fol owing.
Functional

Identity

Law

for

Composition.
=g.

For

any

f:A^-B,

g:

>

,
The

idB/=
Identity

/,

and

gidB
Law
amounts

to

the

assertion

of

the

commutativity

of

the

fol owing

diagram

CH.

2,

2.3

CATEGORIES:

FIRST

EXAMPLES

23

2.3.
We

Categories:
have
of

First
stated
that

examples
a

already
mathematical

category
and
kind

can

initial y
such
a

be universe
a

conceived
is kind is
used

as

universe
determined

discourse,
a

that

deterof in

by
of
is

specifying
between

certain
The

of

object
of

and word

certain

"function"

objects.
in
the

less

suggestive
categories
some

"arrow"

place
ism"

"function"
also

used).
and

The
arrows.

general fol owing

theory
table

(the

word

"morph-

lists

categories

by

specifying

their

objects

CATEGORY

OBJECTS

ARROWS

Set

all
all

sets

all
sets

functions functions functions

between
between

sets

Finset Nonset

finite

all
sets

finite

sets sets

all all

nonempty

all
spaces

between
functions
spaces

nonempty
between

Top
Vect

topological
spaces

all linear group monoid

continuous

topological
vector

transformations

Grp
Mon

groups monoids

homomorphisms homomorphisms
maps
maps

Met Man

metric manifolds

spaces

contraction
smooth groups continuous
sets monotone

Top
Pos

Grp

topological partial y

homomorphisms
functions

ordered

In

each
cases,

of in
each

these
some

examples
additional

the

objects
structure.

are

sets

with,
arrows are

apart
all
to

from
set

the

first

three

The

functions
structure.

which
It What
common

appropriate
fact
vital it
In
arrow

case

satisfy
reader
she
or

conditions
be
he

relating
with all what
a or

this
these

is

not

in is

that

the

familiar
understands of
them

of

examples.
all have in
not

important
-

is is
nature

that
that

they
The

what

makes

each the the

category.
but
occur;

key
the

lies,
way

in
arrows

the

particular
behave.
each

of
case

each has

objects fol owing

with
it

arrows,

in

the

things
two

(a)
and
its

associated of
arrows
a new

special
that
can

objects,
be

its

domain

codomain,
there

(b)
certain codomain

is

an

operation
of obtain
to

composition
in
arrow

performed
domain of
g

on
=

pairs
of

<g,/)
/)

the
g

category

(when

/, which

is

also

in

the

category.

24

WHAT

CATEGORIES

ARE

CH.

2,

2.3

(A composite composite
continuous
Associative

of

group

homomorphisms
functions
between

is of

group

homomorphism,
spaces

of

continuous This
in has
on

etc.) Law.
each

operation
the

composition
with
it
a

topological always

is
the

itself

obeys
arrow

Associa-

described

last

section,

(c)
the
group

object
arrow

associated
that
on

special
function
is

in
on

the
a

category,
group

identity
homomorphism,
category
There
are

object.
a

(The

identity
space the

is
Within in
But

topological
satisfy
common

continuous
Law

etc).
described

the

the

identity
features
two
we

arrows

Identity
our

2.2.
other
it is
that the
to

list

of

examples.
and

as

categories
of

identities

properties single
of a

of
out

associative

composition
attention
A

existence

for

particular
category

in

the

Axiomatic

Definition
a a

Category. called

*#

comprises

A) B) C)
"domain"

collection

of
of

collection of

things things
a

^-objects;
^-arrows;
each Harrow

called
to

operations

assigning

/
"codomain"

^-object
of

dom/ /).
If
a

(the
=dom

f)
/
we

and

'if-object
this
as

cod

/ (the

and

cod

display
or

f:a D)
cod and
an

a-

operation
^-arrow

/, a cod(g
condition
Associative

assigning /, the
g,

to

each

composite
g

/)

cod

i.e.

/:

dom

pair of f / -

(g,
and cod

/)
g, g,

of

^-arrows

with

dom

having
and
such

dom(g
that

f)
the

dom

fol ow-

fol owing

obtains:
Law:

Given

the

configuration
d

of

^-objects
The

and

^-arrows

then
asserts

h
that
a

associative

law

/) (g diagram

(h having

g)

/.
the

form

always

commutes;

CH.

2,

2.4

THE

PATHOLOGY

OF

ABSTRACTION

25

E) identity Identity

an arrow

assignment
on

to

each that ^-arrows and

"if-object

b of

Harrow

-*

b, called

the

b,
For
=

such
any

Law:

f
g1b
=

:a^>b
g

and

g:b

1/
i.e. the

/,

diagram

commutes.

2.4.
The

The
process

pathology
we

of
have of the

abstraction
been

just
basic It

through
modi
the

in

identifying
of
pure

the

notion

of
It

category
called examination
occur
are

is abstraction.

one

begins
of
there

with

operandi recognition,
situations,
number of wherein of

mathematics.
certain

is and

through
that
common

of

number that

specific
are
a

experience phenomena
that Then there
comes

repeatedly,
formal actual
out

features,
entities.
common

analogies
process and

in of

the

behaviour
in

dif erent these

an

the

abstraction,
isolation;
is
an

features

are

singled
"abstract"
definition the

presented
This from which
vector
our

axiomatic
obtained of
our

description particular
that

of

an

concept.
of
same
a

precisely
inspection
all space,

how of
a

we

category
process

list

general categories.
mathematics arrived
its
are were

definiIt

is

by

of

the

abstract

structures

investigates Having theory, examples

Any
derivable
new

(group,
obtained
and

topological
concept
we

space

abstract

then

etc) develop
instances
that define

at.

general
called

seek of
the

further

instances
or

of

it.

These

concept
that the

models
to

of
the

the

axioms

the

concept.

statement

from

belongs axioms)
process

general
hold
true

theory
in from
a

of all

the

concept
The search

(i.e.
for
that
as a

is

wil of
comes

models.
reverse

models
in
new

is

specialisation,
as

the much

of

abstraction.
a

Progress particular
from
core.

understanding
structure

the

is
that of

an

instance
several

of

more

general
structures

recognition phenomenon,
have
common

the Our of

recognition

dif erent

knowledge
these
two

mathematical

reality through
movement

advances
from

through
the

the

into

interplay

processes,

particular

26

WHAT

CATEGORIES

ARE

CH.

2,

2.5

the
see,

An

general by the important

for
list

and

back

again.
of of

The

procedure
theory.
concerns

is

well

il ustrated,
so-called

as

we

shall

development
aspect
These
a are

topos

specialisation
to
structure

representation
any the
extent

theorems. axioms

propositions
abstract models.

the
must

effect
be

that

model

of
one

the

certain
of
concrete

(equivalent
possible
that models

to)

of which
of
can

particular
the

They
encompass

"measure"
the

to

original
notion.
of
as

motivating
Thus
we
a

examples
know group
an

the be any

.general thought
Boolean

(Cayley's
of

Theorem)
of of i.e. subsets
the
more

any

group

being
is

algebra
the

essential y
the the

permutations algebra
be the

some

set,
some
we

while
set.

of

Roughly
into
extreme

speaking,
abstract
case

stronger
fewer is
there

abstraction,
wil
one

put
The of this There

the

concept,
is where

possible
A

only
concept
viz

model. of
a

classic

examples. example
ordered field.

is
is

the in

axiomatically
fact
The

presented
only
category
of
one

complete
number
very
our

such
axioms
theorem

field,
in

the

real
a

system.
weak abstraction. list. discourse".
We There talked However and
cases so

represent
terms

is
at

no

representation
outset

of of

original
our

the
we

"general
out

universes

mathematical
bones of of
all

have

picked
the

only
the appearance
are

the

bare

initial
of Vect
at

of

flesh

that

axioms
universes look functional

admit from of

sorts

examples, "pathological"
etc.

lit le
that

dif er

wildly
that
not

in

Set,
discourse like

Top,

One

readily
the the

finds

categories
are

not
arrows

all,
The

in
and

which

objects

sets,
to

the do

nothing composition.
The

functions,
is satisfied.

operation
list
includes these
that examine

has
a

nothing
number
to

with
the and

fol owing

of
fil
out

such

categories.
details
of

reader

urged
and
to

to

closely,
case

their
axioms

definition,
are

check

in

each

the

Associative

Identity

2.5.
Example

Basic
1.

examples
1:

This

category
we

is
that
a,

to

have

only
structure

one

Having Suppose
dom
arrow,

said
we

that,
call

find

its and

is
the
arrow

the
a, to
as a

object
is it
the
as

object, completely /. Then

Since
on

and

one

arrow.

determined.
we

must

put

/ only

cod
we

/
have

only
the of
arrows

available

object.
arrow

/ is
we

the

only
1
=

take

identity
is
=

a,
we

i.e.

put

f.

The

gives
holds

the
as

composable identity f(ff)

pair
law,
=

(/, /),
=

and

put
the

f
associative

f.

This law

as

1a

f
=

f1a=ff fThus
we

f,

and
a

(ff)f

have

category,

which

we

CH.

2,

2.5

BASIC

EXAMPLES

27

display

diagramatically

as

a
We

did be Richard

not

actually
you
a

say
a

what

and
a

/
set,

are.

The

anything might
or

like,

might
or
a

be

with
or

number,
Nixon.
the
a a

pair definitions

of
for

numbers,
a.

point / its identity a banana,

any
two

is

that

they
function.
Eif el call

can

be

But

/
a

or

the and
for above

tower,
them

Likewise
above
structure

Just

take dom wil look

things,
1
a,

and
have Whatever

/,

make

of
that

/,
the

cod

/,
axioms

f,
a

and

you
In

produced
and
sense

satisfies

category.
and
one
as

/
is it
the

are,

the

category

like
that

the has
one

diagram. object
of it
be
we

this
arrow.

there
We

"really"
name

only
1. be the As number

one
a

category

give
the

paradigm
0,
and

description
the
arrow

might
ordered

well

take

object

to

to

the

pair
Example

@,

0).
2. 2:

This

category

has

two

objects,

three

arrows,

and

looks

like

We
we

two

take take

the the

pairs

objects @,0),

to

be

the

numbers and

and

1.

For

the

three

arrows

@,1),

A,1),

putting

Thus

we

must

have

@,
and

0)

(the

identity

on

0)

A)
There

1way
to

is

only

one

define

composition

for

this

set

up:

28

WHAT

CATEGORIES

ARE

CH.

2,

2.5

and

Example

3.

3:
arrows

This

category

has

three

objects
in
a

and

six
thus:

arrows,

the

three

non-identity

being

arranged

triangle

Again
Example

there

is
4.

only

one

possible
in general. composites is is
never no more

way In
can

to

define
of

composites.
our

Preorders
way that there there

each be than about that

first This
arrow,

three

examples
is
because
once arrow

there

is
any

only
two
are

one

denned.
one

between
the

objects
known,
a

so

dom
to

and be.
p

cod

choice

what

the any
a

is
two

In and the

general
q

category
is
of
R
on

with
most
one

this
arrow
a a

property,
p

between
is called
then

objects
If define P
a

there

at

-q,

pre-order.
we

is

collection
relation

objects
P

of

pre-order
set

category

may

binary

(i.e.

R there

P)
an

by
arrow

putting
p>q

(p,q)eR
category.
The

if

is

in

the

pre-order
in

relation

then

has

the

fol owing
p
we

properties
have

(writing
and
we

"pRq"

place

of

(i) (ii) (Condition

For
to

"(p,q)eR"); reflexive,
transitive,

it i.e.
i.e.

is for
whenever
as

each

pRq
there

and
the
p
to

(i)
(ii),
observe
an

holds
that

is
arrow

always
from

pRp, qRs, identity

q

have
arrow

pRs.
p^p, for
one

any
q
to

p.
s

an

composes

with is

from

give
A

arrow

from
that have
on

to

s).
reflexive
seen

relation binary a We pre-ordering. relation pre-ordering course). Conversely R relation RgPxPis (i.e. pre-order category are arrows the pairs to a q. Given composable
<p,q>

is

and that
a

transitive

commonly
category
has its

known
a name

as

just
its
start
we

pre-order
of

natural

collection

objects
a

(hence
P that then the

of

if

simply
reflexive
The for

with
and

set

is
members

pre-ordered
we can

by
obtain
of
P. The
p

a a

transitive)
are

as

fol ows.

(p, q)
<q,s>

which

objects pRq.

(p,

q)

is

to

be

an

arrow

from

pair
s,

CH.

2,

2.5

BASIC

EXAMPLES

29

we

put

(q,s)
Note
that

(p,q) (p,
and

(p,s).
(q,
s) s) is
or are
an

if

q)
hence
on

and

arrows
arrow.

then There

pRq
is
at most

and
one

qRs,
arrow

so

pRs
from

(transitivity)
p
one

(p,
whether
arrows.

to

q,

depending
to

not

pRq,

and

by

transitivity
is

there
an

is
arrow,

only
for

way
p,

any

and

compose indeed 1-3

a are

By
=

reflexivity,
whose viz
it

(p, p)
associated

always

(p,

p)
condition,
i.e.

p.

Examples
R

pre-orders
whenever

pre-ordering qRp,
we

relation

satisfies

further

is

(ii )

antisymmetric,
p=q.

pRq

and

have

An

antisymmetric
wil of

pre-ordering
generally
be
A
on

is
for
a

called

partial
relation,
where
P
a

ordering.
i.e.
we

The

symbol
pCq
in is
a

"C"

used

this
P
=

type

of

write
set

place partial
of

pRq. ordering
set

poset
P.

is
These

pair
structures

(P,
wil

C),
play
put

is

and in
our

central

role

study

topoi.
The

{0}
category

becomes

poset

when

we

OcO. 2

The

corresponding
to

pre-order partial 1C1). (where

to

is
on

1 the

(Example
set

1).

The

pre-order
has
0C1

corresponds
of
course

the and

ordering
This
"?"

{0,1}
numerical
than
or

that

(and
=?,
of
the The

0C0
0 and

is
means

the

usual "less
on

ordering, equal
element
a

numbers
3
We could the
n,
a

to").
set

category
4
number from

corresponds
continue
usual

the process
on

usual

this

ordering
from
we

{0,1,
the

usual

ordering indefinitely, 2, 3}, and ordering

the

the

three

{0,1,2}.

constructing
in infinite

pre-order
natural
n

ordern

general
on

for

each

pre-order
even

{0,1,
collection

2,. .,

1}.

Continuing

further

can

consider
a)

={0,1,2,3,. .}
numbers under
the the usual

of

all

natural

ordering,

to

obtain

pre-order

category

which

has

diagram

(composites
a

and

identities
of
a

not

shown).
that

simple two-objects,
A

example
four-arrows

pre-order
category

is

not

partial y

ordered

would

be

which

has

pRq

and

qRp,

but

30

WHAT

CATEGORIES

ARE

CH.

2,

2.5

categorial
next

expression
chapter,
while
9. the

of

the

antisymmetry
numerical

condition

wil
wil

be be

given
reconsi-

in

the reconsidered

above

examples

in

Example
5.

Example "if-arrow

Discrete

categories.

If

b
the

is

an

object
the

of

category

<,

then

the

1b
Law.

is
For

uniquely
if V: b

determined
-

by
b
has

property
that

expressed

in

the

Identity

property

commutes

for

any
=

<<?-arrows

and

as

shown,

then

in

the

particular

case

of/=1'andg

1b,

commutes

giving
1b
1
b

"\
1'
=

1
1',

1'
so

(right
1b
the
=

triangle).
1'.
the
arrow

But

by
is

the

Identity

Law

(with/=T),
Since
of
etc.

and b axioms with for

is
the
an

thus
the

identifying
Now distinct
arrows,

uniquely object
arrow

determined,

practice
1

sometimes
b:b
-

and
the

writing
<<?-arrows
must

adopted b, b
at

f
a

category

require
each "if

that

include,
distinct
if these
A
can

minimum,
have

identity identity
i.e.
every
a

<<?-object
is
a

(why
category
on some

objects
are

arrows?),
arrow

discrete

the

only
category

is
as

the
we

identity
have

object.
there

discrete
be
one we

is
arrow

pre-order
on
a

since,

identity
see

given
category
set
x

object.
is
X
x

Equating
really
be made
x

just objects

seen,

only
arrows,
a

with
more

identity
than

that

discrete
any
arrow

nothing
into
e
a

collection
the

of

objects.
an

Indeed,

can

discrete
X has

category
becomes

identity
xRy

for

each RcXxX

X,

i.e.
that

by adding pre-order

corresponding

to

the

relation
x
=

if

y.

CH.

2,

2.5

BASIC

EXAMPLES

31

Example than
one

6.
arrow

N:

It

is

time
call

we

looked

at

some

categories
present
collection

that

have

more

between
we arrows

given
N,
are,

objects.
but
an

The

example
of numbers
the
arrows

has

only
from

one

object,
to

which
N. The
arrow

shall
the

infinite
the
natural

by
same

definition,
dom
arrows
n

0,

1,

2,
N.

3,. .
This
of
two

Each
means arrows

has

and
are

cod,

viz

unique
The

that

all

pairs
m

of
and

composable.
be

object composite
The
definition

(numbers)
m

is

to

another

number.

is

n.

Thus

the

diagram
N

commutes

by
is any numbers
an

definition. associative
m,
arrow
n

The

associative

law

is
m

satisfied,

since

addition
+

of

numbers for The

The

operation,
and

i.e.,

(n
denned

fc)

(m
be

n)
the

fc is

true

k.
on

identity diagram

"\N

the

object

is

to

number

0.

N
commutes

hN
m
=

because
7. the

0 +

and

n.

Example

Monoids.
structure
a

The

category +,
=

N is
an

of

the

last

example
of
the

is

category

because

(N,
a

0) (M,
on

example
where

abstract

algebraic

concept
A

of

monoid.
is

monoid
M
*

triple

*,

e) M,

(i) (ii) assigning

associative,

is
is
to
a

set

binary
each

operation pair (x,

x
*

i.e.
an

function
x
* *

from
x,

MxM of
y,

to

y)eMxM
(y
the
*

element
*

M,
zeM.
e

that

is

i.e.
e e
=

satisfies
member
all of

z)

(x

y)

for
that

all

(ii )
x
*

is
x,

M,

monoid

identity,

satisfies

for

xeM.

32

WHAT

CATEGORIES

ARE

CH.

2,

2.5

Any Example
members

monoid
6.
of We

gives
take
and the

rise

to

category
to

with
be M the

one arrows

object,
M
arrows
^

exactly
M

as

in

object
e
=

to

be

the

M,

put

1M.

Composition

of

x,

is

given

by
x

.
a

Conversely,
collection
same

if of dom
and

^
arrows,

is and

category
then
so

with

only
is
are a

one

object
All
Hence

a,
arrows

and

M have

is
the

its

(M,
all
to

1a)
i.e. for

monoid.

cod
from

pairs
M,
Law for

is

function

MxM Associative Law

associative

by by
8.
the the

the

composable. a binary categories.

composition
on
an

operation ~\a is

M,

that

is the

identity

for

monoid
Example then

Identity Matr(K)
over

categories. algebraists).
a

(for

linear

If

is isan

commutative

ring
are

matrices

yield
An

category
arrow arrows m^n

Matr(K).

The
xm

objects
matrix

the with

positive
entries
in

integers
K.

1,
Given

2,

3,. .

composable

p,

i.e.

matrix
A and

and

n*m,
the
m.

we

define
and hence

A
an

arrow

to

be
m

the
-

matrix

product
Associative
is
the In the

AB

of
Law

is
matrix

given
of of

(which by
order this

ispxm associativity

p).

The
1
m

of

matrix

multiplication.

identity
remainder
from
9.

chapter

we

consider

ways

of

forming

new

categories
Example
we

given

ones.

Subcategories.
the

If

is

category,
denote the

and

and

b of

are

"^-objects,
all "if-arrows

introduce
dom
=

symbol
cod
=

*<?(a,
b, i.e.

b)

to

collection

with

and

<<?(a,
<

b)
a

j /:
is

is

"if-arrow

and

b >.

is

said
every

to

be

subcategory
a

of

category
and then

2,

denoted

<<?

c,

if

(i) (ii)
^-arrows For

"if-object
a

if

and

are
are

any

two

SZl-object, ^-objects,
in

<<?(a,

b)
Set,

c.

2(a, although

b),

i.e.
neither

all

the

a^>b

present
Finset
are

2.

example,
and

we

have

Set,

and
of

Nonset each other.

of

Finset

Nonset

subcategories

CH.

2,

2.5

BASIC

EXAMPLES

33

"if

is

ful
any

(ii )
a^>b
If

for other

subcategory "if-objects
than the
ones

of
a

3)
and

if

<^, b, *<?(,
in collection
as

and

b)
<.

3)(a,
of

b),

i.e.

has obtain

no

arrows

already

3)

is

category
< of of

and 2
Thus

is

any that

-objects
all
and the

we

ful

subcategory
members

by
we

taking
see

<<?-arrows

SZl-arrows
are

between each ful is

that
num-

C. of

Finset
of

Nonset
hence

subcategories
An

Set. ful
of all

important
Finord
in
We

subcategory
finite ordinals.
as

Finset
The

(and
finite

of
are

Set)
sets

the
are

category
used numbers.
0 1
2

ordinals
of for these the
sets

set-theoretic
use

foundations
the

representations
as names

natural and

natural

numbers

put

for
for for for

3
4

for
so on.

0 (the {O}( {O,l {0,1,2} {0,1,2,3}

empty

set)

{0,{0},{0,{0}}})

and

Proceeding
n

"inductively",
for

where

is

natural

number,

we

put

{0,1,2,
finite
of the
sets

. .,n-l}.
thus

The

sequence the

of

generated
Finord,

are

the
arrows

finite

ordinals.
are

They
all the
set

form functions Of
whose

objects
between it

category
ordinals.
to

whose
that The the

finite

course

is

ridiculous

suggest
set.

number

1 that

is

the

set

{0}
set

only
where

member
we

is
seek

the
an

null

point

is
account

in of
the

axiomatic
mathematical finite numbers. arithmetic

theory,
entities

explicit
understood

and

and such
an

their
a

provide
have

intuitively paradigmatic
and of

precise properties,
of
that

ordinals

representation
structure

the

natural
all the
are

They
and

intricate

elegant
the natural

exhibits

algebraic
inclusion

properties
and
set

number
as

system.

They

related

by

set

membership

fol ows:

0clc2c3c..
0ele2e3e
In fact the
n<m
n^m

..

fol owing
(the (the ( is
if
.

three number
set
a n

statements
n

are

equivalent
less than
set

(a) (b) (c)

Thus So
structure

is
proper of

numerically
subset
set

the

number

m)

is

of

m)

member

m)
n

n^m

the

ordinal in
a

(set)
natural

{0,1,. .,

1}

has The

the

set-theoretic

way.

ordering corresponding

built

into

its

pre-order

34

WHAT

CATEGORIES

ARE

CH.

2,

2.5

category

is
n

none

other
a

than

of of

Example
m.

4.

Notice

that

if

n^m,

the

pre-order
Example

is

ful

subcategory

10. all

Product

categories.
(A,

The
sets.

category
in

Set2 Set2

and where

of

pairs (A, B)

of
to

sets

has

as

objects pair
is
denned

pairs
of
set

B)

of

An

arrow

from
g:

(/,

g)

functions

such

that
=

f:A^>

functional This

by (/, g) compositions.
construction

product
and
:a^>

category
b
a

SZl-object.
is
a

f "componentwise"
.
Example

"if-arrow

f f arrow on The (A,B) identity two < and 3), any categories given generalises: the is a <<?-object has a <<? 2 (a, b) where objects pairs A <<?x2i-arrow (a, b) (c, d) is a pair (/, g) where d a and b 2)-arrow. is denned Composi t i o n g: i n and t o with <<?, composition composition respect (/',

g')

(f

f',g

g'),

(C, D) D. Composition and g g' are is (idA, idB).

is
the

the

in

11. the
set

Arrow functions
to

categories.
the

The
An
g:

category
arrow

Set~* in
D

of Set^

functions
from the

has Set^-

as

objects object
such
that

f:A^>B

f:A^>B. Set^-object

is

pair

of

functions

(h,

k)

commutes,
For

i.e.

h
we

f.

composition

put

The

identity
idB).
This construction
arrow

arrow

for

the

Set^-object
be

f:A>B
to
are

is

the

function

pair
<<?,

<idA,
the

can

also

category

<<?^

whose

generalised objects

form,
the

from
"if-arrows.

any

category

all

CH.

2,

2.5

BASIC

EXAMPLES

35

Example

12.
arrow
or

Comma

categories.
where
we

These

can

be attention

thought
to

of
arrows

as

specialisawith Set fixed

specialisations of

categories,
codomain.
R

restrict

domain
Thus real valued

if

is
R.

the

set

of The

real from

numbers,

we are

obtain functions

the

category

of

functions.
An the
arrow

codomain

objects /:A-^>Rtog:B-^>Risa

all

/:

that

have
A
>

function

that

makes

triangle

/g

commute,
It where is

i.e.

has
R.

f.
to

sometimes

convenient
-

think

of

Set|
of

R-objects

as

pairs

(A,/),

/:

Then

the

Set

composite

is

defined

as

lk:(A,f)-+

(C,

h)

The

identity

arrow

on

the
a
we

object
could

/:AR
of

is
Set"*
the
as

idA
two

:(A,
have
arrow

/)(A,
dif erent

/).
/)
>

Set
sorts

| g)

is
arrows.

not

as

it

stands

subcategory
equate

the

of

However,
the

Set

(A,

(B,

with

Sef^

arrow

(k,

id^),

as

36

WHAT

CATEGORIES

ARE

CH.

2,

2.5

commutes

if

id
^

does.
In

this

way

Set
for

|
any

can

be

"construed"

as

(not
Set and

ful )

subcategory

of

SeT*.

Similarly
functions".
the

set

we

obtain
if
*
over

the

category category,
the
^-arrows g:c-+
a

j
a

of

"X-valued
then
a

More

generally

is
a

any

any

<-object
codomain k:b

category
and

9?
as

a arrows

of

objects
from

has
to

with the '-arrows

as
>

objects,
such that

f:b-*a,

commutes,

i.e.
of of

gk=f.
this

Categories provision
theory. Turning objects
arrows

type
of

are

going

to

play
in the

an

important
development

role of the

both

in

the

examples
our

topoi,
to

and

the

general

attention
a

domains,

we

define

category
dom
>
=

^gfa
a

of
as

under from

to

have
to

as

objects

the the '-arrows

<

-arrows

with

and

f:a-*b

g:a>

k:b

such

that

commutes,

i.e. of the

/
type

g.
<

Categories

ja

and

are

known

as

comma

categories.

CHAPTER

ARROWS

INSTEAD

OF

EPSILON

"The revealed
must

world
to
us

of
in

ideas
one

is

not

rewe un-

stroke;
and
it in
our

both

permanently
recreate

unceasingly
consciousness".

cons-

Rene

Thom

In

this

chapter
and
as

we

examine
them
in the

number

of the

standard of
arrows.

set-theoretic The defined

a

con-

constructions

reformulate
the

in

language
is
structure
to

general

theme,
reference

mentioned
to

"internal"

introduction, membership by
reference

that

concepts
of The
set

by
to

are

be

characterised
these

"externally"
connections lead
us

connections
and

with

other

sets,
even-

being
to

established
notions all of

by
universal

functions.

analysis
limit,

wil

eventually
encompass

the

property

which

virtually

constructions

within

categories.

3.1.
A
set

Monic
function

arrows

distinct
if Now
g,

inputs

f:A>B give

is
the
same

said

to

be i.e.

injective,
for

or

one-one

when

no

two

output,
x
=

inputs

x,

A,

jf(x)
us

/(y),
an

then

y.

let

take
for

injective

f:A-*B

and

two

"parallel"

functions

zt

which

commutes,
Then

i.e. for
x e

fg=fh.
C,
means
we

have

fg(x)=fh(x),
that

i.e.
=

f(g(x))=f(h(x)).
g

But

as same

is

injective,

this

g(x)

h(x).
37

Hence

and

h,

giving

the

38

ARROWS

INSTEAD

OF

EPSILON

CH.

3,

3.1
an

output

for

every

input,
"left-cancellable",

are

the

same

function,
i.e.
g
=

and

we

have

shown

that

injective
On
the

/
whenever
other To

is

fg=fh,
hand,
see

then

h.

if

/
take

has
x

this
and

left-cancellation

property,

it

must

be

injective.

this,

in

A,

with

f(x)

f(y).

Fig. The
from

3.1
=

instructions

"g@)
(i.e.
g
see

x",

"h@) 1)
to
=

y"
for

establishes which
x
=

a
we

pair

of

functions

g,

{0}
We thus left

the
=

ordinal

have

fg=fh. precisely
the the
ones

By

left
that

cancellation,
are

h,

so

that

the The

cancellable.

h@), g@) injective point

reference

i.e.
arrows

y.

in
all
to
arrows

Set is and
in

are

of

this

that

lat er
to

property
the

is

formulated
abstract
An
g,
arrow

entirely
definition:

by
in b
an
or a

leads if
for

fol owing
parallel

/
of

:a>b
< -arrows,
a
>->

category
the

<

is

monic

<

any

pair
=

h:czta
the

equality
to

fg=fh
that / homomorphism "monomorphism". is

implies
monic. The

that
name an

h.
comes

The

symbolism
from

/:
fact
like
1. In

is

used

indicate

that

category
Example monic.

Mon
the

injective Grp)
category
here

algebraic
is N
means

(i.e.
Chapter 2)

arrow

in

called

(Example
that
n
=

6,

every

arrow

is

Left-cancellation
if
m

+ true

p,

then
statement every

which
Example
g,

is

certainly
2. In
we a

about
arrow

addition
is is
at
most

of

numbers.

pre-order,
have
g
=

monic:
one arrow

given

a
>

pair
a.

z|

a,

must

h,

as

there the

Example

3.
as

In
set

Mon,
functions
a comma

Grp,

injective
Example

Met, (see
category

Top
e.g. <

monies and
a,
an arrow

are

those

arrows

that

are

Arbib

Manes

[75]).

from

4.

In

(fo, f)

to

(c,

g),

is

monic

in

<<? 1

if

is

monic

in

<

as

an

arrow

from

to

c.

CH.

3,

3.3

ISO

ARROWS

39

Exercises
In
any

category
is
g

A). B)
3.2.
A
range
every
set

g/
If

monk

if
monic

both then
so

and is

are

monic.

is

/.

Epic
function of
member

arrows

/:
/, i.e.
comes

A each

>

is
e

onto,
there

or

surjective
is
some

if
xeA

the such

codomain
that

is

the

for
of

f(x),

i.e. of the

is from is

an

output
the

for

/.
of

The

"arrows-only"

definition

this
arrows.

concept

definition

"monic"
in

by
a

simply
category

reversing
9?

Formally:
An
arrow

f:a^b
'if-arrows
a

epic
b =t
c,

(right-cancellable)
the

if
g

for
=

any

pair
whenever

of

g,

equality

gf=hf

implies

that

h, i.e.

diagram
a

commutes,
In for known In
n
=

then

h.
arrows

The
are

notation

f:a-b

is
the

used

for functions

epic

arrows.

Set,
the

the

epic
or

precisely
Manes,
arrow

surjective
A

(exercise
is that
the

reader,
as an

Arbib

and

p.

2).
epic,

surjective
as
n

homomorphism
m=p
+
m

epimorphism.
N,
every

the
p.

category
In any

is
are

implies
functions,

pre-order,
of
our

all

arrows

epic.
where
are arrows are

In
arrows

the

categories
that
are

original
as

list,
The

surjective
but
not
a

functions
inclusion
is

always
of the cancellable

epic.
natural

The numbers
to

converse

is into is

true

in

Grp,
not

in monoid but

Mon.

the

integers
Manes
p.

is

homomorphism
nevertheless

(with right

respect
in

+),
Mon.

that

certainly
and

onto,

(Arbib

57).

3.3.
A

Iso
function
A
>*

arrows

that

is

both then

injective
the
passage

and

surjective
from

is
A
to

called

/:

is

bijective

under

bijective. /

If
can

be

40

ARROWS

INSTEAD

OF

EPSILON

CH.

3,

3.3

reversed of
in A.

or

"inverted". b
e

We

can

think

of of
some a

/
(injective

as

being

Any
is
the

is b
=

the

fact

image
to

of

which

assigns

this
if

image only unique f(a)

>

f(a)
one

aeA

such
a,
=

simply (surjective property).

"relabelling"

property)
Thus
the

and
rule

i.e.

has

g(b)
establishes
a

function
=

A
a

which
e

has
A

g(f(a))
and

a,

all

/(g(fo))
Hence

fo,

all

bsB.

gf=idA
and

fg
A

idB.
is related
to

function
an

that

/
iso, 1a
most
=

in

this

way

is

said

to

be
to
a

an new

inverse

of definition.
is and when denned
a

/. This
'g-arrow

is

essential y
'e'-arrow
>a,

arrow-theoretic

idea,
is
or

and

leads
in
9?

f:a>b
such
can

invertible,

if

there

g:b
There then is called
An
g
=

that
in

g/
be
at

and
one

/g
such
=

1b.
g,

fact
=

for
=g-

if
So

g' f
this
a.
=

1 g,

a,

f g'
it for

b,

g'

1aog'
the
inverse

(go/)og'
of f,

go(/og')
denoted
=

and
monic.

g1b by /-1
notation
if
shows

:b

>

It b
and
=

is is

exists, by
iso's. then

the

conditions
iso

/~lo/=1a,
arrow
=

//~l
is

1b.

The For

always
=

fg
=

1ag
Now

<rloflog
An

rlo(fg)=rlo(fo*0
argument
that is

f:a fh, 1*i

iso's has "iso"
goes

used

f
*i,
are

exists,
so

and

/
as we

is

left-

cancellable.

analogous
a

that monic

always inverse,
synonymous any

epic.
saw

in
and
not

Set

function
of

epic
So
we

and in
shall

an

at

the

beginning epic".
so

this The
same,

section.

Set, learn,

is for

with

"monic

topos,
both

but

is and

certainly
In the But
+
n
=

in N

all
we

categories.
already
is and 0:N-+
n

category
the

know
N.
are

that
For natural
m
=

every

arrow

is
n,

monic

epic.
m

only
Since
m

iso

if

has 0.
of it

inverse

non-

i.e.

0. this

both if
at

numbers,
=

hence
last
an

both

negative,
The

can

only
map

happen
mentioned
cannot

inclusion
and

the

end

the

section it

is

in

fact
as a

epic
set

monic,
be

but

be

iso,

since

if

had

inverse

would,

function,

bijective.

CH.

3,

3.4

ISOMORPHIC

OBJECTS

41

In then the

poset
and
arrow

category

P whence

(P,C),
by
p
to
are

if
Thus

f:p-*q
in
a

has
p
=

an

inverse
q. every

f~1:q>p,
then
arrow

pq

qCp,

antisymmetry,
p.

But

/
is

must

be

and

unique epic,

1P
the

from iso's

poset,

monic

but

only

the

identities.

Groups
A
It
group

is
x*y

monoid
=

(M,
e
=

*,

e)
x,

in
can

which
in denoted fact

for be

each

xeM
one

there
such of
a

is

satisfying
x.

y*x.

There

only

for monoid
to

given
as a

is

called

the

inverse
is

of
the

and

x.
and

Thinking
notation
as

category
usage:
a

with
group

one

object, essential y
is

terminology
the
same

is

tied

its

above in

thing

one-object

category

which
Exercise

every

arrow

iso.
is iso.

1.

Every
If

identity

arrow

Exercise

2.

is

iso,
iso if

so

is

f~\
g
are,

Exercise

3.

/g

is

/,

with

(/gL

g~lo/~\

3.4.

Isomorphic
a
>

objects
and b is be
are

Objects /: a
In

isomorphic
in

in i.e. is
of
as

<,
=

denoted b. between
a

b, if there
A

is

'S-arrow

that
A=B
can

iso
when

<,
there

f:a
a

Set,
set

each

thought
take
a

bijection being
and

and of

B,
the

in

which
other.
As

case
a

"relabelling"

specific

example

set

put

={0}
In The In

{(,0):}.
the the

effect
rule

is
=

just

with

label

" if

attached

to

each

of

its
A=B.

elements.

f(x)
two

(x,
groups

0)

gives
are

bijection
structure)
and

f:A-^>B
there

making
is from
a
one

Grp,

isomorphic
group

group
to

homomorphism
the other

(function
set-theoretic

that in

"preserves"
inverse exists
as an

whose

is

group
an

homomorphism
arrow

(hence
is called
a

is
group

present

Grp
isomorphic
there

inverse).
spaces also

Such

isomorphism.
In

Top,
means

topological
is inverse
a

are

usually
them,

called i.e.

homeomorphic.
a

This

homeomorphism
is
continuous.

between

continuous

bijection

whose

42

ARROWS

INSTEAD

OF

EPSILON

CH.

3,

3.4

In

these

examples,
one

isomorphic
to

objects by
a an

"look iso
arrow

the

same".

One

can

pass

freely
these between

from
arrows,

the

other

and

its

inverse.
or

Moreover

which
the elements

establish
of
we can

"one-one

correspondence"
preserve
or

"matching"
structure.

the

two
some

objects,
all

any

relevant

This

means

that

replace
in
the other
to
as

of

the

members

of
any

one

object
to

by
the

their
structure

counterparts
of the

object
its
appearance.

without

making
Thus

dif erence
groups spaces
are

the
same,

object,
groups;
any

isomorphic topological
so on.

look mathematical
that

exactly

homeomorphic
property,
and
are

indistinguishable
theory, theory. properties topology
is
to

by
The that studies

topological
objects theory
that
one

Within
in
terms

any

isomorphic
aim
are

indistinguishable
and

of

of

that

is under
are

to

identify
the
not

study
or

constructions of
the

and

"invariant"

isomorphisms
altered
to

theory
when
a

(thus
space

properties
by
another
up
to

destroyed
An
of
are

replaced
be
if the

said attribute
to

"unique
only
wil

other

homeomorphic isomorphism" possessing objects

"defined
up
not
to

it).

object
a

wil

be

in that

possession
attribute if
but

it.

concept
a

be

isomorphism"
only
an

its

particular isomorphic description

up
to

specifies isomorphism. Category

formulation of
the

particular
theory
idea
under to" then

entity,
is
the

uniquely, provides

uniquely
abstract formulathat

of is

mathematical
all

invariant

forms

that subject isomorphism of isomorphism.

synonymous

and
In

studies

notions

are

category
Indeed

theory,
most

"is
of the

isomorphic
basic
not

virtually
constructions

with
that
one

"is".
can

definitions

and

perform
as we

in shall

category
see,

do

specify isomorphism".
Skeletal
A
same

things

uniquely

at

all,

but

only,

"up

to

categories
skeletal
as

category

is i.e. in
a

one

in whenever
the

which

"isomorphic"
a
=

does

actually
b.
We
saw

mean

the the last then

"is",
that in
a a

which
account

b,

then
are

in

section

poset,
pre
any

only
of

iso

arrows

the

identities.

This
A

gives precisely
Exercise

us

categorial
skeletal
1. For

antisymmetry

in

pre-orders.

poset

is

-order

category.

9?-objects
b
=

(i) (ii) (ii )

Exercise

a;
a a
=

if
If

b
=

then

a;
c,

b 2.

and

then
a

Finord

is

skeletal

category.

CH.

3,

3.5

INITIAL

OBJECTS

43

3.5.
What
can as a
we

Initial
arrow

objects
properties
find
any

function
definition

distinguish 0
with that and

0, Recalling

the

null
our

set,
we a

in

Set?
find

Given
of
a

set

A,
the

formulation

function

triple
of that

(A,B,X) /
empty, from
An

XgAxB

details

/
is

@,

A,
as

(2.1), 0) is
the

by
from

function

checking 0
for

>

A.

The
Since

graph 0xA
function
Definition.

of

is

empty,

/
only
This
0
one

known subset

empty

function
and
hence
to

A. is the

is

0 is 0
to

the
A.

of

0xA,
leads
us

/ fol owing:
every

only

observation
is
arrow

the

there

is

one

and

object only ^-objects unique

10
0 of
In
may

initial
from

in

category
0
to
a

<

if
<.

for

<-object

in

Any

two

initial
are
o,

must
arrows

be

isomorphic
0'
>

in

<.

For
But

if
then

0,

0'

are

such

objects
must

there

/:
arrow

0,
an

g:

0'.

f
Similarly, /:0'
for

g:

0 0.

>

be

as

is

the

is is

initial,
The

ge/:0'0'
symbol
in Set.
course

is
fact

only 10-.
is

0-^0,0

being
inverse
in Set it is
in

initial.

as
=

0'

Thus

/
because

has

(g),
a

and
name

used
the

0, and
the
<
=

0
it
for

initial

0 is

only

initial
up
to

object

Set,

so

whereas

initial
is

^-object
actually
In
a

only (P,

be

"unique
initial

isomorphism",
an

when

Set

unique.
pre-order (i.e.
then

C)
can

an

object
In
at
a
one

is

element where

with

OCp
means

all

peP

minimal
there

element).
be
most

poset,
initial
.,

"equal",
zero

object
n

"isomorphic" (the
0

minimum,
initial

or

element).
in the

Thus

in

the

poset category

{0,.
with

1},

is

the

object,

whereas

two-object

diagram

both
In

objects Grp,
M

are

initial.

and and
the

Mon,
e*e

an
=

initial
e.

object
Each

is of
these

any

one

element has

i.e. initial
In

{e}, objects.
=

categories
the

algebra infinitely
is

(M,

*, many

e),

Set2,
the

category
of
the >R
,

of

pairs
of
way

of

sets,
it
real

initial

object
the

@,0),
function
is

while from

in

Set"*,
to

category

functions,
category

is make

@,
valued

0, 0),
the

empty
it

0.

In
g:

SetjR,
A

Given

the

only

to

functions, diagram

@,R,0).

44

ARROWS

INSTEAD

OF

EPSILON

CH.

3,

3.6

commute

is
The
arrow.

to

put
exclamation
We

@,

A,

0),
mark

the

empty
"!"

map

from
used
arrow

0
to

to

A.

Notation.

is
the

often

denote from 0

uniquely
to
a.

existing
also
denoted

put
i.e.

!: 0

>

a a.

for

unique

It

is

0a,

0a

>

3.6.

Terminal

objects
the
the

By
we

reversing
have

direction idea:

of

the

arrows

in

the

definition

of

initial

object,

fol owing
An

Definition.
a

object
and

1 is

terminal
arrow

in from
the
=

category
a

<
to

if
<.

for

every

<-object

there

is

one

only

one

in i.e.

In

Set,
Given

the
set

terminal

objects
the rule

are

singletons, gives only

a

the

one-element

sets

{e}.
the

A,

f(x)
this
is

function
such

/:A
(terminal
is
the

-*{e}.
function.

Since
Thus

is
Set

only
many

possible
terminal
are

output,

the
are

has
any

category
the

objects. isomorphic)
write
!:

They
and
1
to

all the

possible isomorphic paradigm

the

objects
ordinal
from
1
=

in

{0},
to

whence

notation.
we

Again
or

may

denote

unique pCl,
when
the

arrow

1,

alternatively
In
a

la pre-order
In
a

: a

1.

terminal
1

object
is

satisfies

all

element).
also In Hence

poset,
unit

unique
objects
are

(the
are same

maximum),
again
as
one

it
element
ones

(a exists,

maximal
and

is

called

the

of terminal

P.

Grp
the 0

and initial
=

Mon,

monoids.

objects
1 is "true
up
a
zero

the

the

terminal An

(and
is
fact both
that

so

the

equation
and and
In

to

isomorphism")object.
them,
Set
as

object
zero's.
see,

that The
from the

initial

terminal Mon
have

is

called
zeros

has
we

no

Grp topoi.
way
to

precludes
is
a

shall

being

SetJR,

(R,icy

terminal

object.

Given

(A,/),

only

make

commute

is 1.

to

put
Prove

/.
all

Exercise

that

terminal

"#-objects

are

isomorphic.

CH.

3,

3.7

DUALITY

45

Exercise

2.

Find Show

terminals
that

in

Set2,
1
*

Sef4*,
a

and
whose

the

poset
is
a

n.

Exercise
must

3.

an

arrow

domain

terminal

object

be

monic.

3.7.
We of have

Duality
observed already by "reversing and in
that the arrows". the

notion
The
are we same

of

epic

arrow

arises
to

from

that

monic

applies
examples
now

the
of

concepts
the
a

of of
more

terminal

initial

duality precisely.
If

category
a

objects. theory,
in the

These

two

notion
lit le

which basic

wil of

describe

2
is

is
the and
to

statement

language
by

categories,
"dom"

the

dual
"cod"

of

2p,
"dom",
referred

statement

obtained
=

replacing
Thus

by
arrows
or

"cod",
and

X, by
de-

"h

gf
are

by
reversed
to to

"h=fg".
in dual
of
so on.
we

all

composites
the

by
Xp
is is

2
said
dual

2op.
to

The

notion

construction

described
of

by

be
that

that
arrow.

described
The

by
dual

?
of

Thus "initial

notion

epic
"terminal
From

arrow

monic

object"
category
<p

is

object",
a

and

given
cp
an

category
have
arrow

construct

its
For these

dual
each

or

opposite
"<?-arrow

as

fol ows:
<

and The has

the

same

objects.
a

/:afo
only
the
arrows

we

introduce
in
<

/op:

fo

in

(p,
denned

cp.

composite

fpgop

is

being precisely

all when

and

g/

is

denned

in

and

rgP
Example Example

(gof)OP1. 2. If If ^ "^

Note

that

dom/p
cop
=

cod/,

and

cod(/op)

dom/.

is is

discrete,
a

c.

pre-order

(P,

pre-order
to

(P,

R ),

where

pR-1q

if

R), qRp,

with
i.e.

RgPxP,
R^1
is
the

then

cp relation

is

the

inverse

R.

Example

3.

For

any

<?,

(<op)op

<.

46

ARROWS

INSTEAD

OF

EPSILON

CH.

3,
as

3.8

The

dual

of

construction

expressed

by

can

be

interpreted
If

the
of

original
2op
wil of
the

construction
be
true

applied
of

to

the the

opposite
initial
of

category.

2
is

is
the

true

c,

<. if

Thus

object
category
true

0
in
But all
any

in

Set

terminal derivable
Hence

object
from

Setop.

Now

is
then
of

theorem

category
in
<?
=

axioms,
all

2
the holds

wil
form in
we

be

theory, categories.
category
Thus

i.e.
9s from
another

2p
has
any

wil

hold

form
statement
statement

(put

categories 2dp),
of

cv>.
all

this
true true

and

so

2p

2 2op
The

category

theory Duality
cuts

categories. immediately
of

obtain
be

For dual

Duality example,
of
an

by this Principle
we

Principle.
the

number
the

things
of

to
arrow

proven

in

half.
The

note
arrow

first

that
is

concept
an

iso

is

self-dual.

invertible

again

invertible

arrow-indeed

(/op)~1

(f~1)v-

So

having
any
two

proven

initial without

"^-objects
further

are

isomorphic
the
are

we

can

conclude
any
two

ado,

dual

fact

that

terminal
comes

^-objects
from
Hatcher the in

isomorphic.
domain
of

The
more

Duality rigorous

Principle
fashion

logic.

It

is

discussed

in

[68]

8.2.

3.8.

Products

We

come

now

to set

the

problem

of

giving
and

characterisation,

using

arrows,

of

the

product
AxB=

{(x,
and
B. The

):

}
find
to

of
can

two

sets

uninitiated
any

may

it wil

hard

to

believe
But

that

this
it
can

be
up

achieved
to

without

reference
the
way

ordered

pairs.
lead is.
the

in
us

fact
a

be,

isomorphism,
of
what
a

and

it
in

is
a

done

to

general

description
Associated

"construction"
are

category
maps,

with

AxB

two

special

projections

and

CH.

3,

3.8

PRODUCTS

47

given

by

the

rules

pAx,

Now

suppose

we

are

given
Then
we

some

other

set

with

pair

of

maps

f\C-^A,

g.C^B,

define

p:C^AxB

by pB(p(x))

the
=

rule

p(x) g(x)
for

(f(x),
all

g(x)>.
xeC,
so

Then

we

have
and
PBP

pA(p(x))=/(x),
=

and i-e.
arrow

pAp=f
p
as

g5

the

above that
can

diagram
make the

commutes.

Moreover,
commute.
us z
=

defined

is
=

the

diagram
tel s
that have

For

if
=

p(x)
i.e.

(y,

z)

then

PaP=/
we

pA(p(x))
g(x).
with

/(x),
g

=/(x).
denoted
=

only simply Similarly (f,

knowing
if
pB

that
p
=

g,

must

The
map

map

associated
g.

/ and
in

is is

of
The

and

Its

definition

Set

usually (/, g)(x)

the

g),

the

product

(f(x),

g(x)>.

observations
A

just
product
in

made

motivate
<?

fol owing:
of
two

Definition.

category
a

objects
a, prb

a
: a

and
x

b fo

is

^-object
^-arrows

axb
such

together
that
for

with
any
one

pair
of

(pra
'tg'-arrows

:axfc->
of >axb

fo)

-^

of
a,

pair
arrow

the

form

(/:

g:c'b)

there

is

exactly

(/, g):

making

commute,
arrow

i.e.

such
g
we a

that

pra{f,
respect
a

g>
to

of
Notice
because d

and that
x
>

with said
b
is

the

/ and prb(f, projections

of
up
a

g)
pra,

g. prb.
not

(/,
the

g)

is the

product
This suppose

is

only
satisfies

product defined
the

and
to

b,

product.
For of
a

isomorphism.
of
"a

(p:

a,

b) also

definition

product

b"

and

48

ARROWS

INSTEAD

OF

EPSILON

CH.

3,

3.8

consider

the

diagram
d

(p, q) product
respect

is

the

unique

product
is d.
the

arrow

of

and
arrow

with of be

respect
pra

to

"the"
prb

axfo.
to

(pra,prb)
"the"

unique
of
a

product
and b
there

and

with

product
d
that

Now,
s
:

since
>

is

product

can

only

one

arrow

such

commutes.

But

putting
of also
the

makes

this

diagram
implies prb)(p,q)

commute,
that
=

while

the
s
= =

commutativity (pra,prb){p,q) etc.). By

works

previous (more
of
s we

diagram ful y-p(pra,

must

putting pra{p,q)

the

uniqueness

conclude

(pra,prb)(p,q)=
Interchanging (Pra, )
and
a

Idroles
Thus the

the
=

of

and
=

axfo

in
so

this
the
two

argument

leads
are

to

(p,q)
for

1the

(p, q):d
iso

a.y.b,
when

products
with
the

isomorphic
one

furthermore
x

(p,
arrow

q)
for

composed
d,
as

projections
but

b
In

Indeed,

produces (p,
summary

projections
the

the this

last

diagram
the

indicates.
of and b

q)
up

is then
to

only
our
a

with

property.

definition

characterises

product
which

"uniquely
from the

categorial
1.

unique viewpoint.
Finset,
set

commuting

isomorphism",

is

enough

Example

In

Set,

Nonset,

the

product

of

and

is

the

Cartesian

product

CH.

3,

3.8

PRODUCTS

49

Example

2.

In groups,

Grp
with
set

the

product
the
the
two

of

two

objects
denned

is

the

standard

direct

product
on

of the

binary
groups.

operation

"component-wise"

product

of

Example

3.

In

Top,

the

product

is

the

standard

notion

of

product

space.

Example

4.

In the

pre-order
i.e.

(P,
pXq

C)

product
is
a

of
"lower

and

when

it
and

exists

is

defined

by (i) (ii)
pXqCp,
if lower other words

properties
pXqCq,
bound" pxq is
of
p

q;

cCp
bound

and

cCq,
of
p

then

cCpxq,
q.

i.e.

"greater"
of
p

than
and and
a

any

other
In

and
a

pxq

is the in

greatest

lower is
every lower have

bound
when

(g.l.b.)
it have

q.

In

poset,
denoted
a

being
pnq.

skeletal,
A

g.l.b.
which
a

unique,
two

exists,

wil

be called

poset

elements

g.l.b.

is

lower

semilat ice. in which

Categorial y
any
two

semilat ice
a

is

skeletal

pre-order

category

objects

product.

Example

5.

If
then

and
the

finite
set

sets,
A x has

with has
an

say
mxn

and

elements

respectively,
last the and
"x"

product
Fmord.
There

elements

(where
manifestation
numbers

the

denotes

multiplication).
category
and

This
the the

interesting
of
m

in
m

skeletal
n

product
ordinal

the
x
n.

ordinal

exists

is

quite

literally

Exercise

1.

(pra,

prb)=

1aXb

Exercise

2.

If

</, g)

(fc,

h),

then

and

h.

50

ARROWS

INSTEAD

OF

EPSILON

CH.

3,

3.8

Exercise

3.

(fh,

gh)

(f,g)h

Exercise

4.
*<*?
a
=

We has
a

saw

earlier

that 1 object \a) is iso

in
and

Set,

AsAxjfl}.
then

Show for
any

that

if

category
a,
a

terminal

products,

'tg'-object

1 and

indeed

a,

Product
Given
to set

maps

functions
that
we

f:A>B,
outputs
have

g:CDwe (f(x),

obtain
for

function
This
map

from

Ax

D and

g(y)>

input

(x,

y).

is

denoted

g,

It

is

not

hard

to

see

that

/xg

is
and

just

the

product

map

of

the
so

two
we

composites
can

define

the

fpA:AxC^>A^B fol owing.

/:
a

gpc:AxC^CH-D,

Definition

If

and

g:

are

"^-arrows

then

/Xgraxfocx

is

the

^-arrow

(fpra,

gprb)
->

axe

(fpra,gprc)

b xd

PC

CH.

3,
course

3.8

PRODUCTS

51

(Of
Exercise

/x
5.

is

only
=

defined

when

axe

and

bxd

exist

in

c).

1ax1b

1aXb
b

>

axb

Exercise Exercise

6.
7.

axb Show

bxa. that

(a

b)

s=

(b

c)

,ax(bxc),

Exercise

8.

Show

that

(i)

aXc

fxh

52

ARROWS

INSTEAD

OF

EPSILON

CH.

3,

3.8

(ii)

The standard that allow

there the

use one

we

have

been

making theory.
When
one arrow

of

the

broken in
can

arrow

symbol diagram
that it

is

in

category
and
to

is

one

only
commute.

present that

any

indicates
and

occupy

position

diagram

Finite Given
as

products
sets

,
of and

,
ordered

we

extend

the

notion

of

product
come

to

define

Ax

the

set

triples
from
can

(x,
C.

y,

z).
A

First
xB
to

elements

from

A,
,
of

second

from
z

B,

third idea

Thus extended

xC={(x,
form
define the

C}.

This
of

be

z):xe product
y,
x

,
any
to

and finite
be the

sequence
set

sets

Au

A2,. .,

Am.

We

Ax

A2

x..

Am

{(xl5
of from
As
as

. .,xm):x1eA1,x2eA2,. .,xme
or

Am}
sequences",
concept
we

all

"m-tuples",
A;.
a

"m-length
of

whose

"i-th"

members

come

special
set

case

this

have

the

m-fold
A)
A.

product

of

set

A,

the

{(Xj^
whose

.,

xm):

x-i,

x2,

xm

of
m

all

m-tuples

members
maps

all

come

from

Associated
from
Am
to

with

Am

are

dif erent

projection

prT,

pr,. .,

pr?

A,

given

by

CH.

3,

3.8

PRODUCTS

53

the

rules

xm))

x1

Given
a

set

map

and

m
. .,

maps

f1:

>

A,. .,
to

product

(fu

fm)

from

A1"

fm : *A, by stipulating,

we

can

then

form

for

input

c&C,

that

ifl,
The has m-fold

U(C)
just
outlined
two
a

<fi(c),
can

/2(C),
be For
to

/m(c)>.
in
any

construction

products

of

any

"^-objects. (with

developed a given
be

category
a,
we

<?

that
the

^-object

define

product

of

itself)

ra-copies
There
a

is
or
a

an

ambiguity
x

here.

Should,
Exercise

for
7
are

example,
above allows

a3

be
us

taken
to

as

(aXa)x
over

(a

a)?
these the
show

However,
last
two

gloss
to

this

point, By
of
am am

since

objects
of

isomorphic.
of

applying
we

definition
that
am

products
has

pairs
with universal

objects
it
m

the that there

formation
arrows

may
a,. .,

associated
with the

projection
for is

prf:
^-arrows
one

pr?

>

:am^a,

property

any

/x: (product)

a,. .,

/m

with

common

domain,

exactly

arrow

(fl5. .,
h

fm):
L

am

making

commute.

For

1,
wil

we

take
an

a1

to

be

just
role

a,

and

prx:

>

to

be
seman-

1a.

Finite semantics of
Exercise

products
Chapter
9.
11.

play

important

in

the

"first-order"

Analyse
and

in

detail
all

the

formation

of
to

the the

pr.. .,

pr,

verify

assertions

relating

last

projection diagram.

arrows

Show

54

ARROWS

INSTEAD

OF

EPSILON

CH.

3,

3.9

that

for

any

product

arrow

>am,

we

have

pr?(fu
10.

. .,

/m>
the

fu
notion
and

for

=s

j
the

=s

m.

Exercise

Develop

of
the

product f1
x

a1xa2X-

-Xam
m

of
arrows

objects (possibly

(possibly dif erent).

dif erent)

product

/2

x..

/m

of

3.9.
The dual the

Co-products
notion
to

"product"
we

is

the

co-product,
define
as

or

sum,

of

objects,

which

by
Definition

duality

principle
-product ia pair
of
+

directly
of

fol ows.

together
any
arrow

with

: a

>

pair

of

^-arrows
a

the

"^-objects b, ib: form (f:a-*c,

a

and
+

b of
>

is
'tg'-arrows

"^-object
such

>

b) g:b

that

for
one

c)

there

is

exactly

[/, g]:

making

commute,

i.e.

such
the and

that

[/, g]ia
-product

=/
arrow

and
of

[/, g]ib
/
and

g.

[/, g]
injections
In the

is

called

with

respect

to

the

ia
Set,
union
are

ib.
of
sets

the of

co-product
two

and
the

same

is
in

their
as

disjoint (i.e. common).

are

union,

A+B.

This

is
and

that

look
no

isomorphic
We

to)
put

but

disjoint
A'
=

(have

elements
=

{(a,0):aeA}

Ax{0}

and

B'={(fc,l):beB}=Bx{l}

CH.

3,

3.9

CO-PRODUCTS

55

(why

does

''

0?)

and

then

define

A+B=A'UB'.
The

injection

iA:A>

A+B

is

given

by

the

rule

iA(a)
while

<o,0>,
has

iB:B->A+B

iB(b)
A
+

(b,

1).
iB

Exercise

1.

Show

that

B,

iA,
to

as

just

denned the
rule

satisfy
for
the

the function

co-product

definition.
in

(First
this

you

wil

have

determine

[/, g]

case.)
If

Exercise

2.

0,
p+q

show

L)B=

A+B.

In

pre-order
pCp+q,
if

(P,
qCp pCc
and of words
is
p

C),
+

is

defined

by
is
an

the

properties
bound" is "less of denoted of
than"
p

(i) (ii)
upper
In the

(i.e.
then
q.

p+q
p
+

"upper
i.e.

and
any In

q);
other

qCc,
and
p +q

qCc,
upper

p+q

bound
other l.u.b.
any

is

least
it

bound
and
wil

(l.u.b.)
be
a

and
pi_iq.

q.

poset
in

unique
two

when elements then

a

exists,
a

A
a a

poset
lat ice. and elements
the
"

which

have lat ice

two

l.u.b.
a

and skeletal

Categorial y co-product
The

is

g.l.b. pre-order
with

(3.8) having
say
m

is

called

product
n

for

any

of
of
two

its

elements. finite

disjoint
is
of
m

union
a

sets,

and
in

respectively co-product "plus"

is
true

set

with
n

(m
is
the

plus
ordinal

n)
to

elements. number
the
m

Indeed
+
n

Finord,
"

and the skeletal

(where

means

quite
then in
1 +

literally).
1

With

regard
category

ordinals
that

={0}

and

{0,1}

it

Finord

2,
or

while

in

Finset,

Set

it

would

be

more

accurate

to

say

(Co-products
Later in

being
5.4
under
we an

defined shall
see

only
that

up

to

isomorphism.)
are

there

categories
is

in

which

this

last

statement,
Exercise 3.

appropriate
the

interpretation,
co-product
arrow

false.

Define
g:

f+g:a
of the Exercises

b>c
in

of

arrows

:a>

and

>

and

dualise

all

3.8.

56

ARROWS

INSTEAD

OF

EPSILON

CH.

3, 3.10

3.10.
Given
A
on
a

Equalisers
pair
E

which
=

f,g: f

A?B
and
g
x

of
agree, A

parallel
i.e.

functions

in

Set,

let

be

the

subset

of

{x:
the
the

and

f (x)
i:E^A is
that

g(x)}
is under
are

Then

the
reason
=

inclusion
for

function
name

called

the

equaliser
with
i
we

of

f
find

and
that i

g.

The

fi
"canonical"

gi,
of

i.e.

two

functions
of

composition "equalised"
if h:C^>A

by

i.

Moreover,
any

is such

equaliser f
and
g,

f fh

and
=

g-

is

other

equaliser

i.e.

gh,

then

"factors"

uniquely

>

through
that

i:
=

E'^-A,
other the
-

i.e.

there

is

exactly
there
commute.
same
as

one

function
one

fc:
way there
to

E in

such

ik
arrow one

h.
to

In

words,
above
i

fil
can

the be
at must

broken
most

make
clear
=

h, given diagram
to
=

is

only
h,
the

That then

way

is

if i.e.

fc is

be

the

for The

ceC

we

have

i(k(c))
for is is

h(c),
=

k(c)

h(c)
so

inclusion).
situation

But in
arrow

this

does

work,
considered
in
9?

f(h(c))
now

g(h(c)),
abstracted

and and

just
general.
i:
e
>

(i being h(c)eE. applied

b of
^-arrows

to

categories
An if

an

equaliser

of

pair

f,g:

>

(i) (ii)
fc
:
>

fi
Whenever
e

gi,
that

and h:

->

has

fh

ghmc

there

is

exactly

one

-arrow

such

An
'ig'-arrows

arrow

wil
of

simply
which
it

be is
an

called

an

equaliser

in

9?

if

there

are

pair

of

equaliser.
is
monic.

Theorem

1.

Every

equaliser

CH.

3, 3.10

EQUALISERS

57

Proof. let the there

Suppose
ij
arrow
=

i where

equalises
j,l:c^e.
have fc with ik
=

f fh=f(ii)
=

and Then h.
=

g.

To

show

i monic

(left
let
=

cancellable),
h:
>

il, ij.
a

in

the
=

above

We

(fi)i
=

is

unique
i

But I. Hence

ij

h
=

(by
1.
in

diagram (gi)i definition),

=

be
so

gh,
so

and

fc must

be

j. However,
The in the
converse

h,

so

fc

j
hold

?
all

of

Theorem
1 is

1 does

not
arrows

categories.
cannot

For

instance
any

category

N,
arrows.
=

monic

(all
we
m

are),
have
m

but

equalise

pair
n

(m,
hence

n)

of
m

If
n.

it
then

did,
+

would 0 is
=

1,

i.e.

+1

+1,

But

n+0,
a

which

would

imply
1 +

that
=

0 of

factors
course

uniquely
there

through
is
no

1, i.e.
such
that

there

unique
fc. is

fc

having
while

fc
the

0.

But

natural in
a

number
N
every
arrow

Recalling
theorem

epic,

0 is
of

only
the

iso,
situation

the

next

gives

somewhat

deeper

explanation

just

described.
2. In

Theorem

any

category,

an

epic

equaliser fi
=

is
if
We

iso.

Proof. the

If

equaliser

equalises diagram,

and

g,
c
=

then
a,

gi,
=

so

i is have

epic,

g.

Then

in

put

and

a.

f1a
1ai 1),
=

g1a
i
=

f,
But
b.

so

there i is
an

is

unique
therefore
an

fc

with

ifc

1a.

Then

iki

i1b.
i
=

equaliser,
fc
be
as

left-cancellable,
to

(Theorem
iso. ?

so

fc

This

gives
may
not

inverse
in For

i,

so

i is

While
so

monies Set
-*

in
A

(and

in

fact
the rule

in

any

equalisers topos).
=

all

if
e

categories, f:E>->A
and
g: A
->

they
is

are

certainly
define
the

h:

{0,1}

by

h(x)
if if xelmi
x

1,

all

A,

injective, {0,1} by

rule

<?

Im

Then Exercise
Exercise
arrows.

f equalises
1.

and the that last

h. assertion.
in
a

Prove

2.

Show

poset,

the

only

equalisers

are

the

identity

58

ARROWS

INSTEAD

OF

EPSILON

CH,

3, 3.11

3.11
The
arrows

Limits
definitions
have
the

and
of
same

co-limits
the

product
basic
form.
in in the
manner

of
In that

two

objects
each any
case

and the
other

the

certain "factors

property

"canonically",
it

entity object
above.
two

in with In

equaliser question
that

of has

two
a

property
case

through"
the
case a

indicated

the

of domain

an

equaliser
the of of

property
the

is of
whose
construction.

that
a

of

"equalising"
b the

the

product

and
The

property
are a

is

that

original of being
sort

arrows.

In

the of

pair
a

of

arrows

codomains

and

b.

This is

situation

is

called the
We

universal
that
can

entity
lit le
more

in

question
precise
By

universal

amongst

things

have make this

certain

property.
a

idea

(without
a

being
diagram
D in

too
a

pedantic,
category
with
some

hopeful y)
9?
we

by

considering
a

diagrams.
collection
of

simply
more

mean

^-objects
certain
of
a

dh
the

a),. .,
objects pair
with

together
in the

'ig'-arrows

g:

a\
than

>

d;
one

between
arrow

diagram. possibly
A
cone
>

(Possibly none.)
for

between

given

of

objects,
^-arrow

diagram
each

consists

of
in

^-object
that

together

fi'.c

a\

for

object

a\

D,

such

commutes,

whenever

is denote is
a
>

an

arrow
a

in
cone

the

diagram
D.

D.
the
arrow

We

use

the
for such

symbolism
A
any

{ft:
for
other
a

dt}
D

to

for

limit

diagram

D-cone

{?
there is

>

dj

with
one

property

that
>

D-cone

{/[:

c'

dj

exactly

f:c'

commutes

for

every
cone,
to

object
when
-cones.

a\
it
It is

in

D. is it

This with D-cone

limiting
respect
factors
D

exists,
universal

said

to

have
such

the

universal
cones-any

property
other A limit
for

amongst
as

uniquely
is

through
up
to

in

the if

last

diagram.
>

diagram
are

unique
for is
the fact

isomorphism:the

{ft:
arrow

a\} f:

and c' whose

{f-:c'>

d;}
above

both

limits
inverse
from

D,
the

then

iso
fol ows

(its

unique
that

unique commuting
c'
>

commuting
arrow

is

c-*c'

existence

{/,':

dj

is

limit).

CH.

3,

3.11

'

LIMITS

AND

CO-LIMITS

59

Example

1.
a

Given

^-objects
b

and

let

be

the

arrow-less

diagram

D-cone

is

then

an

object

c,

together

with

two

arrows

f,

and

of

the

form

limiting
a

D-cone,

one

through
and b
the in
<<?.

which

all

such

cones

factor,

is

none

other

than
Example

product
2. Let

of D

be

diagram

D-cone

is

pair

h:c>

a,

j
a

:c

>

such

that

-^

/'
this

and

\
that

/'
=

commute.

But

requires
case

h
>

g
a

h,

so

we

can

simply

say

that

D-cone

in

this

is

an

arrow

h:

such

that

commutes,
and
Example g.

i.e.

fh

gh.

We

then

see

that

D-limit

is

an

equaliser

of

3.

Let

be

the

empty

diagram

i.e.

no are

objects
no

and

no
as

arrows.

A
no

D-cone
A

is

then
cone

simply
is
then

a an

^-object object

(there

/;'s

has

d^s).

limiting

60

ARROWS

INSTEAD

OF

EPSILON

CH.

3, 3.12
arrow

such

that In

for

any

other

9?-object
a

(D-cone)
for
the

c',

there

is

exactly
a

one

c-'-->c.

other

words,

limit

empty

diagram

is

terminal

object!
?

By duality object
then other
a

we

define
arrows

-cone

{?
>

dt

>

c,

and
co-cone

ft:

dt

for

each the

c} object
co-universal

for

diagram d; in D.
property
arrow

to

consist
for

of
D
any

an

co-limit that
such

is

{/;:<i;^c} {fl'.di
>c'}
there

with

for

co-cone

is

exactly

one

f:c>c'

commutes

for

every

A while for ?

co-limit
a

for co-limit
for

the the

dt in diagram
empty

D.

of

Example diagram

is

co-product
<
is
an

of

and

b,

is

category

initial

object

3.12.
The

Co-equalisers
co-equaliser
of
a

pair

(f,

g)

of

parallel

'if-arrows

is

co-limit

for

the

diagram

It

can

be

described
=

as

<-

arrow

q:

>

such
there

that

(i) (ii)

: e
>

qf
whenever

qg,

and

h: such
that

>

has

hof=hgin<ig'

is

exactly

one

Harrow

commutes.

The

results

of

3.10

immediately

dualise

to

tel

us

that

CH.

3,13.12
are

CO-EQUALISERS

61

equalisers co-equaliser
In very
a

epic,
is iso. notion "e-related"

that

the

converse

is of
RcAxA the

true

in

Set,

and

that

monic
the
on

Set

an

important
set

of

description equivalence
a

co-equaliser
An

comes

through
relation

relation.

equivalence
that is

is,

by

definition,
i.e.
i.e. i.e.

relation
every

(a) (b) (c) Equivalence

situations
'equivalent'.

reflexive,
transitive,

aRa,
whenever whenever arise
one

for

aeA;
aRb and
then

bRc,
bRa. mathematics dif erent
with

then

aRc;

and

symmetric,
relations
where

aRb,

throughout
to

(and

elsewhere)
that
are

in

wishes
may

identify
concerned dif erent between

things
some

'equivalproperty

Typically
with relation

one

be
to

particular
may

(properties)
indistinguishable. The

respect
that wil then

which be
met

holds

two

things things
relation.
in the
are

be
when

indistinguishathey
in

are

thus

indistinguishable
We have

an

equivalence
this idea
that

in
Two

fact

isomorphism.
well

be

the

same

already objects object,

discussion

3.4

of
as

in
as

category
as

isomorphic
are

far

categorial

properties

might concerned,

just
and

indeed

is

relation

on

^-objects

that

is

reflexive,

transitive,

and

symmetric.

(Exercise
The process

3.4.1).
of

lumping resulting R-equivalence

together
collection

"identifying all things

as
a

equivalent
that
are

things"
related
to

is each
other

rendered and
aeA
we

explicit treating
define

by
the the

single
a

entity.
be the
set

Formally,

for

class

of

to

[a]
of have
all the

{b:aRb}
of
A
to

members
same

which
A
as

is

R-related.

Dif erent

elements

may

subset
as

of

their

equivalence

class,

and

the

situation

in

general A) B) C)

is

fol ows:

[a]
if

[a]

[b] [b]

if
then

aRb

[a]n[b]

ae[a]
of
us

(the proof tel s A) elements,

same,

these

that and

depends equivalent conversely

have
no

on

properties
are

(a),
related
two

(b),
to

(c)

elements

above). precisely
classes
are

Statement
the
not
same

B)
elements

says

if
in

equivalence
common

the

then

they

at

all.

This,

together

with

62

ARROWS

INSTEAD

OF

EPSILON

CH.

3,
one

3.12

C) only
The
set

(which
one

holds

by
identification

(a)),

implies
class.
process

that

each

aeA

is

member

of

and

R-equivalence
actual
a new

consists
are

in

passing

from

the

original
i.e.
we

to

set

whose the
set

elements

the

R-equivalence

classes,

shift

from

to

A/R={[a]:aeA}
The

transfer for
aeA.

is

effected
when

by
aRb

the

natural have

map

fR:A>A/R,
=

where

fR(a)

[a],
Thus,
elements
What the

by
are

A),
identified
all

we

fR(a)
of
of

by
to

the

has

this
of

do

with

co-equaliser
i.e. the

the

pair

f,g:

application co-equalisers? R^A

fR(b), fR.
Well

and
the

so

R-equivalent
is
that from

point
functions

fR
R
to

is

projection

A,

functions

f((a,b))
and

ga,b
The

b.

last

paragraph

explained

in

effect

why

fRf

fi g-

To

see

why

the

diagram
f

A/R

can

be
that

"fil ed

in"

by
=

only
Then the

one

fc, given

hf=hg,
A/R
we
can

we

suppose

we
=

have

a
=

fc

such

fe
that

/()=
for

kfR Ma). input

fc is
a

h. So

for

[a]e
thing
we

must

have define is
a

fc([a])
fc to
be rule be
that
a

k(fR(a))
the here function

only
output

do There
if for

is

whether
to

[a] gives well-defined

for

h(a).
function,
for
In
to

problem
our

about
tel s
us

[a]
in and

[b],
to
case

also

output
a

h(b) given
in fact

input
we

[a]
would

[b].
need

order

there

unique h(a)
=

output

for

input,
if

know

this
our

h(b).

But

[a]
of
so

[b]

then

(a,

b)eR just
sets

desideratum with

fol ows,

because
The

hf=hg. question
with

"well-definedness"
called

dealt
of the
are

occurs

working
and
some

properties
selected

of member

an

"quotient" R-equivalence
of the

form denned called

A/R.

repeatedly Operations by
its
reference

in
on,
to

class

equivalence

class,

representative.

CH.

3,
must

3.13

THE

PULLBACK

63

One

always
is
or

check chosen.
In

that
other

the

definition
words
a

does well
not

not

depend
concept
or are

on

which
one

representative
is certain

denned
altered

is

that
when

stable

invariant
are

under

R,

i.e.

is
to to

things

replaced
relations
can

by
be
of

others

which
construct

they
the
To

Equivalence
of
any
to

used
for
xeA.

destroyed R-equivalent. co-equaliser f

the

in and relation
g

Set
we

have

f,g:A^B pair f(x) identify

S={(f(x),g(x)):xeA}cBxB.

with

parallel g(x),

functions. So

co-equalise
consider

we

may up

not

be S

an

equivalence
it There

relation
an

on

B.
relation

build "minimal"

until
way.

becomes
is
an

equivalence equivalence
on

However, relation,
R
on

it

is
to

possible
do this
that in

to
a

and

such

(i) (ii)
RcT

S^R,
if
R T

and is
the of
any

other

equivalence

such

that that

contains

S,

then

(i.e. co-equaliser
and

is

"smallest"

equivalence
and for
g

relation
the

on

contains

S). (See R).

Arbib

The

f
19,

is
the

then

natural of
how
to

map
construct

fR:B^
this

B/R.

Manes,

p.

details

3.13.
A is

The

pullback
of in
a

pullback
a

pair
for the

>

-^

b of

-arrows

with

common

codomain

limit

4o

diagram

cone

for

this d

diagram

consists

of

three

arrows

/',

h,

g',

such

that

commutes.

But

this

requires

that

gf'

fg',

so

we

may

simply

say

64

ARROWS

INSTEAD

OF

EPSILON

CH.

3,

3.13

that

cone

is <2

pair

>

of

^-arrows

such

that

the

"square"

?>

commutes,
Thus
we
a
>

i.e.

fg' by
in
g

gf.
definition is
a

have,

the

of

universal
a

cone,

that

pullback
that

of

the

pair
(i)

-^-b
=

^
and
<

pair
b
are

of

^-arrows

<-^-

d -^

such

g'

f,
a

(ii)

whenever

-^

such

that

j, then

there other of the

is

exactly
when

one

'g'-arrow

fe
/
are

: e

-->

d
that

such the there

outer

that

g'k
one

and
or

words above
arrow

h make

and

such

"square",
is

/ =fk. "boundary"
to

In

diagram
to

commutes,
the whole

then

only
is

way

fil

in

the

broken
The
or

diagram
of
say
g

commute.

inner arises

square
square.

(f,
We

g,

/',
also

g')

the that

Cartesian

and
The

g'
that

by incorporates
the
most

pulling
is
a

back
very
a

along
of

diagram f arises f.
and well
to

called

pullback
back

square,

by

pulling

f along
no-

g,

pullback

important
number

fundamental
known be used examination.

mathematical constructions. in
the

notion,

It

is and

certainly definition)

important
The

limit

concept

of
are

topoi.
commended
In D

fol owing
as

examples,

il ustrating
of

its

study workings

(and

generality,
Example

worthy

detailed

1.

Set,
f

the

pullback

A of
two set

function
D
=

f {(x,

and
x e

is

defined

by
and

putting
=

):

f(x)

g(y)}

CH.

3,

3.13

THE

PULLBACK

65

with

/'

and

g'

as

the
=

projections:
y
=

fx,y

g'x,y
D A
x

x.

is

then

subset

of of

the A
use

product
and of the

over

set

A C.

B.

It

is

sometimes
are

denoted
also

B,

the

product
(the

Pullbacks
is

known
in

as

"fibred

products"

word

"fibred"

explained

Chapter

4).
Example 2. then the

Inverse inverse of
all the
=

images.
image

If

/:
under
whose

is

function,

and is
that

subset

of

B,

of

consisting

/-inputs
{x:xeAand/(x)eC}
A

f, denoted corresponding

f~l(C),
outputs

subset lie in

of

C,

i.e.

Fig.
The

3.2.

diagram

\)-

f in
and

is inclusions
of

pullback
as

square

Set,

where
=

the

arrows
x

with

curved

tails
is
the

denote restriction

usual,
Thus

/*(x)
the
inverse

/(x)

for

f~x(C)

(i.e.
under

/*
f
arises

to

/^1(C)).
along

image

of

by

pulling

back
The

f.
quality
present
to

quite quite pairs.

dynamical forceful y unconvincing

inherent in this
we

in

the of

notion

of

function back".
with
sets

(cf.
It
of

2.1)
would ordered
be

is

example
were

suggest

just

"pulling dealing

66

ARROWS

INSTEAD

OF

EPSILON

CH.

3,
>

3.13

Example

3.

Kernel
kernel
the

relation.
relation First

Associated
on

with

any

function and called

/:

A the where

is it lies

special
relation
at
we

equivalence of / (the
the

A,

denoted
in universal

Rf,
As

kernel

heart have

of

"congruence" Isomorphism

algebra,
a

Theorem).
A

set

of

ordered

pairs

Rf
or

{(x,

y):

and

and

f(x)

/(y)}

if
In the

light

of

our

first

example
A

we

see

that

Rf
Pi

is
as some

the

pullback pullback
work
in

square, of

where

((,
itself.
5
on

This

and

p2x,
wil factorisation"

i.e.
the

Rf
arrows

arises

/ along

observation

provide
of

key
in

to
a

Chapter

the

"epi-monic

topos.
Example 4.

Kernels
and

(for

algebraists). e}

Let

/:M^>N

be

monoid

homomorphism

K={x:f(x)
the

kernel

of

/.

Then M

f
is
a

N square in

pullback
and

Mon,
of

where

is

the

one-element

monoid

(which

is

initial This

terminal).
kernels

characterisation

applies

also

to

the

categories

Grp

and

Vect.

CH.

3,

3.13

THE

PULLBACK

67

Example

5.
s

In

pre-order
>

(P,
q

C),

is Example

pullback
6.
In

square

if

is

product
with
a

of

and

q.

any

category

terminal

object,

if

is
Example

pullback,
7.

then
In

(f, g)
any

is

product
if

(g.l.b.)

of

and

b.

category,

f is
Example
a

pullback,
8.
The

then

i is

an

equaliser
Lemma

of

and

g.

Pullback

(PBL).

If

diagram

of

the

form

commutes,

then

(i)
(with

if
top

the
and the

two

small
bottom

squares

are

pullbacks,
evident

then

the
is
a

outer

"rectangle"
then
so

edges
rectangle
and

the

composites)

(ii)
is

the

if left

outer

the

right

hand

square

are

pullback; pullbacks

hand

square.

68

ARROWS

INSTEAD

OF

EPSILON

CH.

3,

3.14

The

PBL

is

key
rather

fact,
works.

and

wil wil
used
for

be

used

repeatedly
familiarise
of

in

what
the

fol ows. reader with

Its

proof,
how The
a

though pullback
PBL

tedious,
often be

certainly
a

wil

diagram

the

form,

in
we

which

case

when

the that the

outer

rectangle
top
square

and is
a

bottom

square

are

pullbacks,

wil

conclude 9.
In

pullback.
is monic

Example

any
1

category,

an

arrow

f:a^>b

if

1,
a

f is
Exercise.
a

pullback
Show
a

square. that if b

?>

is

pullback

square,

and

is

monic,

then

is

also

monic.

3.14.
The

Pushouts
dual of
of the
a

pullback
two
arrows

of

pair
with

of
common

arrows

with domain:

common

codomain

is

pushout

CH.

3,

3.15

COMPLETENESS

69

pushout

of

<

>

is

co-limit

for

the

diagram

In

Set with

it

obtained

by
for
each

forming
x

the
e
a

disjoint (by
a

union

b +

and

then

identifying

f(x)
Exercise.

g(x),
Dualise

co-equaliser).

3.13.

3.15.
A

Completeness
category
<

is

complete
when
every

if is is
one

every

diagram "^-diagram
and has
a

in has

<
a

has

limit

in
A

<.

Dually

<

is

co-complete
is
one

co-limit.
of

bi-complete
and
a

category
A number A

that

complete
that
them.

co-complete.
finite it has
number

finite
of

diagram
arrows

objects,
every

finite

between

category

is

finitely

complete
and finite

if

limit

for
are

finite
defined

Finite

co-completeness
1.

bi-completeness object,
then
<

diagram. similarly.
each

Theorem ^-arrows

If
common

<

has

terminal

and
is

with

codomain,
theorem The

finitely

pullback complete.
scope

for

pair

of
?

proof

of

this

is

beyond
may
a

our

present
in other

(and
and

outside

our

major
Theorem

concerns).
23.7,
To

details
with

be

found of

Herrlich characterisations

Strecker
of

[73],
finite

along
the
a

number

completeness.
il ustrate

Theorem,

we

observe and

that

(A)
got
from

given
the

terminal

object
of

pullbacks,

the

(B)
first
form

given
the

pullback pullbacks
product

a1<fo

(cf.
from

3.13,
a

product Example

of

and

is

and
arrows

products,

parallel

pair

6); /,g:a=jfo

we

70

ARROWS

INSTEAD

OF

EPSILON

CH.

3,

3.16

and

then

their

pullback

axfo
It fol ows

readily

(3.8)

that

q,

and

that

this

arrow

is

an

equaliser

of

andg.

Exercises

A) B)
is co-hint

Verify
Show how

(B),
to

and
construct

consider

the

details
from

of

that

construction
and of

in

Set.
A

given
Dualise

by
appears

the

description
in

puUbacks (Example
of

products
1,

3.13)

equalisers. pullbacks

hint
A

in

Set.

3.14.
this section.

C)

the

Theorem

3.16.
Given that have

Exponentiation
sets

and

we

can

form

in

Set

the i.e.
A
to

collection

BA

of

all

functions

domain

and is
a

codomain function
arrows
we

B,
from observe

BA
To

{/: /
BA

B}
that

characterise
arrow

by

associated

with

BA

is

special
given by

the

rule

ev

is

the

evaluation and
xe

function.
A.
x,

Its

inputs
of
ev

are

pairs
such
e a as

of

the

form is
to

(/, x)
apply

where

f-.A^B
to

The

action
the

for

input
categorial

/
amongst

to

x,

evaluate

/
comes

at

yielding
the of the

output
that
ev

of
all

BA
set

from

fact form

/(x) enjoys

B.

The

description
property

universal

functions

CH.

3,

3.16

EXPONENTIATION

71

Given
that

any

such

g,

there

is

one

and

only

one

function

g:

>

such

commutes

where

gxidA
it

is

the

product

function

described
=

in

3.8.

For

input
The

(c,a)eCxA
idea

gives
definition
a

output
of

(g(c),
g

idA(a))
is

(g(c),
action of
the
to

a).
g
causes

behind
to

the

that

the

any

particular
arguments
other words

determine
g
at
a

function
the

by
elements A A.

fixing
>

first
range

elements
over

of A.
In

of

c,

and

allowing
ceCwe

second

for

given gc,
a,
be

define
for

g,.:
a

by

the

rule

gc(a)

each

g:CBA

can

now

defined

by

g(c)
a

gc,

all

ceC.

For

any

(c,a)e

we

then

get

eug(c),
and
so

gc(a)
that

g((c,

the

above
that

diagram
i.e. for
then

commutes.

But

the

requirement

that

the
must

diagram
be
as

commutes,
the

ev((g(c),
a

a))
gives
a

g((c,
g((c,
^

a)), a)),
has

means

that

g(c)
must

function

input
we

output

i.e.

g(c)

be if
a

gc

above.

By abstraction product
is
a

say

that

category
if
ev:

for

any

two

'tf-objects,
ba and
any

>

and
a

for
ba
Sf-arrow

any
x
a

there
arrow,

^-object
that
for
g:

"tf-arrow

exponentiation Sf-objects given > b, called

g:

it has
and

b is

an
^

evaluation

such
"tf-arrow

unique

ba

"tf-object making

and

b, there

commute,
to

i.e.
g

establishes

unique a bijection

such

that

eu(gx1a)

g.

The

assignment

of

72

ARROWS

INSTEAD

OF

EPSILON

CH.

3, 3.16

between those

the

collection

of

"^-arrows

from

x see

to

b, and
=

the

collection
1

of i.e.
g
=

from
so

to

ba.

For

if is
g
=

h, then

ev(g
To

a)
that

ev

(h
it

and

the
and

h:c-^>ba
have
Two

assignment define

injective. ev(hx1a).
that

is

a), surjective,
x

h,

take
g
we

By

the

uniqueness
to

of
other other. The

must

g.
arrows

(g
wil
be

and called
may

g)

correspond
in with

each each is

under

this

bijection
this
A

exponential
be found

terminology finitely

complete

category

adjoints Chapter exponentiation

of 15.

origin
be Cartesian

of

said

to

closed.
Example 1.

If and

and has
nm
an

are

finite
to

sets

with

say

and

elements,
the

then

BA

is
the

finite
"m"

("n
exponent,
indeed is

the

power

m")
the

elements.

In

expression
Finord
is
nm.

nm,
Cartesian
Example

is

called and

hence
the

above is

terminology.
literally
is
with

closed,
2.
or we

exponential
P
=

the

number

chain
for
any

poset
q eP.

(P,
P

C)
is
a

that chain

linearly
a

ordered,
terminal

i.e.

has

pCq
then

qCp put

p,

If

object

1,

[q
A

if

qcp

(i.e.

qCp

and

chain

always
p
x

has

products: g.l.b.
cases

of

and

<

if if

pCq qCp.
ev.

[q
for

We

thus

have

two

to
=

consider

(i) (ii)
In

pCq.
qCp.
either
leave

Then
Then
case

qpxp qpxp qpxpCq

the

lxp
qxp=q.
and
to
so

pCq;
ev

is that and in closed

the

unique
definition
an

arrow

q" gives
of
P

>

in

P.

We

it
in

to

reader of wil
be

verify

this

exponentiain

exponentiation. An

explanation
general
1. in

posets
Theorem

it works, why forthcoming

a

account

exponentiation

Chapter
category

8.

? with
initial

Let

be

Cartesian

an

object

0.

Then

<,
=

A) B) C)

a,

for
exists

any
an

object
arrow a

a;

if if

there
0
=

>0,
*

then
is

a^O;

1,

then

the

category

degenerate,

i.e.

all

^-objects

are

isomorphic;

CH.

3,

3.16

EXPONENTIATION

73

D) E)
Proof.

any

arrow

with

dom

is

monic;

c^sa,
A) By
collection
for For

a0si,
any has any
up
to

lsl.

"^-object
of

fo, ^@,

foa) ^@,

has

initial).
lat er

definition b.

exponentiation,
one

only ba)

one
=

member

(as b).
Hence
one arrow

0 the

is

cg@xa,
is

only
Hence

member.

Thus
an

there

only
since

0.,
are

is
OsOxa.

initial
0

"^-object,
=

and
and
hence

the

lat er

unique B)
Given the

isomorphism,
a
>

/:
universal

0,
definition

we

show of

that

a,

by

A),

0.

From

product

pra(f,
is

1)
only
and
one

1such,
1,
from
to

But 0
=

(/, 1)
x
a

is initial, since

an

arrow

from

OxatoOxa,

and

there

being
.

thus

(/,
is

a)
an
a

pra

10Xa,
from
Thus

giving
a

(/,
to

pr
C)
wil

:0
If
0s
one

then
a

for
to

any

a,

there

arrow
=

1, there
are

be

whence,
are

isomorphic D)

0.

Ergo
>

they
a,

all

Given

/:0

suppose

fg

by B), isomorphic fh,

0.
to

all other.

objects

each

i.e.

commutes.

But
one

then b
>

by
0.

B),
Thus
g

b
=

0,

so

is is

an

initial

object

and

there

is

only
Exercise.

arrow

h, and
Theorem,

left-cancellable. and

Prove
to

part

E)

of

the

interpret

(l)-E)

as

they
?

apply

Set. reached of
the end

Having catalogue
constructions,
world mathematical We of

of versions

this idea

chapter,
of
of how

we

can

look

back

on

an

extensive
construc-

categorial
have
some

mathematical

concepts

and
has the of

now

category
indeed
seen a

theory

recreated horizons features

are

the

mathematical

ideas,

and
we

expanded
number In

of that

thought.
Set
not

And
other

have

distinguish
property

from

categories.
Mon.
It

Set,

monic

epics by
Grp
Theorem

iso,
but
-

enjoyed
Cartesian

by
closed

is

however,
from
the

enjoyed
above

then

Grp

is

not

(this

fol ows

Grp

is

74

ARROWS

INSTEAD

OF

EPSILON

CH.

3,

3.16

not

closed
that

degenerate, categories
are
we

but
are

does
not
a

have
all

0=1).
"Set-like".
with appear
then

On terminal
that

the The

other

hand
n
=

the

Cartesiann

poset

{0,. .,
has
a

1} epics
set

is

Cartesian-closed
not

(being
iso.
wil in
n,
etc.
common

chain in

object),
to

but

monic

It have

would
to

develop
have
some

categorial
other

theory
features

work

with In fact what but

very

Set,
we

categories something
is
one one

that
at
more

special
by
revealed

least

that

is

not

possessed
a

Mon,
in
the

need

construction,
whose
nature

conceptu-

conceptually straightforward
next

powerful

wil

be

chapter.

CHAPTER

INTRODUCING

TOPOI

"This

is

the

development

on

the

basis
axioms

of of
good only
to

elementary
a

(first-order)
theory
to

of
be

"toposes"

just
not

enough

applicable
algebraic
etc.
as

sheaf

theory,
spectrum,

spaces,

originally
dieck,
Hakim

global envisaged
Giraud,
but abstract
the Cohen-Scott-

by Verdier,
also
to

Grothen-

and

Kripke
theory, Solovay

semantics,
and method independence results

proof

for

obtaining
in
set

indepentheory."
F. W.
Lawvere

4.1.
If monk.
subset
A

Subobjects
is
a

subset

of
the

B,

then hand

the
any

inclusion
monk

function

<^>

is
>-

injective,
that

hence
a

On of
Thus the

other

function
It

/:
easy
to

see

determines

B,
between

viz domain

Im/

and

{f(x): Im/,
a

xeC}.
so

is

/
a

induces of codomain.
the

bijection
codomain. This leads

Im/.
is

of
to
to

monic

function
the

isomorphic
is
a

to

subset
the
are

Up
us

isomorphism, the categorial

domain of

subset which

of

versions

subsets,

known

as

subobjects:

76

INTRODUCING

TOPOI

CH.

4,

4.1

subobject
Now

of if
D

^-object
a

d
then the

is

monic Thus

Harrow

f:a>^d
all
subsets

with

codomain
is known
as

d.
the

is

set,
denoted

collection

of

of

powerset

of D,
94-D)

2?(D).
A

={A:
of
set

is

subset

of

D}. ordering
a on

The i.e.
arrow

relation

inclusion
a

is
and

partial
becomes there

the

power

set

2P(D),
is
an

CP(D),
A^>B

c)

is

poset,
AcB.

category
such
an

in
arrow,

which
the

there

if

When

is

diagram

commutes.
tween

This

suggests
of
h:a^>b d.

way

of

denning
and
g:

an

"inclusion"
>

relation
we

beg

subobjects
a

Given
such that

f:a>+d

bed,

put

if

there

is

'e'-arrow

commutes,

i.e.
so

/
be

gfi.
a

(such

an

wil

always
the

be

monic,

by
with

Exercise
the Set

3.1.2,

wil

subobject
when
on

of

b, enhancing

analogy
g.

case).
The

Thus

/eg f^f,

precisely
relation since

factors is

through

inclusion

subobjects

(i)

reflexive;

and

(ii)

transitive;

if

and

gcfc:

then

/s

k, since

if

h and

then/=

k(ih).

CH.

4,

4.1

SUBOBJECTS

77

Now

if

and

g ?

/,

then

and

each

factor

through

each

other,

as

in

In when

that

case,

h and

: a

b is

iso,
have write
when

with

inverse

(exercise
domains,
in order
g.

for and

the
so

reader).
we

Thus call them

be

/eg

isomorphic antisymmetric,
so,

g?/, subobjects we require

we

they
and
that

isomorphic

/g. /
So

Now
g,

for
This
be
may
a

to not

antifact be
on

then
wil

/
in

in left
to

indeed

may

have d
run as

general ordering. really

that relation do

preordering
If
we

the

subobjects
we

of would

defined,
into

and

not

partial
We

things
able
was
-

there,
think
up

dif iculties is
determines

later. The

want

be

to
set

of in

as

being
The Each

antisymmetric.
relation

machinery
an

allows

this

3.12.

an

equivalence

(exercise
class

use

(i),

(ii)

above).

f:a>^>d

equivalence

and

we

form

the

collection
=

Sub(d)
We
are we
now

{[/]:
to

/
refer

is
to

monic
the members
to

with

cod/=
of

d}.
Sub(d)
class
as

going
a

the

subobjects,
monies
we

i.e. codomain

redefine
d.
the
same

subobject
obtain
an as

of

be

an

equivalence
notion

of

with

To

inclusion

for

these

entities,

put

(using

symbol
if
up

before)

[g]
Here
we

/egthe

come

definition,
of
the
=

given
choice of then

via

against representatives representative?

g

question
of
The

mentioned

in

3.12.

Is

the

equivalence
answer

classes,
is under

independent
If

yes.
=

[/]

[/']
But

and when

[g]
The

[g'],
point
and the

/c
of
this

if construction then of

c.

g\ /c

i.e.
was

is
to

stable

(exercise).
hence

make

[/]^[g]
Thus This

[g]s[f],
subobjects piece
tail
as

g
now

and

gef,
is
not

so

antisymmetric. and /=g

a

[f]
c).
now

[g].
to

d,
blur

as

defined,
distinction
say

form done between

"the

poset yet.

(Sub(d),
It class

lengthy
its
own

of
we

methodology
the

with

starts

bite
"the

representative. subobject
etc.

We

shall and

usually

[/]",
All stable
be

"/eg"
and
=

when constructions

subobject strictly
of

equivalence /"
speaking subobjects they

and
mean

when

we

"[/]^[g]"
used wil
wil

is
be

intended,
however

properties
under

(indeed

being

categorial

only

78

INTRODUCING

TOPOI

CH.

4,

4.1

defined justifiable clarity.

matter
are

up

to

isomorphism
has

anyway).
great

So

this
terms

abus
of

de

langage
and
to
we

is
be

technically
notational is
the
g

and The

advantages
on

in
we

conceptual
mean

of
the
same

only identity.

point

which wil i.e.

be

shall
used

continue whenever

precise
that

"/
subobject,
the
same

g"
actual

and

[f]

[g],

while

"/=g"

wil

be

reserved

for

when
Exercise

they
1.

are

arrow.

In

Set,

Sub(D)

2P(D).

Elements

Having
A

described
member
x

subsets

of

set

A,
hence the

categorial y, (xeA),
with
converse

we

turn

to

actual with

elements
the

of

sets.

can

be the
arrow

identified

"singleton"
the

subset

object
determines terminal element
x:

{x} {x} object

of
1
>

of
to
an

A,
A. element 1.

and In

{x}<^>A,
a

from

terminal
A

of

A,
if is
-

viz category
defined Exercise is-does
Must

the

direction, /-image
<
to

function of
the

/:
only object
x :

in
of
then

Set
the
an

member

Thus;
a

has
be
a

terminal

1,
a.

a course

is of

^-object always
the elements

'e-axrow

(Note
reflect

that

monic

3.6.3.)
this
a

Of

question
in

notion elements?
of

in

general
have

the

behaviour
Can monic
matters two

Set?
have

non-initial
same

^-object
Can

elements? characterise cod? These

dif erent
and

^-objects epic
arrows

the

we

in
up

terms

of
due
course.

elements

their

dom

and

wil
arrows

be

taken

in

Naming
A

function
and is
=

/:
so an x.
=

from
a

set

to

set

is

an

element

of with

the

set

BA,
Then

i.e. if with

/eBA,
x

determines of

function
have
a we

[f :{0}^
categorial
find have
an

BA,
"element"
that
ev

r/]@)
x:{0}^>A, x>@)
of functions:

=/.
=

element

A,
and

we
=

x@) x@))

Since

ev((f,x))
=

f(x)
hence

([f,

eu(rf@),

/(x)
ev

/(x@)),

we

equality

(r/\
can

x)
be

x.

This
a

situation

lifted
let

to

any

category

that

has

'e-arrow
>

f:a^b,
Then the the

a^>b.
is

name

/pra:lxa>b of f is,
adjoint
of

be

the

exponentials. composite
the
arrow

Given

/pra:lx

by

definition,
pra.

[f
unique

ba

that

exponential

Thus

lf

is

the

arrow

making

CH.

4,

4.2

CLASSIFYING

SUBOBJECTS

79

commute.

Then
ev

we

have

that
=

for

any

^-element

of

a,

(r/\

x)
this

fx.
last
statement.

Exercise

2.

Prove

4.2.
In
set

Classifying
theory,
to
our

subobjects
the

powerset
earlier
D
to

according
functions

3P(D) definition,
2
=

is The

often in

denoted

2D.
the

The

later collection

symbol,
of
all that

fact

denotes

from
=

<3>(D)
and subset

2D,

i.e.
D

there

is
2. define

functions

This
the

{0,1}. bijective isomorphism

function

justification correspondence
is
^a
:

for
between

the

usage

is of

subsets
as

D
a

established
D

fol ows:
the

given
characteristic

D,
A,

we

2,
of

called
D

function
and for

of
those

by
not

the

rule."for
A,

those

elements

in

A,

give

output

in

give

output

0".

i.e.

Fig.

4.2.

The
then

assignment
A
=

of

Xa

to

-A

(why?).

It

is

also

injective surjective,

is

from
for
=

0*(D)
if

to

2D,
/
=

i.e.

if

Xa

=Xb

/e

2D,

then

Xa,,

where

Af={x:xeDand
This

f(x)
between subset

1}.
and The
set

correspondence

characteristic

function

can

be

"captured" image

by
under

pullback
the subset

diagram.

Af
i.e.

just

defined

is

the

inverse

of

{1}

of

{0,1},

Af=f~\{l}),
and
so

according

to

3.13

80

INTRODUCING

TOPOI

CH.

4,

4.2

is

pullback
to

square,

i.e. this

Af

arises

by
The

pulling
bottom
the the

back
arrow,

{1}
from

<-

along
to
reasons

/.
outputs
2

We

are

going
element that
emerge

modify
1

of
1.

{0,1}
We

outputs
in

picture is replaced this give

6. It
has

slightly. by
function
the

which

the
=

function
name

l={0}
for Then
the

{0,1}
wil
square

true,

that

Chapter

rule;

true

@)

1.

inner

of

is
g.
can

pullback.
Then be

To

see

this,

suppose
=

the

"outer

if
defined

beB,
by
and is

/(g(b))
the

rule
the

true(\(b))= k(b)
only

1,
=

so

square" g(b)eA/.
could makes
do
so.

commutes

for

some

Hence the

k:B^Af
whole

g(b).
one

This
that

diagram
that

commute,

clearly

It

fol ows

if

then

Xa

1 is
a

true

{%:
identified

Xa

pullback, (*)=
as a

since

1}>
the

which
one

is

and
i.e.

pulling just only

the the

true

back
more

along
than

\a

yields
-

the
xA
can

set

A.

But

this
D
to

fol ows
2 that

be

function

from
function
square

makes
true

the

above
back
to

diagram yield

pullback,
for
some

only
inner

along
of

which

pulls

A.

If,

/,

ttrrue ue

r*

is
outer

pullback,
square

then
commutes

for

x
-

A,

f(x)
it

1,
is
a

so

xeAf.
as

Hence
we
saw

Af.
-

But

the

indeed

pullback

above

and

so

CH.

4,

4.2

CLASSIFYING

SUBOBJECTS

81

the
as

unique
well.
So the Thus

of
set

exists

with

fc

/. Since
A

i and
=

are

inclusions,

the

must

be

Af Af,
2 and

A,
so,

and

altogether

Af.
true
:

But

/
>

is

characteristic

function
the
cast

/
with

Xa-

together
subset of

the
to

function in
such

2
a as

play
role lead
to

special
that
to
an

role
has abstract

in been

transfer
in the

from

characteristic

function,
a

language

categories,

way

definition:
Definition.

If for
the
^

<

is
a

category
il axiom.

with

terminal
with
a

object
Harrow

1,

then
true
:

subobject
>

classifier
satisfies il

is

^-object

together

il

that

fol owing
For

-axiom.

each that

monic

f:a>^>d

there

is

one

and

only

one

Xf'd^fl

such

1 is
a

^^

pullback
arrow

square.

The

\f

is

called

the

characteristic
The
arrow

arrow,
true

or

the

character,
be denoted

of

the the

monic
let er
A

/ (subobject
"T".

of

d).
when

wil in

often

by unique
classifiers
up

subobject
If the

classifier,
T:

it

exists
1
*

category,
both

is

to
we

isomorphism.
have

il

and

T':

il'

are

subobject

diagram

The

top

square

is

the

pullback
any
arrow

that

gives
with
dom

the
=

character 1 is

'

oi

using
bottom

T'

as

classifier

(remember

monic).

The

82

INTRODUCING

TOPOI

CH.

4,

4.2

square

is Hence

the

pullback
the PBL

that

gives

the

character

of

',

when

is

used

as

classifier.

by

(3.13,
XtX't

Example

8)

the

outer

rectangle

1 is
a

But
a

pullback.
square

by
T

the

/2-axiom
and

there

is
do

only
that

one

arrow

Thus

Xr

making

this

a-

pullback,
and

1n
'
in

would

Interchanging
'

this

argument

job gives

(why?)

1;
have that

and

so

Xv'-

O'

il.

Since
obtained codomains.
The
between

T' from

we

any

two

subobject
with
an

classifiers iso
arrow

may

be

each

other

by
Xf
to

composing

between

their
be-

assignment subobjects
For

of of
an

establishes

one-one

correspondence
d
>

object
and

d,

and

arrows

(I,

as

shown

by:

Theorem.

f:a>^d
if
first b

g:b
XsXf
=

>->

d,

/=g
Proof.

Xf
that

Suppose

X%-

Consider

Since
the

Xf

Xs,
square

the

outer

square
a

commutes

(indeed
exists

is

pullback)
g

and
and

so

as

inner

is

pullback /
and then
g
on

there the

factoring
leads

through

gcf.

Interchanging Conversely
if iso with
an

diagram

to/eg
above

/, altogether
does

hence

fg,
inverse

the

arrow
a

in

the

diagram
one

exist
that

and

is

k:

b.

Using

this

can

show

the

CH.

4,

4.2

CLASSIFYING

SUBOBJECTS

83

outer

square

is of
g,

pullback,
=

which

can

only

be

so

if

\f

is

the

unique
?

character

Xf

Xzof
any

Thus
,

the

).

But

assignment given

Xf

to

/ (more
,
if
we

h:d^>

exactly pull

to
true

[/])
back

injects along

Sub(d) h,

into

1 the

true

resulting
a

arrow

/
where

wil

be

monic monic
-

of
So

monic in
a

is

always

itself these

(since Exercise,

true

is

monic
Hence

and

the

pullback
must

3.13).
are

h
we

be

Xf-

category

constructions

possible

get

Sub(d)
Notation.

<?(<*,/2).

For true, wil

be

any

^-object
denoted

a,

the
or

composite
Ta,
or

true

\a, of
frae!

arrows

!:

and

truea,

sometimes

Exercise
1.

Show

that

the

character

of

true:

is

1
1-.

Xtrue

Exercise

2.

Show

that

truen

true

\n.

true

84

INTRODUCING

TOPOI

CH.

4,

4.3

Exercise

3.

Show

that f

for

any

f :a^>b,

true\

Ameb
?

trueb

truea.

4.3.
Definition.

Definition
An

<g <g

of

topos
topos
is
a

elementary

category

<g

such

that

A) B) C) D)
As

is is
has has

finitely complete, finitely co-complete, exponentiation, a subobject

in

classifier.

observed

Chapter
while
a

3,

A)
can

and be and

C)
replaced

constitute

the

definition

of

"Cartesian

closed",
<S

A)
object by

by

A')
and

has

terminal

pullbacks,

dually

B)
has

replaced
an

B')
The

initial

object
is which
the
one

0,

and

pushouts.

definition in
C. Juul
terms

just
Mikkelsen of

given
of

originally
started

Tierney, Subsequently
combination
as
a

they
discovered

topos
that condition

proposed theory B)
Thus
a

by
in is In characterisation

Lawvere

and Subse-

1969.

implied
can

by
be defined
we

the

A),
closed

C)

and

D)

(cf.
with
based

Pare
a

Cartesian
a

category

[74]). subobject
on
a

topos

classifier.

4.7

shall of

consider
power
sets.

dif erent

definition,

categorial
on

The

word
technical
usage wil

"elementary"

(which
to

from with in
the

now

wil of is the intended

detail

be

understood)
definition il ustrate of

has

special
This The

meaning be explained topoi

the
concentrate

do

nature

topos.
the

Chapter
in

11.

list

of of

that

fol ows

this
means

chapter
all of of

to

generality
most

concept.

By
on

no

the the

is

given
classifier.

for

the

part

we

the

structure

subobject

4,

4.4

FIRST

EXAMPLES

85

4.4.
Example

First
1.

examples
Set the
2.
as

is
first

topos

the

prime

example

and

the

motivation

for

the

concept
Example

in

place.
is
a

Finset
in

topos,

with

limits,

exponentials,

and

T:

fl

exactly
Example

Set.

3.

Finord
=

is

topos.
n

Every

finite
Hence

set

is isomorphic
all

to

some

finite
in

ordinal

(A
"transfer"

if
The

has

elements). (as
classifier
and Set.
we

categorial
observed
is the

constructions
for
same

Finset

into

Finord

have

already
in

product,
function

exponentials).
true
:

subobject
as

Finord

{0}

{0,1}
4.

in

Finset

Example
are

Set2,

the

category

of

pairs
the

of

sets

is

obtained

Example
A

10,
terminal

by "doubling 2.5).

up"
is
a

corresponding

topos. constructions
sets.

All

constructions
in Set

(cf.

object
B)
the

pair

(/,

g):

(A,
form

-(E,

F),

(h,k):

({0}, (C,

{0})
D) -(E,

of

singleton
F)
with

Given

two

arrows

common

codomain

in

Set2,

pullbacks

in

Set.

Then

(P,Q)
(i, ">

(C,

D)
(h,k)

(A,B)
wil
The

(E,
in
has

F)

be

pullback exponential
a

Set2.

<QDYA
with evaluation
arrow

>B>
from

86

INTRODUCING

TOPOI

4,

4.4

to

(,
The

the

plays
category
Example

D) as appropriate subobject no special

%1x%2
5.

the

pair
evaluation
classifier
role

(e, f)

where
arrows

CA
Set.

and

/:DB
2).
The then

xB

are

in

is
here.

< T,
If

T):
and

<{0},
g2
are

{0})
any

-<2,

category
the

Set

g^

topoi,

product

is

topos.

Set"*,

the

category
from
the

of

functions.

The

terminal

object

is

the

identity
Pullback:

function Consider

id{0}

{0}
"cube"

to

{0}.

/,
arrow

g,

are

given
h
to

as

Sef^-objects
g.

with
rest

(i, j)
the

an

arrow

from

from

The

of

diagram

obtains

/ by

to

g,

<p, q)
the

an

forming

pullbacks
Q
D

in and and

Set.
q.

The Then

arrow

Set"*

exists
the
arrows

by

the

universal

property
and

of
are

the

pullback
of
then there

of

in If

(u,
a

v)

(r, s)
of
g:

the

pullbacks
in

(i, j)
is

(p, q). Classifier:

commutative

/:
Set

>

is

subobject

>

Set"*

diagram

4,

4.4

FIRST

EXAMPLES

87

We and

wil

take is
the

the

monies
of

to

be
g,

actual

inclusions,
=

so

that The

restriction

i.e.

/(x)

g(x)

for

xeA.

picture

is

Fig.
An element
x

43.
now

of
or

can

be

classified

in

three

ways.

Either

(i) (ii) (ii )

So
we

A,

, ,
introduce

but
and
a

g(x)eB, g(x)?B.
3-element if if if

or

set

{0,

\, 1}

and

define

*:

{0,5,1}

by

(i) (ii) (ii )

cube

holds

holds
holds

We

can

now

form
A
<-

the

{0}
id,

-{0,1,1}

Xb

{0}
where 1.
Xb

trae

{0,1} {0,

trueiQ)
is
base
T

f'@)
the

1,

r:

|, 1}

-*

{0,1}
of
B.

has

(@)

0,

and

(A)
T:

t%
O,
for

the

characteristic of the cube

function

The

displays
true)
from
1

the
=

subobject

classifier
=

>

Self".

is

pair

(t1,

id{0}

to

:{0,

, 1} ^{0,1}.

INTRODUCING

TOPOI

4,

4.5

The

front

and

back exhibits
Let

faces

of
as

the the
g:

cube
character

are

each in

puUbacks
Set"*
two

in of the monic

Set. Then

The

whole

is

diagram Exponentiation: the Sef^-object

F
=

(,) f:A>B,

{i, />.

>

D where

be

Sef^-objects.

gf

(function)
DB
of

gf:

E in

F,

(exponential
all Sef^-arrows
h

Set)
from

is

the

collection

to

i.e.

commutes}

and

The

product

object

of

gf

and

in

Sef^

is

the

product

map

gfxf:ExA^FxB
and the

(cf.
arrow

3.8)
to

evaluation
ExA

from

gf xf

is

the

pair

{u,

v)

FxB
where
to
v

is constructions
9 of

the

usual

evaluation

arrow

in for

Set,
1
>

and

takes

input

((h,
be
seen
a

k),

x)
in

output
The

h(x). just
be

given
of
a more

T:

fl definition

and

gf
that

wil

Chapter family

to

instances

general

yields

whole

topoi.

4.5.
One

Bundles
of the the

and

sheaves
sources

particular
some

primary study
of

of

topos
To

theory
understand ful
our

is what

algebraic
a

of

sheaves.
and

sheaf

geometry, is
and The

in

requires
their
idea
more

knowledge
to

topology
take
models

the

story

about

sheaves
scope.

relation

topoi
up

would

us

beyond
intuitionistic

present

is

closely

tied
than and

with
that.

of sheaf of its
own,

logic,
constitutes
and
to
a

but
whole it

is

much

general
framework

Indeed,
language

theory

conceptual
even

ignore

completely,

at

4,

4.5

BUNDLES

AND

SHEAVES

this

stage,

would

be of and

to

distort
reader

the

overall

significance
with

and

point
we

of
shall
structure

view

of its
of

topos
For introduction
the Let elements

theory.
the benefit the be have That
a a

unfamiliar
the

topology
set-theoretic

delay

first
to
we

consider
called
a

underlying
bundle. si
of

sheaf
us

concept,
assume

collection

sets, for

no

two

of

which
are

have
sets

any
are so
we

in
We
we

common.

is,
I

any

two

members

of

si
to

that
sets

disjoint.
presume i
e

need

convenient
set

notation
of

referring
for
collection
them.

these

have

labels,
to
we

or our

I, there
is labelled

is

set

At
way,

that
so

belongs
write

indices, collection,
as

For each of

each

index
of

and

member all
these

si

in

this

si

the

A;

's,

The

fact
that

that for

the

members

of

si

are

pairwise

disjoint

is

expressed

by

saying

distinct

indices

i, jel

We

visualise

the

A;'s

as

"sit ing

over"

the

index

set

thus:

Fig.

4.4.

If

we

let

A A

be
=

the

union for
some

of

all

the

A/s,

i.e.

{x:
obvious

i,xeAt}
map

then

there such

is
that

an xe

A;

Ah

by

the

p:A^> disjointness

I.

If

then
We

there

is

exactly
=

one

condition.

put

p(x)

i.

Thus

90

INTRODUCING

TOPOI

4,
to

4.5
etc.

all
We

the
can

members
then

of

A;

get

mapped
A{
as

to

i, all

the

members under
p

of

re-capture

the

inverse
=

image

of

A, {i},

j,
for

p-\{i\)={x:p(x)
The
set

i}
or

Ai.

A;
the
germs space

is

called
at

the
i. The
set

stalk,
whole A the

fibre
structure

over

i.

The
a

members
bundle of

of
sets

At
over

are

called the

is
the

called
space head

base is
of

I
reason

The for

is
each
rather

called

stalk

(l'espace
is
of

etale)
evident-what
germs

of

the
we

bundle.
have
a

The

botanical with its

terminology
own

bundle
asparagus

of

stalks,

(think
whenever
an

of

bunch

spears).
looks
We

This
there
map
p p
=

construction
are

special, just
seen

but
that
a

it

is
bundle

to

be has

found

functions.
from wil
be

have
to

associated is

its

stalk

space

the

base.

(If
we

in wil

fact

every allow

stalk
the from
i
e

nonempty
that
some

then

surjective,
if
can

but
p:

in
>

general
I

possibility
set

Aj
to

0).

Conversely,
we

is
be

an

arbitrary
for

function
each

I, then

define

At

to

p ^}),

I,

and

define

Then

si

is
map

bundle
A
*

of
I

sets

over

I
p

whose

stalk stalks
are

space

is

the

original
as
no x e

A,
A

and
can

induced have
So
two
a

the

original
over

(the

disjoint,

dif erent
bundle
two
as
a

p-outputs).
of
are

sets not

I is

"essential y
identical
a

I.

The

of

course

function

bundle
we

is wil
Comma

to

offer
have

new,
a new

emphasise
bundles
over

that,
2 the and
as

introduce
we

a function just" conceptually. and provocative, name ()

with
To

codomain
construe
a

perspective.
for
the

To

category
12 codomain is
a

of of
I.
set

J, although
the
the

already
Set

described

it functions
where

in with

Example

Chapter
Thus

category
are

I
(B,

of

Bn(r>-objects
arrows

the
:

pairs f)
>

function

(A,

(A,/), g)

f:A^>I
such

have

k.A^B

that

commutes,

i.e.
=

f.
then

This

means

that Thus

if

f(x)
maps

i,
germs

for
at

A,
i in

then

g(k(x))
to

i, i.e.
at

if
i in

germs

xeA;, (B, g).

to

k(x)eBi.
of
as
a

(A,/)
Set.

Now An

topos
in
a

is

be

object
of

topos

is
sets.

bundle

ordinary

thought "generalised Many

generalisation
set". A

of "set" in
when the

the

category topos

Bn(I)
to

is

categorial

notions

applied

()

CH.

4,

4.5

BUNDLES

AND

SHEAVES

91

prove
see.

to

be

bundles

of

the

corresponding () (I, idr) {i},

=

entities is

in

Set,
for
any

as

we

shall

now

The the

terminal

object
arrow

1 for

unique
of

(A,
i is

f)

>

idr: is f.A^I
is

I, and
itself

bundle

(A,
Now

f),
the

(cf.
in Set.
the and

3.6).
Thus

stalk
terminal

idr
is

over a

id^di})
of
be construed

which

terminal
over

the

()
arrow

bundle

Set-terminals
as a

I,

unique

f: (A,

/) (I,

idj)

can

bundle

of

unique

Set-arrows,

where

Pullback:
so

Given

Bn(f)-arrows

{A,

f)

->

(C,h)

and

I:

(B,

g)

-^

(C,

ft),

that

commutes,

form

the

pullback

I.
Then

in

Set

of

and

B,

92

INTRODUCING

TOPOI

CH.

4,

4.5

is
g

pullback
q.

of

and

I in is

BnG),
more

where

j=fp useful y

hokop
as

hloq

The

diagram

probably

given

the

commutative

Now

if

Aj,
of

are

the

stalks

over

i for

the

bundles

f,

g,

h,

then

the

pullback

has

domain
same

{<x,
as

y): ):
x

, ,

Bt,
and
:

and

k(x) y'<x, )
bundle
=

l(y)}
i}
=

which

can

be

seen

to

be

the

x,
which
Thus

'),
of is
a

is
the

the

stalk

over

i of

7.
a

Subobject
sets,
We

pullback classifier:
a

object
The

(P,
classifier

y) is

pullbacks
bundle is

from of
the
set

Set.
two-element

for

BnG)
p7:2x7^>7
Now

i.e.

bundle

of jQ
=

Set-classifiers.

define

Bx7,
the "second

pr),
of
the

where factor".
sets

projection
2x7 is
in

Pi((x,
fact the

y))

onto

the

product

(disjoint)

union

and

each
over

isomorphic particular

to

7, and
i is

we

visualise

Q
set

as

shown

in

Fig.

4.5.

The

stalk

the

two-element

The the
set

classifier
function

arrow

T:
true.

1 We

>

fl
define

can

be
T:

thought
I
>

of
x

as

bundle

of

copies

of

by

In

terms

of

the

limit

approach

to

products,
and

is

the

product

map

(true!,idr)

of

trae!:/^{0}->{0,

1}

idr.

4,

4.5

BUNDLES

AND

SHEAVES

93

'<'-!

<o.\)

Fig. To
see

4.5.

how

classifies fact
We suppose

subobjects
that
to

we

take
an

monic i.e.
Xk

(A,
Ac.
>

f)
jQ

>

(B,
and

g)

in
=

(),

and all
that
x

in
e

the

is

inclusion,

f(x)
Bx
J, pr)

g(x),
so

A.

wish

define

character

'(B,

g)

>

2x/
commutes

and
to

gives
whether

a
x

pullback
?

in
or

Bn(J).

Now

any

is

classified

according

2x1

Fig.
We

4.6.

make in
the

Xk

assign right
stalks,

as

"
so

or

" pr
x

accordingly,
Xk
~

and
g-

also
Xk
'

make

>

these
2
x

choices

that
2

Formally,
:

is

the
characteristic

product
function

map
of

(xa,
A,

g):
i.e.

I,
xeA

where

^A

>

is

the

usual

charac-

l,g(x)>
3,g(x)>

if if

94

INTRODUCING

TOPOI

4,

4.5

Exercise

1.

Verify
The

that

this T:I^2xJ
=

construction
has is
a

satisfies

the

fl

-axiom.

Sections:

function

an

interesting
a

property-for
from stalk of that
the

input
set

i the

output
the

T(i)
space

A,
that

i)
general

germ
one

at

i. Such
out

function
each

base
a

to

stalk
the
=

picks
s:I-^>
i
e

germ A
means

of

is

called

section if
and

of

bundle.

In

is

section

bundle

/:
=

>I

s(i)

A;

/~1({i}),
that

for

all

7.

This

precisely

f(s(i))

i, all

i,

hence

commutes.

So

another

way

of of

Bn(f)-arrow
bundle definition bundle
bundle Elements

from

the
an

terminal
of

looking (I,idr)
the
But

at to

section

is
Thus

to
a

say

that

it
of

is
the
the

(A,/).
initial
So
an

section
the
sense
a

(A,
at

f)
germs,

is
the

element
end
one

Bn(I)-object
our

4.1.
from
each
1
a

(A, f) picture
"element"

in of

of
is

section
in

a a

of
of

stalk.

Bn(I)
as

is
the

ordinary
of

elements.

fl,
4g,
We

i.e.
and

arrows

role
there

in in

any

topos
the

are

known
of

truth-values

of

have

special
that

Chapter 8A)^^A, Bn(I)

6).
a

know

(4.2)
elements

is
fl
and have

jQ) subobject

between
fc:

of
of
1
must

logical bijective subobjects

structure

(See
in

correspondence
of 1. Now

(A,/)>-!

commuting, injective
course

so

kf.
/:
a

Thus
A
>*

subobject
with
a

of

can

be of that I in

identified
Set. there
The

with
lat er
a

an

function
is

I, i.e.
of

subobject
we

of

essential y

subset

I, and

conclude

is

bijection

i.e.
I. It

we

may

identify
to

truth-values

is

instructive

spell
SA
:I >2xI

this

out

(elements ful y:
be the

of

fl)

in

BnG) (xa,idr),

with

subsets
i.e.

of

Given

Ac.I,

let

product

map

,0 ,i>

if if

CH.

4,

4.5

BUNDLES

AND

SHEAVES

95

then

SA

is

section

of

il,

whose

image

is

shown

shaded

in

the

picture.

{i}xl

Fig. The S:

4.7.

assignment
1
Note
that

of is
any

SA
section,

O,
and

to

is

injective S(i)
values,
=

(exercise). (l, 2P(I) i)}>

may

Moreover S
=

if
so

={i:
truth

then

SA,
be infinite

the

assignment

is
wil

also whereas

surjective.
Set if I is has
two

well

(it

certainly
Exercise

be
What Let

infinite).
the truth-values in

2.

are

Set2
over

and I and

in

Sef"?
form the

Products.

(A,

/)

and
-*

(B,

g)

be

bundles

pullback

Then

(AXjB,

h)

is

the

f
over

g i is

4,

and

has

product projection

of
arrows

(A,

/)
p

and and
q.

(B,
Note

g)

in

Bn(I),
that
the

where

stalk

(fibre)

the

product product"
as

of

the that Given

a

fibres is
of

over

in

(A,
used
-^

f)
for
I

and
and

"fibred

sometimes

(B, "pullback".
g:

g).
the
I

Hence

the form
of A and

name

Exponentials. exponential More precisely

Af

bundles
the

bundle
let

/: A exponentials
collection

we

their
B.

B,A
of

of

stalks

be

the

functions

such

that

96

INTRODUCING

TOPOI

CH.

4,

4.5
as

commutes

and

so

carries
a

At
function Now for
where

into
that

the has

stalk
the
may
same

Bt
not

of rule

over
as

(where,
may

previously,
as we

/*
domain define
or

denotes

/
a

but bundle.

vary
so

to

codomain).

the

's
then

be
of the

pairwise
is

disjoint,
The

;
function is
the

{1],
p:E>I

each
E

i, and
is the

{Et:iel}
Et

induced

union

's has

p((i,

k))

i.

(E,

p)

exponential
(B,

g)(A'.
arrow

The
ev:

evaluation
E

ev

(E,

p)

(A,

/)

(B,

g)

is

the

function

xxA

B,

where

The that

reader

who

has

the

patience
is
well denned

to

wade and reward

the

through
satisfies in
of
heaven.

the

details the
For

of

checking
of
ex-

this

construction wil
no

definition
the

exponentiation
wil wherein
that
to

doubt
the
to

get
say

his

present

he it
return

perhaps
all
we

appreciate
need the in

advantages
about

the in

categorial
to

viewpoint,
what

exponential,
described

know

is,

is

it this

satisfies

universal

property

3.16.

(We

shall

example

Chapter
Not
any

15).
only
and
a an

Fundamental

theorem.

is

generally
^-arrows

if
over

i?

is
a

topos

BnG) -object,
is

Set

11
the

topos, category

but
%

more

then
a

of

(2.5,
been
can

Example
called
the

12)
Fundamental
sort

also

topos.
Theorem

This

fact
The
e.g.

has reader
if
T:

of
of the
g1

Topoi
details it

by
from

Freyd
the

[72].
above,

probably
fl

out

many

>

is

the

classifier

in

<?, then

in

is

(,

a),

i.e.

The

definition
It

of

exponentials
the

in

|
which

would
of
a

carry

us

too

far of in

afield

at

present.
functions"
11

requires
and

their

development classification,

categorial
be

theory
considered

wil

"partial Chapters

and

15.

Sheaves

sheaf topological
A

is

bundle
space,

with with

some

additional
its collection of

topological
open
sets.

structure.

Let

I
I

be
is

a a

sheaf

over

CH.

4,

4.5

BUNDLES

AND

SHEAVES

97

pair
map
an

(A,
that open

p)
is

where
a

is

topological
G in and A the that lat er

space

and
means

p:

is

continuous
x

local

homeomorphism.

This

that

each

point
category
and that
as

has

neighbourhood

is

mapped
is
open

homeomorphically
in
as

by

onto

p{U)
sheaves
:

{p(y):
over

G},
has continuous

I.

The

Top(I)
arrows

of

such

pairs
maps

(A,

p)
:

objects,

(A,

p) (B,
A

q)
*-^

the

such

commutes.

Such in

Im

is k

in
=

fact

an

open

map

(as
open

is

local
of

homeomorphism)
B.

and

particular
is
The
a

k(A)
as

wil

be

an

subset
The

G)
idj:
Its There
I I.

topos,

known

spatial
is
the method each
over

topos.

terminal

object
a

is
in
over
an

subobject
il ustrates
some

classifier
a common

sheaf
of

of point
i wil

germs

of
e

construction
wil be relation
set

building
i I

open bundle

sets

I. I.

ambient
~;
on

set

X The

and

wil

determine
defined in
At i
as

equivalence
quotient
In

X.

stalk

then
~;.

be

the

X/~t
case

of

equivalence
X for

classes
the

of

X of

under
open
sets

the
~j

present

is

collection

I.

I,

we

define

by
U~tV

declaring,
if

U,
is

Ve
some

there and

open

set

such

that

UC\W=VC\W relation.
The
to

Then
the

~;

is
in

an

equivalence
U that
are

intuitive
the
same

idea
as

is
those the

that that
same,

U
are

~t

when
V and the

points
to

close
around

are

in i.e.

close
statement

i,
"G=

i.e.

"locally"
V"

i,
true"

U
at

and i.

look

is

"locally

Fig.
The

4.8.

equivalence

class

];={:{7~

V}

98

INTRODUCING

TOPOI

CH.

4,

4.5

is

called in
We then

the U

germ

of
are
as

at

i.

Intuitively
to

it
i.

"represents"

the

collection

of

points

that take

"close"
the

stalk

over

i,

A={<i,[Ul>:t/openinI}.
Then the
has

fl

is

the

corresponding
and all
sets

function

p:I-^I,
i for

where

is

the

union
on

of I

stalks
as

,
base

gives
of the

output
form

inputs

from

The

topology

where also If have

is denote

open each

and

U
a

V.

This

makes
space of germs of under open

local
the

homeomorphism,
relative

and

makes
we

stalk

discrete collection
about ieU
i is

topology.
of i then
we

by

@t
facts if

the

neighbourhoods
open
sets:

the

fol owing

(i) (ii) (ii )

that L/nV

[U1=M, M [LT|i
reader
a

@i
=

[01
=

if

separated
lat ices
may

from

(i.e.
note

there

exists
that the
a

Ve@t
open filter.
sets

such in The standard

truth-

0)
familiar with
lat ice
the
care

[The
form stalk definition Before values

to

distributive
is of

essential y
the

(, , quotient
congruence
as a

U)

in

which

@t

is i.e.

(prime)
~;

lat ice
determined

lb by
classifier

is look of

the

lat ice
fl

@t.]
we

examining
s a :

subobject
is sheaf. subsets
a

wil

at

. section
I

Such

an

arrow

continuous

section
may U of

fl,
local

generally
sections

called
s :

global
I

of
on

the

(We

also

consider

of

defined
I

(open)

7).

1^

Now

if

U
a

is
continuous
=

open

in if
=

I, define

S^ section,
[/.

I-

by
Su:

S^O")
1

Sv
that

is

global (i, [I];) {i: s(i)

have
that i
e

i.e.
if
s
:

/2.
any
open

(i, [{7];>. By (i)

continuous

We

then
we

find
note

above

Su(i)
and
=

Then
we

/2
U

is

section
=

of
and

fl

U
s.

{i,[Il)}
the in
We

find values

that

is

([/

([]))
the
I.

Sv
We

thus of

truth

in
were see

()
all
other and

are

"essential y"
of the

open

subsets

I,

whereas

Bn(I)
shall

they
later

the find subset".

subsets

This
that

wil have arise

be
from

a a

continuing
set-theoretic
the form

theme.
and
a

constructions
that

topological
"subset"

version,

lat er

by

replacing

by

"open

CH.

4,

4.5

BUNDLES

AND

SHEAVES

99

The

arrow

T:

/2
if
>

is

the

continuous

section
where

that

has

T(i)

(i, [I];),

all
A

I.
<"

Now
fc

is

monic,

commutes,
Xk
'

and

A
as

is fol ows.

an

open

subset

of

B,

we

obtain

the

character

(B,q)>(l

Fig.
If

4.9.

xeB,

choose

homeomorphism. i.e. q(x), Intuitively, homemorphism

of the
extent

Then

neighbourhood Xk'-B^-I

S takes

of
jc

on

which
germ

is

local
at

to

the

of

q(AOS)

the

germ
q,
to

of the
set

q(A
of
x

S)
in
-

at

q(x)
in A

represents
close
xeA
to
x.

in
It in
or

I,

under
a

the
measure

local

points
is
A. either

which
two

Whereas

set

provides theory
a

classification

admits
context

of
we

only
may
x

possibilities
make
more

x^A-in

subtle
use
x

distinctions
germs open
at

by

classifying
a

topological according
entities
for
on

to

how

close
is

is

to

A.

We

the
to

q(x)
of

as

system
A

of

measuring

proximity
given by

of

subsets

B.

partial
set

ordering
W

<,()

[^]q(x)C[V]q(x)
i.e. if the
statement

if
e

there
W and

is
UC\

some

open

such

that

q(x)

We
true at

vn

W,

"Us

V"

is

locally

q(x).

100

INTRODUCING

TOPOI

CH.

4,

4.6

Then closer wil

the At

the
x

"larger"
be
to

the A. If

germ in

of fact

q(A
xeA,
as

S)
then
as

is

in

terms
e

of

this

ordering,
S)
and

so

the

q{x)
it could from

q(A
be, A,
=

by

(i)
=

above,

germ the other

as

of
small

q(A
extreme,
as

S)
could

is
if

large
x

i.e.
then

[q(A
the

S)]q(x)
germ

Mq(x)q(A
x

is i.e.

separated

of when
of

S)
the

is

it of

be,

[q(A
is

S)]

[0].

Otherwise,
the germs

is

on

boundary

A,

[q(A

S)]

strictly

between

and Exercise

I,

[0]c[q(AnS)]c:[I].
Verify neighbourhood
1. 2.

that

the S of

definition
x on

of which of
local

)
q

does

not

depend

on

the

choice
Exercise

of

is
Let
s

local

homeomorphism.

(Alternative

definition
for
some

*))section

Ux={iel:
be the of
takes

of

(B,

q),
local

s(i)eA
section

and

set

points

in

I
to

that
x.

are

carried
that

into

by

some

of

(B,

q)

that

q(x)

Show

where

is

as

above.

4.6.
Let determines M

Monoid
=

actions

(M,
function
rule

*,

e)
Am

be

monoid
called
for

(cf.
all

:MM,
=

Then 2.5). left-multiplication neM. We

any thus

given by
obtain

meM
m,

deterand
a

defined

by {Xm
(i) (ii)
Condition functional with The
and

the
: m

Xm(n)
of

m*n,

family

eM}
Ae

functions,
(m)
since
says

indexed
=

by
e
*

M,
=

which
and
m
*

satisfies

since idM, Ap =Amp, (ii) in fact composition.

m,
=

Am(Ap(n))
that the

(p
monoid

n)
of

(m
is

p)
closed this have X

n.

collection
forms
a

Am's
under

under

Indeed,
can

it be

operation
a

identity
notion
a

Ae.

just

described

generalised.
of

Suppose
functions
of
our

we

set

X
the

collection

{Am:X-^X: being
indexed

meM} by
the elements

Am

from

to

X,

collection

original

monoid,

and

satisfying
Ae=idx
A-m
The collection

of

=A.m,p.
Am's
is called
an

action

of

on

the

set

X,

and

can

be

CH.

4,

4.6

MONOID

ACTIONS

101

replaced

by
A(m,

single

function
=

:MxX-^

X,

defined
xeX.

by

x)

Am(x),
become
x

all

meM,

The

above

two

conditions

A(e,
and

x)

A(m,
An

A(p,
defined
on

x))
to

A(m
a

p,

x). (X,

M-set
of M

is

be

pair

A),

where

A:MxX->X

is

such

an

action
Example

X.

1.

M of

is
real

the

monoid

(N,
A

+,
is

0)
addition:
of

of

natural

numbers

under

addition.
r.

is

the

set

numbers.
the

A(m,
vector

r)
M

Example

2.

X its

is

set

of
A

vectors

space,

the

multiplicative

monoid

of 3.

scalars,
X

is
of

scalar

multiplication
in the

of

vectors.

Example of
as

is

the

set

points
(rotations, A(m, x)

Euclidean

Euclidean
function

transformations

reflections,
is

plane. translations)
i.e.
the result

is of

the with

group
*

composition.
m

m(x),

applying

transformation
Example

to

point
set

x.

4. words

is

the

of
*

states

of

computing
of

device.
concatenation
goes

M
or

is

the

set

of

input
juxtaposition of

(strings)
strings. A(m,

with

the
state state

operation
the
x.

juxtaposiresponse
to

x)
while

is
in

the

machine

into

in

being
For
a

fed

input
monoid
a

?
the

given
is

M,
An

the
arrow

M-sets

are

which

topos.
function

f :(X, f:X>
Y,

A)
i.e.
one

objects (Y, fi,)

such

of

a an

category

M-Set,
or

is
that

equivariant,

action-preserving
X

?>

commutes

for
x.

each

meM.
of
arrows

In

other

words,
functional

and

Composition

is

f(A(m, composition.

x))

fi(m,

/(x)),

all

102

INTRODUCING

TOPOI

CH.

4,

4.6

The

terminal

object
0,
all X
m.

is

singleton
and

M-set.

We

take

({0},
8m

Xo)
is

where

0(,
The
fim
:

0)
X
x

product
Y
-*

of
x

(X,
Y.

)
The

(Y,
of

fi)

is

(XxY,

S),

where

pullback

(,)
is

f
with BcM i.e.
3
as

(Z,y)
above. is
if M

(X
Now

xz
a

Y,
set

8)

called
m
*

Ze/t
whenever left

idea/ ideals
in is
the

of

if

it
m

is is

closed
any

under

left-multiplication,
of where M.
For

be

beB of
M.

and
We

element
=

example,
is
=

and of

0
left

are

put

(LM,
with

)
has

LM
=M. il ustrate Thus

the

set

ideals the the

M,
left-ideal

and

co:MxLM-^LM

co(m,B) T@)
To

{n:n*meB}.
T

:1/2

function
M

T:{0}LM
of
M.

picks
the

out

largest
of

workings
is in
=

the

subobject
X<h>Y The character

classifier, (since
;&

suppose

this

:(X,
means

A)>^(Y, fi(m,
:

fi) jc)
LM
>

fact

inclusion
all
jc

is

(,

jc),

eX).
all

:(Y,

equivariant fi)

/2

of

is

Xk

Y"

defined

by
fi(m,
all and the that

Xk(y)={m:
Exercise
1.

y)eX},
details-that
Xu.

.
an

Check

is
the

action
/2-axiom.

of

on

LM,

that

is

left-ideal,

satisfies

Exponentiation
Our
on

initial

motivation i.e. that

showed

that
an

:MxM-^>

is and

itself

an

action
we

of

M the

M,

(M,

*)

is

M-set.

Given

(X,

A)

(Y,

fi)

define

exponential

where

is
and

the

set

of

equivariant
takes

maps

f
such

of
an

the

form

/: (M,
to

*)
function

(X,

)
g

fi) orm(/):MxX->

(Y,

crm:E-^>E
Y

the

given
=

by x)

g(n,
The

x)
arrow

/(m*n,

evaluation

CH.

4,

4.7

POWER

OBJECTS

103

has

ev(f,x)
Then

f(e,x).

/: (X,
having

given )

an
-

arrow

f;.{X,
takes

)(,
x

fi)-^(Z,
X
to

v), equivariant

the

exponential
map

adjoint

(Z,

v)(Yt")

the

(i

Categories particularly
"recreated" Exercise Exercise

of
of

the

form that
a

M-Set
have

provide
"non-classical"

rich

source

of 9.

topoi
from

dif erent
all
that
=

perspective
the
M

in in

properties. Chapter (N,

and

examples, They

particuwil
be
"re-

2.

Describe Show

left-ideals if
M

+,

0).
are

3. i.e. if

is

group

the

only

left-ideals

of

M,

LM

{M,0}.

4.7.
The

Power

objects
O,a it of
an

exponential 2A =$P(A) "powerset" developing Now given

the

in
to

topos
wonder
a.

is
whether In

the

analogue
the it

of

2A
fla

in

Set.

Since like
the first

is

natural the "set"

object
as

behaves
shall
see

fact is and

does,

we

by
Set. between
A.

independent
sets

categorial
and

to

description
a

there

bijective
the relations

@>{A) correspondence
of

in

functions

from

3>{A)
relation

from

to

Given

function

f:B-^>@>(A)
for

define

Rf^BxA
given
RgBxA,
of

by

stipulating
define R
and

yef(x),
3>(A)
It inverse
In
a

xeB,
=

ye

A.

Conversely,
and

xRfy /R:B^
we

if

by
is
order
not to

/R(x)
hard

{y:
to
see

yeA
that and this from

xRy}.
the

assignments
the

/R

to

to

are

each
to

other

establish

asserted
in
terms

isomorphism.
of
arrows

capture
eA

special

relation
all
of

correspondence '{A)
about

examine and which

to

A. which

eA

is

the

membership
of A

relation
contain

contains
elements

the A.

information

subsets

Precisely

eA={(U,x):
Passing
and
we

UcA,xeA,andxeU}.
to

from
see

SP(A)
that
e
a
=

eA

is

2A, isomorphic
x>:
^

the

condition
to

"xe the
set

L7"

becomes

"xu(x)
2A
A

1",

Xu,

A,

A,

and

^(x)

1}

104

INTRODUCING

TOPOI

CH.

4,

4.7

What
none

is other Thus

the

characteristic
than
we are

function
the
lead the

of
arrow

eAas
ev
:

subset
x

of A eA
*

2A

A?

Well

it

is
=

evaluation
to
a

2A
of

2,

since
hence

ev(xu,
eA
up

x)

Xu(x). isomorphism)

characterisation
square

(and

to

by

pullback
xA

true

Now

given

relation
and takes
that
so

R^BxA,
R
to

we

have

(x,y)eR
image
of
eA

if
under

ye/R(x)
the
map

if

(/rM, /R X1A,
So
we

y)eeA,
that
see

is
the

the

inverse

(x, y) (3.13)
>

(fR(x),
diagram

y).

BxA

0>(A)xA
is
a

pullback,
than

where

g
can

is

the

restriction
-

of

fR
wil

idA
a

to

R.

But

something
what of
g

stronger

this

be

said

is,
of

fR
the

is

the

only

function

given ??>(A)

R,
that

then

without

give

considering pullback

the

form

diagram.
1. Prove

Exercise

this lead

last
the

assertion.

? definition:
is said
have ea,

We

are

therefore
A

to

fol owing
products ^-objects any 9?-object ^(a) fr:b>^

Definition.

category
a

9?

with
are

to

power and
a r:

objects
monic R^-^b

if

to
e

each
:

ea>^> of

there
9?

^-object $P(a) is exactly

the form

there such
that
9f-arrow

9>(a)
b, and
for

and

a,

for

"relation",
there

xa

one

which

is

pullback

in

foxa

Theorem

1.

Any

topos

<?

has

power

objects.

CH.

4,

4.7

POWER

OBJECTS

105

Proof. the

For

given
of /2a

g-object
x
a

a,

let

0*(a)
character

and

let

>-

i.e.

be

subobject

whose

is

eva

:/]xa^ft,

is show
a

pullback,
that and let

where

eva

is
be
xr,

the

evaluation
power

arrow

from

flxa
any

to

fl.
be

To

this
xr
'

construction b xa >fl
to

gives
its
the

objects
Then
arrow

take
let that

monic

r:Rt-^>bx
the

character.

fr:b^fla
makes

exponential

adjoint

i.e.

unique

commute.

Now

consider

the

diagram

Since
the

eva

(/r

1a)
In

yn

the

"perimeter"
it
R-

of
so

this
as

diagram
the

is bottom
the

pullback,
square

by
is
a

/2-axiom.
the

particular
arrow

commutes,
>ea the does

pullback,
commute.

unique
But then
of

exist
square

to

make is
a

whole
as

by
power

the

PBL

top
Moreover
a

by
some

the
arrow

definition

objects.
top
the
eva

simply
pullback
rectangle
=

pullback, knowing
gives
both
a

diagram required
that
squares

/r
as

is
fl-

making
and hence

the

square
outer

pullbacks
axiom
then

(PBL)
that determined

is and thus

pullback.
from
the

The

diagram
Now

fr
given

is

implies uniquely
power
x

(/rx1o)
as

^r

previous
of
xr-

the

exponential
fl, subobject
power
as

adjoint

The

objects
Is/}1
proves have

we

can

recover

/2=/21=2?>(l).
Anders
can

monic
and C.

e1>^/21
Juul

to

be

classifier.

Kock
be

Mikkelsen

shown

that

objects

also

used

to

106

INTRODUCING

TOPOI

CH.

4,

4.7

construct

exponentials,
a

and
*<?

that
a

category

is

topos

if

*<?

is

finitely

complete

and

has

power

objects (for
details
the for
arose a

consult this best number in

Wraith

[75]).
is
of

Currently it being
best,
topos

characterisation
terms

being

used

as

the

definition it is of
be
not
an

of
however

topos,
the

brevity.

Paedogogically Historically
of the

of suitable
the

reasons.

idea

elementary
and

through
the
that be each
most

examination

subobject
As

classifiers,
wil
of

this it is it would

path
the

provides
fl
have

motivation.
to

evident

-axiom
to

is introduced
of

key
the

the

basic
for the

structure

topos get
off

and
the

anyway

theory
the notion

to

ground.
is

Moreover

fl than

-axiom,
the
remote

and

of

exponentiation,
objects.
recent

conceptually
There of Barwise

simpler
is
set

description
matter,
to

of due

power
to

another

more

the

development
sets-cf.
without

weak

theories
These
It the

relating
theories
therefore

recursion

theory

(admissible
of
sets
to

[75]).
formation. of

produce
becomes

categories
of
to

general
the

powerset
ramifications

interest
relate

study
to

ramifinotion of

fl-

axiom

without

having

it

the

power-object.
Exercise 2.

Examine in

the

structure

of

power

objects

in

the

various

topoi

described
Exercise

this
Deduce

chapter.
from
that the
a

3.
of the
*<? arrows,

discussion

of ^

this
a

section,
if
of

including
pairs

the

proof

Theorem,
a

category
and

is

topos

(i)
(ii) (ii )

has
has

terminal

object
classifier
a

pullbacks
true:

appropriate

of

*<?

For
eva

each :flaxa^>fl

subobject ^-object
there

1 is
a

>

fl

there that

such

for
one

each 'if-arrow

^-object ^-object

fla b fla

and and

an

arrow

"relation"

r:R>^bxa

is

exactly

fr:b^>

making

commute.

Exercise

4.

Show
xa

that is

the

unique

arrow

fla

>

fla

corresponding

to

the

relation

ea>^fla

1n.

CH.

4,

4.8

AND

COMPREHENSION

107

4.8.
In

ft
Lawvere

and

comprehension
[72]
it

is

suggested
To
to
see

that

the

fl
suppose

-axiom
that
We

is

form is
a

of
set

the

ZF
<p
as a a

Comprehension
property
function

that
:

principle. applies

this,
of

and Set

members

B.

represent

<p

in

given

by
if
x

fl
{0

has

property

<p

otherwise.

Now

the

comprehension {x:
xeB

(seperation)
and

principle
elements
as

allows of

we
=

us

to .

form

the
set

subset determined

cp(x)}
qua

of

all

satisfying
earlier
and

This

is
=

by

cp

function

what

called

A9

{x:

cp(x)=

1}.

We

have

e{x:

cp(x)}

if

<p(y)

1,

is
cod
true

a
=

pullback.
back

By
we

let

analogy, {x : <p}:
<p,
as

in
a
>

topos
the

if

<p:

b of

>

fl b

is

an

arrow

with

be

subobject

obtained

by

pulling

along

in

Now

in

a a

f:a>^b
factors

general subobject,

category,
we

if

x: x

b
be 1

is
a
a

an

element member
of

of

object

b,
when

and
x

define

to

/,

xef,

through

/,

i.e.

there

exists

>

making

commute.

This

naturally

generalises

the

situation

in

Set.

108

INTRODUCING

TOPOI

CH.

4,

4.8

Applying
if

this 1
>

notion
a

of

membership
then

to

the

above

pullback

we

see

that

is

b -element

e
as

{x:
the the

<p}
inner

if

the square

arrow

exists

to

make

the

whole

diagram

commute.

But

is
commutes.

pullback,
Hence

wil

exist

(uniquely)

if

the

perimeter

of

diagram

{x:
analogue
Take

<p}

if
of the

<p

true, situation.

giving
Exercise
x

us

an

set-theoretic

1.
1

f:a>^b,
has

g:c>+b

with
xeg. and

f^g.

If

xeb

(i.e.

x:l>b,

or

as

above)
2. For

xef, f:a>^d

show

Exercise

any

xefi&Xfx

true.

CHAPTER

TOPOS

STRUCTURE:

FIRST

STEPS

"The

topoi
strikes

development by Lawvere
this
event

of
and
as

elementary Tiemey
most

writer in

the the

im-

important

history
since

of
its

categorical
creation..
It

algebra
is
not

just
its

that
that

proved
dared
to

these believe

things,
them

they they Freyd

provable."
Peter

5.1.
In

Monies 3.10
a

equalise
it
of
was

stated

that
g

an

injective
h.
and We
true
now

function
see

f:A^>B
that
g

is

an

equaliser
and

for
the

pair composite
directly:

functions
of

and

is

ximf

-B>2

h gener-

is

!:->{0}

:{0}>{0,1}.

This

situation

generalises
Theorem

1:

If
\f

f:a^>b
ana"
the

is

monic

'S-arrow

(?

any

topos)

then

is

an

equaliser
Proof:

of
Since

trueb

true

lb.
of

pullback
g

square

commutes,

and

la

lb

/,

we

have

Xff=

trueb

/.

But

if

XfS

txueb

Xf

109

110

TOPOS

STRUCTURE:

FIRST

STEPS

CH.

5,
=

5.2

then

the the

perimeter
universal

of

the

first of

by

property

diagram pullbacks,

must

commute,
g

since

factors

uniquely

lb through

lc. So,

as

required.
Corollary:

?
In
In

any

topos,
an

an

arrow

is
is

iso

if
and

it

is

both

epic

and
On the

monic.
other

Proof.

any
a

category,
an

iso

monic

epic
an

hand,
a

in

topos

epic
iso

monic

is,

by

the

Theorem,

(3.3). epic

equaliser.

Such

thing

is

always
true:

(3.10).
fl

Exercise,

equalises

fl

>

fl

and

truen

>

5.2.

Images
set

of
function
We

arrows

Any
an

/:
have

>

can

be

factored

into

surjection,

fol owed

by

injection.

the

commutative

diagram

/(A)
where

This

/(A) "epi-monic"

Im/
as

{/(x):
factorisation in

xe

A},
of

and

f{x)
/
is

fix),
up
to

all
a

xe

A.

unique

unique

commuting

isomorphism
Exercise
1.

shown

the
and

If

hg:A-^>C^>B
of

h'
=

monic

factorisations such that

/ (i.e.

f=hg

g': AC'^^B h'g')

are

any

two

epione

then

there

is

exactly

k:C^C

commutes,
The

and

furthermore

is

iso

in

Set set-theoretic

(a bijection).

reader
contrast

may

care

to

and
In

it

with
each

the
arrow

develop "arrows-only"
has
an

proof
to

of

this

exercise
how

approach

fol ow.
To
see

all
we

topoi,
turn

works,

first

to

dif erent

epi-monic description

factorisation.
of

this
one

factorisation

in

Set,

CH.

5,

5.2

IMAGES

OF

ARROWS

111

that
the

has
Kernel

categorial equivalence

formulation. relation

Given

f:A^>B
by

we

define,

as

in

3.13,

RfCAxA
=

Now
a

if

/(x)

/(y).
well-defined

map

h:A/Rf^>
and

is

by

h([x])

f(x).

Moreover

is

injective

AIRf
commutes,
Now
as

where

/R
in

is

the

surjective

natural
as a

map

/r(x)
pairs

Ma

observed

3.13,

Rf

set

of

ordered

yields

pullback

A where
p

f
q,

and

the then

projections,
show
arrow

are

the

kernel

pair
the

of kernel

/.

The

considera-

considerations
that

of

3.12
is
the

that

/R
making

co-equalises

pair

(p, q)

and

unique
Rf

commute.

This
an

suggests

that

in

more

general

category

we

attempt
However,
for

to

factor

arrow reasons
now

by
to

technical

co-equalising (the availability

the

its
of

pullback
the

along
results
of
to

itself.
the the last

simpler
arrow

dualise

construction,
and

i.e.

equalise
We

section) pushout
the

it of
the

is

with

itself.
be
a

So,

let?

any

topos,
f

f:a^>b

any

g'-arrow.

form

pushout

112

TOPOS

STRUCTURE:

FIRST

STEPS

CH.

5,15.2

of

with

/,
by

and

let

im/:/(a)>-^b
3.10.1).
Since

be

the

monk

Theorem

qf

equaliser pf,

of
there

and
a

(im/
arrow

is

is

unique

f*:a>f(a)

making

commute.

Exercise

2.
3.

Analyse
If
p
=

this
then

construction

in

concrete

terms

in

Set.

Exercise

q,

/ is epic.
smallest

Theorem

1.

imfisthe

subobject

of

through

which

f factors.

That

is,

if

u\

commutes,

f(a)

for making

any

and

monic

as

shown,

then

there

is

(unique)

f(a)
im/

commute,

and

hence

imf<zv.
v
=

Proof.

Thus

Being sf=svu

monic,
tvu

equalises
=

pair

s,t:b^d

of

g'-arrows

(5.1).

tf,

so

CH.

5,

5.2

IMAGES

OF

ARROWS

113

there

is

unique
s

h:r^> im

d h

such im

that

hp

and

hq

t.

But

then

hqimf
t
s

im

/,
t

so,

as

equalises

and

we

get

unique
the
commute.

arrow

But
so

that

has in

im

/.

This

in
=

is the

the
statement

unique
of

arrow

making
theorem

right-hand

triangle
then

the
=

diagram

the

uk/*
=

im//*
makes
the

uu,

and

is

monic
com-

(left-cancellable),
commute
as

kf*

u.

Thus

left-hand

triangle

well.

Corollary.

f*:a>f(a)
Apply
the

is

epic.

Proof.

image

construction

to

/*

itself,

giving

the

commuting

diagram

g(a)
imf
im
g

where

f*.
im
we

But

im
But

is
must

monic,
have im
g
must

being
im
the im
be
g

a as

product
the
in

of

monies,
arrow

and

so,

as

im

is

left

cancellable,

unique
to

making
we

imfimgc
have
=

im/.
im

also,
g,
arrow

applying
so

Theorem

im/
hence

must

im/c
Thus the

/
But

im im

and

im

Sub(fo),

g(a)

f(a).

unique

im
g

iso.
the

is,

by

definition,

equaliser

g(a)

114

TOPOS

STRUCTURE:

FIRST

STEPS

CH.

5,

5.3

where

and

q,

the

cokemel

pair

of

f*,

form

pushout

thus:

f*

Since
The

pimg
co-universal

qimg,
property

and

im
of

is

iso,

hence then

epic,
yields

we

cancel

to
as

get

q.

pushouts

/*

epic

(as

in

Exercise

3,
the

above).
work im
to
a

?
of this section

Bringing
Theorem

together
is
an

we

have

2.
up

ff*:
unique
there

-*/()>->
commuting
is

epi-monic
That
:

factorisation
is,

of f if

that

is

unique
has

isomorphism.

vu=f,

then

exactly

one

arrow

f(a)

such

that

commutes,
Proof.
so

and
The

is

iso.

unique
by k,

Exercise

exists

by
2,
and

Theorem

1.
Also

But

then

im
so

/ dually

is

monic,

is

is
Hence

monic

3.1.

kf*=u
is iso.

is

epic,

epic.

being

epic

monic,

(5.1).
D

Exercise

4.

/:

-*

b is

epic

if

there

exists

g:f(a)

b such

that

/*

/.?

5.3.
If

Fundamental
is
a

facts
then

topos
mentioned

the
in

comma

category

|
(part

of

objects
of)
a

over

is

also
as

topos.
Fundamental construction

As

Chapter
of

4,

this
The

is

result theorem of

known

the
a

Theorem
too
some

Topoi.
for
our

proof
present
that
we

of

this need

involves
but We there-

advanced

stage
shall
Fundamental

development,
now.

yielding
therefore record

important
these
consequences

information of
the

Theorem

without

proof:

CH.

5, 5.4 1.

EXTENSIONALITY

AND

BIVALANCE

115

Fact

Pullbacks
a

preserve
>

epics.
b

If

d
in
a

is also
Fact

pullback
epic.
2.

square

topos,

and

is

epic,

then

g,

the

pullback

of f,

is

Coproducts

preserve

pullbacks.
'
and

If

>

i
are

-*in
a a

1*
I
>

g'\
V
h'
>

pullbacks

topos, u,n
*

then d
fe

so

is

a'

g +

g'

1
b + Proofs and Brook
of

b'
results

[h,

h']
may

->

these

be

found

in

Kock

and

Wraith

[71],

Freyd

[72],

[74].

5.4.
Since

Extensionality
a

and

bivalence

general
to

topos
like in
on

i?

is
null
case.

supposed
set

to

be
have
an

"Set-like",
no
arrow

its
elements.
x:

initial
This

object
in
fact the

ought obtains,
work

behave

the
one

0,
there

and

in

except 3.16
are

If closed

is

>

0,
the

then

by
i.e.

Cartesian This
and
one

categories, happens
for

i?

is

degenerate,
in

all
1

g'-objects
with
one

isomorphic.
topos,
0 has

object
if
we

arrow-1
no a non-zero

is
elements. if
one
are

example degenerate
is
not

category
So

topos.

in

non-degenerate
Now and "non-zero" call if and
of of

an

object
is
the
at

it

isomorphic
1
>

to

0,
i?
=

non-empty

there

least

g'-arrow

a,

then

when
i?
=

Set,
the

"non-empty"
sets, situation

co-extensive.
is dif erent.
The

But

when

Set2,
{0})
is

topos

pairs

object

@,

not

116

TOPOS

STRUCTURE:

FIRST

STEPS

CH.

5,

5.4

isomorphic if, g): {0} >

empty.
Exercise

to

the

initial

object

({0}, 0,

{0})
of

-<0,
which
there

{0})

of

@,0), <0, {0})

no

hence would

is

-zero.

But

an
a

element function but

require
Thus

/ @,

to

be is

set
non-zero

is

such

thing.

{0})

1.

Are

there
zero

any

other

non-zero

empty

objects

in

Set2?

What

about

non-empty
2.

objects?
non-zero

Exercise

Are of
the

there

empty
of elements

objects
of
sets

in

Set^*? relates
the
same

In

Bn(I)?
to

D
the

The of

question extensionality,
For used the
same

existence
the

objects
with
the

notion
are

principle
this
two

that

elements

identical.
have

functions,
output
this
takes for the

repeatedly):

principle parallel
same

takes functions

fol owing
f,
g: for

form

are

(which

we

A^t
each

give Categorial y
Extensionality

the

input,
of Arrows.
the:

i.e.

if

xeA,

equal f(x)

if
=

they g(x).

form For

Principle
arrows,

If ,g:a^b
x:

are
>

pair
that

parallel

then

there
wil

is

an

element

of
the

such
statement

of distinct fx?^gx.
is
a

(Category-theorist generator".)
that

recognise
holds
are

this
in distinct

as

This

principle
there

Set,
arrows

but

not

in
from

Set2.

It

is
to

easy

to

see

in

the

lat er
no

two at

@,

{0})

@,

2).

But for

@,
A
arrows

{0})

has

elements

all
that

to

distinguish
satisfies
the of purpose

them.

non-degenerate
is
called
of
1.

topos

extensionality
this

principle
section
is
to

well-pointed.
such

The

examine

the
Theorem

properties
If

categories.
is

i?

well-pointed,

then

every

non-zero

"tg-object

is

non-

nonempty.
Proof.

is
so

non-zero
are

then

0a:0>->a
Hence

and Xoa
'a
~*

:>->
^
In and

have
' &
~^

dif erent
&
has
are

domains,
distinct
there

and

distinct.
=

(otherwise
is
some so

0a
x:l>a

1a,
such

hence
that

a).

By

extensionality

it

fol ows
a

that
an

XoaX9tX-\a*-

particular

element,
False In
course

is

non-empty.

Set

there

are

exactly
true,

two

arrows

from
1. The

{0}
other

to
we

{0,1}. false,

One and

of

is

the

map

with

trae@)=

call

is

CH.

5,

5.4

EXTENSIONALITY

AND

BIVALENCE

117

defined

by
of

false@)
{x: false(x)
have

0.

This

map,

having
the null

codomain

is

the

characteristic

function

1}

0,

set,

so

in

Set

we

pullback
i

0 <!>

false

Abstracting
Harrow

this,
such that

we

define

in

any

topos

<g,

false

>

O,

to

be

the

unique

false

is this
Example

pullback
arrow.

in

g1.

Thus

/afse

Xot-

We

wil

also

use

the

symbol

"_L"

for

1.
2.

In

Set2,
Bn(I),

_L

-^

is

</a/se,
is
_L:I->2xl

/ase):

<{0},
where

{0})

-^

<2,

2).
=

Example

In

:1->

(i)

<0,

i>,

all

Example

3.

In
In

Top(I),
M-Set,
O

_L

:I->I

has

_L

()

<,},

the

germ

of

0
action".

at

i.

Example

4.

@,

_L:{0}^LMhas
Exercise 3.
U

_L@)={m:
For
any
>

0), A0(m,
a,

with

0:Mx0^0,
O)g0}
=

the

"empty

0.

^-object
a

is

pullback,
you

i.e.
may

(Hint:

Xoa need

-L

the

la(=-La PBL)

=falsea).

118

TOPOS

STRUCTURE:

FIRST

STEPS

CH.

5,

5.4

Exercise

4.

In

non-degenerate
topos
<S is

topos,
called

true^false.
(two-valued)
fl).
<g

?
if and

A
are

non-degenerate its only

2.

bivalent
of

true

false

truth-values

(elements
% is

Theorem

If f:
1

well-pointed,
fl
be
any

then
element

is

bivalent.
and
form the

Proof.

Let

>

of

fl

pullback

of

f
Case
=

and
1:

T.

If
If

0,
a

then

is
then

an

initial
i?

object,
is
to
=

with

0x.
a

Then

f
an

xs

XOl
x:

false.
2:
>

Case
1
a

not

0,

as use

well-pointed,
show
that

has
g

element

(Theorem
have

1).
is

We

this

is
gx:

epic.
1 Hence
g:
a
=

For,
>

if
1
can

h, : only
both is

lzjb
be

11
and

hg terminal)
monic
g
we

g,
so

then

hgx
.
Thus
g of

/ the

is
a

kgx. right
monic),
=

But

cancellable.

is
a

epic
terminal, Altogether
or

(being

pullback
f
=

giving
trae-

1.

So

yielding
then

113
have

hence

xg
an

Xit element

shown

that

of

fl

must

be

either

true

false.
in

Now

Set,
to

the

co-product
=2

1 +
was arrow

is
in
_1_

two-element

set

and

hence

isomorphic is given

fl

(this
1 + 1

observed

3.9).
1 +1
>

In

fact

the

isomorphism

by
1

the

co-product
>

[T,

]:

fl

But

any

topos
If
we

i?

has

co-products,
an

and
g-arrow
we
are

so

the
say

arrow

[T,
g

_1_]
a

is

certainly
topos.
we

defined. Shortly
have

[T,
shall

_1_]

is
see

iso
that

wil non-classical

that

is

classical
However

there

topoi.

do

Theorem

3.

In

any

topos,

[T,

is

monic.

CH.

5, 5.4

EXTENSIONALITY

AND

BIVALENCE

119

To
arrows.

prove If if

this

we

need
and

to

do
>

some

preliminary
are

work
we

with
say

co-product
f
and
g
are

f:a-+b
their
0

g:

b i.e.

g'-arrows,

that

disjoint

pullback

is

0,

if

^c

f
square

is
=

pullback

in

%.

(In

Set

this

means

precisely

that

Im

Im

0.)

Lemma.

If :a
is monic.

>-

b and

g:

c^>

are

disjoint

monies

in

%, then

[f, g]:

Proof,

being

monic

means

1C

is
the

pullback. pullback

This,

with

the

previous

diagram,

and

Fact

of

5.3,

gives

[f,g]
c

Now shown

[0c,
that

1C]:

0 +

(dual

of

Exercise

3.8.4),

from

which

it

can

be

[/,

g]

-,

>

is

pullback

(ic

being

the

injection

associated

with

c).

120

TOPOS

STRUCTURE:

FIRST

STEPS

CH.

5,

5.4

Analogously

we

get
1

[/, g]
These

>

b
two

as

pullback.
Fact 2

last

diagrams

(suitably

rotated

and

reflected),

with

again,

give

[f,g]
+

as

pullback.
from

But

[it ,
fol ows
of

tc]=1a+c
that

1a
is
3

1c

(dual (cf.

of

Exercises

and

this
for the

it

[/, g]

monic

Example
that

9,

1, 4, 3.13).

3.8),
?

Now,

proof
0

Theorem

we

observed

L-l

is
are

pullback,
disjoint

indeed

this
and

diagram
so

gives
by
the

the

definition

of
_L

.
*

Thus

and monic.

_1_

monies,

Lemma,

[T,

]:

1 +1

is

?
Theorem 4.

If
view

is

well-pointed,
Theorem

then

[T,
need

_L]:
only

1+1

il,

i.e.

g1

is. classical.

Proof.

In
g1

of

3,
So,
suppose

we

establish

that

[T,

J_]

is

epic,

when

is

well-pointed.
1

/[T,
1

]=

g[T,

_L].

!+

1 +

[T,iL

5, 5

.4

EX1 ONALITY EXTENSI

AND

BIVALENCE

121

Then

[T,

g T

and of

Cl

ality
cancellable.
The

similarly, (Theorem principle

(using
2),
for

/),
and
arrows

/
neither

_L

_L.

Since
that

and

_L

are

the
g,

only
the

elements extensionis

of

them

implies

distinguish f=g.

f
Thus

and

[T,

_l_]

right?

major
5.
A

link

between

the

concepts

of

this

section

is: and

Theorem

topos

i? in

is

well-pointed
.

if

it

is

classical

every

non-zero

^-object
The

is

non-empty
if"

"only
of
the

part

of

this

theorem
some

is

given

by
to

Theorems be

and in

1.

The

proof
subsequent
The what

"if" and

part
wil

requires
be held

notions
in

introduced

subse-

chapters,
category
are

abeyance
not

until

7.6.

Set2

is
The

classical,
category
three of
a

but Set *

bivalent
of

(it
nor

has
on

four
the

truth-values
other

they?)
bivalent
an

functions
classical
but

hand

is

neither
To
construct

(having example
fact:

truth-values)
non-classical

(cf.
topos

Chapter
we
use

10).
the

bivalent

fol owing
Theorem
a

interesting
6.

If

is

monoid,

then

the

category

M-Set

is

classical

if

is

group.

Proof.

In
as

M-Set,
the
To

({0},
union

Ao)
we

is
of

the 1 with

one-element

M-set.

1+1

can

be

described

disjoint
be
all meM.

itself,
1 +1
=

i.e.

two

copies
where

of

independently. and y(m,

specific
We

put
then

({0,1},
the

7), co-product

y(m, diagram

acting 0)

1)

1,

have

where

the
1 to

injections
0 in
has

are
=

i@) <u).
elements.
=

0 if and

and

and
so

fl

(LM,
two

Now

[T,
Hence

/@) ]
<u(m,

is

1, with [T, J_] mapping it is a bijection of iso,

=

0 to

sets,
if

and

LM

only
as

LM

{M,

0}

then

u>(m,M)

0)

{M, 0}. Conversely is 0, [, ]

LM

an

equivariant

122

TOPOS

STRUCTURE:

FIRST

STEPS

CH.

5,

5.4

bijection, {M, 0}. (Exercise

So
to
a

i.e.
But

an

iso
last

arrow

in

M-Set.

Thus

M-Set

is when

classical
M

if

LM
group,

this

condition

holds

precisely

is

4.6.3).
select smallest
as

construct

non-classical
natural

topos

we

need is

only
the

a one.

monoid This
of the
structure

that

is
two

not

group.

The

thing
can

to

do

pick
Formally

is
the

element

algebra
0 and
1 2
-,

which
under
=

be

described
is 0-0 denned

simply
by
=

consisting
is

numbers

multiplication.
{0,1}
1-0
=

it

M2

B,

1)
1-1

where

and 0-1

1,

0,

or

in

table
1

0 0 0

M2

is

monoid is
for
a

with

identity
of

1, in
We of

which
wil
has
three

0 has call

no

inverse.
that

The

category

of

M2-sets
useful
The
set not
a

kind
of

"universal purposes. ideals Thus

counterexample"
it

wil
"the

prove

il ustrative

simply
2,
where

topos

L2
left ai:2xL

left

M2
in

elements,

0,
the

and action

extremely M2". {0} (why

is

{1}

ideal?).

M2,

fl

(L2,

a>),

defined

by a>(m, B)={n:ne2
by

and the table

m<=B},

can

be

presented
2

{0} {0}
2

2 2

0 0
as

0 the

Now

map

[,
it

]
is
not

considered

in

Theorem

6 defined

is

not

iso.

To

show

explicitly

that

epic,

consider

fn:L2-^L2

by

CH.

5, 5.5

MONICS

AND

EPICS

BY

ELEMENTS

123

Fig.

5.1.

/nB)=/n({0}) /n@)
By
the
=

0
a>,

table
=

for

fn

is

equivariant,

so

is it

an

arrow

fn

fl
For

>

fl is
if
so

in
not

M2.

But

/[]
cancellable.
an

1[],
Though
then
=

M2-arrow,
either
two

h(ko@,0))
Thus

h(P). h@)
4,

while fn^ifi, M2 is non-classical, h:{0}> L2 is Since a)@,{0})

=

hence

[T,
bivalent.
map,
we

_l_]

right1

is

h:

fl
=

is

an
=

equivariant 2^{0},
cannot

have

@,@)) h@)={0}.
_L.

2, M2
as

whence

h
not

T,

or

h@)

0, whence
see

h this

So

M2
observe

has

only By
that

truth-values. is

Theorem

well-pointed.
but

To

explicitly,
output
fl

fn^in
arrows

(fn

above),
output

fnoT=1nT
Thus
no

(both
element of

2)

while
the

fn=1n_L
distinct
Exercise then
an

(both fn, 1n
5. Show
x:

0).

distinguishes

ifl^tfl.
if
1

that

a a

(X,
a

A)
in such

is
M-Set

an

object
can

in be

M-Set

(M
y,

any

monoid)
a

element
a,

of

identified

with
all

/ixed
?

point
In 1 above
some

of
the

i.e.
of false. and

an

element
this

a
=

yeX
exercise
we

that

A(m,
that the

y)

meM.
of Theorem

light
is

can
a

show
Then

converse

xeX,

put

A(m, object

y)
in

A(m M2

0, x)
non-empty,

(X, A) y=A@, x) A@,

is

non-zero

object

in
a

M2,
that

then

X^
of
every

0. Take
a,
non-zero

x).
=

is
we

fixed
see

point

since

y.

In

this

way

is

even

though

M2

is

not

well-pointed.

5.5.

Monies
our

and
notion
of

epics
elements
of

by
as

elements
arrows

Using categorial

of and

the

form

we

can

give

definitions

"injective"

"surjective".

124

TOPOS

STRUCTURE:

FIRST

STEPS

CH.

5, 5.5

Harrow

f:a-*b,
there
x,

where

<g x:l^a

is

category
with
then
x
=

with

1,
=

is
y.

surjective

if

for

each

y:l>ft

is
have is

some

fx
y.

is

injective

if

whenever
Theorem

l=Ja
i?
a

fx=f

y,

1.

If

well-pointed

topos

then

an

'g-arrow

f:a^b

is

(i) (ii)
Proof,
g

surjective injective

if if
Suppose
there

epic
monic.

(i)
h
then

/ surjective.
is
for So
some

Let

g,h
b
such

b^c
that Then

be
g
gy

such
^
=

that

gf

h
as

f.
f

If

y.

But
=

is
=

surjective,
hy,
on
a

y=fx
contradiction.
the

some
we

x:l^a.
must

g/x
that

hfx
/ cancels

conclude
1

that

h, and
the

right.
assume

Conversely

/ epic.

Given

>

b, form

pullback

Now

is

epic,
3.16.1),
ergo

by

Fact hence

of

(Theorem
be
q

iso,
and

non-zero,
z

(Theorem
1

5.3, making 1)

so

if

c=0,
and

then

would
So Then

be

monic
must
x
=

Osl
there

degenerate.

exists

z:l>c.

putting

we

get
1.

x:

/
(ii)
in

(details?).
Theorem.

Exercise

Prove
Show

Part

of

the

Exercise

2.
for

that

M2,

fn

is

surjective,

although

not

epic,

and

similarly
Exercise

[T,
3.

_l_].
that

Show

fn subject

is

not

monic,
of

but

is

injective.

?
and

We

wil
7

return

to

the

well-pointed

topoi

extensionality

in

Chapters

and

12.

CHAPTER

LOGIC

CLASSICALLY

CONCEIVED

"It
even

is

not

easy,
to

and

perhaps explain
E.

not

what

useful, logic

briefly
J.
Lemmon

is."

6.1.
In examined of focuses
any

Motivating
systematic
is the
new on

topos
development
so-called

logic
of
set

theory
classes.
to

one

of is subsets

the
concerned

first of

topics
with
a

to

be
ways

algebra
and when of
\

of
relativised

This
the

defining

sets,

given

set

the Intersection:
Union:

operations

={x:
A

xeA

and
and

xeB}
not

AUB={x:x?AorxeB}
={x:
with
as
a

Complement:
The
structure

xeD
the

xeA}
,
These

power

set

'Sf'(D)
what
are

together
is

of

known

Boolean connected
be

operations algebra.
with characterised
the

U,
classical universal of

exhibit
to account

the
be

algebras,

defined

shortly,
truth.
Now

intimately
,

of

logical
properties,
It
Boolean
as

the
and

operations
hence
out

U,
in
any
cases,

can

by
an

proper-

defined that in The

some

topos,
this that
the

turns

algebra,
classical of rather words It The is

indicating
proper

yielding algebra "logic"

because

"algebra
not

subobjects".
the
laws

does

satisfy
topos
seem,

of
same

of it

the would

is

not

the
is that is

algebra classical,
the

logic. subobjects
than

perspective,
non-Boolean
way

the
non-

is

the
In

topos

logic
, U,
we

the

other
and

round. and

defining
the

used the
set

"and",
are

"or",
determined
rules

"not",
the

so

properties
behaviour,
that

of of should

operations
words.
Boolean

by
of of
can

the

classical

meaning, that logic representable developed

of
125

the

logical

these
be
a

dictate
in
in any
proves

0>(D)

algebra.
classical
2
=

rules and

logic
then the

are

Set

by
topos
to

set

{0,1},
of
2.

be

operations % by
characterise

on

the
the

using

in

place

This

gives

"logic"

%,

which

126

LOGIC

CLASSICALLY

CONCEIVED

CH.

6,
to

6.2

behaviour all In basics Later the this of

of

subobjects
of in
%

in classical
to
we

i?.

It

is

principles chapter
classical

logic
be Boolean.

precisely (i.e.
spite
how

when the

this
of

logic
that

faus
the

reflect
of
the

logic
of it Lemmon's

Set)

algebra
outline

subobjects

fails

wul

briefly
and

(in
show non-classical
to
a

caveat)
to

logic
wil
deal

generalises

the

topos
the

setting.
of
the

chapters

with

logic,
ful
account

and

its

motivation, general

leading
topos
looks

eventually
like.

of

what

plulosophical logic

6.2.
A

Propositions
proposition,
true
or or

and
statement,
Thus

truth-values
or

sentence,

is

simply

an

expression

that

is

either

false.
+

2=4" 5"

and

plus
are

equals

to

count

as

propositions,
2 + 2

wlule
to

"Is
and "Add
are

equal
and

4?"

2!"

not.

Thus
we

each

sentence

has

one

of the truth-values
1

two

truth-values.

It

is

either

true,

which

indicate of used
may

by
0. earlier
construct

assigning
The
set
arrows

it
of

number

1,
is
2
=

or

false,

indicated

by
the

the

assignment
terminology

{0,1} given
i.e.

(hence
ones

terminolthe
of and

for

/2).
sentences

We

compound
"and",
new

from
and

by
sentences

use
a

the

logical
we

connectives

"or",

"not",

given

|3

form
"a

the and

sentences

|3"

symbolised
symbolised

"/3"
"av/3"
"~a".

"aor/3"
"not
a"
to

symbolised
be

These

are

said

obtained

by

conjunction,
sentence
can

disjunction,
be

and

negation,
from the
now

respectively.
The

truth-value of its

of

compound

computed
rules

truth-values

components,

using

some

simple

that

we

describe.

CH.

6,

6.2

PROPOSITIONS

AND

TRUTH-VALUES

127

Negation
The
sentence
~a

is
a

to

be

true true

(assigned
A).
form of
a

1) when
table

is

false

(assigned

0),

and
We

false

@)
present
a

when this
~a

is
in

rule

the

1 0

0
1

called

the This

truth-table
a

for

negation.
from
denned
2
to

Alternatively
2 il

we

can

regard
1)
the for

it

as

determining (resp. 0). truth-function.

function
i:

that
=

outputs

0
=

(resp.
is called

2,

by

0,

iO

1,

input negation

Conjunction
In

order

for

|3

to

be

true,

both
and
as

of

and

/3
are

must

be

true.

Otherwise their truth-table

|3 Now,

is

false.

given
can

two

sentences

a,

|3,
in

there
four

four
rows

ways

possible

truth-values

be

combined,
/3

the

of

the

0
1

0 0 0

0 0

for determined
The

conjunction.
table i.e. called the
^:

The

corresponding
to
a

truth-value
above
r\

for

|3 in

each

row

is

according provides
2x2-^2, conjunction
as

the function
denned

rule. from

pairs
1^0
which
can

of
=

truth-values 0^1
also be
=

to

truth0. This in
a

values,
is

by

1^1=1,

0^0

truth-function,

presented

tabular

display

0 0 0

128

LOGIC

CLASSICALLY

CONCEIVED

CH.

6,

6.2

Disjunction
a

C is
of
From

true
a

provided
and

at
are we

least

one

of

and

|3

are

true,

and

is

false

only

if

both

C
rule
a

false. obtain the

this

disjunction

truth-table

1 1

av/3
1 1
1

0
1

0 0 and
the

corresponding
=

disjunction
1,
0

truth-function
=

\u:2~x2-

2,

which

has

0^0

0,

i.e.

1 1

Implication
The

implication
"a
=>

connective

allows

us

to

form

the

sentence

"a

implies

/3"

symbolised

|3".
"if
a

(synonyms:
The
cannot

then

|3",
the
it
=>

"a

only

if

C".)

classical
be
a

true

interpretation implication
So
we

of
if
make
as
a

connective
allows
us

"implies"
to
a

is

that
false false.

a=>|3
from In all

infer is
true

something
while
is

something
other
cases

true.
a
=>

|3 false
The

if

/3 is

|3
i

counts

true.

truth-table

11

10 0 0 The
l
=

0
1

1 1

0 truth
or

implication
0=>0=l,

function
1

l=>0

0 0
1

1 1

CH.

6,

6.3

THE

PROPOSITIONAL

CALCULUS

129

Tautologies By
truth-table
successive

applications
for
a

of

the
sentence.

rules

just
For
a

any
~a

compound

given example

we

can

construct

^; 1 1

0
1

0 0

1
1

0
a

1 1 1 1

=>(=>)
1 1

av/3
1
1 1

=>(av|3)
1

0
1

0
1

1 1 1

0 0 A l's. Such

1 1

0 is

0 definition
sentence

tautology
Thus
sentences
a

by
are

whose

truth-table
a
=>

contains
are

only
component

v~a,

=>(),
true
no

|3
matter
v
~a

=>

(a
comes

=>

/3),
not

(a v|3),
the the
a

all

tautologies. falsity
conneca

what
the then

truth-values
from

their truth
way
or

parts but connectives

that the is from

have. the
are

The

truth

of

of

a,

logical
A

arranged.
true

for that

purely

"shape" tautology logical

to

of

sentence,
expresses and
case.

its

logical
law,
any

logical
of

statement

reasons,

not

because

facts

about

world

happen

be

the

6.3.
In
order

The
to

prepositional
further of the device
our

calculus
of study description of a formal basic symbols) formulae
use,

logic
of

we

need

to

give
and
a

somewhat
truth-values. is of

more

precise
is
as

rendering
by
an

our

propositions
Such

This

done

alphabet
allow
us

(list
to
we

of make shall

language. together
or

language
a

presented
rules

with
out

set

formation symbols.

that The

sentences

of

the

alphabet

language
for

called

PL,

has

the

fol owing

ingredients:

Alphabet
(i)
variables,
an

PL

infinite
or

list
sentence

trQ,

iru

2,. .

of

symbols,

to

be

called

prepositional

let ers;
~,

(ii) (ii )

the
the

symbols
bracket

v,

=>;

symbols

), (.

130

LOGIC

CLASSICALLY

CONCEIVED

CH.

6,

6.3

Formation

Rules Each
If
a a

for

PL-sentences
let er

so

A) B) C)
Notice
sentences.

sentence

is is
the
~a;

sentence;
so
a

is
and

sentence,

If

|3
we

are are

sentences,

then let ers

are

(/3),
and

that Thus like

using
stand denotes
2,

|3
-7r24,

as

(avC), general
or

(
names

=>/3).
for
more

complex,
is
denoted

a might (~(ir2A<7r11)v('7r0= r0)).

for the

let er,
The
set

like

something
of
sentence

collection
of
all

let ers

while

t i,
a

sentences,

i.e.

Wo,

.}

={:
To

is

PL-sentence}.
of in

develop
any

theory
denned V
to
to

meaning,
6.2.

or

semantics,
value
and

for

PL
we

we

use

the

truth-functions
understand truth-value
function

By
to

assignment
Such
so a

shall

under-

from
sentence

{0,1}.
let er,

V:

assigns
or

VWd
extended

to

each

"interpretation" systematically
from
2.

the is

members
to

of
all

This
so

provides interpretation
V

"meaning"
can

then
a

be

sentences,

that
over

extends

to

function

This

done

by
of

"induction
the rules

the

formation

rules",

through (a) (b) (c) (d)

Example.

successive

application
=

V(~a) V(oA|3)=V(o)nV(|3) V(ovp)=V(a)uV(|S)

If

-iV(a)

V(a=>/3)=V(a)=>V(/3)
V(iro)=
V(i71)
=

1,
=

and

V(ir2)
=

0,
=

then 0
=

VCn-j)
V(~
it

-tVWi)
V(~ V(iT0)
is

-il

172) ITj))

)
=>

V<>2) VC-IT!
in

0
=

0
1

V(iT0
etc.

(-17!
:0>2
2.

12)

=>

D
In

this
V:

way
a

any
>

"lifted"
be

unique
or

way

to

become

function
A
sentence

value

is

then

denned

to

if is

it
a

receives

the

"true" a, if

from for

every

tautology,

denoted

each

tautology, assignment value-assignment

a

classically
Thus

valid,
a
=

whatsoever.

V,

V(a)

l.

Axiomatics
The the semantics for
There PL allows
us

to

single
way

out

special

class

of

sentences

tautologies.

is

another

of

characterising

this

class,

namely

CH.

6,

6.3

THE

PROPOSITIONAL

CALCULUS

131

by the generating
rules
sentences,

use

of
new

an

axiom
sentences

system.
from

Axiomatics

are

concerned

with
the
or

methods

of of

given allowing
of

ones,
us

through
to

application
"derive",
certain

of inference. embodying
basic
a a

These

rules,

"infer",

principles
of of of
an

deduction

and

techniques

of

reasoning.
The

ingredients
sentences,
rules

axiom called

system.then
axioms

are

(i) (ii) performed

Sentences

collection
collection
on

of

the

system;

of
to

inference
derive the
we new

which
ones.

prescribe
are

operations
theorems. of is
a

to

be

sentences,
derivable
from
more

axioms introduce each of of

called the notion

To

specify
sequence

these
as
a

lit le
sequence

precisely
of
or

proof

finite
an

sentences, earlier
members

which
the

either

(i) (ii) system's

A

axiom,
inferential

derivable theorem

from
rules.
can

sequence

by
is

one

of member is

the

then
sequence.

be

defined

as

sentence

which
of
an

the

last

of
to

some

proof
axiomatised
are

The

set

of

theorems
that

axiom the

system

said

be

by
several

that known

system.

There

systems
are

axiomatise
the

classically
of
PL.

valid
The of

sentences,
one we

i.e. shall deal

whose
with for
twelve CL

theorems
wil be

precisely
CL
sentences

tautologies
Logic).
are

called all
and

(for
that
denote

Classical

The the

axioms

comprise
forms

instances

of

one

fol owing

(a,

|3,

arbitrary

sentences).

II
IV
V

VI VII VII IX
X

XI XII The

(/3)=(/3) (=C)=((7)=(/7)) ((=>/3)(/3=>7))=(=7) /(|3) ((=>/3))=>/3 => (a v |3) (avC)=)(Cva) ((a=7)AO ~a=>(a=>/3) ((=>/3)(=>~/3))=>~
av~a

7))

((avP)

7)

system

CL

has

single
From
a

rule

of

inference;
|3, the
sentence

Rule

of

Detachment.

and

=>

|3

may

be

derived.

132

LOGIC

CLASSICALLY

CONCEIVED

CH.

6,
more

6.3

This

rule

is modus and

known

also

by
ponens.

its

medieval It
to

name,

modus
on a

ponens,

correctly implication
theorem.

ponendo
its

operates
"detach" that is

pair
consequent

of

theorems,
as
a

an

antecedent,
to

the

new

By
detachment

writing
can

"hcEa"
be

indicate
as

CL-theorem

the

rule

of

expressed
and that

i/hci;
The

I-cl
the

(a

=>/3),

then

hcc
are

C-

demonstration
into
two

CL-theorems

precisely

the

tautologies

fal s

parts:

Soundness

Theorem.

If

|ct

<*,

then

is

classically

valid.

Completeness

Theorem.

If

is

classically

valid,

then

[-^r.

In effect

general
that
a

"soundness"
sentences

theorem of theorem
a

for

an

axiom kind
are

while
are

only "completeness"
sentence

certain
states

system derivable
sentences

is of

result
as
a

to

the

theorems,
certain
a

that
exact

all

kind

derivable.
of

Together
in the it.
in
terms

they
of CL shows show that
one are

type that
To

give derivabuity.
theorem
that

an

characterisation Thus classical

the results

of

particular
state

just
that
are

quoted
a

theoremhood
prove

in Soundness
one

characterises
is
all

validity.
in

easy,

the axioms

sense

computer

could truth-tables
are

do

First

of

the of detachment

tautologies
VII,
This hence
and

(the
XII

6.2
Then
=>

the shows

axioms

the

forms

tautologies).
if
a
a

that
then

i.e.

and

C
is

tautologies,
can

|3 is also
of valid

I, V, "preserves" tautology.

validity, implies
every

that theorem
The for established derivable

proof
of CL

sequence

consist

only requires
more

sentences,
a

valid.
theorem
The first Emil

Completeness
its verification.
in
in

than
this kind

mechanical for classical

all

result

of

procedure logic
were

was

1921 the Since

by
system
then
of be

Post,
used
a

who

proved
and methods
Surma

that
Whitehead
have

tautologies
in

by
number

Russell

Principia
for

Mathematica.

of in

been of classical

developed logic.

proving
survey

completeness
of these
may

various
found
a

axiomatisations
paper

by

[73].

CH.

6,

6.4

BOOLEAN

ALGEBRA

133

6.4
The

Boolean
set
a

algebra
2,
to

together
structure

with that
we

the have

truth-functions

i,

r\,

forms
and

Boolean
at

algebra,
are

mentioned

several
in several
P
=

times

now

last

going
Recall
elements

define.

The

definition
3

proceeds
a

stages.

from
x,

Chapter

that

lat ice

is

poset
and

(P,

C)

in

which

any

two

have bound

(i) (ii)
x n x

a a

greatest
least
also
y.
are

lower
upper

(g.l.b.),
(l.u.b.),
xljv.

xny;
meet

bound
as

is
and

known As

the in

lat ice

of

and
P

y,

while

as

is

the

join

of
meets

observed and

3.8,
are

products
from 0

joins
3.6 that
all A
x

when 3.9, co-products.

a zero

is

considered for

category,
is
element
a

Recall element
1
a

3.5,
OCx,
all
xeP.

or
a

minimum

lat ice
is
an

an

having
xCl,

eP,
and

while is said
1 is

unit
to

or

maximum

having
zero.

lat ice initial

be

bounded
Now
a

if

it lat ice

has

unit
bounded

and

Categorial y,
and

0 is

terminal.
5

always
so a

has

pullbacks
lat ice
Example
meet

pushouts

(3.13,

is

precisely
1.

(3.15)
@>(D),
)

finitely
a

Example bicomplete
lat ice.

and

its

skeletal
The unit
and

dual), pre-order
is

category.
the is
zero

is

bounded

of

and

is

their

intersection

Af]B,

the

D, join

0, the
union

their

AUR

Example it into

2.

The

set

{0,1}
2

has

the

natural

the

ordinal

pre-order

(Example

2,

ordering Chapter

0=?

1 which

makes

2)

9
0

,9
1

0
and

is

the

zero,

and

the
the

unit

in

this

poset.
x

xr\y

is

both

the
to

lat ice

meet

the

result
xuy

of

applying
is
both

the

conjunction
of
and

truth and

function
their

(x,

y)e2x2.

Likewise

join

disjunction.
collection of
and open
meets

Example

3.

If is

I
a

is

topological
exactly
the
zero

space
as

with
in is

@
and the

its
unit

sets,
are

then
unions

(,
and

c)

poset

Example
0,
lat ice,

1-joins
is
I.

intersections,
4.

Example

(LM,

c)
M.

is Joins

bounded
and
meets

where
as

LM
Examples

is

the
1 and

set

of
3.

left

ideals

of

monoid

are

in

134

LOGIC

CLASSICALLY

CONCEIVED

CH.

6,

6.4

lat ice
which

is

said
the

to

be other
=

distributive
in
any

if

it

satisfies

the

fol owing

laws

(each

of

implies

lat ice):
all

(a) (b)
Example

xn(yuz) XL_i(ynz)
5.
All

(xny)u(xnz) (xLjy)n(xLJz)
examples
above of of

are

x,

y,

z.

four

distributive. need of if

D
further

To

complete
-

our

description
version

Boolean
be

algebra
a

we

one

notion
In
a

lat ice

complementation.
is said
to

bounded
XLJy
=

lat ice,
1

complement

and
xny A
complement

=0.

bounded

lat ice
in the 6.

is

complemented

if

each

of

its

elements

has

comple-

lat ice.

Example its
set

CP(D),

c)
A.

is

complemented.

The

lat ice

complement

of

is

complement
7.

Example
~ix

B,

=?)

is for

complemented.
av~a,

The

complement

of

is

its

negation

(cf.

truth-tables
8. In

). only
candidate @
unless U
every

Example

(,
in

)
But

the
U?

for

the closed.
open
set

complement
Thus

of

L/e wil

is

its
be

set

complement. complemented
9.

is

(,
also

c)
closed.

only

the

event

that

is in

Example

If

is

the
as

monoid

M2

B,

1)

then

(LM,

s),

{0}

has

no

lat ice
Exercise

complement,
1.

{1}?LM.
lat ice and each
xi_iy=xi_iz element
=

D
has
at
most

In if

distributive

one

comple? distributive

complement,
A

i.e.

xny=xnz=0

l,

then

z.

Boolean

algebra

(BA)

is,

by

definition,

complemented

lat ice.
Example.

@>(D),

s)
is
a

and

B,
x

=?).
e

If
one

(, ) complement.
=

BA
We

then denote

each it

has,

in

general

by by

the

above

exercise,

exactly

x'.

CH.

6,

6.5

ALGEBRAIC

SEMANTICS

135

Exercise

2.

In

any

BA

we
=

have:

A) E)
after in his

(x')'

x;

B)
=

xny

=Oif yCx';

C)

who first

xCyif y'Cx';
Boolean

D)

()'
are

'';

()'
Boole The

''.
A815-1864)

algebras
the laws

named

George
work,

described

they

satisfy

Mathematical

Analysis

of

Logic
6.5.
Each

A847).

Algebraic
BA
B
=

semantics

(B,
2.

C)
It

has
to

(complement)
functions
sentence

corresponding
on
a
=>

also

has

operations the conjunction, an operation

the
account
same

(meet), disjunction, corresponding

truth-table
the
two

lj

(join),
and
to
as

and

'

(completruth The
~a

negation

implication.
sentence

/3 has
on

exactly
classical
x,

the

v
same

/3,

and

hence So
x

the

sentences

have

the

meaning.

for

we

define

=x'i_iy.
that
a
=>

Exercise hence
that
on

1.

Verify
the
2.

definition

/3 and just

~a

/3

have

the the

same

truth-table,

and
truth-

reproduces

implication

function The
A

operations
B-valuation
is

on

can

be

used

to

generalise
This
is

the

semantics
to
a

of function

6.3.

function

V:<P0^>B.

extended

V-.^

by (a) (b) (c) (d)

=

the

rules

V(a)' V(~a) V(aAj3)=V(a)nV(j3) V(avj3)=V(a)i_iV(|3) V(a=>0)=V(a)'i_iV@)=V(a)=>V@).

a

Then

sentence

is

B-valid,
of

N a, that

if
that 21=

for
a
a

every

-valuation
is
what

V,
we

V(a)
earlier

(where
called
Soundness The
are a

is

the

unit

B).
and B-Validity: for Detachment

Notice

2-valuation if
a

value-assignment,
Theorem
for

is

tautology.
BNa.
that all
the

If
One

hCLa
shows

then

proof
B-valid,
Now
the

of

this

is that

as

2-validity.
preserves

CL-axioms

and
zero
a

this
an

property.

and

unit of construed
be

of

in
as

provide
the
a

"isomorphic
of
it is

copy"
BA's).
hence
Bt=a in In

of
this

2
way

within
any

B.

B
A

is
sentence

subobject
can

category

2-valuation
in

be wil

B-valuation,
if valid

only
BA

if

21= hence

a.

called

BA-valid

every

(and

particular

is

2-valid).

136

LOGIC

CLASSICALLY

CONCEIVED

CH.

6,

6.6

All
the

of

these

notions

of
statements

validity
are

are

connected
to

by
each

the

observation
other:

that

fol owing
q
a a a

four
is
is is
a

equivalent

tautology -valid,
A-valid.

for

some

particular

Exercise

2.

(The
a~cj3

Lindenbaum
if is
on an

Algebra). hcLa=>j3
relation
set

Define and
on

relation

~c

on

by

Show is well

that

~c

denned

the

equivalence quotient
if

and

that

partial

ordering

/~
/3
the

by

[][0]
The
that

hcra

=>

poset
it

Bc
is
a

(/~,
in which

is

called

Lindenbaum

Algebra

of

CL.

Show

BA,

[a]
Define
sentences
a

if

Revaluation
a.

Vc
Hence
show

by

()

[;],

and

prove

that

Vc(a)

[a],

all

Hera
The

if

Bct=a.
be

to

algebra
or

Bc
The Bell and

can

used
of

develop
can

proof
in

that

all Rasiowa

tautologies
and

are

CL-theorems.

details
Slomson

this

be

found

Sikorski

[63],
6.6.
Each

[69].

Truth-functions
of
the

as

arrows

classical

truth-functions of
some

has

codomain domain.
the

2,
This

and observation
that

so

is

the

characteristic

function
us

subset

of

its

wil makes

lead
sense

to

an

arrows-only
topos,

definition

of

truth-functions

in

any

through

the

fl-axiom.

Negation
~i:

>

is

the

characteristic

function

of

the

set

CH.

6, the

6.6

TRUTH-FUNCTIONS

AS

ARROWS

137

But Hence

inclusion
in

function
we

Set

have

the

{0} c-> pullback

is

the

function

we

called

false

in

5.4.

false

>

true

(recall

that

false

is

the

characteristic

function

of

0^1).

Conjunction
The where
A

only

input

to

that

gives

output

1 is

A,1).

Hence

Xa

={A,1)}
a

Now
We
see

being
that
true

one-element
arrow

set

can

be

identified
map

with

an

arrow

1^2x2.

this

is

the

product

(true,

true),

which

takes

to

(true

@),

@)),
1

and

hence
,

{tme'true)

2X2

true
-

is

pullback.

Implication
=>
:

>

is

the

characteristic

function

of

={@,0),
and
so

@,1),
2X2

A,1)},

^-^
Now

is
other

pullback.
than the
=

natural

is

so

named

because,

as on

relation

on

2,

it

is

none

partial
in

ordering 2}

the

ordinal

2, i.e.

{<x,

138

LOGIC

CLASSICALLY

CONCEIVED

CH.

6,

6.6

But

in

any

lat ice

we

in
x

fact
n

have

xCy

if

(why?)

so

and

so

according
2x2

to

3.10,
j
P'i

@^>
2

2x2

is

the

equaliser

of

where

prx

is

the

projection

prx((x,

))

Disjunction
kj

is

Xd,

where

D=
The
cases.

{<l,l)<l,0)
of
D

@,1)}.
by
=

description
Notice first
A that

arrows

is

lit le

more

complex

than

in

the

other

AUB,

where

={A,1),
2
can

A,0)},
be

and

={A,1),
the

@,1)}.
monic 0
to

Now

identified
takes We
<

with
1 then 2
to

(trae2,12):2-
identifiable
with
2

2x2

which

A,1)
form

and
the

A,

0).

product Similarly

map

is

A2,
>

true2).
2+2

co-product

(true2,12\
2x2

'J

/A2,true2)

i.e.

[(true2,12),
factorisation
2 + 2

A2,

trae2)]

and

find

that

Im/

D.

Thus

we

have

an

epi-monic

f+

2x2

X
D

This

specifies
in

D the

expressed

uniquely language

up

to

of

isomorphism categories,

by
and
so

properties
we

that
can now

can

all
the

be

define

CH.

6, 6.6
in
a

TRUTH-FUNCTIONS

AS

ARROWS

139

Truth-arrows If
f

topos
classifier
T:

is

topos

with

1 g"-arrow

fl;
such
that

A)

\:>
1

is

the

unique

-^

-^
in
.

fl Thus
>

is

pullback
:

\,

where

_L

itself
in
g"

is

the

character the

of

!: 0

>

1.

B)

/2
-

fl
x

/2 /2

is

the

character

of

product
the

arrow

(T,

T):

1
vj

/2
:

/2.
-

C)
i?-arrow

/2

/2

is

defined

to

be

the

character

of

image

of

the

[<Tn, D)
=>
e:
:

1
x

n>,
->

a,

Tfi)]:
the

/2
character

fl

-*

fl of

/2

is

lat er

>^,
is
the

where

the

equaliser
'.

of

,
truth
arrow,

being

the

conjunction

and

the

first

projection

arrow

of

the

product

/2.

Example

1.

In

Set,

and

Finset

the

truth

arrows

are

the

classical

truth

functions.

Example

2.

In
2.

Bn(J),
The i.e.
truth

where
arrows

Bx1,
in

"copy"
truth-functions,
functions
to

of

they
each

consist stalk.
Thus

of

Pl), Bn(J) "copies"

i:

the
are

stalk
of

over

i is

2x{i},
of
truth2x1 takes

essential y
the

bundles

corresponding
the

acting
2
x

on

fl
to

fl

is

function
that

from fl xfl
in

that

takes

pair
consists reader

consisting

of

A, (x,
those

i) i)
define

to

@,

and

i) and (y, i)
that other the

only
can

of

pairs
the

@, i) to (, belong
truth

A, i)
to

i). (recall
the
same

n:flxfl-fi
in stalk

Bn(I)
The

fl).
is
a

readily
whereas in

arrows

in

Thus,
of two-element

Set

fl

is

two-element

BA,

in

Bn(J). Bn(J)

fl

bundle

BA's,

indexed

by

I.

140

LOGIC

CLASSICALLY

CONCEIVED

CH.

6,

6.7

Example

3.

In is

M-Set,
defined

where

fl

(LM,

),

the

negation

truth-arrow

\:LM^>LM

by

-i(B)={m:meM
=

andwm(B)=0} {m:
arrow

for is
that

all

n,n*

The

conjunction
LM
The
x

given
takes

from

LM

to

LM
arrow
:

by (B,

set

intersection,

i.e.

it

is

that

function

C) by
set

to

union.

disjunction

is
x

given

Implication

LM

LM

LM

has

the

description

and
Example the

@
above

is 4.

the

set

inclusion
the

relation
case

on

LM.
our arrows

In definitions

particular
show
i

of
truth
2

canonical
to

(counter)
be

example
by
the

M2,
tables

the

given

{0} {0} {0} 0

=>
2

0 0 0 0
2

{0} 0

0 0
2 2

{0} 0 {0}
2

{0} 0

0
2

{0} {0}
2 2

0 0 0
2

2 2 2

2 2

{0} 0
Example 5.
The

{0} {0}

{0} 0
of
of
the

{0} 0
truth-arrows
in

description
til

gives
wil
Exercise Exercise
be

further

indication

unification
8.

achieved

Top(I), by

which
the

in

itself

present

theory,
?

delayed
1.
2.

Chapter
the

Describe Describe the

truth-arrows

in
the

Set2.
in
0

and
of
the

truth-arrows

Z2-Set,
addition.

where

Z2

B,
6.7.

+,

0)

is

monoid

numbers

and

1 under

^-semantics
able
to

We

are

now

do
arrow

propositional
1
>

logic
ft and
that

in

any

topos

g.

Recall
the

that

truth

value
such g-arrows.

in

g"

is

an

g(l,

/2)

denotes

collection

of

CH.

6,

6.7

-SEMANTICS

141

An
sentence

-valuation
let er whole
ir;
a

is truth

function value

:0^>?A,

(I)
This

assigning
function is

to

each

sen-

(7;):

1.

extended

to

the

of

by

the

rules

(a)

V(~a)=-iV(a)

(b)

Via)

V(C)

(c) (d)
In

V(avj3)=w V(a=>P)==
way 1
-

this
We

we

extend is

so

that

every

sentence

is

assigned
for
every

an

g"-arrow

V(a):
V,
Exercise

.
say
that
a

shall

<g-valid,

denoted

g"l=a,

if

^-valuation

V(a)=T:l-*n.
1.

SetNa

if

FinsetNa if

if

FinordNa i.e.
in

if

is

tautology
in

if

Exercise
equivalent
to

Bn(l) Boolean-algebra-validity
2.

t=

(A),
is

?)Na, tautology.
the

C^A),

topos-validity c).

Bn(I)

is

equi

Hence

Bn(I)t=a
In
sentences.

if of natural
that these

the

topoi
The
to
see

exercises,
is
%

system
does

CL

axiomatises

the

valid
We
are

about
sentence

CL

question complete
is
a

is

this

always
i.e. The

happen?
that then

for
CL-theorem.

^-validity,

any

g"-valid
reduces

(whatever

is)

question

142

LOGIC

CLASSICALLY

CONCEIVED

CH.

6,

6.7

to-"is
more are

CL

sound
answer

for
the the

i?

-validity?"
is that

The
axioms of excluded of
the
set

short

answer

is-no!
are

A but

slightly
there

revealing

I-XI

of

CL
av~a,

i?-valid,
is
not
reasons

topoi
in

in

which

"law

middle",

valid.
that

An

example
emerge
at

is

Set"*,

category
where

functions,
story
on

for

wil
be

least
To show

Chapter for propositional

that

10,
i?-valid

ful

topos
we

validity
need
the the

wil

told,

logic.
sentences
are arrows

tautologies
and
as

result,
of
the

which
truth-arrows

shows

that

the

J_

behave do of in truth-values

under
Set.

fol owing application

first
we

in
If

g"
>

exactly
ft
x

they

But

some

terminology.

(/,
for

g):

ft

is

"pair"
a

write

fug

for
for

(/,

g)
g)
etc.

/=>g
Theorem 1.

=>

(f,
and

In

any

g,

_L

exhibit

the

behaviour

displayed

in

the

tables
X

\x

_L

T _L

_L T
T
=

T _L _L _L

_L _L

(i.e.

etc.)
T

_L

T _L

T T

T J.

T T

_L T

_L

Proof.

That
i

_L

fol ows
see

by
why
iT=

commutativity
_L,
consider

of

the

pullback

that

defines

(cf.

6.6).

To

CH.

6,

6.7

g-SEMANTICS

143

The

bottom

square

is

the

pullback
_L
as

defining
the
character

i.

The of
i

top
1.
to

square

is

the the

pullback
PBL,
of
It the

(inverted)
outer

defining
rectangle
be

! :0*

Hence
the

by
character

is

pullback
derive
the much easy

showing
other

be

!:0-l.

would
but

definitions,
which

possible in Chapter
tables
as

to

tables facts
So

from wil
we

the

relevant

7
a

some

deeper
corollary.

be

established
leave
the

yield
til
then

these

rather

wil

details
Now define

(cf.
that

7.6).
V:

?
2

suppose
an

^-valuation

- :0>A,
if

is

classical

,)

by

value-assignment. putting

We

use

to

Lemma.

For

any

sentence
or

(a) (b)
Proof.
The

either

V'(a)=T

V'(a)=
=

_L

V'(a)=T
The
statement

if

V(a)
of

l.

the

Lemma
over

is
the
a a
=

true

when

by
for

definition.
sentences.

proof
proves
that

itself
the

is
statement true

by
for

induction
is
true true

formation
=

rules
on

One

when

~|3 /3

the

inductive
it is
the
true

assump-

assumption and
Theorem

it

is
etc.

/3,
view

is of

when
the
exact

assuming
of be
clear

for
tables of
Lemma

/3

for and

In the

correspondence
it

1 to the

classical

truth-tables
are

should

why

the

works,
Theorem

details
For

left

as

an

exercise.

2.

any

topos
then

g,

if
Proof.
as

%?
V

\~_
valuation
=T

Let

be

any

classical

and
so

V
the

its

associated

^-valuation,

above.

Since
1

gNa,

V'(a)
classical

and

by
so

Lemma,
is
a

V(a)
whence

1.

Hence

a a.

is

assigned

by

every

valuation,

tautology,

Hcl

a
Theorem

3.

If

is

bivalent, \~.

then

if
Proof. i.e.
a

Theorem

gives
If
V

the

"only
is
as

if"

part.
=T
or

Conversely,
define
_L.
a

suppose

is

a
=

tautology.
1
or

any

^-valuation,

classical
g

valuation

by

V(i7j)

according

V^)

Since

is

bivalent,

and

144

LOGIC

CLASSICALLY

CONCEIVED

CH.

6, then
=

6.7

_L

are

its
V
are

only
related

truth-values,
as

so

this

definition
so as

is

legitimate.
=

But

V
T.

and This
than

in

the

Lemma,

V(a)

1,

we

get
look
our

V'(a)
more

?
Set

last
ones

result with
more

suggests
than

perhaps
two

that

bivalent

topoi
However,
ways, e.g.

like

truth-values.

example
non-classical

M2
in

is

bivalent

and
1 + 1 not

yet
is

dif ers

from
to

Set

in
On have

other
the other

is
the

having
bivalent,
CL. We

isomorphic
classical,
then

Cl. does
that

hand
sentences

topos
axiomatised
of should

Set2
lead
we

is

not

but

and conclude
of

its

valid
does

by
to
a

could

bivalence
set

not

itself

categorial
conclude
generalisation of
the that

axiomatisation
our

classical of

theory.
is
not
on.

Or
the

definition
of

topos
in

validity
Set? Read

right

perhaps generalisa-

notion

logical

truth

Appendix
Sentences
a

and i.e.
when

/3
a
=>

are

logically
=

equivalent
V(j3)
introduce abbreviation for
every

when

they
valuation
~a

have V.

the

same

truth-table,
mentioned
this
some

V(a)
of

classical
to
not

As

was

above, presentations
but
as a

/3 is logically
CL

equivalent
=>,

v
a

/3, and

because

of of also

as a

basic

alphabet,
and
v.

definitional
is
way.

for
to
we can

combination

symbol involving
may
~

the
~

Since
in
v

/3
this
=>, In
=

logically

equivalent

~(~av~|3),
start

be

introduced
define
The
x

Alternatively
there
=>

with

and

and
in

and

and of

are

stil
~

other
v

approaches.
is
means

definability

from

and this

reflected
that

by

the

fact

that

2,

=>

\x

kj

y.

arrow-language

2x2

kj

(ixid2)

_^si^_

2x2

Now this
this

there

are

topoi
So
is
the

in

which

the
must

generalised
be
we

truth-arrows

do

not

satisfy
of
<g via
i

equation.
chapter
\j

question
and connectives

faced
do
not

as

to

why
define

the

approach

in

appropriate
is
that
are

why

simply
v,
=>

and
The

as

above.
the
~,

point
as

were

introduced
and
each
was

sepahas

separately,
intrinsic

they

all
The

conceptually
construction

quite
of

dif erent,
the

its

own

meaning.

truth-table

motivated

CH.

6,

6.7

-SEMANTICS

145

independently the fact.

classical
connectives

in
It
account

each
a

case.

That

they
of

prove

to

be

inter-definable
a we

is
of the
defined

after
the
con-

is

simply
of

feature and

classical
them

logic,

consequence

truth

validity.
to

independently,
and
some

described this
that

Accordingly independently
general
is

through
topos.
In Later
so

the

Clfind

axiom,

lifted

(in
we

cases)
see are
a

shall

dif erent
not

description the interdefinabiKty theory

inter-definable
that

the

left which Set.

behind.
semantics

doing (Chapter
in

we

8)
the the

of

propositional
but in
do

which

connectives
same

they

have

exactly

categorial

description

they

in

CHAPTER

ALGEBRA

OF

SUBOBJECTS

are born paradigms old inones, from they ordinarily much incorporate of the vocabulary and both apparatus, conceptual and that the manipulative, traditional had paradigm previBut seldom they previously employed. these borrowed elements employ in quite the traditional way."

"Since

new

Thomas

Kuhn

7.1.
At

Complement,
the

intersection,
of
BA the

union
6
on

beginning
c)
of
as

Chapter
"and",
consideration
result

it

was

asserted

that classical

the

structure

of
the

CP(D), properties quite

from functions.

depends
connectives the

the

rules

of

logic,
"not".

through
can

"or",
of
how
set

and

This functions.

be
We
on

made
see

explicit
the

by

characteristic

fol owing

just

operations

depend

truth-

Theorem
Xb
'

1.
D
>

If
then

and

are

subsets

of

D,

with

characters

Xa'-D^>2,

2,

(i) (ii)
(ii )
Proof.
so

X-a=-iXa
Xaub
=

If

X-a(x)
=

1, for
if

xeD,
=

then

A, A,
the

sox^A,
soxeA,
same

whence
whence for

and

i^a(^) ~iXa(^)
and

1=

But

X-a(x)
X-a

0>
~iXa

then of
u.

xs?

Xa(x) Xa(x)
the
same

0,

0.

Thus
identical. of

and

give
(ii)

output

input, using
Theorem
becomes

are

The

proofs
,

and

(ii )

fol ow

similar

lines,
?

the

definitions
1

,
a

U,

suggests
in

generalisation
as

the

result

in

one

context

be-

the

definition

another,

fol ows.
146

CH.

7,

7.1

COMPLEMENT,

INTERSECTION, and

UNION

147

Let

be

topos,
of

an

^-object.
of
d in
g1
a
>->

We

define

operations
of

on

the

collection

A)
is
to

the
be

Sub(<i) Complements: subobject the pullback

a

subobjects
Given

thus:

/:

d, the
character

complement
is
~\Xf-

f:a>-^>d

whose

Thus

/ (relative /

to

d)

is

defined

!>

of

along
Intersections:

~\Xf,

yielding
The

x-f

~~iXfi

by
of

definition.

B) subobject

intersection
obtained

fng:aC\b>-^>d

by

f:a>-^>d pulling

and

back

g:b>^> along

is

the

aC\b

Hence

C)

xfng=Xf^XgUnions:

fUg:aUb>-^>

is

the

pullback

of

along

^(XfX)

a
and
so

There

Xfug=Xf^Xgis in
of
Intersection:

?
fact intersections The
a

completely
and

dif erent unions

in

approach
Set.

available

to

the

description
(a)

diagram

148

ALGEBRA

OF

SUBOBJECTS

CH.

7,

7.1

is hence

pullback.
their
than

Now

in

the
and

poset
indeed that
as

stronger

product, this,
in
Set
In
cannot

@>(D), pullback.
the
reader

),

But

we

is

the
are

g.l.b. saying

of
not

and

B,
in

something
just
B.

namely

diagram
may

is

pullback,
of
A

&>(D),

but

(b) description co-products, disjoint

However,
inclusions disjunction
We
as arrow

Unions:
and

itself, 0>(D),
be
moreover

the AUB

is
as

the
we

verify. co-product
do
not

and

This has

generalised
in

yet

know
and

if A+B

Sub(<i)
is
are

Set

itself
the in

the
unless
as

co-product
A

the the

union
AUB

of

and
can

B,soA+B#AUB
be
and

disjoint.
of

described
and

union

of in the
and

the

images
the

f-.A^D
\j, we

gave A
+

g:B^>D, general
arrow

6.6,
for

defining
union
then

construction

of
AUB

two

disjuncimages.
obtains

form
the

the

co-product
of
A+B

image

under D

[f,g]:A+B>D, [/, g], i.e.

U,gT
AUB
commutes
as an

epi-monic
have
two
us

factorisation

of

[/, g].
and
U

Although
see

we

descriptions
with
no

of choice
are

in

Set

we

are

about
to

to
same

that

they
on

present

in the
and

g1,

i.e.

that
and

they

lead

the

operations
The
ourselves

Sub(<i)
is
somewhat

(topoi
the
a

ful
has

proof
to

really lengthy
basic

right
leave

generalisations
so
we

of shall
to

Set).
reader

intricate,
and

confine

who
Theorem

outlining developed
2. In any

strategy
for

the

details

the

penchant
topos %,

"arrow-chasing".
d
and

if f:a^>

g:b>-^>d

have

pullback

d
i

then

a:c^>d,
so
a

where

gf=fg'
is
a

has

character

Xf^Xs-

Thus

Xa~

Xfngi

and

there

pullback

of

the

form

CH.

7,

7.1

COMPLEMENT,
of

INTERSECTION,

UNION

149

Strategy
square

Proof.

The

heart

of

the

matter

is

to

show

that

the

top

of

>
>

<T,T>

'-^

is the
the

pullback.
PBL the
outer

The result

bottom

square

is is
a

pullback,
which

rectangle
that result
x*

pullback,

by definition by the

of
fl

r\,

so

by
to

-axiom

leads

desired The

=^(Xf,
for unions

Xs)needs
a

analogous
In any

preliminary

Lemma.

4g,
f

if

is hand

pullback,
square

then

there

is

an

arrow

h:

f(a)

g(c)

that

makes

the

right

of
f

g(c):

pullback.
Consider

Proof.

150

ALGEBRA

OF

SUBOBJECTS

CH.

7,

7.1

The The

right
existence

hand of

square

obtains

by
the whole hand

pulling diagram
square

back

im
commute
as a

along

v,

so

i is

monic.
the the that

/',
of
the

making
the

fol ows

from

universal

property
of The
lat er preserve
there

right
is
the the

pullback,
in
as

"boundary"
Lemma.

diagram
then

pullback
left
hand

given
square

the
a

PBL

the

epics
is
a

of

/.

Hence

gives (Fact unique

given hypothesis pullback,

of
and

the

since

1,
iso

5.3),

: e

/'

is

an

epi-monic
that

factorisation

f(a)

such

commutes.

Then Lemma.

h'

is

the

arrow

required

for

the

conclusion

of ?

the

Theorem
a

3.
v->

Given
is

f:
the

>

and
arrow

g:

>^>

in
a

topos
+

%,
>

then

the

g-arrow

which

image

of

[/, g]:

d,

has Thus

character
Xa
=

X/ug

so

a=/Ug

and

there

is

an

epi-monic

factorisation

/ ug
idea is
to

aUb
Strategy
of

Proof.

The

show

that

the

two

smaller

squares

of

CH.

7,

7.2

SUB(d)

AS

LATTICE

151

are

pullbacks.
a

Since
of
a

co-products
the

preserve

pullbacks

(Fact

2,

5.3)

we

then

get

pullback
+

form U,e\
->

(Xf,

The

Lemma

then

yields
d

pullback

of

the

form

<Xp Xg>

where whose

is

the

image
is
^:

arrow

of
x

[<,
(I,
i.e.

), <1,

)];

But

is

the

arrow

character
e

f2

>

by invoking
In
v_

is

definition
the PBL

pullback.
shows
3
we

Putting
that
can

these
Xa

last

two

diagrams

together

and

=^(Xf,
now

Xe)describe the

view
the

of
character

Theorem of

disjunction

truth

arrow

as

7.2.
Theorem

Sub(d)
1.

as

lat ice

(Sub(<i),
is
is

c)

is

lat ice

in

which

A) B)
Proof.

/Pig /Ug A)
easy

the the

g.l.b.

(lat ice

l.u.b.(join)
characterisation
to
see

meet) of f and
of

of f
g.

and

g;

The

/
the

as

relatively
to

why

is

g.l.b.

of

pullback / and

of
g.

and

makes
are

it left

The

details

the

reader.

152

ALGEBRA

OF

SUBOBJECTS

CH.

7,

7.2

B)
property

The of

characterisation

of shows that

/Ug

in

Theorem

and

the

co-universal

[/, g]

commutes

and and suppose

are

so

each

of upper

/
g ?

and

factors of

through

/Ug.
g.

Thus show it

/cfUg,
is
the least

gc/Ug,
such,
there

ha,

is an /Ug / s h and hb making

bound
h. Then

/
and

and
g

To factor

each

through

h,

so

commute.

Then

U,g]

lhha,hhb]
h

[ha, composite
+

hb]
of
b and

(dual

of

Exercise

3.8.3)

and

so

[/, g]

is

the

a,

hb]:a hb]
by

-*

h:c

d.

Replacing

[ha,
of

its

epi-monic

factorisation

we

get

[/, g]

as

the

composite

for

some

and

k.

But the

then

fol owed
up
to

by

is

an

epi-monic
of such

factorisa-

factorisation of

[/, g].

By

uniqueness,

isomorphism,

things

there

CH.

7,

7.2

SUB(d)

AS

LATTICE

153

is

an

iso

such

that

alib
commutes.

Then

ku

factors

/Ug

through

h,

yielding

/U

g?

as

required.
Corollary.

A) /<=g if

f<^g

B)

(XfiXg)

if fHg^f factors

if fUg^g.

(uniquely)

through

the

equaliser

of
Proof.

r\

and

prx.

A)

In

any

lat ice,
if

xCy

if

x\~\y=x

if

B)

/eg

Xf xs

if and
Part

(xf,
the is

the

result

fol ows of
this

by Corollary (the c)
lat er

universal
an

property

of
of the

equalisers.
that a^ in

? Set
we

B)

analogue

fact

have

A^B

Xa^Xb
2.

meaning
is
a

Xa(x)*^Xb(x)>
lat ice with
unit

xeD).
1d
and
zero

Theorem

(Sub(<i),
any

bounded

0d.

Proof.

Given

f:a>^>d,

the

commutativity

of

154

ALGEBRA

OF

SUBOBJECTS

CH.

7,

7.2

and

of

shows

that

0d s/

and

/c1d.
if

Exercise

1.

In

Sub(<2),
distributive

/=1d

/
lat ice,

is

iso,
i.e.

i.e.

f:a
satisfies

d.

Sub(<i)

is

in

fact

/n(guh)=(/ng)u(/nh).
Again
from this
some

Sub(d) (cf. 8.3).

What

to

something deeper be developed

about
The

is

that

could

be

proved
a

directly
more

but

in

fact til
the is

fol ows
of then

results-this
in the
next

time

detailed
We

description
the
used
matter

chapter.
date
prove
we

leave

complements?
first

To

have in

not

definition

X-f~~iXf-

thing
d,

we

shall

this

connection

Theorem

3.

For

/:

>-

we

have

Proof.

The

boundary

of

is
so

the the
square

pullback unique
a

defining
arrow

/,
a
-*

the
1 makes

bottom the

square

is

the

pullback
commute,

defining
and

i,

whole

diagram

the

top

pullback.

CH.

7,

7.2

SUB(d) square of

AS

LATTICE

155

Then

each

-f
->

d
one

Xf

commutes

(the
=

left
But Hence

hand

is

the

o[

yfOfog,
D.2.3).
-a

Xfaf=truea
the
outer

puUback (/2-axiom),
of

giving
so

f),
=

so

we

get
=

Xffg

trueag

truean_a

square

commutes.

But

the then

inner

square

a
=

is
0

puUback,
so

so

the
a

arrow

: initial

>

does

exist.

But

(3.16),

is

an

object

and

-
must

commute.

Thus the result

/
fol ows.

0d,

and

since

0d

is

the

minimum

element

of

Sub(d),
We

seem

to

be

well

on

the the

way

to

proof
with

that

Sub(d)
in

is
We
zero.

Boolean

algebra,
be
a

and

hence

complete
distributive

analogy
with

bounded
to

lat ice,

//
But
we

SP(D) always
cannot
we

Set. the
do

know It
There

it remains
are

to

only
topoi

show

that

fUf
it is false.

is
To

the

unit.

this!

in

which

give

an

example

need

Theorem

4.
-L--T.

In

Sub(/2),

(for

any

topos),

156

ALGEBRA

OF

SUBOBJECTS

CH.

7,

7.3

Proof.

x~~*

(definition

of

i)

X-T-

?
TU
T
=

So

in

any
can

topos,
be the

TU1.

Now the of the

set

in

our

favourite while
in
T

example
U

in

[T,
identified

Sub(/2) _l_]

identified

with

LM,
lat er

_L,

as

the

M2, image
can

of
be

(recall
with

description
set

Theorem

5.4.6),

the

{M2,

0}

L2.

Hence

and
as

so

(=J.)
result In

is

not

the

lat ice

complement
is
not
a

of Boolean

in

Sub(/2).
at

But

then,

the

next

shows,
any

Sub(/2)

algebra

all.

Theorem

5.

topos,
the

if subobject

T:

>

O,
:

has
>

complement

in

Sub(/2),

then

this
Proof.

complement
If
T

is

_L

O,.
then

has

complement,

say,

TD/==Ofl,

so

'^
The

is
But

pullback.

/2-axiom
factors

then

gives
_L,
so

Xoa

-L j_.

'o (f
Lattice

Exercise

5.4.3).
then 3 But

give
and

distributive

lo obviously TUfcTU 4 above, lat ice,

_L,
1=

and

since

through TU/-1rt,
and

are

so

/c
TU
-L
a

But

properties by Theorems
of
T.

0n,

is

complement
hence

in

complements

unique,

f.

7.3.
A Boolean

Boolean

topoi
"S

topos

wil

be

called

Boolean

if

for

every

^-object

d,

(Sub(d),

c)

is

algebra.
1.

Theorem

For

any

topos
BA
a

"S,

the

fol owing

statements

are

equivalent:

A) B) C)

is

Boolean
is 1
>

Sub(/2)
T:

/2

has

complement

in

Sub(/2)

CH.

7,

7.3
_L

BOOLEAN

TOPOI

157

D) E) F) G)
Proof.

is in

the

TU_L=1n
if is

classical,

i,:

1 +1

is

complement Sub(/2) i.e. [T, _L]:1 a subobject

B):
definition
of 7.2.5
of

of
+

in
is

Sub(/2)
iso

1*

classifier.
of "BA" "Boolean"

B) C) D) E)

A) implies implies implies implies

implies
C): D): E): F):

definition

Theorem definition

[,

_1_]

is

always

"complement" monic,

so

1+1iEdJ,
\
1

1 +

is Then 7.2.1.

an

epi-monic
if

factorisation
we

of

TUl=1fl,

get

[,

[T, -L]~
essential

_L],
1,

i.e.

in

Sub(/2),

TU1=[t, ]
being
iso
that

].
by
Exercise

making point

[,

F)

implies
to

G):
a

Exercise-the
classifier Given

anything

isomorphic G)
so

wil

be

one

itself.
we

implies
the

A):
work
of

f:a>^-d, /
can

wish

to

show
for

that

by
The

7.2

wil
be

be

complement
in the

/,

and

/U f Sub(d)

1d,
wil

and be
a

BA.
basic

strategy

seen

diagram

If factor
Lemma.

we

can

show
d

that

through
In
0 any

/
topos,

[/, f] / to

is make

epic, /
U

then

the

iso
d.

need

as

shown first the

wil

exist

to

We

fol owing:

>

is

pullback,

where

i,

i2

are

the

two

injections

for

the

co-product

1 +

1.

158

ALGEBRA

OF

SUBOBJECTS

CH.

7,

7.3

Proof.

The

square

commutes

as

is

initial.

It
But

is
outer

also

pushout
of

by

the

co-universal

property

of

the

pair

(ib

i2)-

the

square

commutes,
shown
Then
to

indeed make if
the
outer

is
the

pullback diagram
a

by
commute.

the

O, -axiom,

so

the

unique

exists

as

square

of

commutes,

can

be

used

to

show

the

outer

square

of

commutes,

giving

the

unique

0 for

the

previous

diagram

as

required.
?

To defined
T:

finish in
1
>

our

Theorem
same

we

shall

denote

the

way Lemma

as

fl.

Now

the

Xf, tel s

-L,
us

etc.,
that

but

i2

by using -L',

xu

-1-'

etc-

the in

arrows

i,:
so

>

1 +1

place
at

of

by

the

argument

the

CH.

7,

7.4

INTERNAL

VS.

EXTERNAL

159

beginning

of

Theorem

of

7.2,

-a-=L^d

is

pullback.

But

so

is

and

co-products
a

preserve

pullbacks,
>
>

so

1 + 1 >

[i|jiJ

1 +

is

pullback.
i.e.
an

But

[i,
itself.

i2]

11+1

is

epic,

whence

[/, /]

is

the

pullback

of

an

epic,

epic

7.4.
Theorem

Internal
1.

vs.

External
is

If
V

<g

Boolean,
^-valuation.

then

g"t=av~a,
Form the

for
pullback

any

sentence

a.

Proof.

Let

be

an

V(a)
of
T

along

V(a),

so

that

Xf

V(<*)-

160

ALGEBRA

OF

SUBOBJECTS

CH.

7,

7.4

Now

if
But

is

Boolean,

Sub(l)

is

BA,

so

/U/=1l5

whence

Xfu-f~

Xit=T.

V(a

v~a).
?

Hence

V(av~a)=T.
One

might
in it

think
1 should

that

if hold.

our

theory
However
and

was
our

of

Theorem

working example
v

well

then

the

converse

M2
~a,
as

is

non-Boolean,
at

since of
be

Sub(/2)
6.
That
2. The

is this In

not

BA,
of relevant

yet
condition

M2t=a
1

observed

the

end

Chapter
a

proof
is
the

Theorem

in

fact

only
is shown

BA.

required by

that

Sub(l)

Theorem

any

topos
all alia BA.

if,

the
sentences

fol owing
a

are

equivalent:

A) B) C)
Proof.

if Ha

if
is

b-CJ_a,
a

g'Nav-a, Sub(l)

Clearly
in

A)
and
that

implies
observe has

B).
that

Assuming
Xf
=

B)
is
we a

we

take

subobject
1
>

/:a>->

Sub(l)

truth

value -f

f2.

Taking
=

an

^-valuation

V(tt0)
=

xf, Hence

have

-iV(iro)= Sub(l) Finally

holds in axioms

V(-7rov~'7ro)=T
is
a

Xi1to

/U-f^V
A).
a

~Xf^~^Xf This if"

the

(-7)_<
that

means

BA.
assume

C),
topos.
that The

in "if"

order

derive

The

"only
that We

part

of
later

A)
are

any

part
preserves

requires
any

proof why
note

CL-axioms

g'-valid

and

detachment
are

g"-validity.
topos,
we

shall
that

explain
is
the

why

I-XI

valid
For the

in

and A,
not

Detachment

always
of

validity
Theorem Corollary. The

preserving.
1

present
is does

only
axiom that
<g

proof
g'-valid.

shows

that
is

if
a

Sub(l)
BA" first
based
to

then

XII
is

is

"Sub(l)
situation
In
to
seems

imply
anomolous

Boolean.
it

at

sight
on

(at
2,
and

least in
the

did
2-so

to

the

author).
seems so

Set
be But the

the

logic
work
of

is related

the

BA
In

general
=

topos
far

it

intimately

Sub(l).
Sub(d)

Set,
are

Sub(l)s=g>(l)
shows determined
that that the

good.
the

the

previous
a

sections

of whereas role

"generalised in Set,
to

power-sets"

by
has

Sub(/2)

is

four-element

set

played

properties Sub(/2), no special

date.

CH.

7,

7.4

INTERNAL

VS.

EXTERNAL

161

Some

clarification is
a

of collection
of

this
of

situation

is
of

afforded
d
and may

by
universe
i.e.
not
one

the

observation
not

that be

Sub(d)
actual discourse"

subobjects
?
as a

well
of who

itself
the
as see

an

iF-object.
then that
a

Thinking
person

living
in is that

in

that

"general universe,
does
What the

mathematical
uses

only
at

individuals

exist

universe,
to

"see"

Sub(d)
of version
the of

all d.

single
the
power
an

entity. object
individual
power

Sub(d)

external
which universe is is
the

"S.

topos-dweller
subsets"

does

is

ud,
in
the

"object
and external

of is does
to

object
the

ild

is of

,
the Middle

the

internal
version. have
the truth
an

notion
The

set,
the of Law
av~a

while
of

Sub(d)
Excluded in
=

Now

internal
of
the

version.

validity

Set

corresponds
for xe2.

equation

1,

The

truth

of

this

equation
2X2

is

equivalent

to

the

commutativity

of

true

(since
Now

<id2,
this

-n>(x) diagram

<x, -ix.
has
an

analogue

in

any

topos

and

we

have

the

interesting
Theorem

3.

Sub(/2)
a'^K

is

if

the

diagram

O,

fixfl

(EM)

commutes.

Proof.

EM

commutes

when

i.e.

162

ALGEBRA

OF

SUBOBJECTS

CH.

7,

7.5

But

we

know

that

1n

=\T,

~~i

Aj_>

and

Tn

Xin,

so

Sub(/2)isaBA

if

TUl=1fl

(7.3)

if
if

1;-1

.
not commute

?
in collection

Exercise

1.

Show

explicitly
theory
of

why
topos
is
an

EM semantics

does

M2. if(l,
version of

Now
truth-values. collection

in

our

we

use

the

fl)
the

of

This of
Also
arrows
a

again
from

external
1
to

thing-the
O, would be
the

internal

object
i.e. is
external

of
is
not

truth-values
an

O,lsQ.
iF-arrow.

valuation

V:

W(l,
have like

il)

is

external,
an

actual

Thus

the

semantical
there and
can

theory
be

we

developed
M2
outside" that look

one,

and the

this outside"

is

why
bivalent

topoi
non-classical
"from
the
an

classical
three the form

"from

yet
a

can

have
also has

properties
O,
has

internally
now see

while

(curiously, elements).
of

M2
We

is

that

topos
EM that

internal
2

logic,
It

in

commuting
this internal
the

diagrams logic
From

like
is

(cf.
the

Exercise

below).
Boolean.

is

precisely complete
it is

when alternative

classical
the

topos
that for

is

viewpoint
as a

category
structure

Set
that

context

topoi doing
Nonetheless

offer mathematics

to

finally
external
and

the

internal

is
for

very
see,

useful
for

important. elucidating
the

the

present
of and CL-axioms intuitionistic

theory
as we

is shall

the

logical
between

describing
2.

link
the

properties topoi
of
of

topoi,

logic.
I-XI
in them
terms
commute

Exercise

Describe of

commutativity
in
any

diagrams
you

validity involving
some

the

of

truth-arrows.

(All

of

topos

can

prove

them?)

7.5.
In
the

Implication
same

and
way

its
we

implications
used
we
>^>

that
-

the
can

truth
use

arrows

r\,

kj,

to

define the

operations fol owing / (

D,
g:

U,

on

Sub(d) /:
is
the
a

implication
>->

=>
are

to

define of

(a

operation: f=>b)>-^d

if

and

g:

b obtained

subobject

by

subobjects pulling

d,

then

back

along

CH.

7,

7.5

IMPLICATION

AND

ITS

IMPLICATIONS

163

Xf

Xg

<Xf, Xs).

Thus

is

pullback,
order
results.
to

i.e.

In

study

the

properties

of

this

new

operation

we

need

some

technical
Lemma 1.

If f, /nh

g,
=

and}i
gnh

are

subobjects

of

(in

any

topos),

then

A)
and hence

if

Xfh=xsK

B)
Proof.

Xf^Xh=Xs<^Xh

if

Xfh

xsh.

A)

Consider

In the each

diagram
squares
are

the

bottom

squares

are

pullbacks
Thus

by
of

the h

A -axiom,

and So

top
the last

pullbacks
=

by
and

the

characterisation

intersections.

by
this

PBL,
condition
=

Xf

Xh1
holds

Xs if h

h
there
=

Xh2is

Xf
iso
so

Xs
=

if
=

The

h2and
argu-

But
so

hh1k
argument
reverses

hh2,
to

i.e.
show

only (fC\h)k /

an

gCih,
h

and

only

if

h1

giving /Dh h2.

Part

hxk gDh. B)

h2,
immediate

is

from

A).

Corollary cg

if

xfnsh=Xfh.

164

ALGEBRA

OF

SUBOBJECTS

CH.

7,

7.5

Proof

if if if
Theorem

(/
Xf
we

ng

g)

(lat ice

properties)

h=Xfh

(Lemma).

1.

In

Sub(d)

have:

A) B) C)
Proof.

hc=ffr /cgif /

/eg
A)

if x
First consider

(xf,

xg>

The

boundary
so

commutes

by
arrow

definition

of
to
as a

/ |=>
make

g.

The

bottom

square

is

pullback,
Then The the

the

PBL basic

unique gives

j exists
top
square

the

whole
in
the

thing

commute.

the
of the

pullback.
is
seen

strategy

main

proof

diagram

(afrb)

We the

have

fic/g>g
triangle
when
commute.

precisely
Since

when
the factors

there square
e.

is

an

arrow
a

as

shown
such

making
exists of
e

top
an

is

pullback,
the

precisely
as

(xf,
this

equaliser,
Xf

XK)h happens
h.
But

through

By

universal

property
=

precisely
this
last

when

pr^ixp
holds if

xg)h
/fi-hcg,

(xp
by
the

Xg)K
last

i.e.

Xfns

equality

Corollary.

CH.

7,

7.5

IMPLICATION

AND

ITS

IMPLICATIONS

165

B)

We
so

use

part

A).
=

/eg, Conversely C)
Exercise. Theorem

by

From

A), he/ if / |=> g and B),

Give
a

Suppose |z>g.
1d,
the then

/c
This

g.

Then

for

any
g

h unit

in

Sub(d),
1d
of

makes

/|=>
|
g,
so

the

Sub(d).
D

//
of
of

/ /?g,
since
Xid
=

i.e.

/eg.

definition

>,
part

trued.
the

categorial
and
the

of

7.2

proof diagram

B),

by

using

Corollary

to

?
Corollary
to

Theorem

1.

In

Sub(d):

A) B)
Proof.

1d 1d

A) B)
Since

By
1d

part

B)

of

the

Theorem,
part

as

1d

1d,

0d

1d,

0d cOd.

^>Odcid

^0d,

A)

gives

i.e.

A
and

is

maximum)

hence

?
Now
not

in

SP(D),
in
all

>
=

is
In TU

D.

(why?)
in
saw we

The

analogous
Sub(/2)

situation

does

obtain
-TUT=_LUT
To

topoi.
the

M2,T
,
and

|=>T1n
in
under

(by
that
can

Theorem

1B)),

while
and

7.2

TU

^1n
denned

inM2.
from
U

determine

conditions

which

be

we

need

Lemma

2.

A)
n n.

In

any

lat ice,
n x

if
all

m x x

and

satisfy

(i) (ii)
then
m

iDn
x
=

if if

anxb,
a

b,

all

166

ALGEBRA

OF

SUBOBJECTS

CH.

7,

7.6

B)

In

Boolean

algebra, if
m

xC(a'ub)
and
so

anxCb,
the

the

only
Exercise-use

that

satisfies
m^m

condition
etc.

of

(l)(i)

is

a'ub.

Proof.

A)
B)
First,

by
Olj

ynxCynz

(a
have
x
=

b)
lnx

properties x,y,z). (any (a n b)

=

of Next
a n

l.u.b.'s
note

and

g.l.b.'s,
in if
x

note

that
the

if
=

xCz,

then

that
that

b i.e.

so

anxCan(a'ub)Cb,
=

anxCb.

BA, an('b) (' b) by Conversely,

a

(ana')u
we

foregoing
anxCb
then

if

(a'i_ja)rnx
2. 7n
any

(a'rnx)u(arnx)Ca'ub.
<?,
the

Theorem

fopos

fol owing
g

are

equivalent:

A) B) C) D)
Proof.

<?

is

Boolean each

7n

Sub(d), /?>g--/Ug

/ ^

/U

7n

Sub(fl),

T^>T

A)
|
g

lie/ h?-fUgif /nhcg. B) C) D)

Theorem

implies if /nh?
C): D): A):
in

B):
g.

Theorem But
Lemma

1A)
if

states

that

in
Lemma that

the

lat ice

Sub(d),
tel s
us

Sub(d) 2A)
as

is
then

BA, implies prior

2B)

that

/ |=>
Lemma

-f

h.

implies implies implies

obvious.
-TL)T=TU1 We

noted

to

2.

always

have

T|=>T=1n.

Use

part

E)

of

the

7.3.
that in
a

?
non-Boolean
What

So

we

see

topos,
its
Before

|=>
behaviour

does is
to

not

behave in that

like

Boolean be
pause

implication
revealed
for the

operator.
the
next

like

general
however,

wil
we

in

chapter.
of

proceeding

purpose

7.6.
1.

Fil ing
Theorem
T to

two
1

gaps
of
_L

6.7
under

gave
the

some arrows are

tables
rs,

for
kj,

the

behaviour

of
are
now

the

truth-values

and

and
where

We

in
1

position
The the
zero

show

why
in
the
we

these lat ice

have

tables
structure

correct.

key
0.

lies
Thus

of

Sub(l),
while

the

unit

is

and

\1-1,

^^^^^^

CH.

7,

7.6

FILLING

TWO

GAPS

167

0.

But

Xi^T
Tr\

and

Xo,=
=

-L.

so

we

have

and

so

on,

yielding
T

the
J_

table

JL JL

_L

Now

using

the

Corollary
-L,
-L

to

Theorem
=

of

7.5
etc.

we

find

to

J_

=x-\1:

Xo^Xi^o^Xo^
=>

,^11

11=

leading

J_

T
T

J.

Exercise.

Derive

the

table

JL

T
T

T
1

2.

Theorem

5 of which
every

5.4
non-zero
we

asserted

without

proof
is

that

classical in
fact

+1

=(l)
us

topos
Now
a
x

in if
"S

object
now

non-empty
be Boolean b in
"S

is

well-pointed.
So for let
an

is
distinct
that

classical,

know
arrows

it

to
a

by
and

7.3.
look
We

let h:

take
be

pair
:

of

parallel

f,g:
them,
i.e. h
:

n^
has
a

element

>^>

the

equaliser
?F
at

(remember
dif er
hUh Now
arrow

some

distinguishes of / and is Boolean). point

whence
non-zero

fx^gx.
the

g,

and
Then

>->

is
c

non-zero
=

complement (in Set,

then
=

of

in

Sub(a)
and
g

so

of

a).
is
let

For,
iso
and

if

0,

h
we

0a,
would
must

0 as / h~hUOa~
get
then
=

'\a,
if
all
1

since
are

fh
non-empty

gh
there
a.

/=g.
be
gx,
as an

^-objects
Then
x

be

Then

if

fx

168

ALGEBRA

OF

SUBOBJECTS

CH.

7,

7.7

equalises
the

/
boundary

and of

there

would

be

some

such

that

hz=x.

Hence

would

commute,
to

giving
the fact

an

arrow

10.

But
We

this

would

make

degener-

degenerate, contrary

that

conclude

gx.

7.7.
In
of

Extensionality
Chapter
the
5
we

revisited
considered

well-pointedness

as

categorial
sets

formulation

extensionality
fol ows

extensionality simply
from

principle
means

for
sets

functions.
with
the
same

For

themselves,
are

exten-

that

elements

identical.
set

It

this A=B if

that A

identity
cB every

of

sets

is

characterised
since

by
is member lifted
x:

the

inclusion

relation:

and member subset

A,
of

This definition
If
as

if of
the

of
to

B.
the element

relation

is
of

readily
and
1

general
of
x

category.
then

/:
4.8

^^

d
we

is say

subobject
that
x

d,
element

an

d,

in

is

an

of

f,

xef,

if

factors

through

/.

i.e.
Theorem

for

some

k:l>
1. In

a,

x=fk.
<S,
in

any

topos

Sub(d)
and xeg.
then

we

have

xefDg
Proof.

if through
wil
x.

xef f

If
g,
so

factors

g,

since

factors

through

both

and

too

CH.

7,

7.7

EXTENSIONALITY

REVISITED

169

Conversely,
1,

suppose

that

xef

and

xeg,

so

that

x=fk
inner
shown
square

and

for

some

elements is
=

This

>

a so x

and
the

h:
arrow

b.
t

But

the
as

of

the

diagram

a
x.

pullback
t

(7.1)
factors

exists

making

/ngt=/k

through

fg,

giving
D

topos
extensional.

in

which That

subobjects
is,
?

are

determined
extensional if

by
for

their any

elements

wil

be
the

called condition

is

g'-object

d,

fcg
holds

if

for

all

x:l>d,xef

implies

xeg

in

Sub(d).
2.
? is

Theorem

extensional b >flbe be

if
a

well-pointed.
of

Proof.
x :

Let 1
-

/,g:a
Let

pair
the

parallel
of

^-arrows,

with
g.

/x
if
xe

gx,

all

a.

h:

equaliser

and

Then

1a,

(which
h
some as

holds

for Since

any

x:

a),
of this is

we

get
"S

equaliser.
k.

Extensionality fh gh,
=

then

xeHby gives
/=
h
and upon

the
1
a

universal

property
so

of
=

h, and

h if"

with

for
the For

yields
<?

Conversely, extensionality
the

suppose

that

well-pointed. xef
has
x

The holds
g.

composition "only
in order in
any
to

k.
of

part category.

condition

is
that

straightforward
every

"if" suffices

part,
to

it
Theorem

suppose show

In

establish

/c f lgc/,

g,

7.5.1

C),

/rig-/, gives

i.e.

Xfns=Xf-

Since

general

170

ALGEBRA

OF

SUBOBJECTS

CH.

7,

7.7

Then

if

x:

is

any

element
=

of

d,
x

i.e.

(Xfns,

Xf)x

trued

(Exercise
Now

3.8.3

and
and

4.2.3).
X/ox
so

X/ngox

are

both
each

truth-values

1
or

and Exercise
hence

<?

is

bivalent

(being
Xfx
=

well-pointed),
true,
then

that
so

is

true

false.
xeg, of

But
and

by
last
x

4.8.2,

if

xe/,
table
or

by
=

our

hypothesis
true.

by
equation
Xf
x

Theorem

1,

xef

Pig,
and both the

yielding
true,

Xfnsc'x
for

In

view

the Xfns

derived
must

above,
either
What
are

established

in
that
x
=

7.6,
parallel

and

be

both
shown

false.
then

we

have

is
element

the
:

arrows

Xfn%,
domain.

Xf'-d^il
Since
"S

not

distinguished
this

by

any

>

of

their

is

well-pointed,
Theorem 2

implies
points
on

Xfns
up

Xs

as

required.
of

the of

advance
the

topos
of
sets.

theory
That of

over

Lawvere's

earlier

work essential

[64]

a as an use

theory
axiom,
of
a

category
the of the

system

included
re-

well-pointedness
required 12).
It
an

but version

derivation
"axiom of of

extensionality
choice"
1 for the

(cf.

Chapter
other
set

is

noteworthy
viz

that

the

analogues

Theorem

operations,
(a)
and

xef

if

not

xef

(b)
fail in
some

xefUg

if

xef
for

or

xeg

bivalent-the
Then
"S

topoi. simplest
a

Take

instance would be (I

any the from

that

is

Boolean
of
_L.

but

not sets.

example
value
x
:

topos
T

Set2
and

pairs
neither

of

has

truth

distinct

Then

of

and

commute,

sox^T TU
T

and

(since
so

=T

always).
Hence both

Moreover

as

is

Boolean,
Theorem

1rt,
bivalent

and

xeTU-T.

(a)

and

(b)

fail.

3.

is

if

(a)

holds

in

every

Sub(d).

CH.

7,

7.7

EXTENSIONALITY

REVISITED

171

Proof.
W
:

The

argument
works

just
in any

given
"S.

to

show the then

that

(a)
hand

fails if
_L

at

least

in

Sub(/3)
then
=

if

is
1

not

bivalent fl
we

On
T,

other

g1 is
so

bivalent,
i

if

is

truth-value

with

and

Using

this,

find,

for

f:a^>d
if
if

and
x=T

d, (Exercise 4.8.2)

xe-f

x-f
i

Xf

if if

Xfx^T
not

:e/.
(b)

Theorem

4.

<?

satisfies
values

/or
:

aZZ and

^-objects
z

if
/i,
y^z

satisfies
=

the

condition

(c):
For
z
=

any
true.

truth

>

fl

>

true

if

true

or

Proof.

If

(b)
,

holds Xs
=

in
z-

Sub(l),

then
x:

let 1

/:a>^>l
1,
i.e.
x
=

and

g:b^>l

be

such

that

Xf

Then

taking
if if if if if if

11;

yuz=T

(yuz)x=T
X/ug^=T

xe/Ug
x

/
x
=

or

Xf
y=T
then

T
or

or

xg
z=T.

Conversely

if

(c)

holds,
if if if if if

in

any

Sub(d)

we

find

that

xe/Ug

xfugx=T

v(Xf,

Xg>x=T

w(xfx,
X/
x e

xgx)
*
=

T
or

or x

xs
6

g.

topos
every and

satisfying
bivalent
so

(c),
topos
does
not

equivalently
is

(b), disjunctive. (a)

in

wil

be

called the

disjunctive.
converse

Obviis Set"*
of
not set

Obviously
true,

However,

(b)

imply

general.

The

category

172

ALGEBRA

OF

SUBOBJECTS

CH.

7,

7.7

functions

has

three

truth the
T
X

values,
arrow

and

so

violates
the

(a).
table

However,

it

does

satisfy

(c),

since

disjunction

yields

T
X

T T T

T
X X

T
X

where
the

is Exercise of
5.

the

third

element
of of 4

of Sef^ wil

fl.

This
to

wil

perhaps
from
a

be of

easier

to

see

from
and 10.
an

alternative

description
10.6

emerge
and

Chapters

Indeed,

provide

method

constructing topoi.

infinity
Theorem

disjunctive, If
"S

non-bivalent,
is Boolean

non-Boolean then

and

non-degenerate,

IF

is

disjunctive

if

<?

is

bivalent. Since
Thus
we

Proof.

/
cannot

f
g1

in

Boolean
from

topos,

for

any
we

x:

d
or

we

have

xefUf.
However,
1=0.
Thus

if

is
have
one

disjunctive, xef
of

(b)
for and then

get
x e

xef f

xef.
and
so

and

-/,

0d,

exactly

"xef"

"xef"

obtains,

making
?

"S

bivalent.
Exercise. Theorem

Suppose
5.5.1
to

that show
>

is

that

well-pointed, the pullback

and

xef

implies

xeg.

Use

aC\b

d
of
any

along well-pointed

is

iso,
topos

making
is

/.

Hence

give

an

alternative

proof

that

extensional.

CHAPTER

INTUITIONISM

AND

ITS

LOGIC

"Let

those

who

come

after
up

me

wonder
mental
can

why
constructions

I built and

these

men-

how
in

they
some

be

interpreted
I
am

philosophy;
them
some

content

to

build
in
to

in
way

the

conviction

that

they

wil

contribute

the

clarification
L. E.

of
J.

human
Brouwer

thought."

8.1.
For and
disagreement
a

Constructivist
considerable in
its
of
statements

philosophy
period
the after

the

Calculus
there
was

was

discovered

by
and

Newton

Leibnitz
over

late

17th

century, concepts.
remained

controversy
of

fundamental infinite
made
or

Notions
shrouded
rather

infinitely
in

small

disagreequantities,
and "A
some

and
of that the

limits
is increased

sequences them decreased The

mystery,

look

strange
lit le is
a

today
neither

(e.g.

quantity
nor

infinitely
subject
the of

increased

decreased"

(J.
century,
of

Bernoulli)).

acquired
development
and convergence. and real

19th
definitions

initial y
the of

through
concepts

rigorous by Cauchy
Later

footing
of
came

in

the

precise
the
a

limit

"arithmetisation

analysis"
treatment

by
of
that

Weierstrass
the

others,
system.
to

that A

purely
consequence

algebraic
of in

number

produced significant
from its
of

this

was

analysis
(cf.
like
Weierstrass'

began

be of

separated
the

grounding (counter

physical
other

intuition

proof development
that

existence

intuitive?)
with abstract

continuous
factors
to

nowhere-dif erentiable
the

function).
of mathematical of
of
were

This,
structures

along
geometry,
have world. Also
on an

non-Euclidean
the

contributed

the

conceptual

recognition quite reality

time
real the
was

independently
the work and Dedekind constructed in

physical
and
Peano

important
the

during
systems.
rationals
from

this
The

number
the

numbers

from
turn

the the

rationale,

integers,
173

the

integers

from

174

INTUITIONISM

AND

ITS

LOGIC

CH.

8, 8.1

natural
nature

numbers.
of
to

Then natural

the

Peano

axioms
themselves. idea that

the
the

numbers
of
one

gave This the

that whole
was

an

abstract
of

account

of

the could

kind
of

reduction mathematics
founded
on

contribfew

contributed be

development
in
and
ever

the

presented
notions

basic
tional
of

grand principles.
since.
that
are

axiom This It takes mathematics

system

itself
been in
the

conception
its from who
of these
on

has form

central of axiomatise

to

foundathesis
and It

thinking
Frege
also
the and

extreme

Russell,
truths
the the

is

part

mathematical
appears in
prove

derivable
of

work

Hilbert,

purely attempted
axioms the
sequence
scene

logical
to

"logicist" logic principles.

methods.

that ap-

mathema-

mathematics, and

consistency appeared
infinite,
could be
as

by
it

finitary
was

By
references

time
to

Cantor

the

in taken about

"the

n2
of real

tends

recognised to infinity
of numbers this

that
as
n

tends

to

albeit
there the

infinity", complex,
a

statements

exists actual
other the

6.. "
as a

etc.)
an

Cantors
of

as picturesque properties set theory

articulations
transcended

precise, all ("for by treating

An

infinite
became collection. infinite

collection
some

object "thing-in-itself"
The

mathematical
that

investigation.
could
was
a serve as an

infinite
of the

element

notion arithmetic
that
as

of

number
of

extended
of

from

finite

to

by
numbers,
attitude

the

development
whose
was

theory
involved
as

"transfinite"

cardinal
on

and
sets.

ordinal
Cantor's and

operations
are

infinite

long
our

statements

correct

deductions
even

logically
if

sound,
go

such

statements

have

grammatically conceptual
about

significance
numbers
The

they
has been

beyond
enormously Kronecker,
is
correctness

basic

intuitions
but
for

finite
been "God
of

and

collections.
of
sets

theory
its
the
set

successful,
well

it

has

not

without
made

critics.

Leopold
all the
rest

known
of

having
the

said
notions

integers,
and that of the

the
as

work

man",

rejected
not

infinite
maintained
existence
any

irrational
the

number

being
of
to

mystical,
a

mathematical.
does
not

He

logical
it

theory

imply
devoid

the of and

entities unless

purported
can

describe.

significance
on

they
must,
must

be

actually

operations
Definitions definition
must

them,

said be exist.
how In

Kronecker,
"constructive"
to

and

proofs
show

explicitly
to

construct

They Numbers, produced. be "intuitively literal in a quite the defined, object

mathematics
the
an

remain

founded".
sense.

The

using
"existence
the From
non-

objects proof"
existence

already
often
of
an

known

classical
that

proceeds

by
of
a

showing
certain
this is
not

assumption
to

of

constructivist

lat er,

to

be

entity stand-point legitimate,

kind
a

leads

contradiction.
existence
the
at

the the

proof
exhibit
natural

of

all,

since

must

explicitly
that the

particular
could

object
be

in

question.

Kronecker

believed

numbers

given

CH.

8,
a

8.1

CONSTRUCTIVIST

PHILOSOPHY

175

such

foundation,
parts
of

but

not

so

for from

the

reals.

He

actually
from

attempted
already paradoxes lay
own
were

to

rewrite
The entities
set
use

mathematics of also
in the

this

viewpoint.

conception
appears

things
the

as

being
of Henri
source
are

"built-up"
Poincare
of

given
of in definithe

reaction view
X

to

the

theory.
of

He

took

that These

the reference

contradiction self-referential
sets

definitions

impredicative that specify

on

definitions.
an

circular,
to

object
X.

by
held be

whose
of of
R

existence inadmissihad

depends
inadmissible and been

that
a

of
set

Poincare
not
one

that

such

definitions
each

that

could
Thus

specified
of Russell's the been
on

until

its

elements

specified.
that
ReR.
can

half
on

paradox
definition
denned.
the natural

(1.1)
is

consists

in

showing
it that

So,

this
has be founded

view, already
definitions.

circular,
maintained

since
and class R
out
a

only
mathematics

be

given
should

if

Poincare
number the

system
Russell
As

developed
would
not

without
even
more

impredicative
arise
would
real
as
an

Thus

great

deal of The

object disappear,
system
reflected

of

analysis
Poincare, ism,

the finds

number

legitimate as significant depend

in

study.
parts
on

it
of the

turns

classical

impredicative
views the
L. of
E. J.

definitions. Kronecker
of Brouwer
and

constructivist
its
most

attitude,

the

spirited
the
Dutch Brouwer

expression
mathematician

in

philosophy

Intuitionat

pioneered
of the further

by
this
than

the he

beginning
and
went

century.
of infinite
to

rejected
collections
as

non-constructive

arguments,
But
a

conception
this,

things-in-themselves.
logic
as

deny
We

traditional
have

valid
that
a

representation
the

of would

mathematical

reasoning.
by
fol ow)
it is
law

already
because
in of
a

noted

so-called
But The
same

"argument
Brouwer
goes

contradiction"

(a
an

is

true,

otherwise
existence
at

contradiction

is
not

constructively acceptable
excluded
account

unacceptable principle
middle,
of either Moreover be truth
true
~a

proofs.
all.
6
we

to

argument
in

for Now the

the

of

~a.

classical
as

as

examined
or

Chapter
only
"either
a

proposition
know
false.

being
is the last
a

always
case. can

false,
true
as

whether

regards happen
that is
true
a

to

which
Thus and

is

provided
saying
classical
of
a

is
or

"av~a"

interpreted
is is
true
on

false"

this
however of
a.

sentence statement to

the made records From

theory.
construction
one

To

the of that
law

intuitionist
the

the "I have

~a

record

construction.

Asserting

truth
which

amounts

saying
Likewise
be

a
a

(mental)
construction,
this

that
demonstrates

describes".

that
middle "either I has

a.

cannot

the

case.

view,
or

the

of

excluded

the

reading:
demonstrated
a,

have

constructively
that
a

have

construc-

constructively demonstrated

is

false."

176

INTUrriONISM

AND

ITS

LOGIC

CH.

8, 8.1 Last

Now

if

we

take

a.

to

be

some

undecided
true
or we on

statement, this
at assert

like
The

Fermat's Theorem

Theorem,
been
Thus

then shown
to

av~a

is
either
to

not

reading.
the

has
"a
a.

not

be

true,
Brouwer

false,
cannot

present
"a

time.
is
true"
say
a,
or

unless
means same

according we constructively that only as saying

argument
a.

is is is
not not

false"
true

know
I have
a.

which
at

is
time well find

the

case.

To

that

not

this

constructed
a

which
tomorrow.
can

the

is

false. contradiction

I may
~~a=>a..
~~

construction
earlier
show conclude that
to
assert

The

formalised
that Now
a.
=>

by is false,
the

the i.e. "I for

by tautology
show

mentioned
To prove and

be

classically
it
cannot
a

a,

that
that

be

is
of

true,

then

holds.
truth of that does

intuitionist
to

account

implication
a

is construction for

the

C is
a

assert

have
a.

developed yields
assume
a a

which

when
then
to

appended
show

to

construction

construction certain
that

C".
does
Hence

But
not
~~a

it
not

is

contradictory
itself
the
amount

to to

producing
of the

thing
of

thing (a).
logic
of with
an
a

exist
=>

(~~a)
is
laws
not

valid

under
Brouwer's

constructive view

interpretation. history
of

is
the

that

the

logical
deductions
of the all

were

obtained
time when

by
the
of

abstraction
lat er
were were

the concerned

structure

mathematical
world

at

finite. existence.

These

principles
Because

logic
this is

then have
and been

ascribed

priori

of

developments,
mathematics restricted
determine what
source

they including
based
To
correct

indiscriminately
of

independent applied
sets.

to

subsequent
in
a

manipulation
on uses

infinite
that

Thus

contemporary
valid back intuitions
an more

procedures
mathematical
of

are

only

domain. the maintained

of

obtain
modes

genuine
reasoning
truth.
source

knowledge
are
we

and
go

deterto

must

the

original
Brouwer

mathematical that this

and

is him

found mathematics
on

in

our

primary
is
The

about

mathematical

objects.
self-sufficient,
lies
in of mental

For
not acts

activity
essence

autonomous,
of mental this and

activity
constructions
serves

dependent performed
systems
of

language.

by
entities. mathematical mathematical

the

mathematiciansecon-

intuitive
to

secondary,
arises

only
formation

communicate verbal and the from

by
systems.
Thus

the is
then

of

parallels
that

of

language
axiom

analysed analyses thought.

part
of

develops
of the

is Language understanding. thinking. formal languages

that

It

This
and

logic
as

structure

mathematical

None

of
but

this is
The

linguistic
itself.
not

language activity
has

parallels
to

is
to

however functions
the

be in

regarded describing performing

remains

mathematics
constructions.

It essential

practical
content

and mental

communicating,
not

prerequisite

activity
mathematics

of

of

intuitive,

formal.

CH.

8,

8.2

HEYTING'S

CALCULUS

177

Having
place
what demarcates construction
another
a

rejected

classical and the

mathematics

and

logic,
of

Brouwer
own.

erected
He

in

its

positive
called mathematics
in in the
act

vigorous
"two
as

philosophy
acts"
a

his

distinguished
first

he

of

intuitionism.

The

act,
intuitive

which
con-

languageless
-

activity,
the of of

is
of
one

an

the time.

mind
Our

of

"two-ness"

distinction
of
two

thing
of
of

and

then
The
once

direct lies the iteration

the first
act at

awareness

states

mind-one

succeeding
second

other,
such with
act

the

heart

our

intuition
of
to
an a

objects.
proceeding
of
awareness,

completed.
sequence. Thus the
sequence
awareness.

recognises By

prospect
we are

repetition
lead

construction

infinitely
two states
a

of

distinguishing
process,
emerges
we as a

and the

second of infinite
sequences
as

of
natural

repeating
numbers
There

this
is such

obtain

linear
of
our as

series,

and

product
intuitionist

primary
an

intuitive

no

thing by
to
a

to

the the

actual

completed

collection.
we

However,
are

generation
of
the

of

endlessly

proceeding
infinite,
at

lead

mathematics

potential y
finite extensive of
all
may

embodied

in
can

the be

notion
continued
and

of

constructions
in
an

which,
unlimited
have

although
fashion.
up
a

any

given
these

stage,
ideas

From
treatment

Brouwer

his

fol owers

built

an

of classical
and
more

constructive

mathematics
but has of in
current
a

which

is
and
range

not

merely
of
The

subsystem
of
find

the
own, out

theory,
is about
even

character
research

concepts
reader for
a

its

the

subject
it

interest.
also

Heyting
than

[66]

(cf.

Bishop
Another

[67]

constructive
refer-

approach
reference

"stricter"

Brouwer's).

introductory

is

Dummett

[77].

8.2.
In

Heyting's
1930
an

calculus
event

occurred
Arend

that

greatly

enhanced

the
an

general
axiomatic
as

understand-

understandingof propositional
those
truth.

intuitionism.

Heyting
was

produced
to

system

of of 6.
CL

logic
sentences

which that
are

claimed

generate
to

theorems used it has

valid
on

according
the of sole
rule
same

the axioms

intuitionistic
PL
as

This

system
are

is the

based forms

language
the
of CL

precisely conception in Chapter

all We

Its axioms
refer

axioms

I-XI

(i.e.
is
Detachment.

the shall tools

that

except
to

ava).
system
the
and
as

Its
IL.

inference
formal

this

Of for

course

intuitionist communication.
wil
to
one

only day

accepts
He

systems
open
as

description
deliberations

leaves

the unheard

intuitive

reveal

yet
it

imperfect possibility of principles

as

his of

reasoning.
formal

According
system
which

Heyting,
be

"in

principle
to

is

impossible
mathematics

to

set
..

up

would

equivalent

intuitionist

it

178

INTUITIONISM

AND

ITS

LOGIC

CH.

8,

8.3

can

never

be embraces the and

proved
every

with

mathematical valid method

proven

really
investigation of
between

of

rigour proof."
aspects

that

the

system
the recursive

of connections

axioms

Nonetheless

investigafunc-

system
intuitionistic

IL

has

invaluable
and of
set
one

principles
models
Whatever
status

functions

category
of
to

computability, theory.
elucidation
the

theory
attaches
that of human

uncovering of topology, (forcing),

in
to

sheaves,
constructivist

and have

now

the

view
lead

mathematical
the

reality,
of
a

there

is
that

no

doubt
area

Brouwer's

efforts

significant
are

thought.
are
~

Amongst
a,
~

tautologies
a.

not

IL-theorems
a=>

av~a,

z>

On

the of

other
None

hand of in IL. the

a,

=>,
~,

and
,
v,
=>

~~(av~a)
definable The semantical in

are

derivable.
each other

connectives

are

terms

demonstration

of that links
to

such

theory
-

things IL-derivability.
and

is

facilitated
There

by
are

the

use

of

semantiof

several

these
as-

available

topological, logic
Stone form
space laws

algebraic,
were

set-theoretic.

The

topological
by
Alfred open
are

aspects

of
and

intuitionist Marshall

discovered
There

independently
it of sets"

Tarski
sets

[38]
topological satisfying
up

an

[37]. "algebra
to

is

shown
in
of

that

the there

of taken of

which
IL.

operations
was

by
an

J.

topology
with

[44,
additional
of

corresponding McKinsey This 46].

operator
the

the

axioms in closure their

This

theme of abstracted the

and

Tarski
involved whose of

work closure

study algebras,
are

algebra
are

which

BA's
the

properties
a

from

a Within space. topological t h ere i s a set closure of el e ment s n, operations algebra special possessing and Tarski ~~i intuitionistic lj, , principles. McKinsey singled obeying an axiomatisathese out for attention, algebras gave independent special in and dubbed them Brouwerian tion of them, Subsequently algebras. EL in that the of Brouwerian characterises showed class [48] they algebras CL. that the class of Boolean characterises the same way algebras dual the The t o to semant i c s i s approach algebraic McKinsey-Tarski than in 6.5 one used is always 0, rather 1, etc.). (an IL-theorem assigned we facilitate with what we have done shall To discuss, comparison already are but their which known as not Brouwerian duals, algebras,

operation

forming

set

in

8.3.
To define

Heyting
these
to

algebras
algebras
rather
than
we

need

to

extend of elements.

our

concept

of

least

upper

bound

sets,

just

pairs

CH.

8,

8.3

HEYTING

ALGEBRAS

179

If

is then

subset

of

lat ice
x

(L,

C),

then A.

e moreover

is

an
x

upper

bound
whenever

of

A, Adz,
Exercise

denoted

x,
a

if least

whenever bound

If of

is

upper

(l.u.b.)
l.u.b.

A.

1.

has

at

most

one

Exercise

2.

Define

the

notion

of

g.l.b.
of

of

A.

We

say

that of A.

is
Thus

the A

greatest
has
A.
a

element

if

is

l.u.b.

of
when

and
one

also of its

member members

greatest

element

precisely

is

l.u.b.

of

Exercise

3.

A A.

g.l.b.

of

is

the

greatest

element

of

the

set

of

lower

bounds

of

Exercise

4.

Define

the

least

element

of

A.

Now

in

the from

powerset
A.
any
=

lat ice That

(&(?)),
A

c), disjoint
This

-A

is from

the

greatest

element
-A
=

disjoint
whenever

is,
then

is
A.

,
of leads
as

0,

and
can

0,
it

description
it
name,

complements
to
a

be

set

out

in Hence

lat ice is
a

and

sometimes
dif erent
a zero

non-Boolean
b
L

operation.
If L
=

given
with
a

fol ows:

(L,
the
a

C)
greatest

is

lat ice of element if

0,

and

aeL,
of
n
x
=

then
L

is from member

the
a,

pseudo-complement
i.e. of
L

fo is of it

the

greatest
set

element

disjoint
If
every

b is
has

the
L

{x
a

L:

0}.

pseudo-complement,
definitions is
not

is hard

Using
Exercise

these

pseudo-complemented to verify
of
a

lat ice. the

5.

is

the

pseudo-complement
xeL,
xcfo
if
the

precisely
0.

when

it

satisfies

the

condition:
for

all

anx

?
of
A.

Example

1.

(^(D),
B
=

c): (B,
if

is

pseudo-complement
A, (cf.

Example

2.

C):
anx=0

in

any

xCa'
so

Exercise

6.4.2)

the

Boolean

complement

is

always

pseudo-complement.

180

INTUmONISM

AND

ITS

LOGIC

CH.

8,

8.3

Example

3.
=

{m:o>m(B)

Example U
e
=

(LM, 0}

c):
is
the

In

the

lat ice

of

left

ideals of B.

of

monoid

M,
is

\B

pseudo-complement

(why

Cg-\B

if

0?)
4.

has

((9, <=); pseudo-complement,

subset
all
open

In

the

lat ice the

of

open

sets

of the
We

topological
interior
have

space,

namely
of V.

the
U

largest
V
=

open

complement

( U), of U).

of Vg

(i.e.
if

( U)

0,
5.

for

Example

Sub(d):
of

In

Sub(d),
d. that

for

any

topos,

/:

-a

is

the

pseudo-

complement
Proof: We

/:
to

>*

have

show if

g?-/
Now if and

gc-f,
so

then

by

lat ice

properties,

/flgc/n
the

f
square

0d

(Theorem

7.2.3),
Conversely

/ng-0d.
suppose

0d.

Then

top

of

is

pullback.
as a

But

so

is

the

bottom

square,

hence

the

PBL

gives

the

outer

rectangle

pullback.
g
=

By
Xob
=

the

-axiom

then,

Xf

-L

(Exercise

5.4.3)

Thus

~iXfg=-|-Lolb=TlbBut

Tlb

=Xzg
X.f
6

-axiom)
Ag
6-

and

\Xf

X-f,

so

altogether

we

have

But

then

Lemma

1 of

7.5
=

gives
g.

-/ng=gng
Hence
g
=

as

required.

CH.

8,

8.3

HEYTING

ALGEBRAS

181

Example open
sets

6.
at

Germs. i

The

collection
the in the

0/~{
definition
of

{[U]t:
in

open

in

1}
is

of
a

germs

of

(cf.

Top(I))

pseudo-

complemented
0
=

lat ice

which
germ

[0];,

of

and

the These

pseudo-complement
lat ice

of

[U~\t
associated

is

[(U)l
truth

(i-e.
functions
the
germ

we

have in of
arrows

the

standard

quotient
i:

operations
>

construction). yield
the
at

the from

Top(I)U
at

There,
i to

/2 the

is

function
i. The
meet

to

I and

taking disjunction

the

germ
to

of

( L0
above of
some

conjunction
and

from
each

fl
The

are

join

operations
can

acting
be

on

stalk.

D
the

notion
0

pseudo-complement
other element
to

generalised
lat ice,
to

by
obtain
the

replacing
the

zero

by {x:
b

b b.

of if such

the it the

pseudoelement of
a

complement
the
set

of

relative
In

This,
words

exists,
that

is ancCi.

greatest
It is

anxCb}.
is
the

other element

pseudo-complement

of

relaseen

relative
that

to

greatest

readily

Exercise

6.

is

the

pseudo-complement
xCc

of

relative

to

precisely

when

it

satisfies
for

allx,

if

anxCl).

Example
to

1. B.

(^(D),

?):

US

is

the

pseudo-complement

of

relative

Example

2.

(B,C):
if

In

any

BA,

(Lemma

2B),

7.5)

anxdb.

Example

3.

(LM,

):

=>C
if

{m:

wm(B)^

<am(C)}
all left

has

ideals

X.

Example

4.

F>,
the
Whenever

(-UU

V),

s): largest

The open W

pseudo-complement
subset of -C7U
V.

of

relative

to

is

is

open,

Wc(-UUVH

if

W?

V.

182

INTUmONISM

AND

ITS

LOGIC

CH.

8,

8.3

Example

5.

(Sub(d)):

Theorem

of

7.5

states

that

Jic/^g
hence

if
an

/ndcg,
of

is
6.

operation
Germs. In

relative lat ice with

a

pseudo-complementation.
6>/~; pseudo-complement
stalk, yields
of
germs the

Example

the

of truth-arrow

open

sets to =>:

at

i,

[(
This

I/U
a

V)]i
operation,
in the

provides
acting
topos
lat ice
be
L denoted

[1/];
on

relative

[V];.

each

TopG).
L,
a

In it

general
wil
that

the

pseudo-complement

b. If

of

relative
a

to

b,
b in

when

exists,
say

b exists discussed
some

for

every

and

L,

we

wil
The

is of
r.p.c.

relatively
lat ices

theory
and
care

pseudo-complemented is thoroughly
We

(r.p.c.)
in facts basic which

lat ice. Rasiowa-Sikorski

the
reader

[63]
may

Rasiowa
to
treat
as

[74].

list

here

Exercises
If L

is

r.p.c. 7.
L

lat ice: unit

Exercise

has

1,

b
=

and
1.

for

each

aeL,

=>

1.

Exercise

8.

acfo

if

Exercise

9. 10.
11.
12.

bCa^fc.
an

Exercise

(a

=>

b)
=

anbcb.
b.

Exercise

(a=>b)nb
(a (a
if bcc

Exercise

b)n(a
d)C((anc)
then

(bnc).

Exercise

13.
14.

(bnc)).
a

Exercise

=>

Exercise

15.

(a (a
a

b)n(b b)n(b
(b

=>

c)C(a

=>

c).

Exercise

16. 17.

c)C(ai_jfo)=>

Exercise

c)C(a

b) =^>(a

).

CH.

8,

8.3

HEYTING

ALGEBRAS

183

The
A

definition

of

r.p.c.

lat ice

does

not

require
an

the
r.p.c.
-i:

presence

of that

a a
=

zero. zero

Heyting
If H
\a
a.
=

algebra
(H,
is
the

0.
Then

C)
the
reader

is l.u.b.

is, (HA) Heyting of{x:anx=0},

may

by definition, algebra,

lat ice
H^ H

has
\a

we

define

i.e. Rasiowa

is

the

by pseudo-complement

0.

of the

Again

consult

and

Sikorski

[63]

for

details

of

Exercises
In
any

HA 18. 19.
20.
21.

(H,C):
=

Exercise

il iO

~i(a
1,
and

=>

a)
if

0.

Exercise

\a

1,

then

0.

Exercise

aC-na.

Exercise

(
ia=ina.

b)C(-ib

-ia).

Exercise

22.

Exercise

23.

ania=0.

Exercise

24.

i(ai_ib)=ian~\b. iai_iifoci(anb).
naufeCa

Exercise

25. 26.
27.

Exercise

b. l.

Exercise

r-i(ai_iia)
-iaC(a (a

Exercise

28.

b).
(a

of
of of

Exercise

29.
The six of of Now
the

b)n

-ib)
this sheaves bundle the
to

-ia.

are

major
topos
them that that
we as
a a

examples

section
over
a

all

Heyting
space

algebras.
we can

In
now

the

case

describe each
of

Top(I) topological
quotient
know

topological algebras,
sets
we

of

Heyting
open

indexed
I.

by
assertion
that
every

7,

HA
be
an

of

in
can

Sub(d)
is
a

HA

return

to

the

7.2

Sub(d)

distributive

lat ice.

The

point

is

simply

184

INTUmONISM

AND

ITS

LOGIC

CH.

8, 8.3
and

r.p.c.

lat ice
p.

is

distributive.

proof
satisfies

may

be

found

in

Rasiowa

Sikorski,
Now in

59.
a

BA,
occur

the

complement
in

(x')'.
M2,
of
x_l
we

The in

property
T9^ function
In

does

not

all character

HA's.
to

In the

our

example
subset

analogous Sub(f2)
while

propwe

have
corres-

,
to

since

corresponds
the

{2,{0}} fn
general
to

corresponds (the
Since

{2}

L2,
=

of
_L

isi

~i~i,

which

is

the
T.

of

5.4).
HA
~~

in
have

general,
xC~iix,
an

get
but

in

M2
Indeed

that
not

we

always
z>

possibly

(corresponding
situation
Exercise

not

being

IL-theorem).

the

situa-

is

as

fol ows:
30. If
ix

an

HA
is
an

H actual

satisfies

iix

x,

all of
x.

algebra,

i.e.

complement

xeH, (Hint:

then
use

H Exercise

is

Boolean

27.)
?

In
x

CL,
in

is
2.

logically
In

equivalent
the

to

a,

as

reflected
means

in
that

the

fact

that

=mx

internal

logic

of

Set

this

commutes,
all

i.e.

1i

id2.
is

The the

analogous
function

diagram fn
of

does

not

commute

in
2

topoi, {0},

e.g.

in

input
Theorem

hence
1.

1i M2, 1i^1n.

5.4
are

that

has

output

for in

These the

deliberations

brought

together

In

any

topos
T
=

8"

fol owing

are

equivalent

A) B) C)
Proof.

g"

is

Boolean

In
-.-!

Sub(f2),
=

1.

A)

implies

B):

In

general

_L

-0n

as

shown

by

the

pullback

z>A
But

defining unique

if

g"

is

Boolean,
_L

UT=1n
is
the

complement

of

and

hence

7.3), pseudo-complement
(cf.

so

that

T
-

is
.

the

CH.

8,

8.3

HEYTING

ALGEBRAS

185

B)

implies

C):

If

T--,

then

xT

X-,

i.e.

C)

implies
Xf

A):
=

Let

be

subobject

of

d.

Then

~i~iX/ Xf,
if
-|-|
=

1fi by
the last exercise.

so

/~/,

making
semantics
=

Sub(d)

BA

Algebraic
If
H

(H,
then
to

C)
all

is
an

Heyting
H-valuation

algebra
is
a

(also
function

known

as

pseudo
This relative
the
A
sentence

-Boolean
may

algebra)
extended

:0^.
lj,
i,

be

sentences

complements
connectives
v,

,
,

and
~,

using pseudo-complements
as

joins
BA-valuations H-valuation
the

meets

n, to

pseudoconneca

"interpret"
in

=>,

exactly
=

for
every

6.5.
a.

is
in

H-valid
every

when

V(a)

1 for We

V.

is

HA-valid

if valid result:

Heyting
a

algebra.
is

have

fol owing

characterisation

HA-valid

if
of

^.
consists
preserves in

The

"soundness"
and

part
that Exercise
=

this
above

showing
this

that

the

axioms
For

I-XI

are

HA-valid observe

Detachment 8
1.

property.

the then
other for of

lat er

V(|3)
Exercises
for XI

so

by V(|3)
in
etc.

that of
I-XI e.g.

if

V(a)
is
15. for

V(a

=>

|3)
various

V(a)C
the 29.

The

validity
with
of IL

given
Axiom

by

combination

8,
with

IV,
can

16.
be

DC,
shown relation

The the Lindenbaum

completeness algebra

respect
of

to

HA-validity
2 in

by

method
if
on

the
and

Exercise

6.5.

The

:
.

=>

is

an

(/~.,

equivalence ) where

The

Lindenbaum

algebra

for

IL

is

HIL

[a]c[/3]
HIL
is
an

if

hr=>/3
as

HA

with

n,

in

the

Boolean

case,

and

The

valuation h
jl

V(a)
a

[a]
HIL1=

can

be
a,

used

to

show

if

186

INTUmONISM

AND

ITS

LOGIC

CH.

8, 8.3

hence Now
a

any the

HA-valid

sentence

wil
the

be

H^-

valid of

and

so

an

IL-theorem.

i3-axiom,

through fl)
the HA
lat er
structure
was

assignment

Xf

to

/ establishes,

(4.2)

bijection Sub(d)=g"(d,

which

transfers
on

of described

Sub(d)
in

to

%(d,
e
:

ordering
Xf^Xz

the

7.2

fl). (Theorem

Indeed

the

partial
Heytarrows

1,
>-^>

Corollary):
The

ing
Thus

precisely operations
the d =4
lat ice

when
on

(xf,
"S(d,
meet

x%)
are

factors

fl)

given

/,g: {f,
shows

fl,
and that

the
so on.

arrow

g) fl)
The

The

operation fr^g=r^(f,g), definition

the
two

through by application in 4g(d, fl)

the
of

<=)
assigns assigns

fl
of

fl.

the
to
to

truth-arrows.
two

the

join operations
look
one

them
etc.
on

f\j
Sub(d)
validate

\j

,
the
sees

Sub(d)
and

%(d,
same

are

algebraically isomorphic
between

structures

same,

i.e.

HA's,
topos
semantics

from

which
and

that

they
theory
is

the
in

sentences.

link

the

present

that

any

g",

we

have

ifNa

if
further

if(l,/2)l=a
the
in
g"

if
situation
amounts
to
an

Sub(l)Na
described
in

(which
Thus and

clarifies

Theorem
in the
same

of

topos

validity
The

HA-validity
is
and

HA's

7.4). %A,
as

fl)
an

g(l,
same

Sub(l). i7)-valuation, thing,

basis
of

point
and

is
that
unit 2 of

that

<g-valuation

the
1

thing
come

g-validity
of

g"(l,

invalidity
is
T:
>

to

the

since Exercise

the

the viz

HA

%A,

fl)

fl.

This

provides

the

6.7,

Bn(l)Na
since
further

if
in in

(S4J),<=)l=a, Bn(l)
are

the that that

truth-values
truth-values

Top(I)
@,

are

"essential y" essential y

subsets
open

of subsets

I.

Recalling
of I
we

find

Top(l)l=a
i.e. the Soundness
Proof.

ifi

?)Na,
over

validity algebra
for

in of

the
open

topos
subsets

of

sheaves
of I.

is

equivalent for
all

to

HA-validity
%.

in

g-validity.
is
an so

If
IL-theorem

|^
then above.

then
a

% ka, is

topoi
In

If

HA-valid.

particular

then,
D

l, fl)
Exercise
av~a.

a,

and

gNa,
an

by

the

31.

Give

algebraic

reason

why

bivalent

topoi

always

validate

CH.

8, 8.4

KRIPKE

SEMANTICS

187

Exponentials
The condition
as arrows

^
a
x

if

anxCb
there and
arrows

means

that

in

an

r.p.c.

lat ice,

when

considered
between
arrows

poset
>

category,

is
a n

a
x

bijective
>

correspondence
b
of

(
This lat ice

b)
is

(either
the

one,

or

no,

in ^
x
an

each

case).
with

reminiscent where there

(3.16)
is the
a

situation

in

a
=

category

exponentiation
in
a
=

bijection
x

<#(x,
xa,
The and evaluation

ba)
indeed

#(x
in
arrow

a,

b).
r.p.c.
eu
:

Now
lat ice

is

product
ba.
n a
>

-b

->

ba
10

b is find have

the

provides unique
that

the
arrow

exponential (a => b)
a

b, which
relative

exists

by
more

Exercise

above.
and
we

Conversely,
Cartesian
we

complements,
nor

less
The
from

than

closed
used

approach
the via
we

exponentials categorial y and finitely in eliciting

as

provide Heyting
co-complete
HA
in

pseudois of
no

algebra
poset.
structure

the
and

Sub(d)

dif ers
obtained that aim

original
the
not

method,

described

Freyd
some

Fundamental
even

Theorem,

[72]. complex
since

There,

|=>
machinery
The

is

have
to

begun
Sub(d) r.p.c.'s. showing
as

to
a

consider

(limit
is

preserving
closed,
truth-arrow
of

functors).
exponento

is

show

that

poset

Cartesian the

exponentials in
we

posets apart
come

provide
from
in

By
how fashion

using
the

determines
the
same

define

|
For,
as

have,

logic
to

its

subobject

behaviour,
Lemma

an

easier

exactly
can

point. relatively

2A)

of
in

7.5
one

indicates,
and

lat ice
way.

be

pseudo-

complemented
Exercise

only
any

one

32. 1

Show r.p.c,

that

chain

(linearly

ordered

poset)

with

max-

maximum

is

with 1
if

pcq

\
(This
Exercise is

otherwise.

the 33.

origin
Distinguish symbol

of

Example
between,

2,

3.16).
say,

|=>
used).

and

in

Sub(i7)

(this

is D

why

the

special

"|"

is

being

8.4.
In

Kripke
1965 in Saul

semantics

Kripke
PL-sentences
as a

published
are

new

formal
as

semantics
subsets

for
of
a

intuitionistic

logic
theory

which
arose

interpreted
a

poset.

This
had

sequel

to

semantical
modal

analysis
logic
is

that concerned

Kripke
with

developed

for

modal

logic.

Briefly,

the

188

INTUrTIONISM

AND

ITS

LOGIC

CH.

8, 8.4

concept
enriched
that".
The

of

necessity,

and

on

the

by operation
system,
closure

connective
for

whose

prepositional interpretation
"models" here There characterised Tarski modal the
to

level is "it
are

uses

the

language
the
case

PL

is
is

necessarily
BA's
a

appropriate
this
as

algebraic
new

with

an

addimodal

additional axiom
of

connective.
that and
into

particular
by
fact such
to
a

known

S4,

is

algebraically [48]
sentences

the

class
a

algebras.
of

McKinsey
PL-sentences
to

used mechanism
for

this
in

develop
way

translation IL-theorems translation

way when of
seen

that transla-

correspond
in formal
feature

S4-theorems.
of

The

of

this
to

the

giving
attractive

light "meaning"
of
more

Kripke
IL
sentences.
new

models is the with truth is in it the that

S4,
its

leads

new

One
from

the tractable accords the

per
at

theory
than
well

structures,
ones,
account

apart
have
an

being
nature

generally

algebraic
intuitionistic

informal the
sentence

interpretation
of is
not

that

of
A

validity.
true
or

In

lat er,
se,
as

temporally
logic,
been but

conditioned.

false times of

classical
has facts then
true

is

only
stage,

so

at

certain
determined.
state

times,
Now

i.e.
each

those
moment

which is all Sentences thus associated the

time

with that

constructively a particular
have
are

deteror

of

knowledge.
established
state
at

This that
"true

comprises
time.
We
at
a

been
so as

construc-

constructively existing
a

in

view
"true

of collection
We

the
at

of

knowledge.
or

speak
state

of of

sentences

being
The

certain
all
one

stage"
states state
true

certain

knowledge".

of of
sentence

of
as

knowledge coming
at
a

is

ordered
or

by being
wil
that
be

its later

temporal
than,
to

properties.
another
be
true

speak
time.
A

after,
certain the
more.

state at

in later
once

stage
idea

held
constructive

all

(future)
estabshow
a

stages.

This exists
the The
sequence

embodies forever

knowledge,
a,
we

established,
be

Having
of
states

proven
is do
are
a

cannot

later

to

false. Now

temporal
states

ordering
we

necessarilylinear.
linear those the
future

consider

not

partial always
states

ordering,
fol ow of
moment
one

not

necessar-

another
not
we

in

because

they
occur.

possible
at

knowledge,
may

just
look
one

that Fermat's

do and

actually contemplate
Last

Thus
two

the

present
states
to

to

possible
is

of be

knowledge,
and
one

in

which
it of

Theorem
states
are

determined

true,
each
be

in
so

which
in

is
the

shown
of other.

false.

These of
We

incompatible
time"

with

other,
connected
to

view

"persistence
states.

truth
cannot

in

they
from

cannot

by
one,

the

ordering
the

proceed
collection
of of

the

present
states

and

then

Altogether
poset
subset
under of

then,
the

the

possible
sentence

of the

knowledge
to sentence
a

is

ordering
poset,

time.
of

corresponds
at

particular
is
true.

this

consisting

the

states

which

CH.

8,

8.4

KRIPKE

SEMANTICS

189

In

view
a

of

the the

persistence
state set
as

of
in

truth the set, these

in all

time,
states

this
in

set

has the
we

special
of
to

property:
that the
state

given belong
details
Let

particular
to

future
move

well. semantics.

With

ideas

in

mind

formal

of P
=

Kripke's
(P, C) hereditary
whenever be

poset
P

(also
if
it

called

frame

in under

this
C,

context).
i.e. if
we

set

AcPis
that

in

is

closed

"upwards"
pCq,
of
P

have

peA
of

and

then

qeA.
wil
to

The valuation subset P-valuation. above.

collection
is
a

hereditary
V:
A

subsets

be

denoted each
-;
an

P+.

P-

function

based

>

P+,
on

assigning
P

hereditary
V sketched that

V(iri)^jPThis
P

model
notion
of

is

pair
the
The in

(?,

V),
ideas

where
ordered

is

formally
stages
at

renders
of

intuitive

is
the the

collection
set

knowledge
is
true.

(-7;)
be extend

is

of

stages
of truth

which the
at

temporally requirement
time
of
to

by (-
We
now

hereditary
notion

formalises

"persistence a particular
read "a

truth". all
sentences.

stage
is
true

The

expression inductively A) B) C)
D) E)
Thus
a
=>

"M?pa"
as

is
fol ows:
if

to

be

in

at

p",

and

is

defined

M?pirt ?$ M?pav@ M?p M?pa

at

peVK)
if
if

M?pa
either for
all
q

and

M?p$
or

M?pa
with
q

M?p$
not

a.
=>

if

pCq,
with is
never

|3
p,
a

if

for is in
true at

all if all
model
a

pCq,
established

if that

Jl?tla M?qa
at
a

then
any
true

M?a@.
later
at.

stage
true
true
a

stage,
for
every
every

and

/3 is
is

if

C holds
the the P. wil
on on

later

stages M,
denoted

is is

(holds)
is

M?a,
if
a

if
true

Jt?pa
in

peP.
M
=

valid
based

frame

P,

PNa,

model

(P,

V)

"^Mpa"
Example. Let P be 2

abbreviate

"not

M?pa".
1
=

Similarly
Take
we
a

"P)^a".

({0,1},
Then

with

@
M

as

{1} (which M?yiT

of excluded

is
and

hereditary).
0s?l middle Since
so

B,
frame.

usual). V)

with

V(tt) Jt?oir.
so

have

by
also
hence

A),
JiV^ir,
7.Y

But the hence

by
is
not

D),
valid

^0~.
on

Thus

by

C),
Notice
=>ir,

MV0tt\/~t ,

law

this

M?o
If
we
=

0?0,

E)
M(a)
then the

then

gives
set

MY0
of

=>.

denote

by

the

points
clauses

at

which

is
and

true

in

M,
can

i.e. be

Jt(a)

{p:

M?pa}

semantic

A),

B)

C)

190

INTUITIONISM

AND

ITS

LOGIC

CH.

8,

8.4

expressed

as

A0 B') C')
To

Miiri)=V(irl) () M(a\/C)
re-express

D)

and
for

E)
all

we

define,
q

for that

hereditary
pCq,

S,

T,

iS={p:
and

such

S^>T
We then
have

{p:

for

all

with

pCq,

if

qeS

then

qeT}.

D') E')
The
two

(~)=-{) i(3p)
notation

^(a)
of
course are

=>

^(|3).
not

is
sets

accidental.

The
so

intersection the

and

union

of

hereditary
with with
meets

sets

both

hereditary,
inclusion

poset
a

P+
is indeed S relative

(P+,
distributive)
a

s) Heyting
to

of

hereditary
lat ice

under and

the

ordering

is and
U.

(bounded
P+
of

joins being
if

given
the

algebra,
have

S^T

by pseudo-complement

T.

We

U^S^T
and

SnUcT,

all

hereditary

U,

the

pseudo-complement
Now
a

of
V:

(many
>

exercises for may

here
frame P

for

the also

reader).
by
,
definition
a

P-valuation
for

P+.
of
the

P+

the
be

is
usual

P+-valuation
obtain

the

HA

This

extended,
in

using
the
set

U,
But each that

i,

V
a.

to

elements
a

V(a)
M
=

algebra
and of hence

P+
the
rules

way.

also

yields
induction,
,

model

(P,
two

V)
sets

M(a)
we

for
find

By
any

using M(a)=V(a),

the

semantic

above,

for

and

so

M?a.
But
we

if unit
of
a

M(a)=P
the
lat ice

if

V(a)
and

P.

is
for

the all PNa

P+,

since

this

analysis

holds

for

all

V,

find

that if

P+Na,

CH.

8, 8.4

KRIPKE

SEMANTICS

191

i.e.

Kripke-validity
P+. This
for

on

the

frame
to

is verification

the

same

as

HA-validity
basic
a.

on

the

algebra
characterisation theorem

contributes frame

the

of

the
any

characterisa-

validity,
a

which valid
note
on

is
every

that

for

bjL
For

if
part,
hence

is
we

frame.
if of

the

soundness

that
way

1-_

then the

is

any would
frames.

P,
be

P+Na,
to
use

PNa.

One
of

proving
of

HA-valid, completeness
to turn

so

for

part
HA's
in into tech-

the

The An

original
alternative
Henkin it

technique. logic
now

by
describe

Leon

representation proof approach, [49],

if
true

theory

Stone
a

[37]
"semantic first been

Kripke
based has
element

used
on

tableaux"

methods

used

classical
and
we

subsequently
of
p,

developed,
then

briefly.
that
p

First,
the
set

observe

is
in

an

model

M,

={:

^},

of
If If

sentences

at

satisfies

(i) (ii) (Hi) (iv)

_ h^a
is
a

then
=>

C and

(soundness)

,
a a

then such
or

C
that

(closure

under

detachment)

there if
v

at
?

least

one

?
?

|3

sentences

then
a

specifying
four
a

could

be

called wil
be

"state-description".
?
are

|3
at

p. A

(
It
set
a

(consistency) is "prime").
describes
that
set
can

the

state

by
as

which conditions

true

satisfies
be construed in
not

these

called

ful .
the
to

In

general
and
us

ful
of

state-description,
of
to

namely

true.
are

description
true to

that

state

which

are

all
not

members
known

known

be

all the

sentences

in

be

This

introduces

canonical

frame

for

JL,

which

is

the

poset

where

The

is

the canonical

collection

of

all for

ful IL

sets, is

and

as

usual

is

the

subset

relation.

model

(_,

VnJ,

where

the
An

set

of

ful

sets

inductive

proof,
that for

having using
any
a

--;

as

member.

facts and

about

IL-derivability

and

properties

of

ful

sets,

shows

To

if completeness
Lemma,

<* theorem
we

derive

the

need

the

further

result:

Lindenbaum's

h^a

if

is

member

of

every

ful

set,

192

INTUITIONISM

AND

ITS

LOGIC

CH.

8,

8.4

so

that

we

can

conclude

hi:f i
From

if
get

MjL.?a.

this

we

if
and

Pn>

this
a

yields
characterisation
of

the

completeness
of the

theorem.

(It

wil

also

yield,
is that
on

in
the
frames.

Chapter

10,
One
of

class
of

of the

topos-valid
Kripke simple
semantics
conditions

sentences).

the

great
can

advantages
be

validity
For

sentences
on

determined

by

example,

the

poset

if
not

Viir-y)
true

{1}
0.

and

V(tt2)
that

{2},
this

then frame

the is
not

at

Notice

tautology linearly
i.e. whenever IL

(1
ordered.

=>

2)

(ir2
In fact

=>

-
it
can

is

be

shown

that:
=>

PN(a
then

/3)v(/3
rCq.
of

=>a)
the

if

is

weakly
=>

linear, C)
that
v

pCq

and

pCr,
known frame the

qCror

Adjunction
as

axiom

(a
Michael
to

(|3
the

=>

a)

to

yields
The

system,

LC,

first
can

studied
be

by

Dummett linear

[59].
LC-theorems

canonical
are

method
sentences

adapted
on

show

precisely

valid

all

weakly

frames.

Exercise

1.

Show

PNav-cn

if

is

discrete,

i.e.

has

pCq

if

p =q.

Exercise

2.

PN~av
s

if
rCs.

is

directed,

i.e.

if

pCq

and

pCr

then

there

is

an

with

qCs

and

Exercise
a

3.

Construct
truth value

models
to

in

which

sentence

of

the
and

form

=>

|3 has

dif erent

~av|3.

Similarly

for

av|3

~(~~|3).

Exercise

4.

ha" is
the
to
same

in

Chapter
as on

meant

"a
on

is
the

valid discrete

on

the
frame

BA

2 2

Show
but

this
dif erent

Kripke-validity
the non-discrete

{0,1}". {0,1},
1.

validity

frame

B,

=s)

having

0=?

CH.

8, 8.4

KRIPKE

SEMANTICS

193

The

Kripke
of
sets

semantics

is

also On
a

closely
any

related
frame

to

the the

topological
collection
one,
as

in-

interpretation
hereditary
intersection
Exercise of

intuitionism.
constitutes

P,
rather
sets

P+
the in-

of

topology (hereditary)
the
\S S

(a

special
is

any

family
that of

of

open

open).
of open of
sets

5.

Show

P+
i.e.

is
and

Heyting
is
the
T

algebra
interior

for

the

topology hereditary
subset of

just
subset
-S
U

described,
-S,
T.

(S)
U

S,

the

largest
?

is

(-S

T),

the

largest

hereditary

This
an

last works

section

has The
of

been
ful

rather details
are

rapid
readily Fit ing

survey

of available and

what
in

is

in the

fact

quite

extensive the

theory.
e.g.

literature,

in

Segerberg

[68],

[69],

Thomason

[68].

Beth

models the

Although
many

Kripke
of due
to

semantics intuitionistic
Evert Dalen the Beth

has

proven

to

be

the
is
an

most

tractable alternative
for models certain
can

for
but

related

investigations theory

[56,
The rules
P

logic, 59]
basic

there that ideas

is in
of
q,
re

more

useful Beth

applications explained
models.
A

(cf. van by modifying

[78]).
semantic
is

of

be

given
A

this
P

section contains
and

for

Kripke
p,

path

through
ordered
to
a

in

poset

subset for subset each

that

that be

is

linearly
extended
of
P P

(i.e.

qCror

rCq
ordered that
every
states
out

A),
A
p

that

cannot

larger
property
the

linearly
possible
A

of

P.

bar intersects

for
can

is
it. attained
a

subset

with

the

path
of

if

represents
of
lead research. for
to
a

through knowledge
then
a a

Intuitively, by
a

that

be

mathematician
course

carrying
any
state
course

research,
bar

path
of

represents

completed
that such
course

for of research

is

set

possible
p,

states

is

unavoidable
must

that

yields
=>

i.e.

any

in

B.

In

Beth

model

the The clauses

connectives for
sentence

~,

are

treated
and

just

as

in

the

Kripke
are

theory.

let ers

disjunction

however

Ti

if

there
if

is

bar

for

with
p

V(-7r;)

v|3
each For
q
e

there

is

bar

for

with

M^qa
to

or

^NqC
semantics

for

B.

further
reader

discussion should
consult

of

Beth

models
paper

in and

relation
Dummett

the

Kripke's

Kripke [77].

CHAPTER

9-

FUNCTORS

"It the

should
whole

be

observed

first of
a

that is
our

concept
an

category
one;

essential y
basic those natural
S.

auxiliary
are

concepts

essential y
and

of

functor
and S.

of
MacLane

transformation." Eilenberg

9.1.
A

The
functor

concept
is
the of
a

of
transformation

functor
from
structure
one

category
source.

into
As

another

that from
the
some-

"preserves"
the
essence

categorial
the

of

its the

the

quotation
is of

founders of
and
as

category
far
at

subject theory.
least
as

indicates,
The

notion

of

functor has functors

very

original
book is Indeed

perspective
concerned the

changed
are

somewhat,

this
themselves.

not

more

important
concept
as

than
a

categories
foundation reference
we can

viability
the have fact
now

of

the
it
can

topos
be

for
to

mathematics
functors. them
no

pivots
However

on we

that reached the

defined
stage
where

without
for between
F from

the
necessary

ignore
the

longer.
between of
set

They theory.
9)

language
models, and
A

describing

relationship
models
#
to

provide topoi
a

and

Kripke
that

mod-

topoi
category

and

functor
to to

category

is

function

assigns

(i) (ii)
such

each each

^-object
-arrow

a,

a a
->

2)-object
b
a

F(a);
-arrow
i.e.

/:
^

F(/):
the

F(a)
arrow

->

F(b),
on a

that

FAa) the identity (b) F(g

This
last

(a)

1F(a)j
on

^-objects

a,

identity

is

assigned

f)
condition

F(a), F(g)
of

F(f),
that

whenever the

is of

defined.
a

states

F-image
i.e.

composite

of

two

arrows

is

the

composite

their

F-images,

whenever

194

CH.

9,

9.1

THE

CONCEPT

OF

FUNCTOR

195

commutes

in

9f

(h

/),
>

then

F(a)

F(f}

F(b)

N
commutes

F(c)
F:9f
*

in from

2.
9?

We
to

write 2.

2) and

or a

9f

>

2>

to
a

indicate transformation

that

is
that

functor

Briefly
identities

then

functor

is

"preserves"
Example
same

dom's,
1. rule

cod's,

composites.
has
9f
^

The

identity
an

functor
inclusion

1?:9f-9f
functor

1?(a)
2> when

a,

provides

9f

is

"\v(f)=f. subcategory

The

of
Example

2.
2.

Forgetful
of
structure.

functors:
say 9f

Let

9f

be
a

any

of

the is
a

original
additional

list
its

2.3,

=Top.

Then

9f-object
?/:9?-Set
to

categories set carrying

takes
each U

in
some

the

The

forgetful
set, and
and each remembers

functor
9f-arrow

9f-

object
the
structure

to

underlying
on

itself.
that

Thus
9f-arrows

"forgets"
are

9f-objects

only

set

functions.
Example
3. Power
set

Functor:

S?:Set-Set
function
to

maps

each
to

set

to

its its

powerset

3>(A), f(X)
4.

and

each

f:A->B 3?(B)
that

the each
X^A

function

3P(/):3P(A)-3P(B) /-image
Example

from
.

2P(A)

assigns

to

If in

and
that As

Q
a

are

posets,
is

then i.e.
case

functor whenever

F:

>

Q
powerset

is in then

simply
P

function

F:P->Q Q.

monotonic,
of

pCq
the of

then
as a

F(p)cF(q)
poset

only
functor
Example

(9), if /(X)c/(Y).
between

?)

Given
Thus

special /:A-B
the

this

consider
Y

and function

X,

subsets

A,

Xc

Y
a

0(/):0()-0)

is

itself

(poset)
Monoid

categories.

5.

homomorphisms:
e')>
when these
are

A
construed i.e.
a

functor
as

between

monoids

(M,
is that has

e) essential y
*,

and

(N,
a

,
monoid

one-object
F:M-N

categories,

homomorphism,

function

F(x)DF(y).

196

FUNCTORS

CH.

9,

9.1

Example
-

6.
a :

If
9f

9f

has takes the

products,
each
arrow

each

9?-object
b
to

determines

functor each

<#

which
to

object

the

object

bxa,

and

arrow

f:b-*c
7.

/xia:bxa-cXa.
Given
a

Example

takes
9f-arrow

each

for

-functors: 9f-object f:b-*c g input

9f-object
^-arrows

a,

then

9f(a,
a

):9f
to

Set each

b to
to

the

set

9f

(a,

the

function

b) of 9f(a, /):

from

b and that

9?(a,

b)

9f(a,

c)

outputs

9f(a, ) "homomorphism"
known
as

is

called in
a

hom-functor
some

because
contexts

of "arrow".
as

the

use

of

the

word

for
a

9f(a,
to

b)=homv(a,
this actual
hom-functor sets, and

b)
not

is

hom-set.
hom-sets

There

is
of
9f

restriction
to

when

is

defined.
proper

The

have

be

small,

i.e.

classes.
functors

Contravariant
The
preserve

above
the the

examples
"direction" domain functor
and F:
9f
>

are

all of the is
one

what
arrows,

are

known in that and

as

covariant

functors.

They
an arrow

the

domain

of for

is
A

assigned
contravariant
to

of

image
that

arrow,
reverses

similarly
by
if it
as

codomains. domains

direction functor

mapping
to

codomains Thus

vice

versa.
a

is

contravariant
so

assigns
before,
but

/:
now

an

arrow

F(f):F(b)-*F(a),

that

FAa)=

1F(a)

goes

to

commuting
F(a)
_,

F(f)

F(b)
F(g)

CH.

9, 9.1

THE

CONCEPT

OF

FUNCTOR

197

Example

8. that is

contravariant i.e.

functor

between

posets

is

function

F:P>

antitone,
if

pCq
Contravariant

in

P,

then

F(q)CF(p)
functor:

inQ.

Example

9.

powerset
Set
to

0>:
takes each
set

Set-
A

its that

powerset

3P(A),

and

each its

/:
inverse

to

the

function

^
Example

assigns
horn
b
to

toXcfi

image

f\
for fixed
to

10.
a,

Contravariant

object

takes

object a)
-

^(b,
outputs

-functor: a),

9f(,
and
g

a):9f-Set,

ob-

9f-arrow

/:&* input
g

function

/, a) :9f(c,

9f(b,

a)

that

for

Example

11.

Sub:9?-Set

is of

the in this

functor

taking
and construction each
to

each
9f-arrow g:

>->

9f-object

to to

its
the

collection
function h
:

Sub(a) Sub(/):
d
>->

of

subobjects Sub(b) Sub(a), Of course along /.

9f,

f:a-*b
b the

assigning

pullback
if % has

is only

possible

I'
Example
9.

pullbacks.
Exercise

It

generalises
that

Verify
The
word In

(l)-(ll)
used
contravariant

really by
itself
F:9?-2>
=

are

functors.

"functor"

wil for
We

always
can

mean

"covariant

func-

functor". F: in

principle
-

be

replaced
a

by (where
contravariant

covariant

<

2i,

where
=

9f),

F(/op)
again

functors

F(a) F(/):F(b)-F(a). until Chapter

F(a),
14.

and

/op:
wil

-*

in

9fop

/:

not

consider

198

FUNCTORS

CH.

9,

9.2

Now

and

given yields

functors
a

F:

9f

2,
F:
9f

G:
*

2)

fF,

functor
=

^,
F.

and

functional this operation

composition
is

of

associative,

H(GF)
We
can

(H

G)
as

thus

consider
a

functors

arrows

between
of The

intuitively
are

the The

envisage categories,
functors notion of element
a

category
and
arrows

Cat,
of

the the
1.

category
functors.

categories. categories, identity

problems. (if
we

We

intui-

whose
arrows

objects
are

the

identity
not

1^
Cat

Example
leads
us

to

some

foundational

Set

could these
as

be

an

of since
of
any

the Set collection. leads

to
as

class
a

of
collection Moreover
the

Cat-objects
of brink
of Further
of

regard
a

forming
not
a

class),

things
contemplation
Russell's

is

proper

class,
of the

and

member
a

question
Generi.e.
ones

"is whose
may

Cat

Cat-object?"
is
understood of in
as
a

us

to

paradox. categories,
of these
a

Generally Cat
be
on

be

the is
a

category
set.

small
discussion
also

collection

arrows

questions by
Lawvere

found
Cat

Hatcher

[68]
for

[66]

foundation

Chapter mathematics).

8,

(cf.

paper

9.2.

Natural

transformations

Having
between

originally
them,
to

defined

categories
functors

as

collections
we

of took
a

objects
step
functors
mental
as

with
up

arrows

by
consider
Readers
even

introducing
categories
are now

the
as

ladder
arrows

of

abstraction
between
as
we

as

objects,
to

with fasten

them.

invited

their
themselves
to

climb
two

higher, categories 2),

or

to

regard
and
whose
arrow

functors
2s
we

safety-belts objects!
a

Given denoted
We F:
9f

9f

are

going
are
one

construct

category,
^
to

Funct(^,
need
*

2!*,
of

objects
from
of 2. if
onto

the functor

functors
to

from
another. G
as

2.

definition
G: from
F
9f
*

and

2,
<

we

think
A

the

functors

and

Taking providing
of
to

dif erent
"transformation"

"pictures"
or

of
to

inside
comes

reasonably
we

intuitive
ourselves

idea

"transsuperuse

image
the

trying
i.e. This the have could
we

superimpose
structure

"slide" of 2s
to to

the translate each of

a.

F-picture
the
a

G-picture,
the in 2
,

the done

former
an arrow arrow

into

lat er.

be

by
the In

assigning G-image
order

9f-object Denoting
process
to

from
we

this
be

by

for

this

"structure-preserving"

F-image :F(a)->G(a). we require

of

to

that

CH.

9,

9.2

NATURAL

TRANSFORMATIONS

199

each

<-arrow
a

f:

gives

rise

to Ta

diagram
>

F(a)
Ftf)

G(a)

F(b)
Thus

T"

G(b)
a

that

commutes.

and its natural

F-picture
In
summary

of G:

f:a-*b
then,
9f

into
a

provide G-picture. transformation

categorial
from
functor for

way

of
F:

turning
<<?
*

the 2
,

to

functor 2i-arrow

2
*

is in

an

assignment
such that

that

provides,
any
=

each

9f-object
the the above

:F(a)
or

G(a),
2,
to

for

9f-arrow

f:a->b,
.

diagram
:

commutes

i.e. denote
are

F(/)
that

Gif)
is
a

We

use

symbolism
from

F
to

G,
G. if this
The

F
arrows

4 G,

natural of

transformation
.

called
ra

the

components
is call
an

Now

each
as

component

of the

iso
and

arrow

in
the

then of

we

can

interpret
the

meaning
and then in has of

that

F-picture
we

same

in
*

2,

this
an a

case

natural
>

G-picture isomorphism.
F(a),
and
-r>

9f

look

Each

F(a)
the

G(a)
components

inverse
natural

G(a)

these
F.

t~1js
denote

form natural
Example each

isomorphism

x: G

We

isomorphism
1. The
a,

by identity identity

t:F=G.
natural
arrow

transformation

1F:F^F
This is

object

the

1F(a):F(a)-F(a).

assigns clearly

to
a

natural
Example This

isomorphism.
2. In

Set,
is
as

as a

noted

in in

3.4,
one,
as

we
we

have
can

A
see

1,

for

each

set

A.

isomorphism
x

natural

by
the last

using
section.

the

functor

1:

Set

>

Set,
the

described

Example

of

Given

f:A->B

then A

diagram
A
Ta
>

Bxl where

commutes, The Thus left the

()
of
the square

<x,
is the

0),
the

and

similarly

for
of

(i.e.
the

side

image
components

/
of

under
a

bijections
to

are

natural

=<idA, identity isomorphism

IA)).
functor.

from

1Set

-xl.

200

FUNCTORS

CH.

9,

9.2

Example

3. :AxB
as
*

Again
BxA well
as

in the
A
-

Set,

we

have the rule

AxB=BxA

by

the

"twist" Now Set and

map

twB

given "right
x
-:

by

twB
functor

((x,

( ,
A A
:

x>.
Set-

for
we

given
have

A, object a left-product to 1A x/:A

product"
Set-

functor
xB
A

Set,
for
any

xC.

Now

taking f:B

to

xB,

f:B-^C

C,

the

diagram

^'

commutes,
natural

AxC

^'CXA
the
A
x

showing

that from

bijections

twB
to

are

the

components

of

isomorphism
of do
are

A.

Equivalence
When
two

categories
categories
as

look

the

same?

One
We
say 9f
are

possible
that

answer

is
9f
*

when 2> is and

iso

they
if
F
an

isomorphic
an
=

objects
i.e.
a

in
functor
9f

Cat.

functor
such that
9f

F:

it G

has
1

inverse,
We

G:2>
and 2

then

say

that is
a

isomorphic,
it need be. If

GF="\V 2>,
=

if
inverse

there

is G

iso
This

functor notion of

F:<e-*3l.
"sameness"

stricter
have basic
a

than
=

has

then b
=

for

given
In of

9f-object
view had
to

we

G(F(a)), principle regard

9f

and
of and 2s

for

F(G(b)).

of

the
we

categorial might
in when

ability
the words
up
to

isomorphic
if
we

entities

stil
<

SZi-object indistinguishas "essential y

in 2).
In

b,

same"
9f

just
2
are

and

be

G(F(a)) categorial y
=

and the

equivalent

if

F(G(b)) they

other

are
a

"isomorphic
>

and Thus is G
a

isomorphism". F(G(b))
a

This
are

wil natural. 2J such

from
on

occur

isomorphisms of categories isomorphisms

on

G(F(a))
if there

functor
G:2>-9?

:<#*

is that

called there the 2s

to

an are

equivalence
natural

functor

F,
the

and

ir:1asF

G,
functor
and 2
are

identity
F

functor

9f

to

t:"\v F,

and

from

identity
9f

G.

Categories
equivalence

equivalent,

4S

3S, when

there

exists

an

equival-

F:<e-*2).
Finord
For

Example.
functor.

Finset.

Let
set

F:Finord let

^Finset

be

the
n

inclusion
the
to

funcnumber

each in
X.

finite
For each

X,

G(X)

n,

where from

is
X

of with

elements

X,

let

be

bijection

G(X),

CH.

9,

9.2

NATURAL

TRANSFORMATIONS

201

being
ty

the

identity

when G

is

an

ordinal. from Finset

Given
to

f:X-*Y,
Finord.

put

G(/)

!.

Then

is

functor

F(G(X))
F(G(f))
Y
Y

F(G(Y))
of
:

commutes,
of functor The skeletal
a

by
natural
on

definition

G(f)
1

F(G(f)),
F

the G.
But

tx's
also
be
are

are

the

components
is the

isomorphism
Finord.
of

identity
?

notion

equivalence
Recall
are

of

categories
3.4
a
=

can

clarified

by

considering
in is
A and

isomorphic
since
of each skeleton
a

categories. objects isomorphic

category
9f

from

that b
same

these

categories
=

which

identical,
sets

only
number
of
9f

if

b.

Finord
elements.

skeletal,
skeleton
such that is
a

finite
is
a

have

the

of that is

ful
In

subcategory
to
one

9f0

9f-object
of Finset.
structure

is

isomorphic
general
c.

(and
skeleton

only
9f0
to

one)
of
9f

skeletal, 9?0-object.
exhibits and
may

Finord the essential

categorial provided
method
of

of the

9f0
functor skeleton. into

is

equivalent
9?0 <=*<<?,
The relation
be

9f,
as

the be

equivalence
shown

is

by
the

inclusion
last
9f

by

the

Example.
has
a

Any
the collection
each

category
of

of

isomorphism
Choose
one

partitions
object
9f

9?-objects
class of choices.

equivalence
let

classes.
the selection in these
terms

from
on

equivalence
collection
of of the

and

<#
a a

ful of
9f

this

^0
of

is such

skeleton

subcategory (cf.
process

of

based
for
a

Chapter
in

12

discussion

Equivalence

legitimacy categories
9f

set-theory).

is
and

described
3)
are

by:

categories
skeletons
and in

equivalent
=

if categorial y in bijective
all. the class
The
set

they

have

isomorphic
the of

(9?^2>

if
they
set, Finset

<

),
are

this
Note

sense

equivalent
however
not

categories
that need
not

same".
indeed

be
at

"essential y correspondence,
collection

need is the
set

be

comparable
a

in

size
with
a

finite

ordinals
whereas each

small,

i.e.

identifiable
form
proper

of

natural it

numbers,

objects

of

(e.g.

includes

{%},

for

x).
1.

Exercise

Any

two

skeletons

of

given

category

are

isomorphic.

202

FUNCTORS

CH.

9,

9.3

Exercise

2.

In

topos
that Sub: the

?,

for these
8" -Set

each

object

there form
a

is
8"

bijection
(this

<g(d,
between

)
statement

(4.2).
the

Show

bijections
and

natural Set

Sub(d)s isomorphism
is
a

functors
of

g"(-,

i ):

functor-

ial

-axiom).

9.3.
We
the
return

Functor
now

categories
to

the

intention

stated
all

at

the from

beginning
9f
to

of 2s.
a:

9.2

to

define
be

functor with

category
natural
we

2*
get

of

functors

Let G
-r>

F,
H.

G,
Then

such
any

functors,
9f-arrow

transformations
a

t:F-r>

G,

for

f:a^b

diagram
G(a)
G(f)
H(f)

F(a)

F(Jb)
We

G(b)
a

wish

to

define The

the
Now

transformation.

composite diagram
each of

of

and
what

a,
to

and do. the

natural

have
For

it

as

natural
a,

indicates the
two

each

put

(a
so

)
outer

squares

in

diagram
transformation

commutes,

the thus

and
-

the

rectangle (a
This

commutes,

giving
the

(a

)
of
a

r)a's
then

are

components
the functor

t:F-r>H.

provides
For each

operation
F:9f-^

of
the is

composition
the

in

the the

functor

category

%'.

identity
arrow
on

trans-

formation

1F:F-r*F
F.

(Example

1,

9.2)

identity

2>*-object
Exercise 1.

The

natural
arrows.

isomorphisms
and
D

are

precisely
as

the

iso

arrows

in

2*.
with

Exercise

2.

Let

be

sets,
that that

construed for the

discrete
there

categories
is
a

only
transformation functions
Exercise

identity
F-r>
C-+D.

Show

F,
functor

G:C->D

trans-

iSF=G,

and

category

Dc

is

the

set

of

3. number of

->

is

monk

in

31**
in
as

if

is

monk
4

in

2)

for

all construed

a.

the

topoi categories,

described

Chapter

can

be

as

"set-valued

functor"

fol ows.

CH.

9,

9.3

FUNCTOR

CATEGORIES

203

A) assigns
preserve

Set2.
a

The
set

set

{0,1}
a

is
set

discrete
to

category.
1.

functor

F:2-Set is
can

Fo
arrows,

to

0
arrows,

and

Fx
2

Since

as

functor
we

required
suppress

to

identity
of Set
two
are

and

only
F

has
with the

identities,

all

mention
2
*

and
functors
:

identify
objects
F F

pair
Set2
with

(Fo,
of

essential y
such

in and
-r>

the

category
components
the

given
natural

G,
G with

identified
has

(Fo,
0

transformation
We
a

Fx). pairs Ft) : Fo

which

Thus

functors
of
sets.

Now

and
*

(Go,
Go,
is
none

Gt),
:

a
*

Fx
other

Gx.
than

may

thus

identify
from

pair

(0,
2
=

i^),
{0,1}
two
an arrow

Se^-arrow
Sef^.
0l.

(Fo,
the

Fx>
poset
F:2Set
F

to

(Go,
category

Gt).
with
sets

B)
arrow

Consider
A

functor Thus Now

comprises
is

Fo,

non-identity Fb
Set,
as

and

a an

function

f:F0~^-F1.
in then Set"*.
a

"essential y"
such
0,

/
construed

in

i.e.
g:

object G1;

given
G has

another

functor

G,
that

Go

t:F^>

components

make

commute.

We

see

then and
M

that
so

identified
lat er
be
to

with "is" the

(0,
category
An

becomes

an

arrow

from
from

/
2

to to

in
Let

Set"^,
=

the

Set2
M-set
is
a

of

functors

Set.

C)
where that

M-Set.
X

(M,
A

*,

e)

monoid.
m

pair
:

is

set

and and

assigns

each

function

Am

>

(X, X,

A)
so

(i) (ii)
Now M
*

Ae

Am
is
as
>

idx, Ap=Am*p.
a a

category

with
A

one

object,
and
e
=

say

M,
Then

arrows

the
A

members
a
=

of

M,
A
m. :

composition,
with

idM.
object,
with

becomes
A

functor
arrow

M Indeed

Set,

(Ml
are

for

the the

one

and
for
A

(m)
to

Am,
a

each functor.

(i),
any
to

(ii)
a

precisely
/x:M-Set,

conditions
Y

be

Now

given
assigns

other M

functor function

il(M)=Y,

then

.-^,

/:

>

so

that

x-

204

FUNCTORS

CH.

9,

9.3

commutes

for from
M
to

each

M.

But

this M-Set

says

precisely
is the

that

is

an

equivariant
of F:I- functors with functors Set

map

(X,
Set.

A) Taking

to

(Y,
the

/x).
set
a

Thus
I

category
a

Set*1
functor such

from

D) assigns
collections
An

Bn(f).
to

as

discrete
we can

category,

each

i j

set
sets

F;.
indexed

So

identify
/:Xf)

{F;:
object
with
arrow

61} f(i)
=

of in

by
a

I.

(X,/)
h
over
:

Bn(f)

(i.e.
the

function
of function each wil

gives
i.

functor
i to

/:I-Set,
An

r\{iY),
*

stalk
a

/
that

over

(X,

/)
i, hence

(Y,

g)
determines

is

function
a

maps

the

the
are

g-stalk
the

:/(i)
can

/-stalk g@be

over

These

h/s
into
a

components
from
So I
to

for Set. F:I>Set

The

h:f-r>
converse

g.

Thus
define
turn

bundle
work
a

turned
are

functor

only

if functor into

the

F;'s
F:I-
a

pairwise
Set
over

disjoint. putting
Since What

F(i)
F(j)
this
=

given F(i)x.{i} F(i)x{i},

boils of

we

new

by
I.

and
the

then functors
to

{F(i):iel}
F

bundle

and
the

are

naturally
from of
bundles

isomorphic.
(X,
defined

all

down

is The

that

passage

f)

to
over
on

/
I.
us

is
I

an

equivalence equivalent
These
many

categories.
the

category
of

Bn(f)
functors
construction
a

is

to

category

Set1
il ustrate

set-valued

?
with

last

four
We

examples
have:
any

that

provides
category

topoi.

for topos!
We devote the

"small"

category

9f,

the

functor
the

Set*

is

rest

of

this

chapter

to

describing

topos

structure

of

Set*.

Terminal In the
F:

object
Set*
one-element ^

this Set

is the

the
set

constant

functor

1: every F
-r

9f

Set
to

that the is

takes

every
on

{0},

and
arrow are

9f-arrow

identity
the
!:

9f-object {0}.
transformafor

to

For

any

unique

in

Set^
functions

natural

transformation whose

components
a.

the

unique

F(a)

{0}

each

9f-object

Fullback

This

is

defined

"componentwise",

as

indeed

are

all

limits

and

colimits

in

Set*.

CH.

9, 9.3

FUNCTOR

CATEGORIES

205

Given

-r>

and

a:

-*

H,

then

for

each

'e'-object

a,

form

the

pullback K(a) G(a)

F(a)
in establishes Set of
the
a

H(a)
components
functor

and

cra.

The 'e'-arrow

assignment f.a^b,

of

:<^>Set.

Given in the
"cube"

K(a) K(f)

to

is

the

unique

arrow

K(a)
K(a)
^

K(b) G(a)

G(b)
F(a)

H(a) F(b)

given
/

by
's
are

the

universal

property
for
G

of
-r>

the F and

front
/x
:

face

as

pullback.
G
that

The

Aa's

and

components

K-&

make

K^-^

H
a

pullback
4.

in

Set*.
Define
the

Exercise

product

Fx

r'

of

two

objects

in

Set*.
D

Subobject
To be define the

classifier
this
we

introduce of all for

'e'-arrows

new

notion.
with

For

given

'g'-object

a,

let

Sa

collection

domain
b
ir

a,

<a~\f-

some

b,

>

206

FUNCTORS

CH.

9,

9.3

(Sa
described
We for

is

the in
note

class

of

objects
3).
"closed

for

the

category
left

of

"objects
i.e.

under

a"

Chapter
that

any

-arrow

Sa is g:b^c,

under
g

composition",

if

feSa,

then

feSa

We closed

define

sieve

on

a,

or

an

a-sieve i.e.
at

to

be
g

subset
whenever

of and

Sa

that

is For

itself
any

under
a

left
there
are

object sieve).
Example

composition, always

has
two

feS
a-sieves

least

Sa

feS. 0 (the

empty

1.

In

discrete

category,

Sa ={1a}>

and

so

Sa

and

are

the

only

a-sieves.
Example 2.

In

2,

with

three

0-sieves,
3.
arrows are

0,
In
a

S0

/:0 {10, /},

the

unique

non-identity

arrow

there

are

and

{/}.
(monoid) composition
M.
=

Example

one-object
closed
under

category
left of Set
an

M,
left

an

M-sieve

is

set

SeMof
sieves Now

multiplication.

The

just
we

the fl:
=

left-ideals

define

by

fl(a)
and
takes

{S:S f:a->b,
S find

is

a-sieve}
let

for
the

-arrow

fl(f):fl(a)^fl(b)
b-sieve

be

the

function

that
is this

a-sieve in

to

the

{b->
=

c:g/eS}
the takes
set

(why
of S is left
to

sieve?)
Thus

Set*1,
m:M->M,
So fl

we

that

for

arrow

(} ?l(m):LM^>LM
the

LM, (LM,

ideals

in

M,
of

and
=

{n:n*meS}
codomain
that

o)(m, subobject
In

S).
Set*
arrow

becomes define
1

action fl
be

a>)
natural

that

the

the

classifier.
we

T:

-r>

to

the

transformation
=

has
that
a,

components
This
:

TB:{0}^fl(a)
is G
it is
a

given
classifier for
arrow

by
Set*.
in To

Ta@)
see

Sa,
how for

the
T

"largest" works,
suppose

a-sieve.
the

the

monic the inclusion

Set*.
monic
<=>

Then in

each
the

component
suppose
to

ra:F(a)^
be

G(a)

is

Set
Now

(Exercise
character

-object 3) and
\T

we '

wil

F(a)

G(a).

G-r>fl

CH.

9,

9.3

FUNCTOR

CATEGORIES

207

of

is

to

be

natural

transformation
to

with
Thus then

the

component
to

function
a-sieve

from

G(a)
The
a

fl(a).

(xT)a
is
such
to

assigns
decide
an

each
an arrow a

(x-r)a xeG(a), f:a^>b

commutative

set
an

(xT)a(x).
domain is

with

in

question (^T)a(x).
T"

when

For

/,

we

have

diagram
F(a)
F(f)
<-

G(a)
G(f)

F(b)
so

<^-^
the
x

G(b)
of

that if

only 4.4).

F(f) G(f)
Thus

is maps

restriction into

F(b).

(xT)a(x)={f:a^b:

to G(f) (Compare G(f)(x)eF(b)}.

F(a).
this

We with

put
the

/ in picture

(xT)a(x)
for Set

if

and
in

G(a)

G(b)
Fig.
9.1.

More

generally,
we

assuming
put

only

that

ra

is

function,

perhaps

not

an

inclusion,

W.(x)

(a-Ui: [a -^^
that

G(f)(xNTb(F(b))}
b: for is
some

eF(b),
and

G(f)(x)
that

()}
construction
and

Exercise

5. the

Verify
/2-axiom.

(xT)a(x) (see

an

a-sieve,

this

satisfies
Exercise

10.3) produces
an

6.

Show
7.

that
S
that

it
be the

the

classifiers
Define

for

Set2,
Sr'&^Set
are

Set"*

Bn(I). S(b)
are
=

Exercise

Let

a-sieve.

by
the
the

Snt(a,b).
a

Show

inclusions

S(b)
).
Show

<=^c(a,b)
that in

components
a-sieves

of in

monic

Set^-arrow

S>r*<e(a,

fact

208

FUNCTORS

CH.

9,

9.3

bijective
Set*.
Exercise

correspondence

with

the

subobjects

of

the

homfunctor

^(a,

in

8.

Show subsets -iS

=

that

for

each

'e'-object
b -^

(), fi

is

Heyting

algebra

of

of

Sa,

with

[a
{f:
largest
notion

-^
whenever

b:

for

any
g

c,

g g

s\
/e

S^>T
Show and
The that

/eS,
of all

then the in

T}
contained
in

iS
T is

is
the the codomain

the

largest
a-sieve
of
a

(union)
contained

a-sieves
S
U

S,
?

S
dual

T.

to

sieve
that

is

called
under contravariant

an

a-crible.

This
functors in
the in
to

is from

collection

of
are

arrows

with
to

is

closed of

right-composition.
<#

Cribles
to

used
a

show

that

the of

category
functor
et

Set

is and We of
14.

topos.
the

This
work
used

type
of Grothendieck co-cribles semantics.

arises
al.

naturally

study
terms

of
of

sheaves,
cribles.

[SGA4]
are

is

done

have
the

because Cribles

they
themselves

appropriate
wil
be

the

conventions
in

Kripke

discussed

Chapter

Exponentiation
Let

in Fi'e'^Set.

Set*
For
each takes

'g'-object

a,

define and h:

"forgetful"
-

functor
where

Fa:

Set

that

/:

to

F(b),

commutes,
Now

to

F(h).
F,G:<e^Set,
define

given

GF:4-Set

by

GF(a)
the

Nat[Fa,GJ,
transformations
from

collection

of
on

natural

Fa
to
a
-*

to

Ga.

Acting

arrows,
to

GF

takes

k:a>d
takes
:

function
to

GF(k)
Fd
-*

from
that

Nat[Fa,

Ga]

Nat[Fd,

Gd].

This

Fa

Ga

':

Gd

has

CH.

9,

9.3

FUNCTOR

CATEGORIES

209

components

Tf

Tfofc,

for

an

object
Let

in

<#

d.
and G So
be

Example.

functors

2Set,
Now

thought

of

as

functions discrete "is"

f-.A^B one-object
D,
and

and

g:C^D
Fl

(i.e.
is

Sef"-objects).
identifiable
with

2f
=

is likewise

the

category.

FA)
B->D.

B,

Gx

GFA)
Now 2

DB,
to

the 2

set

of
so

functions

0 Then

is

isomorphic
Nat[F,
of

itself,

Fo

and

Go

can

be

taken

as

just

and

G.

GF@)
where
to

G]"
Set~*-arrows

"E,
from

is

the

set

to

g.

Finally

GF

takes

!: 0

-^>
-r

DB,
corresponding

as

fol ows:
the

Given

F the

G,
transformation
to

to

Set~*-arrow
whose sole

(0,
component
1.

from is

/
since

to

g,

Gf(t)
corresponds

is

Fa

-^

Gx 1a

the

unique

member

of

Thus

gf((T0,

exponential
We This have has
whenever

Ti)) object
yet components

1}

and
in

this

very

complex

construction

has

yielded

the

Set"*.
the

?
evaluation

to

define

arrow

ev:

GF
where

xF^>

in

Set*.

tv(x)
component

xeF(a)
1 of the <#

eva:GF(a)xF(a)^G(a), and TeGF(a),

f -object
1a
is

((,
(note
that

))
the

i.e. indeed

T.Fa^>Ga
a

function

from

F(a)

to

210

FUNCTORS

CH.

9,

9.3

G(a).
f:
H
-r>

Now

for has

Set*

arrow

t:HxFtG,
that
are

the

exponential
the form

adjoint

GF

components

functions

of

ta:H(a)->GF(a).
For
4S each

in

| -object
for

that

input

H(a), f:a^b, xeF(b)

()

is

natural
to

transformation

Fa
function from

-r

() gives

assigns
output

/ that

Ga. F(b)

For
to

each

G(b)

(note
The

that reader
this

H(b)xF(b)^
who has and for in of
the the relate

G(b)
head
it for
to

and
such

H(f):H(a)-*
things
power may

H(b)).
check in
out

the
etc.

details We of
the

of
shall

construction
need models classifier it

exponentials
of

M-Set,
in
a

only

description
11.

objects
concern

Bn(I) special
be

topos
with

Kripke subobject

Chapter
"set-valued"

Our
functor

major

wil

categories.

CHAPTER

10

SET

CONCEPTS

AND

VALIDITY

"..

natural

and

useful
to

generalisation
consideration

of of

set

theory
which
W. Lawvere

the
in-

'sets
"

internally

develop'

F.

10.1.
We determines is truth
true.
saw

Set
in But
is
not

concepts
Chapter
a

that

statement

<p(x),

pertaining
things
attitude of outlined
which

to

individuals
the
statement

x,

set,

viz

the
to

set

{x:

<p(x)}
to
a

of

all

according something
to

the

constructivist
statement

in but

Chapter
rather
is

8,
a

ascribed
attribute.
state terms

absolutely,
of
at <p not
a

"context-dependent" according
sentence.

The

truth-value

sentence

varies of
a

the these
as

of

knowledge
we

In but

might
for known of
at

existing regard
each
p
at to

the
as

time
the

of

assertion
set

the
per

determining
collection

se,

rather
<pp

determining, <p(x)
the extension P
P

state

p,

={x:
frame

is

be
p.

true}.
the

<pp

wil

be

called

<p

Thus,
determines

given
a

of -H>Set.

states

of

knowledge,
if
have

assignment
is taken
also
at

of
to

<pp

to

function if

Moreover,
we

truth
true

"persist
q,
so

in

time",
Thus

then

xoe<pp

and

pCq,

<p(x0)

xoe<pq.

(*)
This inclusion
Example.
means

pCq
that
arrow

implies
<p

^p^<pq
determines
<pq
to
a

functor
q "x
,

P-^-Set,
in P.

which

assigns

the

<pp

<

each

Let
are no

<p(x)
non-zero

be

the

statement

is

an

integer
with
ax
+

greater
bx=cx".
every

than

2,
Fermat's
x

and

there

integers
asserts

b,

celebrated
the that

"last

theorem" it for all is

x

that known if Until extension

<p(x)
this

holds

for

integer although
it
is

3=

2.

At

present
<p

moment

not

is Fermat's of

correct,
to

is

known decided

is
way

true
we

=?25,000.
the

"theorem"
<p

either

may

expect

increase

with

time.

211

212

SET

CONCEPTS

AND

VALIDITY

CH.

10,

10.1

So,
category
Lawvere

corresponding
Set*.
Such We
an

to

an

[75,76]. terminology
Carnap
is
The

object might
In

expression might
also call

<p

we

have of

an
as

object
a

in

the

functor

be it

though
an

"variable set,
or a

set",
set

as

in

intensional
theories
the extension

concept.
out

This Rudolf

derives

from such
the the actual be
on

semantic
theories

of collection
somewhat

the

type
of
of
an

set

by
which

[47].
taken
intension
to

individual
to

expression
it refers.

thing,
hand
as

or

things,
elusive the

other
the

is
the

more

entity,
to

which

is
the

sometimes

described
p.

being
intension

meaning
of
an

of individual if

Carnap
be "x

([47],
"individual
a

41)
concept

defines

expression. expression
the
statement

expressed
then
the

by
intension
the

it". of that

Thus
<p

<p(x)
the
to

is

is

finite This known is

ordinal"

is

concept
each
can

of
p

finite
set

ordinal.

represented
at

by
p
to

functor ordinals.
set

assigns
This

the be way

of said
we

things
to construe

stage concept
as

be

finite the

functor ordinals.

also this Consider

represent

the

of
a

of
set

finite

In

Set*
There
are

being
dif iculties
smallest

category
with non-finite

of
the

concepts.

some

theme ordinal". and

is the be

just
This

developed.
expresses

the
a

expression
dif erent

"the

quite
two

dif ersame

concept
i.e.
two

to

"the the
set

set

of of

finite
finite

ordinals",
ordinals

yet
smallest

the

have in

the

extension,
Thus
same more

non-finite

ordinal.

dif erent i.e.

concepts

might
does
not

well

represented
represent
all

Set*
times

by

the

object,
basic
Another

Set*
consider relates would
seem

example

the
to

faithful y expressions
the be

concepts
and

(for

plus
of
fal acious i.e.
is the
x0
=

2"

2").
above.
x0

dif iculty
argument
the

derivation

the in

principle
the for
event
some

(*)
that

The

to
set

simply
concept,

is

itself

extension for
the

of

some

=0,

().
Then

Suppose

example
set

that
whose

<p(x) only
member from

statement

"x={y:
while the the
to

expression Ky)}".
<pq

={},
then
then

is this then

replace

={^}.
that

If

function
In

^.
by
is

We
<pq. map

do

salvage
we

however

fact

if

of

(*)
way

the

Perhaps taking
stil determine
here

should
element
a
-

inclusion
the

funcin notion of
some

each

of
functor.
also

its
the

counter-part
extension
at

cpQ.

this

<p would

Unfortunately
be

of

counterpart
other

expression
In

ambiguous 0(x)
these

x0

may

(x0
problems, understanding
is
the

)
notion of

whose

extension
of the

dif ers
stil and
to

from

(*).
spite
of
to

the

set

concept
in

would

seem

appropriate

an

viewpoint
set

that Set* Indeed theory. notions philosophically dif icult an i n di c at i o n (for

universe

for

the
of

study
"individual
how

of intractable

Set1"

may

objects generalised help

ideas

Set*,
"non-extensional"
the

the

to

clarify
"intensional
are,

philosophi-

concept"
these

and

object"
read Scott

of

[70i]).

CH.

10,

10.2

HEYTING

ALGEBRAS

IN

213

Certainly
one.

the

notion
thinks of
the

of the

"variable

structure"

is of

mathematically system"

significant
as

One

concept
to

"neighbourhood
point
of in
a

rep-

represented
of
the
to

by

assignment
-

each in manifold look of variable

topological
space"
as

space

of

its

set

neighbourhoods assignment
the In this

or

the

concept
a

"tangent
of

represented
vectors

by
tangent

to at

each that
we

manifold

point point.
propose the
nature

the

space
at

of
the

chapter
in is

to

in

depth
truth
sets
arrows.

topos
The

structure

of
we

Set*,
wil

and reach

particular
that "the

its

conclusion

logic

of

is

intuitiorustic".

10.2.
Let
P=

Heyting
(P, C)
be

algebras
a

in
For

P
each

poset.

peP,

let

be

the

set

of the be
very

P-elements

"above"
of the

p
r

in Thus

the

ordering

If

[p)
P
p.
as

and

then,
and
sets

by
wil
are

transitivity
called useful in

principal describing

[p). ^-hereditary
the

[p)
set

is

hereditary generated
of
the HA

in

([p)
Principal
seen

P+),
in

structure

by P+,

the

fol owing

Exercises
Cf.
Exercise

8.4

for
1.

notation. For

any

S^P,
if

if

[p)

then

peS.

Exercise

2.

Cq

[q)

[).
are

Exercise

3.

The

fol owing
p p

equivalent,
S;

for

any

S^P:

(i) (ii) (ii )

Exercise

S
for for

is all
all

P-hereditary;
gP,
e

e e

S if S

[p)^
implies

P,
any

[p)

S.

4.

For

S, TeV+,

0}.
Now the relation and

so

?
members

when
we

restricted have
a

to

the

of and
a

[p)
collection

is

stil

partial

ordering,

poset

([p),

C),

[p)+

214

SET

CONCEPTS

AND

VALIDITY

CH.

10,

10.2

consisting principal

of
set

all

the

sets

that

are

hereditary by
q

in is

[p).

Now

if

[p),

then

the

generated

in

[p)
and

[q)p={r:
=

re[p)

[p)n[q).
2,
this

But P

by
is If the
we

Exercise
same as a

is

just
account

[q).
set

In

other
q

words,
respect

the
to

principal

set

of
From

in

the

principal
of

of of

with

[p),
between

[q)

[q)p.
and

this

obtain
S is
any

detailed

the

relationship

P+

[p)+.

subset

P,

put

4=sn[P)
=

{q: If

qeS

and

pCq}.
then S
=

Theorem

1.

A)

Sc[p),

SP,
T
=

and

Se[p)+

i#SeP+;

B) C) D)
Proof.

I/SeP+

AenSpe[p)+;
if /orsomeSP+,
then S=
if

[)+ I/SeP+,
A) Clearly

SP;

U{Sp:peP}.
Sc[p),
then

SD[p).

Moreover,

by

Exercise

Se[p)+
while

if

qeS

implies

[q)pcS

SeP+
But since

if

qeS
implies
SeP+

implies

[q)c&
=

S^[p),
Since

qeS

[q)p

B)

[p)eP+,
result

[p),
C) D)

the

fol ows have

show

by
that

implies A). part

\_q). Sn[p)eP+,

i.e.

SpeP+.

Since

Sp

Exercise. We
to

qeS
Since
in

if

for

some

p,

qeSp
is

S[p).
from

general,
if
q
e

Sp
S the

S,
then

the

implication
if S

right
we

to

left
q
e

is

immediate.

Conversely, qeSfl
Now of
interest

hereditary
by
the

have
p
=

[q)

S,

and

so

[q),
we

i.e. know
the

proof
from
subset reader
The

is

completed
that

taking

q.

8.4

poset
is
a

([p)+,
Heyting
such

[p)

under of and
the

ordering
familiar lat ice
set meet

<=) of algebra
-

hereditary (in fact-for

is
a

subsets the

with

things
join
union.

[p)+
are

subdirectly
the
opera-

irreducible operations

HA).
U

and

and

Up
The

of

intersection

simply pseudo-complement

CH.

10,

10.3

THE

SUBOBJECT

CLASSIFIER

IN

Set*

215

"~V[p)+-*[p)+
-|PS
while
the
=

is

defined

for
q
6

Sg[p)
and

by

{q:

[p)

[q)p
and S

-S}

relative
=

pseudo-complement

[p)+
s

[p)+

->

[p)+

has

{q:
may
to

qe[p)
we

[q)p
relativise
to

T}.
S
to

Now then

given apply
we

any

S^P,
or we

may

first
i

[p),
then

i.e.

form The

Sp,
and
more

and
two

ip,
prove have

procedures generally
Theorem

be

apply commutative,

first,
for

and

relativise.

P-hereditary

S,

2.

For

any
=

S,TeP+

A) B) C) D)
Proof.

(Sp)np(Tp) (SP)UP(TP) -Tp(^) (Sp)^p(Tp)

A)

(SnT)p; (SUT)P;

(-iS)p;

Exercise.
=

B)

SPUPTP

SPUTP (Sn[p))U(Tn[p))
(S
=

T)
for
e

[p)
pCq,
we

(distributive
have

law)

C)

Since

[q)

(SUT)P. [q)p
{q:q (-tS)p.

-ip(Sp)

[p)

and

[q)

-S}

D)
The the

Exercise.

?
minded of reader
to

which

algebraically assignment is surjective

The

wil
an

note

that

Theorem

states

that
to

Sp
by

is

HA
1

homomorphism

from

P+

[p)+,

Theorem

C).
in

10.3.
That

subobject
is
a

classifier
is
The the
case a

Set1*
the

Set1*
category

topos
c. in

special
definition
^
to
=

case

of of
the be

fact

that

Set*
classifier
in
terms

is

topos
for of the

for

any

small in
the

9.3
form

proves

to

subobject expressible
has

Set*
HA's

given
of

[p)+.
47(p)=the

According
set

9.3, p-sieves.

f2:P^Set

of

216

SET

CONCEPTS

AND

VALIDITY

CH.

10,

10.3

Now

p-sieve
P
=

is

subset

of

|! /:f

for

some

q,
,

in

>

that
g:
one

is
q
-

closed
r

under

left

multiplication,
But
as

i.e.
P

has

gfeS
category,
when

whenever there
p

/eS
is So
q.
at
a

and
most

is

P-arrow.
p
to

is

arrow
we

from may

q,

and
arrow

this

exists

preorder precisely
with its

q.

for
Hence

fixed

p,

identify

the

/:p>q

codomain

Pp

becomes

{q:pCq}
and
the

[p)!,
S
as
a

description
reS whenever

of

p-sieve
qeS
and

becomes
q

i.e. Thus In of
be
p

is

[p)-hereditary! 47(p) [p)+,

=

fhe

collection
F:P
p

of
Set
F

hereditary
we

subsets wil write from

a

of

[p).
the
to

general
in
denoted

for Whenever

functor

Fp

for

image

F(p)
wil
of
sets

Set.

q,

yields
view
"transition
F

function
as

Fp

Fq,
p

which
e

Fpq.
by
P and In the that

We

may

thus

collection

{Fp:
on

P}
whenever of

indexed
p

provided

with
is
the the

maps"
function
as

q.

particular
case

Fpp
of

identity

Fm:Fp Fp.
of
the
to

Fq

In shows

pCq,

modification

above

definition

9.3
i.e.

when

^-^,

takes

Se[p)+

Sn[q)e[q)+,

The

terminal all
1 fl
:

lp={0},
true:

object peP,
is
the

for and natural

Set1"

is

the

"constant"

functor

l:P-*Set

having
classifier

lpq=id{0}
transformation

for

pCq.
whose

The

subobject "p-th"

component

truep

{0}

flp fraep@)

is

given
=

by

[p).
the

Thus Now

true

picks
if
:

out

unit
a

element of
whenever

from
G

each

HA
then be the

[p)+.
each

>r^

G and

is

subobject

in

Set1*

component
to

be the
we

wil inclusion
find

be

injective,
function
the

wil
<=>

convenient

assumed

Fp
character

Gp.

'

Again
G

by

has

that

modifying p-th (x)

9.3

definition

component

(\T)P
q

'

Gp
6

-[p)+

given

by
for
each
x

Gp,

(\^)p

{q:

and

Gpq(x)

Fq}

CH.

10,

10.3

THE

SUBOBJECT

CLASSIFIER

IN

Setp

217

Fig.

10.1.

Exercise

1.

Show Show

that

()()
Xr
*s

is natural

hereditary
transformation

in

[p).
from
G
to

Exercise that

2.

that

O,

i.e.

A.
ft.

commutes

whenever

?
if

Notice

that

xeFp,

then

for

any

[p),

since

a,

commutes

we

must

have

GM(x)
then
then
we

Fpq(x)eF,,
=

and

so

other

hand

if

xeFp,
Altogether

Gpp(x)
have

xeFp,
that

and

so

qe(^T)p(x). p^(xT)pW,

On

the

i.e.

(xT)p(x)^[p).

Fp ={x:

(Xr)P(x)

218

SET

CONCEPTS

AND

VALIDITY

CH.

10,

10.3

and

hence

is

pullback

in

Set.

Since

this

holds

for

all

p,

is delicate.

pullback Suppose

in

Set1*.
cr:G^>

The

verification
makes

of

the

rest

of

the

(I

-axiom

is

rather

pullback.

Then

for

each

q,

>Gq

{0}
wil
assume

,
and
so

be

pullback,

by

the

nature

of

pullbacks

in

Set

we

may

Now

let

us

take

particular

p.

Then

whenever

pCq,

CH.

10,

10.3

THE

SUBOBJECT

CLASSIFIER

IN

Set1"

219

commutes,

and

hence if if if if if if

qe(XT)p(x)

Gm(x)eFq

o-q(Gpq(x))
(a-p (x))

[q)

(by(*))
(last

[q)
=

diagram)

crp(x)n[q)
[q)^crp(x)
qeo-p(x)
this
holds of

[q)

(definition^)
(Exercise 10.2.3)

Thus
that
<r

(xT)p(x)
=

a-p(x).

Since

all

and

all

Gp,

it

fol ows

Xr-

Example

1.

We
the
same

saw as

in

9.3
where

that

the

topos poset

Set"*

of

set

functions
with

is

essential y
In 2
we

Set2

is the

category

{0,1}

Ocl.

have

and

O01
1,
3,

maps

{0,
and 0

0 by
becomes

1} and respectively
t

{1} providing
(w,
category

to

{1},
in

and

0 and

to

0.
and

If

we

denote

{0,
by
1

1},
and in

{1}
0,
4.4.
ordinals

and

O0,
the

{1}
Set^*-classifier

0 in

fl1
denned

O01

the

function

Example

2.
m,. .,

Let

<o

?)
their
of

be

the

poset

of Set"

all
is
an

finite

0,1,2,. .,
Maclane

under
as

natural
"sets

ordering.
through

described

by

[75]
of
as
a

the

time",

object

being

thought

string

Now
has
a

in first

to,

[m)
member

{m,

4-1,
ms,
so

2,. .}.
if
S

Moreover
is
and
o

if

S ?

a>

is

non-empty,
Thus
with
set
we

that
are
a

hereditary,
can

S=[ms).
be

all

non-empty
first then elements.

simplify

sets hereditary Introducing fl by identifying

principal symbol
to+ with
to

identified
the

their
may

stand

for

empty

{0,1,
and for
me<x>,

2,. .

,m,. .,oo}

putting
Om
=

{m,

+1,. .,

oo}.

220

SET

CONCEPTS

AND

VALIDITY

CH.

10,

10.3

Whenever

m^n,

Omn

becomes

!n
while Given

if
p
oo

p s

if

n=p
p
meet.
=

if
each character

oo,

truem@)
t:F>t>G,

m,

for
the

\
n

has
m

(x)m
that has

:Fm

Gm,

given

by

()()

the

first
6

after

Gmn(x)
while
=

Fn,

if

such

exists,

if

whenever

rrn-1

Fig.

10.2.

Thus

()()
til
truth"

denotes
as

the

first

time

that

lands

in

the

subobject
of
the The

F,
subobeffect

the

"time
of
the

Maclane is
can even

puts

it.

Maclane's
than
as

description
the
one

subobject classifier
map

for

Set"

simpler

just

given.

flmm+1
Om
m

be

displayed
m

m+2

..

oo

m+3

CH.

10,

10.4

THE

TRUTH

ARROWS

221

The the

picture
map

looks
that

the

same

for
not

each

m,

and of
We may

indeed
the

it

is

the

structure

of "orderthe

is
sequences

significant,
Clm

the
and

labelling

entries

in
each

the

isomorphic" single

Om+1.

replace

by

set

fl
and each

={0,1,2,. .,oo}
by
0
1

Omm+1

the

single
2

map

f:

displayed

as

oo

0 Then functor
the

object

>

of
each
>

truth

values

becomes,
and the
arrow

as

in
true

Maclane,
has
the

the

constant

-^>..
three

inclusion
in

{0}
So
serve

CZj>
now

for
we

component.
seen

have of

set-theoretically
1

distinct

objects
the

Set"
that

that

as

objects
characterises

truth-values,
T:

0, -axiom

underlining uniquely

again
up
to

point
only.

the

isomorphism

10.4.
1. The and False

The

truth

arrows

initial

object
=

0: for
p
same

P q.

Set
The

in

Se^
for

is

the

constant

functor 0
-r

having
1 has

0p
!: 0
-

0 ^ false:

0pq {0}
1

id0
(i.e.

unique
:

transformation
each

components
of
1 is

the

component

p).

The

character

with

falsep
=

{0}

Op
and and

having

falsep(Q)

{q: {q:
0.
the

pCq pCq

1pq@)e0q}
060}

Thus I.
\

false Negation
:fl->
then

picks

out

zero

element

from

each

HA

[p)+.

Q
the

is

the

character

of

false.

Identifying

falsep Op
of
i

with

{0}

Qp

we

find

p-th
-ip

component
=

\p:Qp->
p

has

(S)

{q: {q:pCq

and

(S)

6
=

{0}}
0}

andSPl[q)

222

SET

CONCEPTS

AND

VALIDITY

CH.

10,

10.4

We

had lat er

already
operation
truth
arrow

used

the

symbol
in

ip

in

10.2

to

denote

the

pseudoshows
that

complementation
the

operation
is in

[p)+.
the and
so

The
same

equation
as

precisely

the

just p-th
remains

derived

component
consistent.

of

the

negation

Set^

the

notation

I I. The

Conjunction
functor Ox
has

()=(,)
and The for
arrow

pCq,

(QxQ)m
(T, T):
1
-^

is

the
x

product
in

map

OPQ xQm
components

(cf.

3.8).

Set1*

has

<T,T)p:{0}
given
Its

-^
=

by
character

<T,T)p@)
is
the

<[p),[p)>.
conjunction
arrow

with

components

r\p:

Op
=

Op
pCq

43p having
and

^PS,

{q:

<fl^(S),
[q)
q 6S

f2pq(T))
S and and

<[q),
T}

[q))}

{q:pCq {q: S(~lTn[p)

pCq

and and

[q)s

qeT}

(snT)p
Sfir.

(Theorem

10.2.1)

IY. The
as

Implication equaliser
domain
the
e :

@>r

Qxfl

of
:

^:f2xf2^f2

and

f2

f2

-r>

has

functor

Set,

with

and
The

pq,
components

for

pCq,
of

giving
e

output
are

<Sq,
inclusions

Tq)

for

input
:

(S,
p

T).

the

ep

<^

f2p

CH.

10,

10.5

VALIDITY

223

The component

implication

arrow

->

being

the

character

of

e,

has

given

by

=>PS,

T))={q:
=

pCq

and

{q:pCq {q:p^q (S=>T)n[p)

and

(Om(S), S [q)

Opq(T))e
[q)}

<)}

andSf~l[q)cT}

(S=>T)P.
of
the

Thus

fhe

p-th

component

implication

arrow

is

the

relative

pseudo-

complementation
V.
Exercise

for

the

HA

[p)+.

Disjunction
1.

Show

that

the

p-th

component

of

the

transformation

[<To,1n>.<1n,To>]
is

"essential y"

the

set

and

hence
=

that

the

disjunction

arrow

\j:?IkQ,^>fl

has

components

wp((S,T))
It
now

is
know

worth that

pausing
the

here

to
arrows

reflect

on

what

has
are

been

accomplished.
those the
were

We

truth

in

Se^
remember

transformations connectives
were

whose
on

components

interpret
in
P.

the

precisely corresponding
that

natural
connec-

the

Heyting
long
from intuitionistic
a a

algebras
before intuitionistic

But

truth mentioned. functions

arrows

denned
arose

logic
of in
Thus
to

and the

HA's
classical

They
Set.

categorial
when
truth
common

Subsequently,
the
structure

description interpreted
functions. classical of
the

truth

in

the

particular
the

topos

Set1*,
"topos

yield
abstracts
better

theory
intuitionistic
of

of

they logic"
What

and advancement and

logic.
understanding (2.4)?

example
the

could

there

be

through

interplay

of

generalisation

specialisation

10.5.
In

Validity
view
of
the

results between

of

the

last in

section

one

would

anticipate
semantics
on

an

intimate
the

relationship

validity

Se^

and

algebraic

HA's

224

SET

CONCEPTS

AND

VALIDITY

CH.

10,

10.5

[p)+.
Validity

In

fact
Theorem.

the

main
For

result
any

of

this

section,
P,
and

indeed

of

this

chapter,
sentence

is

the

poset

prepositional

Set^a
In The There Theorem. the

if
expression expression

PN.

left-hand
is
We

we

mean

right-hand
some

refers
as

to to

topos-validity Kripke-style
we

as

defined
as

in in
the

6.7.

validity
about

8.4.

choice
know from

how that

go

proving

Validity

8.4

PNa
and

if
that

P+Na,

from

8.3

Set*t=a
so
we

if proceed Sub(l).
We
to

Sef(l,fl)t=a
establish

if

Sub(l)N,
between
are

could

relationships
these
to

the
on

HA's
the
same

P+,
directly

Set^l,
underlying
in
terms

O),
of
M
=

and
theme. the

Ultimately
choose

all
the

variations

approach
concerned.

Validity

Theorem

definitions

of
a

validity
based
a

Let

(P,
We

V)
use

be V
to

model
define
sentence

on

P,
it

where

:0-*+

is

a a

P-

valuation.

to

Se^-valuation
let er
a

V':<P0-*SelF(l,
truth value
defined

O)

la in

6.7. Set1".

V The

assigns
p-th

each

V'(-jt):1^>{1
by

component

V'(ir)p:{0}^>

is

Thus Now
so

V'(t )p
if

picks
pCq
then

out

the

set

of

points

in

[p)

at

which

is

true

in

M.

V(-zr)n[p)n[q)=

V(V)n[q)

(Exercise

10.2.2)

and

{0}
commutes.

Hence the

V'(t )
of

is the

natural
M

transformation. and

By
subset

rules

8.4

model of

M(a)p

M(a)={q: M(a)\[)

\=}
of

P,
On the

produces hence,
other hand

for for

each each

sentence

peP,
rules of

subset

[p).

by

the

6.7,

CH.

10,

10.5

VALIDITY

225

provides
peP,
Lemma
a

each

with

Se^-arrow

V'(a):l-^

fl

and

hence,

for

each

function 1.

V'(a)p:{0}^>
For
any
a,

flp.
the

We

have

p-th

component

of
Proof.

V\a) By
result

has

V'(a)p@)=^(a)p.
induction
on

the

formation

of
If
a
=

a.

Since
and

()
the

V(ir),
holds

for

ir

the then

is

immediate

from

(*).

~/3,

result

for

/3,

V'(~0)P=(-iV'O3))p
and

so

\p(M(fi (-()) M{~$X

M(a\,
for
.

)p)

(induction
(Part
Theorem I

hypothesis)
of

10.4,

and

10.2.2C)) (D'),
8.4)

hence

the

result
1.
v,

holds

Exercise

Complete
,

the
=>,

proof
the other

of

Lemma

for
the

the
rest

cases

of
Theorem

the 2

connectives
of Corollary
Proof.

10.2,

and
2. Let M

clauses

using B'), only

V)
be in
=

parts

of
from

10.4,
8.4.

of

C'), if
any

and Pt=a.

E')

Set^a
=

(P,
to

P-based

model,

and

V
=

the true, 1

Se^-valuation
and
so

corresponding
p,

as

(*).

Since
Since holds

V'(a)p@)
Thus
To

traep@)
=

[p).
this of

Set^a, pe[p),
for
any

V'(a)
Lemma model
we

for

each

gives
a

pei(a)pc
is

M(a).

M(a)
the

P.

As

on

P,
with

valid

on

P.

prove

converse

Corollary
from

2,
it
each

begin
P-valuation
q
e

Se^-valuation

V":
arrow

-*

Set^l,
V'(ir):
of
1
-r>

fl)
fl
We

and

construct

V:

get

-*

P+.
subset Thus

The

picks
form the

out,
union

for of

P,
sets

an

hereditary
to

V(-n-)q@)

[q).

all

of

these

V(ir).

226

SET

CONCEPTS

AND

VALIDITY

CH.

10,

10.5

i.e.

(**)

reV(ir)
now

if
a

for

some

q,

reV(ir),@).
V
we

Having
Set^valuation
us

obtained

P-valuation

could

apply
However

(*)

to

get

another

V",
the

with

V"(tt)p@)=
V,
as we see

V(t)n[p).
from

this

just

gives

back 3.

original
For
any

Lemma

peP,

where

V(ir)
It is

is

defined
clear

by
from

(**). (**) Conversely,

that

Proof.

V'(f)p@)?V(i:).
and suppose
so
r

But

since
Hence

V'(ir):l^*n,

V'(ir)p:{0}-A,,
for hence
some

VV)P@)<=[p).
e

V'(t)p@)sV(ir)n[p).
and and

V(V)
it

[p).
fol ows

Then that

pCr, qCr,

q,reV'(irL@).

Since

V'(ir),@)c[q),

{0}

fl

{0}
commutes, because
=

-?<^
V'(t )
since

,
is
a

natural

transformation.

Thus

(/')@)

[)

',@). Analogously,

pCr,

V'(ir)p@)n|=V'(ir)r@).
Then,

knowing
to

that conclude

V'(/n")q
that

@)

and

[r),
Hence

we

may

apply

these

last

two

equations

reV'(ir)P@).

V(V)

[)

V'(-n-)p@).

Now

if then

is

P-valuation,
Theorem

and

is

denned

by

(*),

i.e.

V(-n-)p@)

V(-n-)p,

by

1D)

of

10.2,

so

the Lemma

application
3, is that
a

of

(**)
the

just
definitions
between

gives

us

back
and

again.
(**)
are

The

upshot
to

of each

this,
other

and and

(*)
P-valuations

inverse

establish

bijection

and

Se^-valuation.

Thus

CH.

10, Lemma

10.6

APPLICATIONS

227

in

we

may

alternatively

regard

as

having

been

denned

from

V"
Corollary

by

(**).
4.

Pt=a
be

only
any

if Se^Na.

Proof.

Let

Se^-valuation,
Since
Thus

and

M
=

(P,
and
so

V)
for

the
any
=

corresponding
p,

model

denned

by
=

(**).
=

Pt=a,

M(a)
by
Lemma

P,

M(a)p
@).
Hence

M(a) V'(a)
Corollaries

[p)
true.

[p)

truep@).

1,

V"(a)p

@)

truep

?
2

and

together

give

the

Validity

Theorem.

10.6.

Applications
A)
The is is
the
most

important
characterisation
frame for

immediate
of
IL the

Theorem

the

class

consequence of

of

the
sentences.

Validity
If
any

topos-valid
8.4

canonical

described

in

then,

for

and

hence

by
h-a

the

Validity if
Set^Na.

Theorem

From Completeness

this

we

get
Theorem

the:

for

?-Validity.

If

is

valid

on

every

topos,

then

Ia. IlL

Together
result
that

with
the
was

the
sentences

Soundness

Theorem
on

valid
in recall it
was

all
the

topoi
is
that

are

given precisely

in Set"^
the

8.3
the

this
IL-theorems.
not
as

yields
validate

the

B)
a

It
~a.

stated
see

6.7
that shown

that

category

does
same

To

this,
of

Sef*

essential y
2?a is
v~a.

Set2.
Theorem

But

in

the then

Example gives
C)
The

8.4

The

Validity
by

Set^ava.

logic
the

LC,
classical

mentioned

in

8.4,

generated

adjoining

to

the

IL-axioms

tautology

(a=>0)v@=>a)

228

SET

CONCEPTS

AND

VALIDITY

CH.

10,

10.6

LC

is Now

what

is

known and
are

as

an

intermediate in
the

logic,
CL-theorems.
or

i.e.

its

theorems

include
that

all

IL-theorems it is

included

known
1=

(cf.
a

Dummett

[59]

Segerberg

[68])

if

Ilc

a,

and

so

we

have

LC

if!
of

SerNa,
the

i.e. This
discrete
that the

LC

is

the

is
time

the
moments.

logic appropriate
dense,
of

topos
context

of if
the

"sets time

through
is is
If
not

time"

described
to

in
be
the

10.3.
up of

considered
altered

made

However
or even

logic
numbers
5

by
U denote

is

continuous.
of

<Q>
under

and

assumption respectively
(arithmethat

posets

rational,
then

and

real,

their
we

natural conclude

(arithmetic) ordering,
wNa and In infinite
so

from

Section Q\=a

of
R\=a.

Segerberg

if
Set",
most

if
and

the fact
the

topoi
order

SetQ,
general
poset

Set
pCq

all
we or

have
can

the

same

logic.
is
that

conclusion

make for all

if

P then

is

any

linearly
Set^a

(i.e.
a.
LC

qCp,

p,q&P),

if
Let

Exercise

1.

{0,1,
HA

2,. .,
to

}
on

be

the

modified
set

version

of
the

o+described

in

10.3.
Relate

Define
these

o+.
Dummett

operations operations

this

by

modifying
of
the

operations given

on

the

definition

"LC-matrix"

in

[59].
Let
g1

Problem.

be

any

topos,

and

put

then

Lg,

is

closed

under

Detachment,
may

and defined for

is

an

intermediate

logic.
IL

canonical

frame in
there
a

P^
the

be of

Lg
between

by

replacing
the

by
?

L%
and

everywhere
Is

definition

,.

general

categorial

relationship

topoi

Set**.?
?

CH.

10,

10.6

APPLICATIONS

229

Exercises Exercise
2.

(for
Given

Heyting-algebraists)
a

truth

value

->

il

in

Set^

define

ST P+

by

ST
Show
that the

U{Tp@):peP}.
assignment
of

ST

to

gives

Heyting

algebra

isomorphism

Setp(l, O)sp+.
Exercise
o-p
or can

3.

Let

<t:F>t>
as

1 be
the

subobject

of
<=

in
so

Set^
we

Then have

for

each

p,
=

be

taken

inclusion

Fp

{0},

and

either

Fp

0,

FP={O}=1.

Define

S<T={p:Fp=l}.
Show HA
that

So.

is

hereditary

and

that

the

assignment

of

S^

to

<r

yields

an

isomorphism
Sub(l)sp+.

What
Exercise then
that

is

the

inverse 4. if from

of

this
that the

isomorphism?
poset
=

Suppose
S, TeP+,
this
that

P S=P

has
or

least
T
=

(initial)
P.

element. of

Show

SUT
the

Pif

Derive

topos

Se^

is

disjunctive,

in

the

sense

7.7.
?

CHAPTER

11

ELEMENTARY

TRUTH

"..

new

theory,
range
never

however

speis

special

its
or

seldom
to

of application, an just
known.
the and

increment Its
as-

what

is

assimilation
reconstruction

already requires
theory of prior revolutionary

reconstruc-

of

prior

the
an

re-

evaluation

fact, completed

in-

intrinsically
that
is
man

process

seldom
and

by
overnight."
Kuhn.

single

never

Thomas

This
be
more

chapter

marks

change

in

emphasis
Our

towards

an concern

approach
wil
as

that usual

wil be but the

to

descriptive
classical attention
The
at

than

rigorous.
and
define

major
their

analyse
detailed

notions
to

verification
that these the

of

categorial previous
work

counterparts,

chapters
"as

wil

often should"
wil

be

foregone.
thus

proof
be left

generalisations
reader.

they

times

to

11.1.
The

The

idea

of

first-order
PL

language
of

propositional
the
a

language
most

6.3
about

is

quite
mathematical
of element
a

inadequate
structures.

to

the

task Take

of

expressing
for A
sentence

basic

discourse

example (i.e. R^A*A).

"if related

structure

(A,
Let

R)
be
a

consisting

binary
of
there
x

relation
A

on

set

particular
by
of
R the
to c,

and
some

consider
x

the

every

is
the

related

then

is

to

which
sentence

is is related
sentence

by
true. to
a

R".

If

"range"
if

variable
related
To
to

is
c,
see

A,
then the

then

this

certainly
c,

For,
so

everything
to

is

in
structure

particular
of

is
the

is

related

something.
xRc"
230

lit le
a

more

clearly
"for all

let
x,

abbreviate

CH.

11,

11.1

THE

IDEA

OF

FIRST-ORDER-LANGUAGE

231

and

/3 abbreviate
Then
the
sentence

"for

some

x,
as

cRx".

is

schematised

a=>/3.
Now the
truth the

semantical

theory
i.e.
the
whole

developed
it
cannot sentence
as

for tel
we us

PL

in
a

above
value

argument,
of
these
cannot

why
know

Chapter = /3 is
the

6 cannot
true.

analyse
To

know

the

must sentences

values
the let ers the "true"

of

and

/3.
Their

However
structure

function
be

"atomic" in
the

(like
PL,
the

{).
PL-semantics
if
a

does
order

not

itself
then
to

explain
formalise

expressed why
a

language
have

and

/3
and
as

must

value
the

does.

In

/3
the
as

we

introduce

fol owing
and
read

symbols:
"for and
read for

(i) (ii)
some"

a a or

symbol symbol
"there

V,
3,

known

universal
the

quantifier,
existential

all";
"for

known
called

quantifier,
which is
a

exists";
c,
an

(ii )
element

symbol
c;

individual

constant, relation

"name"

the

(iv)
which

a names

symbol
the

R,
relation
v,

(two R;
an

placed)
individual taken
number
to

symbol,
variable
whose any

or

predicate
interpretation
of
A.

let er,
is,

(v)

symbol
variable.
to

called
It
an

literally, help
now

may

be

refer

to

member

(We
but

shall for

ourselves
one

infinite

of

these

variables

shortly, Cu)cRu.

wil
can now

do).

We A

symbolise
of
the

as

(Vu)uRc,
are
now

and

/3
here

as

language
variables
a

type
The first-order

we

developing
range
over

is

called
means

first-order
elements".

or

elementary
The

language.
of
a

word

In

higher-order
over,
etc. not

ranging
elements,

language, elements, just

in

"elementary" language quantifiers

but also
that

"of of
a

elements

structure.

would
sets

be of

applied
sets

to

variables
of
sets

elements,

of

However

saying

the

sentence

is

true

of that

the the

structure

or
v

"interpretation"
ranges
over

(A,
the
any

R,

c)
of

it

is
A.

thereby
Thus
we

underneed like

understood
not

variable
our

elements

include all
not
x

in

first
to
on
we

order
A".

language
That

symbolisations
use

of
an

locutions

"for

does
The

belonging depend language

The
one

is,
of

the
set

of

elementary
among many

language
first
order

formalisation

theory.
but
the
one

have
we use

just
wil

sketched

is
on

languages.

depend

nature

of

the

mathematical

232

ELEMENTARY

TRUTH

CH.

11,

11.1

structure

we

wish
0

to

discuss.
1 for
f
to
name

If
the

we zero

wanted and

to

analyse
elements;
These

BA's
would

we

would

need

constants

and let er

unit with function

functions one-place
complement meets

let ers
of

Boolean

operations.

u",
and

and

joins,
read "the

h(Ui,

the for

v2) identity

complementation, a of two-placed pair with v2) g(u1? of and join

for
,

f(u)
meet

read

"the g
Uj

comprise compleand

let ers,
of

h, v2",

for and

read

"the

and

u2";
read

symbol
example,
the

with
sentences

v1*=*v2

"vx

is

identical

to

v2\

Then,

and

would

be of

true

of
the

any

Boolean of
can

algebra
an

they
be

simply
replaced
a

express

the

defining (their

property
In

complement
functions
three of

element.

graphs).
above,

principle, Correspondingly,
we

always
of

by
function

relations

instead
use a

introducing
relation

let er,
with would

say
v2,

could

place
u2

symbol
The last
sentence

S,

S(ul5
then

v3)
be

being
replaced

read

"vx

is

the

join

and

u2".

by (Vv)S(l,v,t(v))

The

most

important
is is
the
some

mathematical notion choice

of
and
we

structure

as

far "first-order
We
over
a

as

this

book

is

con-

concerned
there

of

category.
in
how
one we

This formalise
sort to

too

is
it.

concept"
could
introduce and
the other

and
two

dif erent
over

sorts

variables,
hence could
use

arrows,

have
one

what
sort

is
of

range called

objects
"two-sorted and
the

language".

Alternatively

variable

fol owing

list

of

predicate

let ers:

Ob(u) Ar(u)
^i,

"v "v

is is
=

an an

object"
arrow"

v2)
v2)

"!
"vt

dom

u2"

ip-L,
id(v1,v2)

cod

u2"

'4
v2, sentences

V
v2

comCuj,
Amongst
the

v3)
we

"Uj
would

v3"
to

need

formally

axiomatise

the

CH.

11,

11.1

THE

IDEA

OF

FTRST-ORDER-LANGUAGE

233

concept

of

category

are

Vu((Ob(u)vAr(u))A

-(()()))

(Vu1)(Vu2)(dom(u1, (Vuj). . (Vu6)(com(u4,

v2)

=>

^
!,

Ar(u2))
u4,

1J)AM,

3)(6,

v2,

v3)

The

last

sentence

expresses The

the of
the

associative
others is
the

law-(1ou2)o3
is left
we

(ui
statement

(U2

)that

interpretation
the that
an course

to

the
can

reader.
express
a

Notice

with
of

aid

of

the

identity

property

cp

<Ki) (this

individual
is it

the

symbol only

the

one

having
of

certain
proper-

vital

to

description
i.e.
to

universal

properties).
property,
sometimes that
The
arrows

We

put

ij/(v1) anything
writ en

and

((p(v1) having (!1)(1)

=

(\fv2)('p(v2)^iv1~v2)), is equal
which
is rather

"t^ exactly
in

has

the

propis

Uj".
"there

The

formula
is

3u1^(u1)
one

is

read,

such

<p(i)". language
from

just

outlined
A

cumbersome

distinguishing
is
all
to

objects.
in let ers
arrow,
arrow

simpler
of

eliminate

objects
are arrows.

favour
We

their
then

approach, identity
use

mentioned
arrows,

earlier,
and
com
so assume as

elimiwell
v

individuas as

individuals the
now

would

the

predicate
and

before,
Thus

function
an

D(u)-"domu",
namely ought
an

C(u)-"codu".
But
we can

dom cod
to

is
an an

identity
be

arrow. so

the

dom

and

of
be

identity
abbreviation

to

itself,

define

Ob(u)

of

the

expression

An

extensive is

categories
Lawvere's
sets.

development presented
work also

of

this
S. Hatcher

type

of

first-order who
uses

language
it the
to

for

earlier
Hatcher all other

by [64]
a

W.
on

[68],
theory
of
-

discuss of

an

elementary

of

category
which
are

gives
of i.e.

rigorous
(caveat
what
we

proof
have

the

Duality
in

Principle,
Hatcher

after the

is

principle
around,

logic

composites
been

writ en
is

way

calling

"g

/"

writ en

"/g").
Exercise
1.

Express
Write
the

the

Identity
a

Law

in

the

above

languages.

Exercise

2. for

down

first

order

sentence

expressing

each

of

the

axioms

notion

of

an

elementary

topos.

234

ELEMENTARY

TRUTH

CH.

11,

11.2

11.2.

Formal

language
examples
just

and

semantics
have shared

All
such

of

the

given

common

core,

one

by

all

languages.

Basic

alphabet
(i) (ii) (ii )
(iv) (v)
an

for
list
ul3

elementary
u2, >

languages

infinite

OI

individual
v,
~,

variables;
=>;

propositional quantifier identity

brackets

connectives

Given
to

this describe

stock
a

symbols symbol ), (. of symbols particular

and
a

V,
~;

3;

we

can

specify
structure,

kind

of
of while

particular by listing
a

language,
its
first-order For BA's
use

intended

relation

symbols, language
we

function

let ers,

individual of

constants.

Hence
these

is,

by
the

definition, language
order
to

set

{0,1,
discuss
with
a

f,

g,

symbols h},

three

kinds.
we

employ
C,
wil
work

for

categories
for

could

{com,
we

D}.

In

semantic

theories

elementary

logic
namely

throughout

particularly

simple

language,

having
This
that

just
wil
are

one

(two-place)
to

relation
the than

symbol,
main

and while

one

individual

constant.

suffice

il ustrate
rather

points

avoiding

complexities

technical
These

conceptual.
denoting
individuals.
c.

Terms:

are

expressions
u2,. .

For

the

terms

are

the

variables
Formulae:

ul5

and
These

the

constant

Atomic

are

the those

basic

they
where

comprise
t

all

(and

only)
terms.

building expressions

blocks of
the

for form

sentences.

For
t~u,

and

tRw,
Formulae:

and

are

These

are

built formula

up

inductively
a

by
then
so are

the

rules

(i) (ii) (~<p); (ii )

Cv)cp

each

atomic
<p

is

formula;

if if
are

and

are

formulae,
and
v

(<p
variable,

),

(<p
then

),

(<p

=>

),
and

cp

is
formulae.

formula

an

individual

(Vu)<p

CH.

11,

11.2

FORMAL

LANGUAGE

AND

SEMANTICS

235

Sentences: the
scope

If

a a

of

particular quantifier,
the
occurrence

occurrence

of

variable
be
a

in

formula
occurrence

is

within
of of the
vx

that

is

said is while

to

bound
the
occurrence

variable.
in
sentence

Otherwise

free.
its
occurrence

Thus third

first variable free has all

occurrence

(v-^

vt)v~(Bv1)v1tiv1
is
that is called
a

is
in
not
an a

free,
every

is is
occurrence

bound. bound.
of

A A
a

formula

which

of
at

formula

is write

sentence,
open
to

i.e.

has

least variable
have used

one

variable,
We in
<p
-

formula.
indicate
a

wil

thereby
to

<p(t>) formalising

that notation
to

the
we

free

occurrence

along. all)

This
of

may

be

extended variables

<p(il3. .,
<p.

vtj

indicate

several

(or

perhaps

the

free

of

Interpretations

of an

i?: of

To

ascribe
the formulae

meanings

to

i?-sentences
c,
over

we

need these
of forma-

to to

give
define formation.

interpretation interpretations

of

symbols
by

and

and

then

use

induction

their

rules

model

for

S?,

or

realisation

of

i?,

is

structure

(A,

R,

c)

comprising
(i) (ii) (ii )
Now
a a a

non-empty
relation

set

A;
ceA.

RcAxA;
individual
the
sentence to c,

particular
<p

if with

is

(Vu^UjRc,
.
no

then
answer

we

may

ask if
every

whether
element

<p

is of
the
or

true

or

false jR-related formula

respect
to

The

is-yes,
On

A
open

is

and

otherwise.
no

the
to

other

hand whether

if
<p

<p(t>i)
is is
if
true

is

tijRc
We
t^.
to

it
We
the The

makes
would

sense

ask
some

false free
as

simpliciter.
variable

have thus

to

give
answer

interpretation
is
true

to

the

could individual

ask

whether
The

<p

when

vt

interpreted
cRc,
free

referring
otherwise.
value

then
to to

is-yes,
an

and
a

no

general
to
a

point
model that
a

then
we

is
have

that

give assign
the
to

open
to

formula its

truth

relative
"values"
now

first

variables
"all
once"
n

specific
We in element
and

in

model.

introduce
x

method
that
xn,

of

Let

be
or

function
of

interpreting assigns
Such
a x

variables

at

each

positive
is called
,xb
an

x(n),
is represented
xb

simply
as
an

A.

function
=

infinite
In

sequence

(xu
we

xz,. .

integer 2(-valuation, The . .).

variable
to

an

j-th
vt

member

of the

this

sequence
x.

is what

the

interpretation
fol ows We denote wil
have

of

the

provided
valuations

by
like

valuation
x

occasion

alter

in

one

place

only.

by

x(i/a)

the

valuation

236

ELEMENTARY

TRUTH

CH.

11,

11.2

obtained

by

replacing

xt
=

by

the
Xi_l5

element
a,

a&A.

Thus

x(ija)
Once

<xls

x2,. .,

Xj+1,. .).
we can

variables
are

have
to

been
a

interpreted, rigorous
valuation

discuss
statement

matters

of

truth.
<p

We
is

going
in

satisfied

give by the

definition

of
which

the

"the

formula

x",

is

symbolised

The

definition
is
was

of

satisfaction
laborious. realised
has
become

is

intuitively
That such

almost
a

obvious,

but

to

set

it out
is

precisely
needed

rather first what

model

rigorous
who branch
gave
one

definition
in

by

Alfred
a

Tarski,
substantial

[36],

opening
known
as

up

of

mathematical

really thereby logic,

theory.
Given
a

Atomic element

Formulae:
x,

valuation

x,

each

term

determines

an

of

A,
_

defined

by
if if
t

xt

fx; X;

is the
the

variable
constant

vt

\cIc
if i

t iiss

Then

A) B)
Thus
the

2Ot~u[x] 2tHRu[x]
the

xt

is

the

same

element

as

xu

symbol
relation

has A

fixed

identity

={(x,

y):

interpretation y}.
=

on

any

model.

It

denotes

Formulae:

C) D) E) F) G) (8)
In

2=<>] 2(l=<pvMx] 2(l=~<p[x]if 2==>^[] 2A=(< 2=()[]

the

if if if

2tt=<p[x] 2tN<p[x] nott =p[x]

either if if for for
of
a

and
or

not

2(l=<p[x]
aeA,

every
some

aeA,
formula
as

or 2tt=J[x] 2(l=<p[x(i/a)] S(t=<p[x(Ga)].

fact variables

satisfaction in
that

depends
shown

only
by
the

on

the

interpretation

of

free

formula,
valuations

Exercise

1.
,

If

and

are

with

xi

yt

whenever

vt

occurs

free

in

then

1=[]

if

1=[].

CH.

11,

11.3

AXIOMATICS

237

In

view
can

of is

this

fact,

if

<p

is

sentence

(no
in in

free

variables)
or

then

one

of

two

things
(i) (ii)
In
case

happen:
satisfied

either

<p <p

is

satisfied
we

by by simply
write
say
some we are

every
no

valuation

,
is
true
or

valuation

(i),
In
case

31
that
open such
<p

<p,

read

"<p
in

in
that
we

",
<p

or

"
in
want

is

model

of
are no

<p".
Now

(ii)
in

is

false

2(,
that

/
comes

2(.
to out

there
true

formulae

might
it
every

say
true

simply
matter

.
is

One

example
i.e.
it
the

is is satisfied
fact that

v1~v1-

how
usage

it

interpreted,
and
to
we

by

valuation.

To

make
of

this

precise,
are

reflect consider
a

only
to

interpretations
of
be
n,

free
finite
free
consome

variables
sequences.

required
The

satisfaction
is

formulae
the

by
number of

index it
has.
If

of

formula

defined
has

variables

that all that of

<p is

(p(vti,. .,
we

u^)
write

index
. .,

with

viy,. .
if

,v^
for

constituting (equivalently
means

its

variables,
valuation

2O<p[xb
has

]
yh
as
=

2<[]
,yL=xn.
x2,
etc.
. .,

any)
satisfied
in
to

that

yh
xu

xu

x2,. .

This
Then
<p

when

vti
if for

is
any

interpreted
. .,

xt,
e

is

said

be

true

t= <p,

xn

vh as

<[

xn~\.

Exercise

2.

2lt=p(il,. .,
SU=(Vu)<p[x]

uj
if

if

2d=(VuO(Vui2)

(Vvin)<p.

Exercise

3.

1=~()~[].

11.3.
An

Axiomatics
ig-formula
formulae in
a

<p
we

is
need

valid
to

if write

it

is

true

in

all

??-models.
of
the
a

To
term

axiomatise
t

the
a

valid

consider

substitutions
to
f.

for

variable
every

formula

<p.

We of
v

free

occurrence

in

<p

cp(v/t) by
t
no

denote

result
wffl

of

replacing
truth"
t

This This
occurrence

operation
means

"preserve
that
v

in
of

general
c,
a or

only
that
t

if is
for
a

is

free
means

for
and

in

either
of does

is

the

constant

variable

free that

is
become

within

the bound

scope

t-quantifier.
The

This
a

then
occurrence

t
v.

not

when

substituted classical

free

of SE
are

axioms

for

of

three

kinds.

Propositional I-XII

Axioms:

All
axioms.

formulae

that

are

instances

of

the

schemata

of

6.3

are

238

ELEMENTARY

TRUTH

CH.

11,
v

11.4

Quantifier
in
<p,

Axioms:

For

each

formula

<p(v),

and

term

for

which

is

free

(Ul) (eg)
are

Vvcp=>cp(v/t), <p(t>/t)=>3u<p
axioms.
names

(The generalisation".)
Identity

stand

for

"universal

instantiation"

and

"existential

general-

Axioms:
t~t

For

any
an

term

t,

(IT)
For
any

is and

axiom.
t

<p(v),

terms

and

u,

for

which is
an

is

free

in

<p,

A2)
The

(f~u)A<p(u/t)=><p(u/u),
rules
of

axiom.

inference From

are,

Detachment: and
two

<p

and

<p^>

infer
=>

quantifier
From
From
<p <p <p
we

rules:
=>

(V) C) Writing
above h
CL

infer infer
that

<p

(\/),
=>

provided
,

v v

is is

not not

free free
axioms

in in

<p

=>

()<
<p

provided
from

to

mean

is ^-models

derivable

the

above

by

the

rules, bcL

have
<P

class

for
of

all
valid

,
and

is

<.

This Godel's

fact,

that

the

??-formulae
was

axiomatisable,
proven
ways

is
for

known

as

Completeness
by
and Godel about

Theorem,

first

elementary
it,
and
and

logic
information

[30].
these and

There
may

are

now

several for

of in

proving
Chang

be

found

example

Keisler

[73]
Exercise.

Rasiowa
Show
t~u^>u~t, that

Sikorski
the

[63].
are

fol owing
(t~

CL-theorems:

~Cu)~<p=>(Vt>)<p,

11.4.
The natural

Models

in
of

topos
iS
in
a

interpretation
in

topos
arduous

is,

like in

its
its

classical
detail.

counterpart,
It is

both

its

conception,

and

based

on

CH.

11,

11.4

MODELS

IN

TOPOS

239

reformulation

in

arrow-language

of

the

satisfaction

relation

%\=<p[x1,. .,xn].
In
m

fact
3=

it
1 wil

is

convenient
be

to

deal

first
to

with
<p

more

general
of

notion. variables
of

An
<p,

integer
free if and
that
m we

called in other the

appropriate
list variables
to

if
vm.

all,

the

bound,
the

appear

v2,. .,

Notice

that in
an

it
<p,

is
so

permit ed
that
m,

list
I

include is
also
for
vt

than
<p.

those Now

occurring
given
We
valuation
occur a

=?
can

I,

then

appropriate
of
some

appropriate
put

discuss
if
whenever

satisfaction

2O<p[y]
Now

is
a

free

in

given

model determines

by m-length (equivalently a <p (such (A, R,

<p
=

sequences.

2(t=<p[x1,. .,
that list
each
vt,. .
<p to

xm]
has
yi=xi

any)
vt

wil

then and

in

the
m,

,vm).
which
Am.
m

c)
subset,

particular
of the

is

appropriate

<pm,

m-fold

product

Namely,

is

the To

set

of of

all all
<p

m-length
the

sequences

satisfying

<p

in is

SI.
to

know connectives
Thus
set

<pm's,
Moreover

for

appropriate
the
to

m's,
rules

know for the

on

all

about

satisfaction
tional Am.
the of the the of sequences

for
the

satisfaction
set

proposisubsets
of

correspond complement

the

Boolean

operations
not

of

<pm
~<p,

(i.e.
the and
we

sequences

satisfying
and

<p)

consists

is

sequences

satisfying satisfying
(~<p)
--<p

intersecting
get

of

<pm

<p

(<pv/Om
(We
appropriate
see now

<pmU/,m
of

etc.

the and
have
seem

point

dif erent
then

dealing
be
to <p

with

appropriate

m's.

If

is

approp-

to

<p

it

wil
that
a,

also,

although
<p

the

three

formulae

might
It
of would

all

indices.)
we

could then

interpret
use

in

topos

as

subobject
of

am,

for
to to

some

object

and

the

Heyting

algebra

structure
as

Sub(am) approach
students

interpret categorial
Gonzalo

connectives,
semantics

and has
and Andre

hopeful y
been
set
at

quantifiers
out

well.

This

in

dissertations
The

by
theory
for
characof

of

elementary
The

logic
alternative
arrows.

Reyes is presented approach

This accords
for
a

Joyal

Montreal.

by
is
with
us

Monique
switch
the that
the
treatment.

Robitail e-Giguere
from

[75].
to

to

subobjects
semantics

their

characteristic

prepositional
interpretation

Chapter
is
has

6,
more

and

has

the

advantage
to

of

quantifiers
theory

accessible

"first

been

developed

by

Michael

principles" Brockway

This

lat er

[76].

240

ELEMENTARY

TRUTH

CH.

11,

11.4

Returning
function

to

our
:

S?-model
-*

,
where

we

replace

<pm

by

its

characteristic

I<pJm

Am

2,

. .,xm=^
described

fl
(.0

if otherwise in
Theorem 1

Using

the

correspondence

of

7.1,

we

find

that

I~<plm=-W<plm
1

where To that has

<p

i,

r>,

\_

are

the in

classical this
,
manner

truth
we

functions consider
t>3

on
an

2.

treat

has

quantifiers the just

defined.

variables
We

v2,

and

and

(with
A3-^2.

example. 3),
=

Suppose

[<p]3:
take

A3
a

>

been
x2,

wish
let

to

define

HV2<pF:

So,

triple

(x1;

x3)e

A3

and

{:[1,,3))
definition
tel s
2,
us

1}.

The

satisfaction t=

that

\/2<[

x3]

if

B2

A,

so

we

want

0 Now
the

otherwise.

assignment
a

of

the

subset
from

B2
A3
to

of

to

the

triple
now

(xl5
define
a

x2,
new

x3)

establishes
function

function
:

|<p||
>

SP(A).

We

VA

$>(A)

2 1

by
if if

putting
B^A

Then the

B^=A
becomes

(i.e.

B^A)

definition

of

[Vu2<pP

CH.

11,

11,4

MODELS

IN

TOPOS

241

Under

the

isomorphism
and
hence

SP(A)
it
becomes

2A
the

we

may

construe

|<p||
(cf.
a

as

function
of
a a a

A3-^2A,
function

exponential
Then
as

/:A3xA^2,
(x1?
a

i.e.
x3,
a

f:A42.
according according
by
as

adjoint / assigns
function
x4,

3.16)
1
or

0
=

to

4-tuple

x2,

x4)
0
to

A4
i.e.

the

\<p||((xl5
x3))
=

x2,

x3))
1

2
0.
we

assigns
Thus have

1
we

or

x4,

if that

define

T4:A4^>A3

I<pF((x1, \ {1,,3,))

equals {1,4,3),

or

.4

2
commutes.

But
whenever

T4.
j=Sm,

can

be
we

given
have
to

a a

that

categorial "/-th
member.

description. projection
In the
be

Recall

from

3.8
effect in

map"
present
of described
a

pr:Am^>A
case,

taking
of 2nd
map
-

each

m-sequence
to

its
of

j-th
the
process

the

T\

is

place
But

the

result

4-th

projection
can

4-sequence
as
a

its

position.
T4
is
the

(3.8)
map

this

product

Consequently complete
Lawvere
name as

we

get
we

categorial
need he

definition
such
a

of

/,
for

and

hence

of
was

|<p||.
given
of of

To

the

picture

definition

VA.
characteristic

This
the
=

by
the

in
of

[72],
that

where In

described
we

VA

as

"the
:

map
name

traeA".
arrow

4.2

described
trueA
out

ftmeA
of

>

2A,
trueA
of this

trueA,

the

identify by definition,

trueA

with

picks {A}c3>(A).

2A.
character

Since

Xa

'

-A

>

2,

we

But

the the
>

last of
the
=

VA.
1
x

>

itself
A
=

is

exponential
2,
where where

adjoint
prA

subobject composite
x.

is,

(@,
is
the

In

summary

then,

lVu2<p]3
of

VA

|<p||,
while

VA
is
have the

character

of

the of

exponential
For

adjoint
existential

trueA

prA,

|<p||
we

exponential

adjoint

quantifiers,

by
if

analogy

1=2[1,2,]
and
so we

20

put

1,2,))

|1
@

^ otherwise

M0

242

ELEMENTARY

TRUTH

CH.

11,

11.4

and

hence

(A)

commutes

where

_fl
lO
3A
is the

if if
character

B=0.
of the
set

It

fol ows

that

C={B:

B^0} {B:
A

for

some

A,

B}.
relation
on

But

then

if ?A

f(A)xA

is the
and first
of the

membership
x

(4.7),

i.e.

{(,

):
the
=

B},

we

see

that

0>(A)
Thus

yields 3A

applying pA(eA)
is
the

projection
image

pA((B,
of the

x))

from

<3>(A)xA

to

character

composite

This

places
definition
m

our

account

of of

quantifiers
and
i in
-*

on

an comes

"arrows

only"
from
the

basis.
above

The

general putting
The

[ \/;<]|,
4,
and
:

[ <]
place
of
2.

by

in

place

of

function

ft

u\m

Am

has
1

if otherwise

xt

xu

.0
so

CH.

11,

11.4

MODELS

IN

TOPOS

243

commutes

where

p:Am

A,

p:Am

>

A,

and

SA

have

Pu

(\Xl,

Xm))

Xu

and fl
=

SAx,
SA

if
if
.,

110 delta")

y
,

',

x,

ye

A.

(the
monk
To

"Kronecker
A

is

the

character Notice that

x

of
/1
can

the be

identity
identified

relation
with

(diagonal)
the
Then

={(x, 1A):
ptm,
let

y):
A

x
>

y}^

A2.
that
A have

AA,
define

A2,
{0}
-^

takes

to
=

(x,

x).

fc:

/c@)

(Similarly
To

for deal

p").
the

with
of jRcAxA.

predicate
Then

let er

R,

let

r:A2^2

be

the

characteristic

function

commutes.

The

final has

notion

to n,

be

re-examined

is

truth

in
2

model.

If

<p(vit,. .,

u^)

index

then
1

defining
if

[<pb:
StNtpfXi,. .,

An

by

0
we

otherwise

have

if if

for

allxb.. ,xneA,

. .,

xj)

if

244

ELEMENTARY

TRUTH

CH.

11,
to

11.4

To

describe

I<pfc
xj
yfl
=

by
if
xu
. .,

arrows,

we

observe
ym

that

if

is

appropriate

<p,

2lt=<p[x1,. .,

for

any

yl5. .,
=

having

yin

xn,

Thus

commutes

for

any

/, provided
>

only
A"

that

An

Prk

This
member from the

description
of

fits

in

with

the sequence,
n

definition
can

of be

truth

of of
n
=

sentences.
as
a

An,
from

i.e.
n
=

an

ordinal

n-length {0,1,. .,
ordinal
0

thought
with

function is
the
set

of

functions

the

-1} (the

to

A.

Thus,

0,
A.

A0
Thus

initial

object

0)

to

So 1
->

if
2.

<p

is We

sentence,

with

index

0,

A0

>

is

truth

value

have

(true

if if
3=

2t 1=
not

<p

[false
But

t=
1
>

<p.

then

for

any

1,

any

/:

Am

makes

commute,

for

if if

2A=
not

<p

then

I<p]m
then

is

the

"constant"

function

that

outputs

only

l's,

while

2t>a,

I<p]m

outputs

only

0's.

CH.

11,

11.4

MODELS

IN

TOPOS

245

Exercise

1.
to <p.

Suppose

that

<p(vtl,. .,
An

vin)

has

index

n,

and

is

approp-

appropriate

Explain
A"

why
f

commutes,

where

/yls. .,
definition

ym

<yfi,. .,

yj.

The
Let
a.

general
?

be

topos,

and

an

^-object.

We

define

several

arrows

related

to

Definition

1.

,:a> 8a : Va
\ true
:

a^a
a

is Q, X2 is is
the

the the

product
character

arrow

Aa,
of

1a)

>

Aa.

Definition

2.

>

unique

arrow

making

1
a

true

a is X2. is
>-

pullback,

where
pra
:

^true^
a
->

the

exponential

adjoint

of

the

composite

truea
Definition

1 3.
pa

->

ea ?a

:2>X2
:

the

character where of Thus

we

of
pa

the

image
is
whose the

arrow

of

the

composite
arrow, and

fia
is the

Xa-X2a,

first character

projection
is
the

(4.7)
eva

subobject

X2aXa
have

evaluation

arrow

:-^.

Pa

diagram

true

246

ELEMENTARY

TRUTH

CH.

11,

11.4

where

the

bottom

square

is

pullback,

and

the

top

an

epi-monic

factorisation.
Definition 4.
arrow

For

each

and

i, with

lim,

T,m+1:am+1 prT1)-

am

is

the

product

(prr1,. .,
An

vT-V,
i?, is
a

wZH,

-..,

g-model

for

structure

91

(a, ^-object

r,/c),
that

where

(i) (ii) (ii )

Then

a r:

is
a

an

is

non-empty,
of
a.

i.e.

g'(l,a)^0;

>

X2 is
term
an

is

an

g'-arrow;
associate with
each

/c: given

"^-element"
( we

appropriate

an

arrow

pj",

where,
Pt
m

f
_

pC:

am

-^

if if

(= (
=

u;
c.

~l/c
??-formula

!:am->a

as

Then
:am

for

each ->X2
=

and

appropriate

we

define

an

g'-arrow

inductively
8a

fol ows:

A)

[tur

<

>

Wm)

D) E)

CH.

11,

11.4

MODELS

IN

TOPOS

247

F) G)

[ => ^<1

where

|<p||"

is

the

exponential

adjoint

of

the

composite

of

(8)
Now
a.

let
Choose

<(A,. .,
a

t);J
<p-appropriate
where

have

index
m,

n.

Then let

let

be

any

arrow

from

an
arrow

to

and

f:an-^am
ik,
1
^

be

the

product

(pl5. .,

pm>,
p

=<

fpr?

:an otherwise.
an
->

a,

if

/'

some

(g
:

Then

define

X2

by

i.e.

[]

|[<]|
911=

Then

we

define

"91

is

an

g'-model

of

<p"

by

if
=
n
=

|1
we

truean.
take
g
as

Notice
an there The
>

that
a,
to

if

1,

could
we

any

of
that

the
a

projection
is

arrows

while
be
a

if
g:

0,
a

need

the

assumption
of

non-empty
not

for

>

at

all.
the

demonstration

that

definition

does

depend

on

248

ELEMENTARY

TRUTH

CH.

11,

11.4

which

is

chosen,
exercises:
2. If

or

which

appropriate

m,

depends

on

some

lengthy

but

straightforward
Exercise

/,h:an=J

am

have
=

;
then
Exercise

PrZ

h
for
are

pr?,

for

all

=?

of
to

=?

n,
n.

[]
3.

/
If

[]|
m

h,
I

<(;, . .,
both

u^)

index
<p,

and

appropriate

then

n
commutes

provided
an

that

pr\
,vin)

prT,

whenever

vt

is

free

in

q>.

Show

that

such

/
4.

exists. If

Exercise

<p(vit,. .

has

index

n,

and

is

appropriate

to

<p,

then

commutes

(cf.
these

Exercise
results
we

1).
obtain:

From
Theorem.

If

cp

has

index

n,

and

is

appropriate

to

<p,

then

^
Proof.

if
3

[<
of

By
i.e.
if

Exercise

4.2,

any

arrow

that

"factors

through

true

is

true",

-^^
h\ n

/truec

commutes,
each
of

then

h
and

trueb.
factor

But

by

the

definition
each

of

[,
hence

and

Exercise

4,

[]|

through
if

other,

Wm

(raa~.

CH.

11,

11.5

SUBSTITUTION

AND

SOUNDNESS

249

11.5.
An

Substitution
ig-formula
<p

and
is called

soundness

%-valid,

g"t=<p,

if

911=*

holds

for

every

g'-model

91.
Theorem Proof.
m

1. Let

If
91 be

%\=<p
any
to
at
so

and g'-model.

%\=<p

=>,
Then

then

%\=.

91

and

91

q>

=>,
is

and

so
=

taking
truea
unit since Thus of
m

an

appropriate
Theorem

(<p
the end

=>

),
of
and

we

have last
in

[]|
section).
that
we
m

11
But

=[<
truea-~

^1
the
But

(by
the is

the

the

also

g(am,
So

), (, appropriate ), |i/ I]m

the rule
are

(Exercise
to
=

8.3.8)
<p,

HA,
also is

[1.
have

91\=
so as

q>,

[1]
to

truea.

in

truea~ Detachment

and

appropriate

i/ ,
the

3XI=i/ .
prepositional
it
should
come

of

preserves
as

g-validity.
truth of the
arrows

Since in fails
a

connectives
as
no

interpreted
that
any

the
in

topos
is

surprise
there
We
are

instance models

schemata
XII

I-XI

valid
wil the

in be

any

g,

while

topos
write
and of

which
mean

(an
derivable for XII.
of
are

example
in Without

given
that and

later).
has

shall

h^
axioms

<p

to

that

<p

is

system
I

all is

the the

rules

of

11.3
ones

except

12,

this
for and Soundness We

system

intuitionistic
to

identity
Sikorski

equivalent [63].
Theorem.

the

predicate given

logic
here

Heyting
discussed

[66].
by

Axioms Rasiowa

If
all
the

\-m

<p,

then

for

any

<g,

<.
but

wil
up

not

prove the the

Soundness
that

Theorem,
lies
and

wil

concentrate
as

on

setting
show that

machinery
axioms
are

behind the is
some

it. rules
to

The
of

method

always
preserve <p is
an
m.

is this axiom
The

to

g-valid
for

inference
that

property.
then Theorem
To
at

The relative
of the
to

strategy

the
=

first
for then

part

show

if

91,
last

[1
section
of

truea,
the

(or
91 \= <p.
and

any)

appropriate
axioms If
we

gives
substitution

establish

validity
content
(

quantifier
the
x,

identity
process.
as

must

look then in i.e.

the

Set,

categorial interpreting

of

<p(vjt),
in
so

in

as

is
.,

the
Xj_!,

same

interpreting
Xi+1,. .,

v{

<p

as

x,,

xt,

,],

and

250

ELEMENTARY

TRUTH

CH.

11,

11.5

commutes,
m

where

f((xu
in
a

. .,

xm))=(x1,. .,
topos
Vj
arrow

_,

,
m

xi+1,. .,
f

xm).
is
a

Correspondingly, is appropriate
to

general
t
=

<S, if

=?

and

term

to

which is

denned

be

the

if (i.e. product

then

j^m),

the

arrow

Sm[t/f]:am

>am

Substitution

Lemma.

In

any

topos,

the

diagram

8m[i/t]

commutes

whenever

vt

is

free
=

for

in

<p.

Exercise

1.

pr?
If

Sfi/u,]
b
-*

prf
has

Sm[i/uy]

pr.

Exercise

2.

f:

am

pr

prf

/,

then

f/
a-

\f
8m[i/"'],
a-

commutes.

(Interpret
3. For

this

in

Set.)

Exercise

i, j^m,

commutes.

Exercise

4.

If

Vj

does

not

occur

in

<p,

then

CH.

11,

11.5

SUBSTITUTION

AND

SOUNDNESS

251

and

hence

[Vu].<P(ui/uy)Im
Consequently
of

=Wvt<plm. =1]
if
<p

l<plT
other.
the the

and

are

"bound

alphabetical

variants"

each

?
Substitution
Lemma of the
to

To
we

use

show

validity
delta.

of

the

identity

axioms

examine 2.

properties
For
any g.

ICronecker

Theorem

pair

f,g:b>a,

8a

(/, g)

is

the

character

of

the

equaliser
Proof.

of f and
Consider

>-

>*+ is obtained
of

The the
to

top
universal show

square

by
that

pulling
square qua But
g.

Aa,
the

property
that h
so

1a) pullback,
bottom

Aa

back it
square

along
is
an

(/, g).
easy

By

exercise

equalises
by
the
PBL

and and

is
=

the

pullback
?

denning
Coroixary.

Sa,

the

Q, -axiom,

Sa
a.

(f, g)

Xh-

Sa trueb=Xib

(f, f)
and

trueb,

for equalises
obtain

f:b
the

Proof.

1b
we
=

pair

(/,/)the

From
\= tt.

this

For,
in

Corollary Itt\m
Set,
the

immediately ),
where determines

validity
set

of

I,

i.e.

8a

Now

formula

(1, (t^u)

p:am-^a.
the

Dtu={(x1,. .,xm):

Correspondingly
character is

in

g1

we

define

dm:d>~^a'n

to

be

the

subobject

whose

It

ujm.

252

ELEMENTARY

TRUTH

CH.

11,

11.5

Theorem

3.

For

appropriate

m,

8m[i/t]odtu=8m[i/u]odtu.
Proof. Since
pt

[(=
and
pu,

u\m
hence

8a

<pt,

pu>:
dtu

am
pu

, dm.

Theorem Then

tel s

us

that

dtu

equalises

p,

(pru
=

. .,

pt,. .,

prm)

4 <L,
dtu,
. .,prm . .,prm

(pri (P?i

4v>ft"

dcu)
d,u)

d,u,. .,pu

(pr1,. .,pu,. .,prm)dtu.

is

Corollary.
<p,

If
then

appropriate

to

t, u,

and

<p(u;),

with

vt

free

for

and

in

Proof.

Using

the

Substitution

Lemma,

we

have

Since

x;^

=[(]|,
in
order
to

Lemma

1B)

of

7.5

yields

the

desired

result.

Now
some

have
m,

9It=[((~)<p(vjt)~\=>

<p(vju)

we

require

that

for

appropriate

in

the

(,
and
so now

).
the
the of
to

But

this 12 of

fol ows

from

the

Corollary,
For this

by
we

lat ice elicit

properties,
We the
turn

schema

is
the

g'-valid.

validity
the

quantifier
arrows.

axioms.

basic

properties
4.

quantifier

truen.xa

Theorem

A) (

(Va )

pa)
=

eva

B)

eva

truenxa

CH.

11,

11.5

SUBSTITUTION

AND

SOUNDNESS

253

Proof.

A)
d

Consider f

>-

hrue}

na

1 The

n
is tel s obtained then of that

top
the

square

by
truea

pulling
^

rfraej
Va
pra,

back
But

along by
definition

pa.

A of

now

familiar
as

argument

pa.

rfruea1

exponential

adjoint

the

diagram

true

commutes,

which

says

precisely
Jfrue^xi

that

the

perimeter

of

lxa

a that

commutes,

yielding
ea.

an

arrow

lxae

makes

rfruea1xia

factor

through
But

consider

the

diagram

<l*P2/>
lxa where
p2:

>

is

the

2nd

projection.

254

ELEMENTARY

TRUTH

CH.

11,

11.5

Using

Exercise

of

3.8

we

find

that

(Pa (Va, 1nxa/

/
through

/, P2>

P2

/)
(Exercise (Exercise 3.8.2) 3.8.3)

Thus

factors
we

^true^
/cea.
=

x1a.
Hence

Since

the

lat er

factors

through

?a,

in

Sub(X2axa)
Xf which
is the
where

have

(Theorem

7.5.1),

desired

X^a

truenxa,
result. the

B)
ea

Exercise-use
g,

diagram

given

with

the

definition

of

3a

to

show

xs

3a
take

pa.

D
the sequence

Now
and the then

in

Set, apply
effect
5.

if

we

(x1}.. ,
up

),
. .,

form
^,
we

(x1;. .
xt,
xi+1,. .,

,xm,

x,),
xm)-

T+1
is
to

we

end

with

(
Abstracting,

overall

perform
am+1

8[i/t].
be the

have

Theorem

LetU?:am->

product

arrow

Aa~,

),

Then

commutes,

and
axa

B)

commutes

for A)
B) By

any

as

shown.

Proof.

Exercise-you
definition
Pa

win
of
the

need
arrow

to

know

1a~>

=(pr,. .,

pr).

product <1~, ft)

=

a,

(/X1J

fF

Aa-,

ft)

CH.

11,

11.5

SUBSTITUTION

AND

SOUNDNESS

255

(where

pr:

am

>

am

is

projection)

/
this

Part

A)

of

theorem,

with

the

Substitution

Lemma,

gives

l<p(vjt)}m
and since

T,m+1

U?,

commutes,

by

definition

of

|<|*

as

exponential

adjoint

to

l<pt"

TJ"+1,

we

get

Moreover

by

taking

/=

|,1

in

Theorem

5B),

we

have

Using
calculate

these

last

two

equations,

and

putting

(|<|1)

U=g,

we

<Va <Va

||,
,

g,
eva

g)

g>

<Va )

>
g

(Va
traefioxa

(Theorem

4)

Hence

the

axiom

ui

is

valid.

Exercise

5.

Show

that Theorem

eg

is
4.

valid

by

an

anologous

argument

using

the

second

part
The soundness
The

of

of

the

rules been

(V)
worked

and
out

C)
in

are

left

for

the

enthusiastic

reader.

details

have

Brockway

[76].

256

ELEMENTARY

TRUTH

CH.

11,

11.6

11.6.
The

Kripke
algebraic logic
becomes
e.g.

Models
and extend
a

prepositional

topological readily
function
lat ice of also its this
the

interpretations
to

of

intuitionistic
The H

prepositruth-value is
a

first-order
:

logic.
*

of suitable
space.

formula

I<plm
of open of

Am

H,
of is

where
some

HeytA

ing algebra, comprehensive

Sikorski
Scott In

sets

topological by analysis
for Rasiowa

study

type

model
to

undertaken

and

[63] [68].)
his
The

(cf.
paper,

application
gave
a

intuitionistic
semantics

by
IL

Dana

1965
the basic
to

Kripke
notion

first-order
earlier for
a

that in this

generalises chapter.
model
their then
In truth the

classical

of
can
a

iaf-model
seen

described
to

idea
each
at

is
p
e

(or
P

be classical

be)
classical

that

given
formulae
value
case

poset
in
the

P,
have

assigns
value
connectives

model

9lp.
in the

Atomic
truth

p
can

determined
be

by
dealt
not

their
as

9lp,
(8.4). identity
more

and

with discuss
so

propositional
constants,
or a

fact

Kjipke's
so

theory
in of
a

did
to

individual
ourselves
we

predicate, general
Let P

order model
An

do than

introduce

slightly
a

notion be of for for if if

each

that

considered
based SE-vaodeX
on

previously.
P

poset.

X-model

is

denned

to

be

structure

91

consisting (a) (b)

(i) (ii) (ii ) (iv)

pePa
arrow

classical

9IP
function

(Ap,
:

Rp,
>

each

pCq

in
=

P,
cci if

Apq

cp); ,

such

that

pCq pCq
is
the

then then

Am(cp) xi?py
identity
then

only
1:

App
if

Ap

>

Ap(l(x)RtIAv<l(y) Ap

pCqCr,

commutes.

Thus

(i)
at

requires
q,

that while

Am
(ii)

take

the

interpretation
the

of truth of

at

to

its formulae

interpretation
of

by
Notice
maps

Apq
that constitute
a

"preserves"
the

atomic
of
sets

the the the

form

tRu.

collection
a

{Ap
functor of the
are

:peP}
A :P-^>

together
an

with

transition

Apq
is
reason

Set,
rather
as

i.e. above of

object
the that

in

topos
for
to

Set1*.
it. be
The the

This natural

consequence

definition,
defined
as

than is

motivation
this
seems

why
way

ig-models
to treat
~

the

relation

CH.

11,

11.6

KRIPKE

MODELS

257

identity
requirement

of
that

individuals.

Kripke's
implies

definition

has

in

place

of

(b)

the

require-

Ap^Aq
in

and
the

.Rp Ap

_Rq.
<-
as

This

amounts

to

putting
(t~u)v

Richmond would
validate

Thomason

Apq [68],
~(t~u),

as

inclusion
~

,.
identity,

As

pointed
such
are a

out

by

if
"distinct

is for

interpreted
distinct forever".

model distinct is
to

individuals
Thomason's

left
solution

by

inclusions,
~

and
as an

so

remain

interpret
However natural
out

equivalence
the

relation transitions
not

Ep Apq
have
to

on

Ap,
we

with
are

perhaps
able of
to

.
giveits
XII
come
=

by interpretation
valid.
We

introducing
and it thus could of is

stil

the

above

instance in
that

For

quite
an

possible
account to

have
the

,
notion

Ap,
things
formalise

but
not

Apq(x,)
known
some

ApqlX).
be
the

give
come

of
so

to

identical
discussion Now if
<p

be

known

later,
m

and

also

of

10.1.
ig-formula
to

is

an

which

is

appropriate,

we

may

define

the

relation

for
In
xl5. ., xm

hrPl>i>
e

>**.]
of
of satisfaction
we

Ap,

of

<p

in if

91

at

p.

the

interest If
<p

legibility

wil

abbreviate

Apq(x)

to

x4. in
the

A)
classical
sense.

is

atomic,

9It=p

<p[xl5. .,

xm]

9lp ([1. .,

xm]

classi-

B) C) D) E) F) G)
91
at

9lNp<PAiA[x1,. .,xm]if 9lHp<p[x1,. .,xm]and9lHpiA[x1,. .,xm].

91 91 91 91 91

Np Np Hp

p
~

[ <[15.. ,

. .,

<p

1. .,

xm] xm] if x^]

if for if

91
for
for for

Np <[
all all
q

. .,

xm]
pCq,
not

or

91 91
if

with
q

with

pCq,

Hp [1 1=, [?,. 91 K, p[x?,.

. .,

.,

.,

t=p ?[15.. , t=p \/vi<p[x1,. .,

?_1
,

xm] xm]
?+1,. .,
at

if if

some

aeA,,
q

2t

Np [15.. ,
and
every

;_

every

with
of
<p

pCq,
some

Aq,

Hq <p[x?,. .,
Thus

x2J.
stage
of
p
at

p,

is while

to

be the
at

true

if
p

is

true

individual
be
true not

present

stage
If

truth
p

\/
also

requires
that
occur

to at

only
. .,

of

all

individuals

present

but

all
n,

later

stages.

21

<p(vh,. ., t=P <p[yi,

yti
Then
we
=

VtJ

has

index
some

we

put

91

Np [
m

xn]
,. .,

if
ym

]
put
91
and

fr

(hence

any)
true at

appropriate
p)
if
model

and

having

. .,

xu.. ,yin=xn.

t=p

<p

{q>

is

91

t=p [15.. ,
of
cp)
if
for

xn]
all

for

all

xn

Ap,

finally

91 ?cp

(91

is

258

ELEMENTARY

TRUTH

CH.

11,

11.6

Exercise.

1. when

Show
P has

that

this

definition
one

reduces
member.

to

the

classical

notion

of

iC-model

only
that
any
p.

Exercise

2.

Show

if

91

t=p <[. .,

and

pCq,

then

91

, [?,
the

. .,xJJ,
P-model
A
r:

Now

91 is turned
>

into functor
the

Set1*

model
with

91*
91

(A,
described
with

r,

fc),

by
earlier,

taking

(i) (ii)

P
x

Set

->

as

the
as

associated natural

transformation

components

rp:ApxAp^>

given

by
pCq
the
arrow

rp((x,
(ii ) /:1-
=

y))={q:
as

and with

Apq(x)RqApq(y)}.
components

(fc)p

:{0}>

Ap

having

(/c)P@)
Exercise

cp.

3.

Show

that

rp((x,
xRpy

y))
if

is

an

hereditary
y

subset

of

[p).
(cf. 10.3)

Exercise

4.

Show

that

rpx,

[p)

and

hence

truen

a.

is

pullback.
5.

Exercise

Verify
tel
r,

that

and

/c
to

are

natural

transformations.

The

exercises

us

how

reverse

the

construction.

Given
the

model Exercise establishes

a

(A,
2,

fc)
and

we

bijective
91*

specify defining correspondence

SB.
reader
true

2lp
.Rp
by

by
the

defining equation
between

cp
in

by
Exercise

equation
4.

(ii )
This
on

in and

estabP

i?-models
that

91

based

Set^models

for
the formulae

Undoubtedly
have

has in them.

anticipated
Indeed relative
to

corresponding
connection for
<p
an

models is atomic much formula. finer

the that.

same

the

than

Let

us

calculate

I<p]]m,

91*,

11,

11.6

KRIPKE

MODELS

259

We

have
AmPt>

Pu)

A2

a
where
p,:

Am Am
-*

is
A has

the

product

functor

having

Apn

(Ap)m

etc.,

and

components

where

From

this

we

see

that
set
=

the

component

ItRu]:A^>
x?
91

flp

assigns

to

<x1;

. .,xm)

the

{q

and and
as

{q :PCq
typical,

This

situation

is

quite
For
any

expressed
appropriate p-th
component

in

the:

Truth

Lemma.
arrow

<p,
>

and has

m,

then

relative

to

91*

the

Set1*-

I<plm

Am

Cl

where

Given for and the the inductive

. .,

xm={q:
Set1*
of
the
to

pCq

and

91
the

h=<p[x?,.
proof
be of the

.,

x^]}.
Truth For and Lemma identities

analysis
cases

of

in

Chapter
connectives examine

10,
the

should
arrows

evident.

quantification
A
:

we

need

8A,

VA,

3A,

for

Set^object
Theorem 1.

->

Set.
A

8A

->

has

(SA)p:ApxAp->ftp
given

by

CA)px,y={q:pE=q
Proof.

and
A
x

x"=y"}.
as

Aa

-r

has

(A) (AA)P

the

map

<1 <1Ap,

An>:

Ap

>

A\.

(AA)P

260

ELEMENTARY

TRUTH

CH.

11,

11.6

then

can

be
The

identified characteristic

with

the

identity
of and this
set

relation is

Ap

{(x,
so

Ap

Ap.

function

(SA)P,

and

): (cf.

y}c

10.3)

CA)px,
as

y))={q:

pCq

<AM(x),

Am(y))eAJ
?

required.
6.
has the

Exercise
<p

Use form

Theorem

1 to

prove

the

Truth

Lemma

for

the

case

that

(t~u).
of
F

The

definition functors
P
>

VA
G

uses

the P
to

Given

and

from of
a

operation Set,
>

of this

exponentiation
produces
e
a

in functor indexed

Set1*.

operation
p

GF:

Set

consisting
transitions
define
the Set
r

collection
:

{(GF)P:

P}
whenever

of

sets

by
Now the

P,
for

together
each F
arrow

with
p
we :

(GF)pq
restriction

(GF)P
F
to

(GF)q
category
q
e

pCq.

of
to

the

[p)

to set

be

functor
to

[p)
q
>

that

in
p,

[p)
and

(i.e.
then

assigns pCqCr)
put

each the

object
function

[p) Fqr.

the

Fq,
we

and define

each the

Similarly

functor

to

be

the
a

set

of of indexed

all

natural
may

transformations
be the

from described
of
as

F
a

\
:

to

p.

Thus

an

element
of

(GF)P
Fa
a"

directly
members

collection

{crq:
>

pCq}
that

functions,

by
,

[p),

with

aq

FQ

Gq,

such

G.

Fr
commutes,
Now r:F-r>G
one

Gr
pC

whenever
way

of and
process
we

obtaining
restrict also

such

would

be

to

take

an

arrow

in

Se^ put

it

to

the

subcategory
map

[p),

i.e.
when

let

{rq:
For

pCq}.
a

This
e

yields

the

transition

(GF)pq

pCq.

(GF)P

The

arrow

ev

GFxF-r>

has

p-th

component

eup:(GF)pxFp^Gp
given
by

evp(((T,

<rp(x),

CH.

11,

11.6

KRIPKE

MODELS

261

for

each

ae(GF)p
Exercise
7.

and that

xeFp.

Verify

(GF)pq(cr)
construction

is

natura*

transformation

\q-r>

G\q.
Exercise

8.

Relate

this

to

its

analogue

for

Set*

in

Chapter
D

9.
Now for

an

arrow

t:HxF-t>

the

exponential

adjoint

f:H-^GF
has
as

p-th

component

function

rp:Hp-^(GF)p.
For each

in

Hp,

is

natural

transformation
F

-r>

p.

Its

q-th

component

TS:Fq^Gq
has,
for
each
x

Fq,

The

reader

should done exercises: 9.

so

now

take
test

Having
further
Exercise

he

may

his

breath deep understanding

and of

go

through
the

that in

again.
some

definition

trueA

prA

:lxA->fi

has
to

as

the Exercise

function
10.
may

assigning
The

[p)
p-th
with

each

input

p-th @, x).

component

{0}

Ap

-r*

flp

component
the natural

[trueAip
transformation

:{0}-> by

()
a:A
=

of

that fq
Theorem
=

be

identified
:

\
all

p (I

\
Thus

has

aq

Aq

ilq,

where

pCq,
=

given

trueQ

lAa,
VA

i.e.

[trueAlp@)

->

{trueei

1^

f q(x) pCq}.

[q),

xeAq.

2.

has

262

ELEMENTARY

TRUTH

CH.

11,

11.6

given

by

(VA)p(ct)

{q:pq,
and
every

and
x

for
e

every

with
=

qCr,

Ar,
character

ar(x)

[r)}.
of

Proof.

For

(),
=

since

VA
and

is

the

hrue^

we

have

(VA)p(ff)={q:pCq
{q:pCq
{q:
pCq,
fol ows.
=

(UA)pq(a)
:
if

trueA\@)}

and and

qr}
qCr
then

{true,
oy
=

l^iqCr}}

truer

Ur}
?

from

which

the

theorem

If,

for

each
=

p,

we

define

()

to

be

the

set

ep

{<ct,

x>:op(x)

[p)}

then

is
i.e.
Exercise

pullback,

by

10.3,
are

and the

the
A

description
of the
character

of

evA

given
is rise
evA.

above. relation"

Thus
on

the

inclusions the
arrow

(eA)p
eA 11.
e as

>>

components

"membership

A,

whose

The

collection mentioned.
that the

{ep:peP}
What
are

gives
its transitions

to

functor

(Set1*-

object)
Exercise
eA

just
Show

epq? eA)p
has of the

12.

and

the
13.

first Let of
i

projection
i

component : flA pA

(pA
xA-r>

composite
))
the
=

of
a.

O,A
of

(pA
eA.

)((,
that

Exercise

be
the

the

image

arrow

pA

Show

p-th

component

is

inclusion

where

ip
Theorem

{a:

for

some

Ap,

(a,

x)

ep}.

3.

3:->

has
:

CA)P

()

->

CH.

11,

11.6

KRIPKE

MODELS

263

given

by

CA)p(cr)
Proof.

{q:
character

p^qand
of the

for

some

xe

Aq,
arrow

crq(x)
of
pA

[q)}

3a
13

is

the

image

eA.

Using

Exercise

then,

andO^X^eiJ
=

{q: {q:pCq
result of

pCq

and

for

some

Aq,
a'
=

(a1,

x)e

eq}
={ar:qCr})
=

(where
=

O,fq{a)
crq(x)

and fol ows.

for

some

xeAq,

[q)},
?

and
The
structure

since

crq

o-q,

the

descriptions
of link
4. the

VA by

and clauses

3A
for

in V

Theorems

and

reflect
models.

the
The

satisfaction

and

in

Kripke

explicit
Theorem

is
For

given
each

^-formula

<p

and

appropriate

m,

the

Self-arrow

has

as

p-th

component

the

function

which

assigns

to

(xu
. .,

. .,

xm)e xm
=

the

natural

transformation
A

fp((xu
with

{crq :pCq}

from

to

p,

fq

Aq

>

?lq

having
{Q lj,
. . .

yQ Af_j,

A,

-.

(\ Aj_|_i_j

,/}

II

Exercise

14.

Prove

Theorem that

4.

Exercise the

15.

Show

[^1:
for
-

-^

assigns

to

<xl3. .,

xm)e

collection

{q:

pCq

and

some

,
x,

?,
Exercise the Exercise 17. Hence 16. Derive

x?_ls

x?+1,

-.

-,

x^>)

[q)}.
of

the

corresponding

description

IVu^Ip"
the

in

terms

of

complete

the

inductive

proof

of

Truth

Lemma.

264

ELEMENTARY

TRUTH

CH.

11,

11.8

11.7.
Our first

Completeness
application Set1*,
1.

of
<p

the index

Truth
n.

Lemma

is

description

of

A"

-r

?1,
Theorem

in

where

has

: Mp*i,

Anv

->

xn))
the fact
=

has

{q:
that

pCq
there

and is

Proof.

Exercise

use

commuting

triangle

np
whenever
m

is

appropriate
any

to

q>.

Theorem

2.
we

For

SE-model

91 based
cp,

on

P,

and

associated

Set1*

model

91*,

haue

/or

all

^-formulae

Proof.

Take

any

p,

and

xu.. ,

xn

Ap,

where

is

the

index

of

<p.

Then

of

xn))
sets

if

I<p]px1,. .,
Exercise

[p)
Thus

by
1

properties
21

hereditary *J

(10.2,
if

3A1)).
O)

by

Theorem

b=<p[xi,
the
case

I<pIpXi,
sequences

-,

(tfueA,)p
xb
. .,

xn.

Since

this

is

for M

all

-length

from

Ap,

we

have

91
Since
that

hr<P
the
case

I<pIp=(traeA)p.
for
all
=

is

peP,
true^. U
Thomason

if Now
we can

lq>\
used canonical

by
construct

the

methods
a

by
poset

[68]
P^,
and
a

(and
canonical

also

by
model

Fit ing

[69]),
91^
based

11?

11.7

COMPLETENESS

265

on

Peg

such

that

for

any

<p,

%se?(p
(Thomason's
However

if
models

\^-<p.
interpret
~

as

an

equivalence
the
set

relation
of

Ep
class of
x

on

,.
to

by
the

taking
transition class
as

,
of the
x,

instead
that
we

to

be the

Ep -equivalence
IL-model
on

classes,
the

and

Apq , -equivalence
~

maps

Ep -equivalence
21
as
a

realise
relation model

canonical

which

is Now

interpreted
if have

diagonal

A.)
in
the

21*

is

the

associated

topos

g"a

Set*4

by

Theorem

we

Hence,

with

the

Soundness

Theorem

we

get

From

this

fol ows

general

Completeness

Theorem.

If
a

<p

is

valid

in

every

topos,

then

An

example
is
now

of

topos

model
We

in take
P

which
as

the the

Law

of

Excluded
2
=

Middle

fails

readily %0

given.

ordinal

poset

({0,1},

=s).

21

has
=

({b,c},R0,c)

where

b
=

and

are

two
=

distinct

entities,
the

0 only
but

{,
map

}
it
at
we

and
can

be.

{}
Then

of

reader's is
the
sentence

Ro fancy,

and and

Rx

are

any

relations

on

A01:{b,

c}^>{c}
<p

is is
true
at

the

if

cp

(Vu1)(u1~c),
have

(1

false Thus

2l0have
not
~

211=0
7.4
~a

<p,

but for This

~

we

do

21

<p,

so

not

211=0
topos
not
can

<p,

hence

not

211=0
Now
we

cp

v saw

cp.

in
of
av

that,
a

propositional
Sub(l)
occurs

logic,
is

validate
Boolean

all

instances

(since Similarly

Sub(i7)
we

is have

not

(since BA).
<p
v
*

for
(p

A)
is
an

but

stil in

be
the

example
<2?-sentence,
is situation

topos
since
the
same

M2.
then
for

M21=
1

cp

whenever
the

Icpfc
open

is

truth-value

However

not

formulae.

266

ELEMENTARY

TRUTH

CH.

11,
a

11.8

Theorem

3.

If

ifl=<pv~<p

for

every

?6-formula

<p,

then

if

is

Boolean

topos.
Proof.

Let

21 be
as

i?-model
the element

of

the
true:

form
1
*

of

r,

true),
.
Let

i.e.

model
be the
2

in
of

which formula

is
=

(%
the
XW

interpreted <:). equaliser 1n=

<()
Exercise

Then
of But

Icpfc:/2^/2
"\n and 21 t=cp v
truen
~

is is
so

8nC\n,
true
v
~

truen).
1

/2

so

By (Theorem
i.e.

5.1,

2,

11.5)

[cpfc

<p,

[<p

<pfc

traen,

i.e.

which
Exercise.
constant.

by

Theorem
The Show of

3 of

of

7.4
Theorem

implies
3 used

that

Sub(/2)
the fact that

is

BA.
SB had individual
the

proof
that

an

this
a

assumption
constant to
a

is

not

needed,

by

considering

process

"adjoining"

language.

11.8.
The

Existence

and
of

free

logic
(ifA,
for of

assumption
been

non-emptiness,
not

) 0),
constants,
in
a

for

<2?-models but also

course
a

in
the

topos
our

has

needed,
of

just
hence
null
set

interpreting
truth and if model. that the
we

for

definition

Icpfc
is
the

and

In

Set
as

of

only
then
as

empty

object
Mostowski

Andrzej
preserves

validity.
open
<p

any

formula

[51] Informally <p(v),

On lat er

0, observed,

is
rule
any

admit ed
of
detachment

model,
no

regard
true

universal
there
statement <p

sentence

longer Vu<p,
in

or

as

being
other
no

of
an

0, since
existential
which map true, then
e.g., the

is

nothing 3u<p
More

0
false

of

which
in since
map the

is

false.
the

the
has

hand
element

is

since

of
the

is while

true.

formally,
is
the

{0},
Moreover

V0:{0}^2
if i.e. the
<p

is
has

simply
index

30:{0}^2
so

false.
empty

nssl,
Thus,

0n =0,
open

Icpb:0^2
formulae

is

map,

map

frae0.

and

and

true

in

0,

while

the

sentence

is

false.

CH.

11,

11.8
are

EXISTENCE

AND

FREE

LOGIC

267

There

two

basic
are

methods
allowed
to

that

have
called

been

when

empty
the
rule From
are

models
of
detachment

(so
read:

"free"

developed logic).
that all

of

doing

logic
modi-

Mostowski

modified

(p

and in allow

<=> .
v

infer
to

provided
only <p.) by
other read the been
very

variables

free
has also

in

<p

free
we

(Alternatively
derived
This for each

be
that

detached

if

3v(v
the method
"t

~v)
Montreal

been

variable
is used in

is

free

in

approach
existence
of

the

topos

setting

school is
to

(cf.

Robitail e-Giguere a special

the
not

[75],
predicate
satisfaction This

Boileau

[75]).
E,
to

The

introduce
to

with accommodate has

has
as
a

E(r)

exists",

and
that

modify
"f may

definition denote

possibility
by
Dana

anything".
Fourman
and

notion and well

a

studied

Scott

and
for

Michael
sheaves Let
us

[74],
bundles,
an
s

interesting
models.
the

interpretation
BnG)
s.I^ A But

as

consider
:

object
>

I.

An

element
one

of
out

is of

Kripke (A, f) a global

each
So
we

in stalk
see

topos

of
of

bundles
the

over

section

bundle,
is
one

picking
A;
stalk elements
=

"germ"
no

0,

then

such

s(i) s(i)
is
not

A;.
that
to

if
a

the
at

stalk
least
there

empty,

exists.

if

has

empty
any
nonwe on

(because
1
*

/
a.

epic),
also
see are

that that

is in

(We
that

enough BnG)
the with

prevent
many D<=*
e

being
and best

has

isomorphic
consider
subset
D

objects
local
of
set

empty
s.D

sections
I. D

A,

categorial / s

significant sense).
I,
Recall of
the

At

can some

defined

This
s

possible
I
can

if be

0 for
as a

all

D.

(4.4
terminal

6)
1

that

the the

regarded

subobject

Example object

under

isomorphism

that A

obtains

for

BnG).
arises
A

similar

situation

in

the

context

of
-r

Se^
for would it
may
-r

model
each have
p,

(A,

r,

fc).
e

If

the
so

object

(functor)
So
even a

has
one

element

fc:
were

A,

then A

(/c)p@)
no

Ap,

0.
However

if

just
if

Ap
does
an

A
as

have
arrow

empty, elements,
of the form

elements.
to

be
We
c0 may

undesirable
for

interpret
wish
element
to

constant
our

1
a

A.

instance

expand
c0

language

X
Cq

to

include be

"name"

for

particular
in
those

of

some

Ap.
that
a

would

then

interpreted
can

(as
be
A

eg)

only
in

2lq
2,

for

[p).
with

Notice

[p)
D^l

being
an

hereditary
of
arrow

identified

(Exercise
Set1".
:

10.6) interpretation

subobject
c0

the

terminal

object
-r>

The
>

of
out

then

yields
pCq,

/Co:
={0},

with
=

(fCo)q
!:0^>

Aq

picking
otherwise.

eg

whenever

i.e.

and

(/Co)q

Aq

other-

268

ELEMENTARY

TRUTH

CH.

11,

11.8

We

are a

thus whose

lead

to

replace
are

elements

> >->

of 1

an

object
the

by
1.

arrows

d^>

domains called

subobjects
of
we a a

d
a.

of

terminal
the
more

Such

things
notion

are

partial
arrow.

elements
In

This
that

comes

from
a

general
from A
to to

of

B,
dom
'g'-arrow

writ en

partial f:A~*B,
A

Set

say

/
from

is

partial
a

function
subset of
A
we

if cod

/
B.
In

is

function

B,
a

i.e.
a

and

with
of
a

cod is Set This

some
new we

/ f,
arrow

general
is
*

category
a

<g

put

f:a~*b
a.

and
s

there
:

'e'-monic
there
as

dom
be is write
on

f>->
some

Thus

if/is partial
x

element

an

a.
*

Now

in

the

case,

if

/:
*,

may

elements But
*"

e we

with introduce

x^dom/.
then
or

is

often

expressed
with

"f(x)
and

undefined".

if need
conve-

entity
can

x^dom/ * <?B,
convenient

regard
*"

/
be the

as

else
for

"f(x)=
*

could
be it
may

<?B, being compatible

*

"f(x)=
all
of

whenever
A

denned
with
set

(we
A
"x

xedom
=

/).
means

choice
each

would of

null

0 (f(x)
We

has

null

denotation"). replacing by the

copy

However

be

that

element of these

by

the

0eB. singleton
i.e.
we
we

can

get

around and

this

by

subset
add

{y}

collection

B'={{y}:yeB}. B={{y}:yeB}U{0}.

Then

singletons, 0^B'

so

replace 0

by
to

its
form

replacing isomorphic

to

B'

Then

given

f:D-^B,

with

A,

define
=

f.A^B
D

by

{{fix)}
It

if

X6dom/

otherwise
is

clear

then

that

commutes,
Moreover

where the

-]() pullback

{},
of
-rjB

11

and

has

domain
and

y=/(x)}

Thus,
can

knowing
be
1* shown
a

/,
that

we

pull /
Thus
as a

it
as

back

along
is
arrow

tjb

to

recover

/.
map A^B

In

fact

defined
the

the

only
r\B:B
-B

(exercise) making
a

it

this
of

diagram
true:

pullback.
2.
It
acts

is

generalisation
bijective

"partial

function

classifier",

providing

CH.

11,

11.8

EXISTENCE

AND

FREE

LOGIC

269

correspondence
with

between

(equivalence
and
"total"
maps

classes

of)
with

partial
codomain

maps

f:A^*B
B.

codomain
Arrow b there

B,

f.A^B If
and
an arrow

Partial

Classifier
is
an
arrows

Theorem.

if

is

any
r\b:

topos,
b
>>

then b such
is
one

for
that and

each

-object
any
one

^-object
as

b
in

pair
arrow

(/, f

g)
as

of
shown

the

fol owing
the

diagram, diagram
a

there

given only

that

makes

pullback.

D
The
To

proof
define
to -rjb,

of the

this
arrow

theorem

is

given
^>
Set

in is

detail

by
introduced

to

Kock
as

and the

Wraith

[71].
proves
to

adjoint
be

8:^>
and
so

{-}b:b (in

exponential
a

{-}b
^i7b
an

maps

{y}).
lat er
has

{-}b
h subsets
:

h Set It

monic,
h is
then

is

({-}b,
in
on

1b):b
turn

xfo.

The
all
other

character

b is

and
that

this

has

exponential
maps
so

adjoint

of

b
to

the
shown

identity

singletons h { }b

and
=

(in 0).

{ }b,

defining
arrow

as

the

(domain {-}b
through
the
that

of

the)
b.

equaliser

of

and

h,

r\b

is

the

unique

factoring
1. Examine Show

Exercise

details

of

this

construction

in

Set.

Exercise

2.

is

subobject
now

classifier free

in

any

topos.
a

?
semantical and

Returning
may

to

logic,

theory
constants

in
to

the be

classical

case

be

developed

by

allowing

variables

interpreted

in

270

ELEMENTARY

TRUTH

CH.

11,

11.8

model

21

(A,. .)
as

as

elements

of

U{*}.
A,

The

existence i.e.
for

predicate aeAU{*}

is

interpreted

the

set

(one-place
if

relation)
aeA,
remains
all
A

1=()[]
while
the
range

of

quantification
if for
detachment

itself,

i.e.

a<=A,
preserves

211=<[].
validity,
while
the

Under
and
eg

this
are

semantics,
modified
to

axioms

ui

and

More

details

of

this

type
is taken

of

theory
to

may

be
for
a

found formula

in
of

Scott the
see

[67]
form that

is

often

done,
to

E(t)
models

stand
in Wa
a as

where, 3v(v
instead

as
~

i).
of

Moving dealing
discussed
elements

21
elements
may

(a,. .)
with
has

with
we

partial
of
a"

general suggested
1

topos,

we

by
a
a

the the

earlier,

deal

elements

of has

examples "object
at

discusof
the

(a
The
*

always

of
the

elements,
of
)
: a
^

since
the
a,
a

least E

partial partial
the
<p deter-

element character determines

an

0^a).
e:

interpretation
monic
*

predicate
and
each

becomes

formula
element

arrow

<] :

()"

Then

given

partial

fc:

I***a,

we

have

lE(c)] |[E(c)I

fc,
the

and
character

so

as

the of

diagram dom/c
>->

indicates,
1.

is

Hence

2ll=E(c)

if if

lE(c)fc
dom

trae

fc
is
a

>-

1!
element

in

Sub(l)
of
a.

if

fc

"total"

CH.

11,

11.8
case

EXISTENCE

AND

FREE

LOGIC

271

In
sets

the

of

bundle

(A,
the

f),
stalk
a

is

bundle

of

(disjoint)
map

copies
r\Ai:

of

the
An

Ab

with

r\a

acting
is with

on

element section

/c:l->a fc :I~*A,

essential y

At partial

being
element

the

At
i.e.

At.
a

fc:l^*a,

local

Identifying

truth

values

with

subsets

of

we

may

then

simply

say

that

and

2lt=E(c)
Now union the
of
set

if

fc
iso
A

is

global
Set
arrow

section.
to

is

A where

and

[-,
A

0], corresponding
were an

isomorphic The {0}. 0A :{0}^

to

in has

+1,
=

the

lat er

being
the

the

disjoint
arrow

in

0A(O)
element
a

question 0.
!:

is Thus

co-product
"is"
of

0A
*

the A.
The +1

element obvious in

of

the
as

partial
to

0
+

A
to

question
this
1 is

then
so,
we

arises
would
of

whether in and

is know
let

have

particular
we

isomorphic lsl
that

general.
2

If

1. /2
=

But
1 +

object
formulate

truth the situation

values,

(Exercise 1 only
a

above)
Boolean

in is

topoi.
To of

precisely,
g"-arrow

0a

a,

where

an

object

topos

g",

be

the

unique

making

pullback,

and

form

the

co-product

arrow

Lemma.

In

Sub(a),

0a

is

the

pseudo-complement

of

r\a.

272

ELEMENTARY

TRUTH

CH.

11, then

11.8

Proof.

If

r\a

:-a^>

is

the

pseudo-complement

of

t]a,

t]a

-4a=0a

(7.2)
0

and

so

is
t]a

pullback.
is the
consider

But

the
arrow

Partial
that

Arrow

Classifier
the

Theorem

then
a

implies

that

only

makes

diagram

thus

pullback.

Now

-a

The

top
view of

square

is

pullback
Hence role of

(exercise),
by
the
rja

and

the
outer

bottom

square

is
a

the

pullback
In

defining
the

0a. unique

PBL

the

rectangle
it fol ows

is

pullback.

just

mentioned,

that

-a

commutes,
shows element that of

showing
-rja

that

In

0.
view
of
r\a,

But

the

pullback
of

square
r\a Tja,
as

defining
the

0a
largest
?

Sub(a)

0a. disjoint

the
we

description
get
then

from

0a

and

altogether

0=-n,.
Theorem. In For
any

topos
,
+

if,
is

the

A) B) C)

all

^-objects

[-),
iso

fol owing 0]:

are

equivalent
a

is

iso

l>h,
g

0J:1
is

1--1

Boolean.

CH.

11,

11.8

EXISTENCE

AND

FREE

LOGIC

273

Proof.

Clearly
0

A)

implies

B).

But

is

defined

by

the

pullback

which
then

shows

that is
the
arrow

when

r\1

is
Hence Booleanness

used

as

subobject
asserts
as
we saw

classifier,
that

i.e.

-r^

true,

0!
is

false. yields
holds,
then

B)
the

the in
to

co-product
7.3.
any

[true,
a,
we

false]
Finally,
have

iso,
if

which

C)

applying
=

Lemma

^-object

0a
are

1]a

But

t]a

and

5.4

implies
lat er

factorisation,
the

disjoint [), 0] i.e. i)a U0a=[-r]a, is iso (Exercise,

that

monies,
is

so

the and in

Lemma hence

fol owing
is
Thus

Theorem

3 of

monic,

its

own
=

epi-monic
0J,
and
so

0J
7.2.1).
be

Sub(a).

1a

[-r]a,

Exercise

3.
Form

Let the

functions.

a=f:A^>B co-product
*B,

an

object

in

the

topos

Set

of

set

function

A+B

and Then

let

[/, idB]

:(A+B)

^Bbe

defined

by

the

-construction

in

Set.

commutes,
Show that
where

where
r\a:a^>
a

is
a

the

is

composite partial

of
arrow

iA:A^>A+B
classifier and
r\a

and with is Set"*

the

\+-

respect

to

in

Sef*,
the

is
of

the

function

[/, idB]
just

pair
1 in

(g,
Sef^ in

tjb).
to
recover

Apply description

the

construction
the

given
classifier

to

the
for

terminal

subobject

given

Chapter

4.

274

ELEMENTARY

TRUTH

CH.

11,

11.9

11.9.

Heyting-valued
on a

sets ideas
of

Building
in

the
as a

the

previous

section,

we

might
actual
are

topos

"set-like"

entity
only
some

consisting
of in
a

of

potential y
that

regard existing
existence bound
In

an

object (partial y
(are

denned) total y
are

elements,

which formula

possess

denned).
then

The
to

variables
range
over

by
the of
that the

quantifiers
context
sameness.

taken
of

actually
we

this
The

"logic
sentence

partial 3u(u~c)
that So the

elements"
is it
asserts
sentence

existing distinguish
to

elements.
two

of

concepts
an

tantamount

the

assertion exists

individual that

exists,
to

in
c.

that

there

actually

individual

is

equal

(i)
is valid abbreviation
on

this
"if and

account.

Here

the

symbol
<p

is
=

the

biconditional introduced

connecas

connective read
an

only
for

if".
the formula

The

expression

is formally

In

arriving
to
an

equal
are

going

to

at (i) existing require

we

have

implicitly
must

invoked itself
can

the But
more

principle
strongly if they

that than

anything
this
we

entity
that

exist.

elements
we

only

be

equal

exist.

Equality

implies (ii)
The weaker other

existence,

and

thus

have

(uw)^E(u)aE(w)
notion
of of
sameness,

for

which does Thus

v

we

use

the win
are

symbol
elements be

is in

concept
to

equivalence
of
or

which existence.
if form

not

dif erentiate
w

regard
neither
express

their them in hence

a

lack

and and of Thus

them

of

exists,

they
as

both "if

exist

equal
exists

equivalent (~).
then

if
We
can

this

positive
the
other

either

they
is
character-

are

equal"
characterised by

(and

exists

by

(ii)).

equivalence

(Hi)
But then
we

(i)sw)
see,

(E(i))vE(wKi)~w).
that
we are

equivalence,
i.e.

since

conversely, equal

may

describe
that exist

equality
and
are

in

terms

of

elements

those

equivalent,

(ii a)
These
two

(u
notions

w)
are

((us=w)aE(u)aE(w)). simply
! A

il ustrated
of
a

in bundle

the
A^I

topos
over

BnG).
I, and

Let

/
put

and

be

partial

elements

CH.

11,

11.9

HEYTING-VALUED

SETS

275

Then the the

[/
truth-value
extent

gl,
to

being
of

subset
statement

of

I, is

a
=

truth-value

in
or

Bn(Z).
as

We
a

regard
measure

it

as

the
that

"f
and
g
are

which
mean

/
both

g", equal.
are

alternatively
The

of
=

expression
defined

"/
(i.e.
i is
a

g"
A. In

is

interpreted
of

to

f(i)
/
and

and

g(i)
g)
and

both
are

member
of

the

domains
we

of
must

they

the

same

element

particular

have
?

[/
and
so

gl
analysis

dom of

dom 11.8
we

g
can

by

the

put

which
Notice

accords that

with

(ii)

above.

If /I
and For
g
measure as
so

{i:
measure

/@

/@1
of

dom

[E(/)I
of

I/
the

/I
weaker

is

the
sameness,

degree
we

existence

of

/.
sections
Thus
i where

concept
if

of
agree

equivalent
of

they
of

whenever

regard they
we

the
are

local
defined.

/
as

and
a

the

extent

their those

equivalence
where

take
are

those
both defined

neither
and
agree.

is

defined,

together

with

they

Thus

If

s=

gl

-(dom

dom

g)

If

g]

which

corresponds
Analogously, partial
in

to

(ii ),
we

since
define

U
a

measure

=>

of
of

in

).
degree
a

of

elements

Top(Z) (continuous

the

of
of

equality
germs

local

sections)

sheaf

by

putting

applying
i.e.
a

the truth-value. have

interior

operator

(
=

)
remains

to

ensure
as

that

[/
put

gl
since

is local

an

open

set, sections

[E(/)I
open

[//I
For

dom/,
we

always

domains.

equivalence
=>
the

If
where
open
sets
=

gl=(/)!
=

[E(g)I
is whereas
we

If
relative

g],
pseudo-complementation
may

B^
in is
not

C Z.

(
Notice

C)
that

of proper

[/=/!
always
have

be
=

subset

of

("/

/"

total y

true)

[/=/1

1.

276

ELEMENTARY

TRUTH

CH.

11,
a

11.9

Emerging consisting algebra-valued

notion
Let
every

from
of admits of
a

this

discussion
of
of

is

collection
measure
an a

(partial)
degree

the

abstract

axiomatic

(
subset

C)

be

complete
has (l-valued
a

Heyting
least
upper

(I
An

generalised elements, of equality development algebra (), denoted bound,

the is definitions defined

concept
with
of
some

of

"set"

as

HeytingThis
way:

these in i.e. the

an

elements.

fol owing
HA
and
of
a

in and

which

LJA,
to

greatest

lower

bound,
in

denoted

\~\A,
A

in function
A
an

.
set

given comprising (x, pair

8.3).
a

(Recall (il-sei)
> element

l.u.b.
be
to
an

g.l.b.
A

entity
ordered

set

and of

assigning

each

y)

of

elements

[x~yJA

of

(I,

satisfying

and

for formulae

all

x,

y,

A.

These

two

conditions

give

the

-validity

of

the

z)=>
that
express

(x~z)
and

the

symmetry
wil

transitivity
denoted

of

the We

equality
introduce

relation. the

The

element

lx

x]A

often
=

be

lExIA.
=>

definition

[x
The

yIA
without

([1[IA)
these

[x

yIA
be

A-subscripts
is clear

in

expressions
them.

wil

deleted

whenever

the

meaning
Exercise
set:

1.

Prove

that

the

fol owing

conditions

hold

for

any

-valued

[xy]c|[ExJ
Ix \x

y]
x\

[x

unit

ss

is

the

(greatest

element)

of

pC[xsyI

if

pn[ExIc[xsyI

and

pn[Ey]c[xsyI

CH.

11,

11.9

HEYTING-VALUED

SETS

277

The

justification
the and in
of
-sets

for
form which the

using
the

the

subobject-classifier
of of
a

symbol
denoted
is ft obtained itself!

for

our

is
a

is

that

objects object
is the

category,

-Set,
More

which

topos,
this

truth-values
-set

precisely,

object

truth-values

by

putting

for

each

p,

where

is the

the

(I members

-operation
of
_L

that (I
T
to
are

interprets going
the

the
to
serve

biconditional
as

connective

=.

Since
use

truth-values
and

we

wil
elements

the of

symbols
Exercise
Exercise

and

denote

least

(zero)

greatest

(unit)

respectively.
2.

[p

qln

if

q.

3.

[Epln=T.

Exercise

4.

[p~T]|n
[p=
from

p.

Exercise

5.

J_In
A
>

ip

?
in (I -Set
be

An
as
so a

arrow

to

Its
to to
a

may

thought
be
a

of

in

the
of

first A

instance
x

function
lat er

should

the of

equality
of
arrow

/: A correspond as assigning of f(x)

x.

B.

graph
function

would
of the

then form

subobject
->.
==

and

We

(x,
y,

y)
i.e. in

the
a

truth-value
measure

lf(x)
of
we

I, giving
to

interpret the degree

and

the
to

extent

which definition.

is

the

/-image
An

With
from A

this
to

idea

mind
is
a

turn

the
A
x

formal

>

in

f2-Set

function

/:

satisfying

(iv)

(v)
(vi)

/x,yn/x,y'C[yy't
[x
first and
two

(vii)
The

xL
conditions

Utfx,
are

)):
laws

}
extensionality
the formulae

of
of

(indistinguishability

of

equals)

assert

the

(I

-validity

(x

278

ELEMENTARY

TRUTH

CH.

11,

11.9

(which validity "partial they

completeness

are

instances of
elements

of

the

axiom

of

11.3).
for the of

Condition
arrow
x

(vi) /.
It the
can

gives
be
extent

the

the

"unique

output"
and understand
can as
a

property
are

read that

y'
be

each condition
used
to

the

/-image
(vii)
we an

only
that

to

are

equal".
the the "there
or

To

note

the

completeby is,
the
or

of

lat er

construing
sentence

(possibly
yb

interpret infinite)
that
run

existential

quantifier,

exists
or.. "

such
y2,. .

<p(y2)
and

(3)
is

where the truth-value

disjunction <p(y)" through

(l.u.b.).
is

That
as

construed
all

"<p(yt)
of

the

members

B,

hence

given

1_1{)]:},
(Dually,
"for all

or

U
yeB

[<p(y)l
as a

construing yeB,

universal would
be
or

<p(y)"

quantifier interpreted

yeB

conjunction,

the

sentence

by

{My)]:
Thus has the
we

yeB}, (vii)
yeB,
=

My)].)
of

we
some

see

that

gives
i.e. the

the

validity
is
a

the
"x

statement

that

each
an

A of

form
may in In summary

/-image [ExI
read B".

/
element

total

function. exists
to

By
the

giving
to

equation
that that
it

[<pl
as

suggestive

reading
of

the
extent

extent

<p",
has
an

(vii)
then,

"each

exists
is

image
an

an

arrow

from

A total the

to

represented,
relation relation
on an arrow arrow

via from
A A

its
to

graph,
B. these A accordBut

as

extensional,
it is
not

functional

and
to
see

-valued

then

hard
i.e. the And of

that

properties, according to
truth-value should
The

function

(x,
indeed
=

y)
wil

equality [
be

satisfies A> for

yIA
identity precisely
g:

is

(iv)-(vii).
be.

it

the

A,
"x
=

with

the
as

"id(x)
of

y"

thus

being

that

of

y",

it

composite
given
g

arrows

/: U
yeB

>

and

>

is

the

function

f:AxC-+?l

by

f((x,
to

2
the its

(/X,
"for

some

gy,

2
yeB,
of

(compare
These order notations
to

this definitions describe

statement

/(x)
O, -Set
from

y
as now

and
a

g(y)
category.
on

2").
In

complete
topos

the
structure

description
we

wil
in

use
an

the
arrow

f((x,

y))

and

f (x)~

yl interchangeably

reference

to

Terminal

Object:

This

is

the

(l-set

comprising

the

ordinary

set

{0}

with

CH.

11,
=

11.9
T.

HEYTING-VALUED

SETS

279

lO

Ol

The

unique

arrow

/:

>

is

given

by

i.e.

"fix)

equals
AxB

0 is

to

the

extent

that
Ax

exists".

Products:

the

product

set

with

the

-valued

equality

The

projection

arrow

prA

:AxB^A

has

i.e. and

"the
x

A-projection

of z".

(x,

y)

equals

to

the

extent

that

and

exist

equals
To

Pullbacks:

realise

the

diagram

as

pullback

we

define,

for

and

*,=
ceC

U
ceC

(I/(x)~cIn[g(y)~cI)
f(x)
set
=

(cf.
Then

"there
D

exists is the

with

and

g(y)

c",

i.e.

"/(x)

g(y)").

product

AxB,

with

Dx',
Then in

y'n[xx']Un[y

yl

fact,

i.e. The

"(x,

y) exists "projection"

in

to

the

extent

that

/(x)

g(y)".

/'

is

given

by

and

similarly

for

g'.

280

ELEMENTARY

TRUTH

CH.

11,

11.9

Subobjects:
condition

In

Set,
=

the

pullback
We have the of
of A
may

is

subset
seen

of
in

Ax

specified
D
as

by
is
a

the of
but
sort

"/(x)
of AxB of

g(y)".
that existence
is

just
same

that the

-Set,
condition.

kind This

subobject
with
of

has

partial by
of each of
xeA

elements

the in

lat er

degrees phenomenon Intuitively,

Such
we

determined

pullback

typical
function
as

the
be

description
represented
to

subset
a

subobjects by a function
an or as

-Set.
of

the

form
of of

s:A>O. which
extent

assigns
the truth-value
to

element
a

s(x)
measure

,
the

think which

of
x

"xes",
s.

to
e

belongs
a

the
an

"set"

Thus
a

we

also
s :

denote
A
*

s(x)

that

by
has

[x
(vii )
and

si.

Formally,

subset
~

of

-set

is

function

lx

sin[x

Ic[

si

(extensional)

(ix)
Example.

[xesIdExI
Let

(strict)
E:
=

>

be

given

by

E(x)
E

[x*x]
set

|[Ex].
elements
of

represents

the

of

existing

A.

Since

we

have

that
of

"x

exists

to

the

extent

that

it

belongs

to

the

set

of

existing
?

elements
Now

A".

an

arrow

/:A>B

can

be

shown

to

be

monk

just

in

case

it

satisfies

for

all

x,

and

z&B.

Such hence
to

an a

arrow

corresponds

to

subset is

of

(the

"/-image"

of

A),

and

function

sf:B^>(l.

This

given

by

Sf(y)=
i.e. Thus

U
to

(f(x)y]
the
extent

"y

belongs

sf(y)

is

the
a

sf to truth-value
subset has the

that of

it

is

the

/-image

of

some

A".

"y
>

e/(A)".
(I
of

Conversely, /s :AS >->B. equality given

s:B
same

determines of elements

a as

monk

arrow

As
by

collection

B,

but

with

CH.

11,
"x

11.9

HEYTING-VALUED

SETS

281

i.e.

and
to

are

equal
"inclusion"

in

As

to
arrow

the

extent

that has

they

are

equal

in

and

belong

s".

The

/s

Exercise

6.

(I)

Prove
>-^>

that
above. be

sfs
constructed Then

s.

(ii)
monk
as

Let

/Sf: ASf
A
>->

from

the the
same

set

/:
B.
Define

as

ASf

has

sf collection

corresponding
of

to

elements

g:A^

As

by

Show

that

is

iso

in

-Set

and

that

commutes.

The

import
by

of
of of

this subsets B.
To

exercise

>

is

that of
let

subobjects
.
The lat er be

A>->B

of

form

are

uniquely
the
power subsets all

determined

in the collection

fact

object
s:B->(l

9>(B)

define

this,

S(B) S(B)

of

B.
=

Then

9>(B)

xeB

comprises

with

the

equality

Is (cf.
Exercise
Exercise

t]U(B)=
xeS

(s(x)^t(x))
if Tifis

"for

all

xeB,
7.

xet").
=

[s~4(B)

(i.e.

and

are

the

same

function).

8. 9.
Now

[EsIs?(B)=T
[x
function
e

Exercise

sin
e:

Is fldx
A subset
x

fl
>

the

S(A)
of

having
-set

and

(ix),
definition
that

and

so

is

the that

e((x, Axg^(A).
relation

s))
eA^^

s(x)
The

satisfies

(vii )
on

subobject
The
extent

fe
x

is

precisely
of
e

the thus
to

membership gives

corresponding Ax2P(A)
eA
to

A.
same

"(x,

s)

belongs

to

the

belongs

s".

282

ELEMENTARY

TRUTH

CH.

11,

11.9

Subobject

Classifier:

The

arrow

true:

>

ft

has

("p

is

trae

to

the

extent

that

equals

f")

and

so

Now
The

let character

/:

^Dbea

monic,
D

with
of

corresponding

subset

sf:

>

ft

of

D.

xf:

ft

has

i.e.

"Xf(d)

equals

to

the

extent

that

exists

and

is

the

truth-value

of

Exercise

10.
11.
12.

Show

that

this

construction

satisfies

the

/2-axiom.

Exercise

[/aise(O)=
The

pi
truth
arrows

[p

_LIn
,
w

(p
have

<

_L)

~ip

Exercise

Exercise

13.

Exercise

14.
a

Show

that
x

the the
sense

r.p.c.

is
the

subset

of

ft
is

ft

in

of

operation (vii )
that
>

^
and the has

:
and character that

-^

the

on

the

HA
i.e.

(I

(ix)

correspondthe

correspondinsubobj g ect implication

>-^ftxft.
arrow

Show

of

lat er,

=>':

ft

ft

ft

Object
In
context
one

of

partial
"singleton" of partial Formally
if

elements is
elements
a a

Set,
member.
is
a

set
we

with
are

exactly
more

one

member. in strict
sets

In

the

present
at

interested

with
s

most

subset

(extensional,

function)

:A>

of

singleton

it

satisfies

(x)
i.e.
Example "elements
1. If

of

belong
A,
its
then

to

only
map

to

the

extent

that
that

they assigns
in

are

equal".
toxeA the

the

{a}:
a

degree

[x==al

of

equality

with

is

singleton

this

sense,

with

CH.

11,

11.9

HEYTING-VALUED

SETS

283

Example
some

2.

Suppose
over

is
as

the

(I

-set

(with
earlier. domain
=

(I

SKI))
Included is the

of

all

local
A subset
to
an

sections is the
of

of

bundle

I,

considered
section

in

empty
I.
xeAis

section
any

0A,
other

the section

unique
x,
we

whose

empty
_L

For

have the
map

[x0AI
{0a}:
_L.

0.
>

and
a

arbitrary

Q,-set

A,

Generalising assigning

arbitrary
each

to

singleton,
15.

with

\x e{0A}I=
If
s

Exercise

is

singleton

Exercise

16.

{a}
Let
p
a :

{b}
seS(A)
>

if

[a

\
and

[Ea]

\Eb\
The
to
x.

Exercise

17.
s s

function
that

f
is

assigning
if
s

peO. s(x)r~\p

restriction

of that
s

to

is

the and

Show

fpe

S(A)

singleton
A

is.

Now
are

the

object
in

is
of

to

be

regarded
sense.

as

the
A

is

-set to

of be

all

subsets of
to
a

of
as

that itself

singletons
a

the
The

present

Thus and

thought
is

being sing:

subobject
>

0*(A)
definition,

hence for
s

S(A)

(I.

formal

corresponds e S(A),

function

IsSingI=
x,yeA

e arrow

(|[][]=>[]|)
x

(cf.
The

"for

all

x,

A,

if

and

>->

belong
A
of A

to

then
A

y".)

inclusion

]:

into

has

hA(a)
("tIaC**)
Exercise

si
extent

[EaLnls
that
if
a

~{}W>
exists and
s

is

to

the

is

{a}")-

18.

[ssingI
[{a}
know
=

is

singleton.
?

Exercise

19.

sjc[s
that elements each

singl
bundle
are

Now il
=

we

over

gives
sections
i
e

rise
of

to

an

-set, bundle.
an

where
Con-

9A), given
relation

whose
an

the

partial
A,
each

the

Conversely,
equivalence

arbitrary
on

SP(I)-set
the
i
set

determines

equival-

~t

At={xeA:

284

ELEMENTARY

TRUTH

CH.

11,

11.9

that

is

defined
x~iV

by
if
a

ielxy].
over

We

then
over

obtain the the

to

bundle
i.

by

taking
are

the
may

quotient
be

set

AJi
establish
can

as

the

stalk the

categories
to

point Bn(Z)
case

These and sheaves

constructions

used

to

that also
be

0>(I)-Set
of
sets

equivalent.
of
germs,

They

adapted equivalent
space

of where
are

showing
subsets of D.
to

that

@-Set,
facts

is

the
case

of

of
a

open

of

I.
that

These

special

what
that

result

Higgs
the in

Top(Z) topological [73]

category

is
the of

to

effect
'

il-Set,
over

for il ".
see

any

il,
means

is

equivalent
wil
be
to

'sheaves
we

Precisely
also A^B that

explained
a

Chapter
of

14,
itself

where
in A->B.

shall
arrows

il
may

-Set
be

is

equivalent
identified

subcategory
actual
set-functions

which

with

Elementary
We have been

Logic
and that define

in

ft-Set
the

interpreting
existential
il -Set.
same

operations
in order
to to
come

and

LI
a

informally
the
construc-

as

universal constructions in formal

arrow

quantifiers
When
we

understand first-order
to

interpret
serve

language
meanings
a

this
of
A

topos,

these
V and the

operations
3.

may

give

to

the
an

symbols
type
>

Moreover,
we

instead
may of

of

assigning
with
of the
are

formula
of

A>ft,
take

work
the
that

directly
presence

functions
extents
to

the of
over

form

il,
to

and

advantage
the

lEaJ
range

individuals

formalize
this

principle
suppose R.

quantifiers
our

existing
To

individuals.
il ustrate

two-place
the

relation existence
3=

approach, symbol
E

that basic the

language
is

i?

has
to

single
include
The
at

Our and is

alphabet
identity

presumed symbol
to

predicate
for of

(equality)
according
~

~.

symbol beginning by (ii a).

For

equivalence
this
section. model

introduced

clause in

(Hi)
terms

the
of
~

Alternatively,
a

may

be

denned

this A
to
so

language,
and
a a

in
of

il

-Set
of

is
Ax hence

pair
A.
to

31

(A,
Exercise

il

-set

subset

r:AxA>il

(By
a

r) comprising 6,
arrow

an
r

corres-

corresponds and ft, 11.4).

element

unique
this

subobject approach
extend A

AxA,
within

unique
constant

AxA^ "model"

accords
i?

the
an

definition

of
be

in for for

We

then
e

by

adjoining

individual
then

each
each

A.

truth-value

[<pb

il

can

calculated

CH.

11,

11.9

HEYTING-VALUED

SETS

285

sentence

<p

by

induction

as

fol ows:

Atomic

Sentences:

Prepositional
a,

Connectives:
v,

=>,

are

interpreted

by

n,

u,

in

Quantifiers:

HV<p]U
("<p(c)
holds
for all

existing U
ceA

c")

[3u<p]la=
("<p(c) Satisfaction:
where
cl3. .,
<p
-

([()(
existing
c").

holds

for

some

For
cn
<p
e

formula

<p(i>i,. .,
mean

vn)

we
. .,

define

tyLt(plc^
=

. .,

cn],
truth-

A,
can

to

that
be

{(pivjc^
defined
all
as

un/cn)l!t
usual

T.

Then

2t 1=

of

in

?t
!,. .

then

by

,]
that
the

for

^.. ^eA
are

Exercise

20.

Show

fol owing

true

in

21:

>

(u,-

vk)

<(/0 <(/{)({)

VuE(u) (E(u;)

vE(u,)

286

ELEMENTARY

TRUTH

CH.

11,

11.9

Exercise

21.

Show From From

that

the
=>

fol owing

rules
<p

preserve

truth

in

2(:

<()

infer infer

^()=><
cases

provided
This

in

both

that

is

not

free
used
in

in

<p.

?
14 there
to

semantical
in

theory
O, -Set.
We

wil

be

Chapter

to

define

number-

systems

wil
in

find

it

convenient
the

have
the

available truth-value
of

the
of

fol owing quantified

to

result,
formulae further
say

which
some

simplifies
cases

calculation

of the range A

by
generates

allowing
the

quantification
each

be We

restricted. that
a

subset

of

-set

if

for

aeA,

ceC

Exercise

22.

If

generates

A
=>

then

[Vu<p]^=
and

ceC

(QE(c)

<p(u/c)]b)

Bvq>ln=

U
ceC

([E(c)A(f.(t)/c)b)

11.10.
In

Higher-order
closing
that

logic
chapter
been made
on

this
has

quantificational
of
formulae the

logic

we

mention

briefly
order

the

study
and

relationship
of
a

between

higher
and
of

logic
where
a

topoi. Higher
order

logic
for of
. .,

has
set,
etc.
a

the
set

form
of

(VX)<p
a

CX)<p,
the

X
sets

may

stand
of
be
sets

relation,
for
of
a

sets,

set
=

relations,
range these of

set

of of
X

So

classical etc.,

model
etc.

2(
and
becomes

(A,. .) higher
a

may

any

of in in

0>(A),
the
i?.

0>(An),
form
In

any

topos,

9i(9i(Ari)), Oa", ,
the

Analogues
so

exist

in

order
model for

logic
a

is
many for

interpretable
sorted each

fact
one

whole
sort

topos

language,

having
Given
a

g'-object.
topos
i?
a

theory
be

(infinite (i.e.
be

list)
a

of is whose

individual
set
a

variables
of

consistent
that

sentences)
of
for

in

this

language, given categorial y

i?r
a

can

constructed
can

model

Conversely
topos
the

topos

theory
to

Fg
%.

defined results
were

associated obtained

%
logic
of

is

equivalent

These

CH.

11,

11.10

HIGHER-ORDER

LOGIC

287

partial
approach
that "model the

elements
to

by
free

Fourman

[74]
Boileau

and

subsequently
They
amount to

for
a

the

other with that

apof

logic
of

by

[75].
topos"

demonstration
and
"the

concept
for
a

provide
of order

ful

many-sorted explication
in The

"elementary higher-order
of

is

co-extensive free in

intuitionistic
statement

logic",

hence notion

Lawvere's Fourman which in

[72]
the
essence

that of

topos

summarizes

objective
of

logic'."
unusual
as

work

categorical incorporates
we

form
a

of

number

'higherinteresting
of
as
a.
>

and

Firstly, ranging
Thus
a

logical already
and
is
to constants

features,
noted

wil

outline
are

briefly.
to

11.8,

variables

be of

thought

over,

denoting,
by
of
an

potential
arrow
n

elements of
of

formula

corresponding satisfy
Next,
the

the

interpreted subobject
includes
A
a

the

form

g-object [<p]: (a)"

an

that
of

all

-tuples
of

potential

elements

(p.

the

system

formal

language.
is for

definite

theory description
v

definite
is
an

Ivcp,
name

which this

read

"the
v

unique
whenever is

such

that exists.

<p".
The

The

descriptions expression expression

axiom

as

terms

of
serves

the

form
as a

unique

it

basic

governing

this

descriptions-operator

which

has if

the

reading
is
range the
one over a

"an

lu<p(u) quantifiers
To

and

existing only

element

is

interpret
that
1.

definite
g-arrow

existing description

existing elements).
a name
>

element

equivalent satisfying
in
g

to

the

element

<p"
suppose,

(recall by
way

that of
has

semantically

element
has

example,
index

the

[<p]:
be the
to

been the
arrow

defined,

where

<p(u)

Let

/:
Set,

1 >Oa

of

[<p]

i)a:a^fl

(cf.

4.1).

(In

/ corresponds

the

\<p\={xea:<p(x)}
of
the

powerset
in
g

of

a,

i.e.

the

subset

of

defined

by

<p).

Form

the

pullback

^^

of
we

/ along
may

the

"singleton
g
as

arrow" the

{},
b
some
x

that
'^
e

was

defined b b
so
=
=

in if

11.8.
is
a

(In
non-empty Notice
to
an

Set that
arrow

regard
i.e. i.e.
g

inclusion
for

a,

with
and and

|<p|

|<p|

singleton,
g:

if

\*a,

\<p\ ={x) is a partial

a, a,

element

of

0 otherwise). corresponds

288

ELEMENTARY

TRUTH

CH.

11,

11.10

g:la. corresponds otherwise.)

Of be
becomes
ways
course

We
to

take
the

this element

to
x

be of
a

[1<].
if

(In

Set,

taking
and is
the

as

\<p\
and

{*},
its

"null

aU{*}, entity"
can

g
*

the

description
in the
context

operator
of in
the first-order

semantic

interpretation
In

developed
of

logic.
is

higher
and

order

logic
operation
a

it

particularly expressing
abstraction,
a

useful,
both function
the whose
whose

that lat er

provides
being
the

Comprehension
graph
suppose range
etc.
over

simple Principle,
process

straightforward
and
of the

of

functional
denotes
To

denning
that
of
a

term

that

is

consider
free
or

Comprehension,
variable

specified by way
collection

by
of

formula.

example
of

<p(u)
certain
sets

has of

single

is
structure

entities

level, subsets,
also
sentence

type,
sets

in
of
sets
w

higher-order
of that

comprising
a

subsets,

subsets
range

In the

higher-order
subsets
of

language
the
range of
v.

there
Then

wil
the

be

variables

asserts

the

actual
that

existence

of
<p.

the free

unique
variables,
the
term

set

whose
it

elements

are

precisely
when

those

entities
If

satisfy
w)
denote

instead

<p(u,
We

has

two

defines

relation

interpreted.

by

<p'(v)

\w(p(v,
If the

w).
of then
<p

output
values.

interpretation property)
Functional

is

functional
wil
may
now

relation

(one
a

with for

the

unique
function
the

this

term

provide
be

notation

abstraction

performed

by

forming

expression
ImVuVw(m(u, w)
to
=

<p'(u)

w)
where

(which
the

is

abbreviated
from
may be the read

range

<p'(v)),
of
v

is
range

variable
of
for
w.

that The
v

ranges

over

relations

to

the

expression gives
output

<p'(u)
details
as

"the

function

which

input
its
be
use

<P'()".
The of

this
of of

topoi
article
broad

models
"The

dif erent
concern

Logic understanding perspective is to develop

qua

higher-order higher-order Topoi"

of
to

language
theories
in

and

in is

characterising
in Fourman's for
It
a a

may

found

Barwise structural

[77].
properties
are

This

work
of

important
offers Our

the
the
one

topoi.
here. of

we

dealing
as

with
a

present

the

view
for
We

of
take

topos
this
up

universe
as a

set-like
of
a

objects
first-order

and

hence,
of

foundation

mathematics,
in

model in the

theory

set-membership.

earnest

next

chapter.

CHAPTER

12

CATEGORIAL

SET

THEORY

"..

the

mathematics

of of
the

the

fuwil
are

future,

like

that

the

include

developments
to

past, which

relevant mathematics.. .
occur

philosophy

of
may

They
in
we

the
see,

theory
once

of
attempt mathematics

categories

where

again,
to
re-

largely
reduce
all

single

successful of pure discipline".

Abraham

to

Robinson

While
of

topos
there

is

in
are,

general
as we

to

be have of

understood
seen,

as

"generalised
whose of
structure
set

universe is

sets",
within
of
not

many the

topoi
(is
that

markedly
Even

dif erent
a

from

that that has

Set,

domain

classical
there

theory.
be
an

topos

classical
elements the

infinity
arrows

truth-values,

non-initial

logic objects
of same"

Boolean)
lack domain
etc.
we

may

elements,
So

distinct
in

identify
conditions

those

distinguished that topoi like well-pointedness

in

by
"look

their
as

order

to

Set

wil

certainly
like Set talked
that
we

impose
have
to

and
to

(hence)
which

bivalence.

However,
know
about

order
what of doubt

say

precisely
looks like. without
or

topoi
Thus
even

look
we

precisely
the
be all.
We
some

Set

far
such

have

blithely
there
may

category
resolve
for

all
as

sets

might
at

to

whether,
this in

why, by
we

(sidestep?)
set-theory,
Instead
to

matter

acknowledging a unique introducing

down
to

thing
a

exist
first-

formal versions

order

language
ourselves of
the
a

which
of

write

precise
universe
of

of
we

set-theoretic
confine

principles.
discussion
also and

of
to

referring interpretations
a

"the

Set",

this

language.
as

The

notion
in

topos

is

amenable
so

first-order
between
terms

description,
topos
the

indicated
and
between
set

last
can

chapter,
be
two

the

relationship
in of

theory

theory
models
Before
more

of

rigorously elementary
at

analysed
theories.
the

of

relationship
need
to

looking
fundamental

details of
the

this

program of
sets.

we

develop

two

aspects

category
289

290

CATEGORIAL

SET

THEORY

CH.

12,

12.1

12.1
Let

Axioms

of
-

choice
an

/:

A
over

be
we

epic
may
construct

(onto)
here and 1
=

set
a

function.
section

Then,
of

construing
a

/
s:I

as
>

bundle

having
non-empty
and

/s
take
map
sum

I, idr. (since
as

/,
i
e

i.e.

function
stalk
element
we

A
i is

The

point /
is

is
so

that
we

for
may

each choose
case

I the
some
=

A;
take

over

onto)

of
s

A;
the

it then

s(i)

empty
In

!:
we

>

(unless section 0). The have produced

this
now
f

0,
an

in
s

which

so

as

is

sometimes
to statement
s

said
the

to

"split"
that

the

epic
Set,
all

/.

argument

effect

in

epics
ES:

split.

We

lift

to

the

categorial
a

Each

epic
Show ES that

ab

has

section

>

with

fs

"\b.

Exercise The The

name

1.

section
of
an an

is what

always
is

monic. known
as

?
the

principle
relates
The

is
to s,
our

variant

axiom
the element

At.

function

in

making selecting
the

arbitrary
element from
asserts

choice
each that It

of

of choice. s(i)
a

of

At
it
was

is is
first

called

choice
to
as a

function.
make
an

Informally,
unlimited
of has

axiom
of

of

choice

permissible
isolated
and
subse-

number

arbitrary by
be

choices.
Zermelo

principle subsequently
substantial minded

mathematical
been

reasoning
shown of
the
to

in

1904

implied
axiom
so

by,
mathematics.
of

indeed is
to
see

equivalent
To
a

to,
many

many

"theorems"

classical

classically
acceptable
be
true

mathematicians
It the

choice
minded
to

perfectly
what ES

principle.
with
Paul

is

dif icult argument

the
status

for

someone

could is in doubt

wrong of

above

that

purports
the

show

that

Set.
until

Nonetheless
Cohen

of that
set

axiom it
The
was

of
not

choice derivable
had
seem

remained
from

[66]
axioms
for

proved
theory
this
be

the
shown

Zermelothat
it
was

Fraenkel
not

(Godel

[40] point
defined would

earlier
to

refutable
s

by
cannot

system).

be
any

that

the

choice

function

explicitly /:
A

in
we

terms
are

of

set-theoretic
to

operations
rule for
some
s

involving
of the

I.

In be the

general
element

unable

formulate

form that

"let
to

s(i)
ES

of

such

that

<p",
one

where
element of

<p

is

property
So

demonstrably
include
take it
as

is
in
an our

possessed
account

by
of what
course

only
Set

A;.
wil

if

we

wish
have
to

looks
we

like

we

simply
Now

axiom

equally
section.

"improvable" if /: A This,
i.e.
has

axiom
I
as

that

implies
that

(unless it).
is
is
not

of

adopt
not
a
=

some

is

function
in

onto,
the

then

wil

have

explained
no

11.8,
1
>

why
However

empty,

elements

a.

Bn(I)-object / wil

have

(A, f) "partial

is

CH.

12,

12.1

AXIOMS

OF

CHOICE

291

section"

s:.

L A

For,

taking

the

epi-monic

factorisation

/(A)
of

/
It

we

find
the

that

section

of

the

epic

f*

is
known

partial
as

function
the

from

I to
the

A.

Now
a.

image
subset
of

f(A)
I

is

sometimes

support

of

bundle

is

the

Fig.
over

12.1.

which
a

the

stalks of
1

with

subobject

actually (I,
=

"sit".

As

subset
Indeed

of

I, f(A)

is

identifiable

idr)

in

Bn(I).

since

commutes

in

Set,

so

does

sup(a)

292

CATEGORIAL

SET

THEORY

CH.

12,

12.1

where

the

object
this
to
a

Lifting
to

be

the

subobject
a

sup(a) general sup(a)

>

is

the

function
"S
we

(bundle)
define

f(A)
the

'-^

I. of
an

topos
>>

support

g'-object

1 of

given

by

the

epi-monic

factorisation

sup(a)
of

the
We

unique
may
now

arrow

!: formulate

>

1.

axiom

SS

(supports of
a

split):
1

The

epic
section

part
s :

sup(a)
>

of

the

epi-monic

factor-

factorisation

has

sup(a)
support
SS

a.

Notice
s:

that
-

split ing
so

of

the

of

yields
to

partial
the

element

of

a,

the

principle
To

is

closely
this
we

related need

question

of

(non)
NE:

emptiness
For
every

of

objects.
a

pursue

axiom

non-initial

there

exists

an

arrow

a.

Lemma.

In x:l>

any
a

4g,

if
a

g:a

>->.

is

subobject
=

of

1,

then

there

exists

an

element

of

if

g~'\1if g:a
of
Case
2

l.

Proof.

This

is

the

essence

in

the

proof
i.e. 0^1.

of

Theorem

5.4.2.

Convention,

g1

is

always
gt=NE,

non-degenerate,
gt=SS
etc.

Notation.

We
g.

write

to

mean

that

NE

(SS

etc.)

holds

for

Theorem

1.

For

any

topos
is

?,
bivalent and

if ig
Proof.

Suppose
T to

gHNE,
get
g:
x

and
>-

let

t:l>
=

be Then

truth-value.

Pull

t
so

back

along
NE
t
=

a
:

1 with
>

there
T.

exists Hence
4S

a.

But

xg then

if
the

t^

_L,
g

is

non-initial,
11?
so

by
i-e-

by

Lemma,

xg

is

bivalent.

CH.

12,

12.1

AXIOMS

OF

CHOICE

293

To

see

why

supports

split,

consider

sup(a) sup(a) sup(a)a

If
=

0,
wil

then

a=0

split
element
=

the 1

there

is

an

(Theorem unique sup(a),

hence

3.16.1, sup(a).
from which is

B))
If
not

and

so

the
=

unique
0, then

arrow

sup(a)
the if
a
=

by

NE

by
Then
NE

Lemma,

sup(a)
0,
0

is be
and

terminal,
monic
thus
x
:

sup(a)
g

l,

and

la
hence
may

epic.

la
=

would
a
=

(Theorem degenerate.
a.

3.16.1,
So

D)),
we
=

altogether
invoke
an

>

Since
of the

section

sup(a) unique
if
g1 is

1 this !:
a
-

yields

arrow

iso, again sup(a)

making
to
>

l,
element
must

get
a

an

which

be

sup(a).
then in

Conversely
.
then
arrow

bivalent

But

if have

then
>

sup(a)^0
1=
an

sup(a)

^
arrow

so

(as sup(a)
1

Sub(l), above),
=

sup(a)
so

>^

can

it establishes

cannot

be

only 01.
there

be We

0x
must

or

l.

Then

if

t=SS,
NE.

is

an

sup(a)

a,

hence

a.

This

Corollary,

is

well-pointed

if

is

Boolean

(classical),

bivalent,

and

has

split ing
Theorem and

supports.

Proof.

5.4.5
NE.

(proven

in

7.6)

gives

well-pointed

if

is

classical

Even

when

there

are

more

than

two

in

Boolean element
that cod

topos
extensional
x:l~>a
x
=

has

implications
if for there
every

is

weakly

partial
means

such
a

that

truth-values, extensionality. pair f,g:a^b fx^gx.

for

the We

split ing
wil
say

of that there
x:l*~^>a
x

epics

with
Recall
x
>

/?*g
that

is

and

is

monic
"g1 is

dom

(hence

could

not

be is

!:0^>a

if

/x^gx).
wil for

Category
a

theorists
of

recognise
g"\

weakly

extensional"

as

"Sub(l)

set

generators

Theorem

2.

If
h:c>->a

is

Boolean

and

gl=SS,

then

is

weakly
h:-c>-^

extensional.

Proof.

Let

equalise

/,g:a=jb,

and

let

be

the

294

CATEGORIAL

SET

THEORY

CH.

12,

12.1

complement

of
>

in is
a

Sub(a).
section
of

Then

as

in

7.6,

if

/^

g,

c^O.

Now

if

:sup()

sup(),

sup()
then

putting

hy

gives

"<

a.

If/x

gx,

then

reasoning

as

in

7.6,

sup(-c)

x c

would
=

factor 0. Therefore
In

through
x

h,

ultimately

making /
and
g.

sup(c

and

hence

distinguishes
Bn(I),
fails.
However
=

? is
is

Example.

general
NE

though

Boolean,

not

extensional
extensional.

(wellGiven
then the denned

pointed),
bundles
a

since
=

Bn(I)
and

weakly
arrows a

(A,h),
x :

(B,k)
as

distinct

f,g:a^b,
local section
i
e

distinguishing
on
x

l*~^>a,
the

in

Theorem

2,
of
a.

is
For that

of

a,

subset
an

element

of

support
xi

h(A)
of the

each

(hence

A;
and
g,

0),
i.e.

selects

stalk

A;

distinguishes

Returning
ES,
let

to

Set

once

more,

let

/:
of
can

I be

any

function

and,
Then if

s:f(A)^A
a

be

section
we

/*:A-
obtain
a

/(A).
function

invoking A^0,
by
the

by

choosing
rule

particular

x0eA

f:I*A

g(y)
Of
course

if

ye/(A)

lx0
there exists

otherwise.

if

ysEf(A),
starting
with
so

g
x

wil
e

not

be
we

section
that

of

/,
=

since

/(g(y))G
lies
in
the

/(A).
stalk This

However,
over

find
to

g(/(x))
i.e.
due
to

s(/(x))
=

f(x)
another

/ simply
of
the

takes

g(/(x))
axiom
of

f(x),

/g/(x)
Maclane,

/(x).

yields

version

choice,

CH.

12,

12.1

AXIOMS

OF

CHOICE

295

that
AC:

has

the

categorial

formulation
then
=

I/ fgf

a^O

for

any

arrow

a>b

there

exists

>a

with

f.
then

Theorem

3.

If

g'NAC, apply
observe hence
g:
=

g'NNE,
to

g'NES,
a a
* -

and
1 and

is

bivalent.
Hence
then NE

Proof.

If

To

derive
AC
we

, ES,

AC that

!:

1 to b is

get

g:

a.

holds. is

if

/:

epic,
so

a=0,

/ right

(Theorem
apply cancellable,
For
an arrow

3.16.1),
to

altogether
*

iso,

is
of

split
Since

by

its

inverse.

monic, If ,

get

a,

with
g

/go/
a

/=1b//.
has
g
=

/
then

is

cancellathere

get

/g
1

1b,
observe

making
that
as

section
g:
a
>>

bivalence,
a.

if in
Theorem

0,

by

AC has

is
the

Hence,

1,

11-

Thus

Sub(l)

only

two

elements

Ox and
argument
that is
elements.

1X.

?
AC from

The that least

so

yields
"Set-like".
Then

ES To
see

in

Set

wil consider
truth-values

lift

to
a

topos
set

only
I

if
at

topos
two

sufficiently
result AC

this,
four observe

with
of But
means

Bn(I)
fails wil with
B

has

at

least

by
h

the

last in
an

(alternatively
in

that

NE

epics
that

split
is

Set,
onto

they
function

Bn(I)

also.

For

h:

(A,

/)

(subsets fails). (B, g)

I)
if

-^

gh=f.

But

then

if

s: A

>^

is

section

of

h,

B>-*

wil
Rather
result

commute,
than

making
rely
that
on

the there

split ing assumption

exist
models
may
to

of
that

h of
construct
a

in
ES

Bn(I)holds
set
a

in

of of from

Godel

formal in

Set, theory
ES

we

can

use

the the

in of holds

which
bundles but

axiom "sets" fails.

Theorem

choice
such

is
a

true.

We model

then

category

of
AC

obtain

topos

which

4.

If

g'NES,

and

is

well-pointed,

then

g'NAC.

296

CATEGORIAL

SET

THEORY

CH.

12,

12.1

Proof.

Take
a

f:a^b

and

perform

the

factorisation

L_
f*

/imf

f(a)
Since
?

is

well-pointed,
>-

it

is

Boolean,
in and
so

so

im/
Sub(b).

has

complement
and
+

im/:
are

/(a) disjoint
monic

b,

with

im/Uim/=1b
7.2.3),
But then
U

But

im/

im/

monies

is

(Lemma,

(Theorem 5.4).

[im/,

im/]:/(a)

/(a)-*

[im
and
so

/, im co-product
for a^O.

/]

im
arrow

/
and

im is

f,
iso.

this

This with

allows

us

to

use

b
as

as

co-product
associated
Now
some
x

object injections.
suppose
:

/(a)
Then

f(a),
as

im/ topoi

and

im/ satisfy

serving
NE,
x

the

well-pointed
*

we

take
*

and
we

let

h:
have
a

f(a)
also

he

the
s

composite :/(a)
>

!: Then

f(a)

l>a.

Since

g'NES,

section

of

/*.

im//*os/*
/
the

(im

as

injection)

Thus
The We

[s, h]

gives
of

required
4,
=

arrow

for
assumes

AC.
more

?
than But
We that the have

hypothesis
know
that the last of

Theorem

as

"well-pointed"
these

"NE
can

stated, plus
be be

it
the

need presence remarkaof

do.

Boolean". derived!

in axiom

of

ES,

conditions

the

remarkable fact,

discovered
that the

by

Radu
of
a

Diaconescu

[75],
classical.

choice

implies

logic

topos

must

CH.

12,

12.1

AXIOMS

OF

CHOICE

297

Theorem
The

5.

If
of

"S

satisfies

ES,
result

then

"S

is
that

Boolean. if

basis
then

Diaconescu's each
as

is
in

epics
has
a

with

domain
best

d + d in

have

sections,
The where

subobject
described
how

f:a>^-doid
Boileau
a

complement
il ustrated
characterisation

Sub(d).
in of

construction,
we can

[75],
categorial
+

is

Set,
the

see

it
of
a

produces
subset

complement A)
In

A Form the
we

in

A^D.

Set

take and

copies

Aj.

co-product D1 and A2 respectively

i1,i2:d=d
D2
as

d,
+

with
D

two

disjoint
D

injections, "copies"
is

it,
of

i2.

D,

containing

of

A.

D1\JD2.

-A

-A

2
-A

/A'\
Fig.
12.2.

D+

B)
d
+

Let

d
Set

and

g:d i2f:a>
/ is
A-l
as

d^

be

the

co-equaliser
^*

(hence
The

an

epic)
to

of

i^f'.a-*
the leave

d + d.

In
two

the

inclusion
and

A of A

D.
a

effect
copy

of

g
=

is

amalgamate
and
to

copies
A2

A2
are

into

single

A'

A,

and

they

D+D

/A2\
f
-A,

Fig.

12.3.

C)

Let

>-^>

d +

be

section

of

g.

298

CATEGORIAL

SET

THEORY

CH.

12,

12.1

In

Set,
into

acts

to

literally

split

A'

into

two

pieces,

part

going

into

D^

and

part

D2

-A

-A
**

V
Fig.
12.4.

|a>,

A{

is

the Form

s-image
the

of

A'

in
of

Db

D)

pullbacks

A2 ix and

the

s-image
s

in

D2.

i2 along

-A

-A

-A/

-A2

-A/

-A2

Fig.

12.5.

In domain

Set

the

pullback
is

of

obtained
the

by

it produces removing
of

the from
s

subobject
D the

part

(inclusion) isomorphic

of
to

whose

A'2.

Similarly

pullback

i2 along

yields

Fig.

12.6.

CH.

12,

12.1

AXIOMS

OF

CHOICE

299

E)
In Set

Form

the

intersection

(pullback)
intersection

of

and

/2.

this

gives
-A

the

L/\l

c_

/K

f
l4^
Fig. of
show the the
12.7.

domains
five that
the

of

jx
of

and

j2,
construction
of

i.e.

the

subset
can

A.

The

steps

this
the

be of

carried

out

in

any
a

topos
section

to

intersection
of

the

puUbacks

and

i2 along

of

co-equaliser

diagram
d +

d
Thus all is
due
a

is
therefore

complement
if
be
a

of

/
and

in

Sub(d).
since
A

elements

of of

Sub(d)
lat ice,
it

have
must
a

complements
modification Brook Note for
that
true:

?I=ES,
Boolean

Sub(d)
detailed
and

distributive
Theorem

of

this
is

algebra. construction,
also for
a

proof
to

5,
is

G.

M.

Kelly,

using given
5.

by

[74].
that,
1
the

There

proof
be Thus Boolean
a

given
sufficient

in it

Johnstone

[77],
to

by

7.3,
in

? to

suffices condition

have for

Chapter complement

Sub(/2).
of

Booleanness

is

co-equaliser
true

n+n

splits.
Theorem

6.
We

8*1=

AC

if
noted that

and

g"t=NE.

have
not
we
see

but

be

already extensional ful y

from Theorem

topoi, (well-pointed).
2

e.g. if
?

Bn(I),
However

can

have
in

split ing
view of
at

epics
Theorem

5,
other

that
and

?I=ES,
is
Boolean.

then Cohen's

<g

is work

least

weakly
on

extensional,
hand

since
does
not

then

gfNSS

Extensionality [66]
there

the
are

imply

ES

or

AC.

By

300

CATEGORIAL

SET

THEORY

CH.

12,

12.1

models

of fails. It fol ows

set

theory,
from
the

hence

well-pointed
results
that of

topoi,
AC

in

which

the

axiom
for

of

choice

foregoing

implies by
the version
Anna

Booleanness

any

topos.

An

independent
also

proof
considers
a

this

is

given
of

Michaelides
of
the

Penk

[75],
that

who

formalisation

choice

principle

reads
"for each
set

0
a

there

is

function
subset of

a:

whenever

is

non-empty
that

&{X) X, cr(B)eB".
by
AC,

->

such

that

This

leads
and We end

to

categorial
to

statement

ES,

equivalent
this
section

AC

(and
an

ES)
il ustration
2

in

is implied well-pointed
of
a

independent

of

topoi.
n+n

with

{0}

{0}

1
arrow
=

"non-split ing" 2}, ({0,1,

Exercise

A)
2.

has

epic A(l,x)
that

x,

in all

the

topos

M2. 1,2}.

Here

and denned

A@,x)=l,
is
an

xe{0,
on

Show

as

action

{0,1,

displayed
section.
Exercise 3.

epic

is

an

M2-arrow

(equivariant).

Explain

2} why

and

that

the
no

it

has

Make

similar

display

of

the

co-equaliser

of

in
Exercise well.

M2

and

explain
4. Show

why
that

it

has

no

section.
in

SS

holds

M2,

and

(hence?)

that

NE

does

as

Exercise
group

5.

Show

that

SS

and

(hence?)

NE

fail

in

Z2-Set

where

Z2

is

the

0 0
1

1 1

0 1

CH.

12,

12.2

NATURAL

NUMBERS

OBJECTS

301

of

the

integers why
SS and

mod NE

under

addition.

Explain
in M-Set for
the when

why
M

the

situation

is

typical,
group.

i.e.
Exercise

always
out

fail Exercise

is Set"*.

(non-trivial)

6.

Carry

topos

12.2.
An

Natural
obvious
in the

numbers
dif erence
between all
are

objects
Set,
are

and

the

topoi
Various

Finset
definitions
and

and

Finord
of

is "finite

that

lat er,
a

object"
and of

in Mikkelsen

topos

objects explored
Our
concern

finite.

by
now

Brook is
the

[74],
with
the the

Kock,
existence
set
w
=

Lecouturier,
in
set

[75].
objects,
ordinals,
conceived be The the whose

theory

infinite finite

primary
members
natural of
as

example
are

being
set-theoretic

all
the

{0,1, representatives
with 2=1

2,. .}

of

of 0
+

intuitively
can

numbers.

"repeatedly
2+1,. .
s n : <
*

thought adding
process for

being
produce "adding

generated
the
1"
n

by
series

starting
1=0+1,
the
n

and 3
=

1",
each

to

1,

of

yields
output
=

successor

function
That

which
that

input
n

<w

gives
n

+1.

is,
an

s(n)

1.

(Notice
set-theoretic
Now the
a

{0,. .,
of

1}
is

and

+1

{0,. .,
=

n}
n

so
=

that
n

explicit

definition
the usual way

available:be

s(n)
identified
the

+1
an

U{n}.)
0:1
Then
we

initial

ordinal

0
the
arrow

may

with inclusion

arrow

in

(indeed

is

{0}

CL^

w).

have

diagram

>

ft)

>

ft)

which

was

observed
that

by
property
type

Lawvere the that

[64]
natural
the

to

enjoy
has

kind
up

of
to

co-universal

property isomorphism in type,

i.e.

characterises
The the

numbers

uniquely
is
that

isomorphof its

Set. of

diagram

all

diagrams

factor
use

uniquely /
and the

throught
element

it.

For,
of A

given
to

functions

and

as

shown

we

may

x@)

generate

sequence

x@),
in
A

/(x@)),

f(f(x@))),
applying /".

f(f(f(x(O)))),. .
Now

by

"repeatedly

this

sequence

can

itself

be

302

CATEGORIAL

SET

THEORY

CH.

12,

12.2

described

as

function

h:

>

from

to

A,

displayed

as

h@),
h

HI), inductively, h@)

=

hB),
or

hC),. .
recursively
first
term

is

denned We let

in

two

parts.
the

A) (*) B)
term

be

the

x@)

in

sequence,

i.e.

h@) Having h(n

+

x@),
the n-th
term

defined

h(n),

apply

to

it

to

get

the

next

l),

i.e.
=

f(h(n)). equation fh(n).

that the

Since

s(n),
=

this

becomes

(**) (*)
and

hs(n) (**)
mean

diagram

commutes,
the

giving
only
and way

the

for
so

this h be
can

"factoring" diagram
only
of be

mentioned
to

above. is
for

But

also

we

see

that

commute

h
data

to

obey
in
x

the the
way

equations
we

(*)
it.
recursion

(**),
is said
would
to

the

function from the called

generated
definitions

did

defined
to

recursively
this

and

/.
by

Inductive
and

definitions
seem

type
with
have
seen

are

simple
lead
us

recur-

originate
we

Dedekind
to

[88].
be
true

They
Set.

to

the

fol owing
NNO:
arrows

axiom,
There 1*
a

which
exists
N> N is

of

natural
such
one

numbers
that
arrow

object for
h:N^>
any
a

(nno),
object making

i.e.
a,

an

object
and

N
arrows

with

1 -^

-?

there

exactly

N>
commute.

ch.

12,

12.2

natural

numbers

objects

303

Exercise

1 1. h in

If

l^N^N

and

l^N'^N'

are

nno's,

then

the

unique

*-

N
h

is

iso. This

exercise
in
be called

establishes
any of

that

natural Arrows

numbers
h
:

objects
N

are

unique
=

up

to
on

isomorphism
occasion
A

category.
sequences.

with

dom

wil

multiplicity
1.

examples

of

nno's

is

provided
Set^hNNO.

by

Theorem

For

any

(small)
Proof.

category

c,

Construction

for

Let

N":

^>

Set

be

the

constant

functor

having

N(a) N(f)
j-.N^+N
<ja :
=

all
all

*#-objects
-arrows

id,,
constant

/.
natural

is

the

transformation function
s : w
*

with
w

component
for
each
a.

N(a)
*

N(a)
N

being
is
the

the
constant

successor

0:1

transformation
^
.

with
this construction

each

component
the the

Oa
NNO

l(a)
is

>

N(a)
for it
the

being
reader
a

{0}
natural

That

satisfies
of

axiom h is

left
that

to

establish

(the
is

definition

unique

obvious,
Exercise

is

transformation

not). objects
in

2.

Describe
terms

the

natural
to

numbers
the way

Set2,
were

Sef^,

and

M-Set,
defined.

in

appropriate

these

topoi

originally
?

In

Bn(I)
Ix

as
>

one

would

expect,
that the

is

a over

bundle
i is

of

copies

of

w.

Formally

is

prr:

I,

so

stalk

Nt

has

((i,

n))

(i,

+1),

i.e.

acts

as

the

successor

function

on

3 04

ATEGORIAL

SET

THEORY

CH.

12,

12.2

each

stalk.

0:1

has

O(i)

(i, 0),

so

that

commutes, Given

making
a

a
=

and

arrows

in
arrows

Bn(I).
x:

bundle

(A,

g)

and

1 a,

f:a>a,

then

unique
stalk

arrow

A
on

may

be

denned
over

to

make

the

last define

diagram
h
on

commute.

that

Fixing by

attention

the

stalk

i,

we

recursively

This

is
data

evidently
the
x

the

only
arrow

way from

to

make
N
to
a

the

diagram Bn(I)
defined

commute

and

so

provides
the

unique
and

in

recursively

from

/. Verify
Show

Exercise

3.

(inductively)
that

<j

that

h:N>a,
map

i.e.

that

gh
and

prr.

Exercise where

4.

is
=

the

product
all

idr

s,

(idr,

Or),

Or:
The

has

Or(i) Top(I)

0,
of

i&I.

spatial
I the also

topos
has
Thus
A
a

sheaves

of

sets

of

germs
same

over
one as

topological
Bn(I).
the We

space take

natural
on

numbers
the
sets

object-the
stalk
are
&>.

product
on
.

topology
the any

space

Ixa>,
those
of the

assuming
form U if U
be

discrete

topology
open in
I

basic subset of
I in

all
each
=

A,
any
an

with
open

and

For

point
then

(i,

n),

is

neighbourhood

of

(e.g.

I),

l/x{n}

wil

open

CH.

12,

12.3

FORMAL

SET

THEORY

305

neighbourhood

of

(i,

n)

in

Ix<u

that

projects

homeomorphically

Fig.

12.8.

onto

U.

Thus
=

prt

is
is

a a

local

homeorriorphism.
of continuous

Moreover
maps, hence

each

of

idr

and

i.e. Exercise
are

(idb Top(l)-arrow.
5.
If

Or)

product

is

continuous,

x:

1 prove

and

f:a^>
also

are

continuous,
x

(inductively)
is
the

that

the

Top(I)-arrows, unique
hence
a

so

that

and ?

defined

recursively

from
We

and shall

in

Bn(l)

continuous,
structure constant

Top(l)-arrow.
again
in functions

reconsider
to

of

nno's

in

Top(l)

Chapter
on

14,
I". In
natural

in

relation

"locally

natural-number-valued

any

topos
numbers

satisfying
can

NNO be

good
This

deal wil

of

the

arithmetic

of in
the
next

the

developed.
of 15.
a

be
numbers

considered

chapter.
The elucidated

co-universal
in

property

natural

object

wil

be

ful y

Chapter

12.3.
The

Formal
first-order

set

theory
X and if-model
is
a

language
e,

that

we

shall

use

for
or

set-theory
individual
lit le
E

has

single

binary
Thus The of

predicate i?={e}.
definition
A

no

function
that shall

symbols,
we

constants.

of
model

11.2.

structure

21

(A,

adopt E, ~),

is
where

wider and

than
are

that

binary

306

CATEGORIAL

SET

THEORY

CH.

12,

12.3

relations when
e

on

A,

such

that
as

the E

identity
and
~

axioms
as
.

I
Thus

and
we

12
are

are

valid
up
as

in
the the

21

is

interpreted
that the

giving
are

requirement "diagonal"
wil be
an

relation

identity ={(x,
relation, classes,

y):

predicate y}
=

be
on

always
If I

interpreted
and 12 model valid
elements

A.

then

by their interpreted
from

equivalence -equivalence
as

and

we

could,
a

by
normal

replacing
in

of
~

obtain and which

for

which
allow
we

is the

the

diagonal
it
of is convenient

is
the

semantically
purposes

indistinguishable
to

21.

However

wider
treated

interpretation equality
the that

of

identity
in
we are

(note
a

expository parallel
to

with

the

way

have

subobjects
!?,
express
may

category).
able write of
us

Using symbols)
sentences

language formally
our

out

sentences

(strings considering correctly

and
to
sen-

of

properties
incline and based
to

sets.

By
to

that
that
sets

intuitions

believe
the
we
are

ways

actually
deduction of
of
our

do in

behave,

machinery
consequences
a

of

elementary

intuitively

by using logic, assumptions

what of
we

precise
able about
sets.
to

codify rigorous
the

examine Thus truths

if
of
<p

X
set
as

is

collection

sentences

expressing
in
whatever all

take
we

be

theory,
truth Our of

and
set

<p

holds
then

if-models "the universe

X,

then of sets"

would
looks

regard
like.
=

theory,
model
all

intention

is
or

to

formal,
universe
There

abstract,
of is
a

regard representation
we

an

^-structure
of
the the
seems
no

(A, intuitively-conceived
idea of
the

21

E,
category

as

sets,

from barrier
While
as

which
to
we

developed
this
have that

Set.
to

conceptual
set

to

belong
in
group

uniquely thinking
of

the
a a

study
Boolean Boolean

of

theory.
is
not

dif iculty
a

of,
axioms,
as

say,

algebra algebra
it is

being
conceived
to

any

model

of
as an a

certain
set

since

of
think

abstract for
sets. set

satisfying
theory regard
individuals
structure.

laws,
very
vu v2,. .
-

dif icult
sorts
as

of

model
whereas

appropriate consisting
the

of

particular

of
to

things,
collections,
no

namely

We the

variables in

referring
with
v1ev2
we

21

are

just
the

that

individuals
formula all
mean

particular
its

atomic whereas

intended

is
to

<&bv1ev2[x1,
spell
but
to

presupposed reading x2], i.e.

this
rather

We
a

give
of it

"t^

is

member

v2",

x^Ex2.
should
very
essence

Having
not
a

taken
source

of

pains pedantry,
ourselves

out,
the

we

recognise
of
an

as

being,
relation

the

enterprise
from
to
our

itself.
between

By

forcing
indeterminate
about

regard
we

as

being
to

abstract back

things,
what

force
what

ourselves
means,

stand and

presuppositions
those
We

"membership"
determine

thereby
us

identify
and

assumptions
must

and
also

they
in

commit between which

we

to.

be

careful
the
we

to

distinguish
language
The

object-language,
language

between about
which

metalanguage speak
is
the

and

the

lan-

speak.

object

language

first-order

CH.

12,

12.3

FORMAL

SET

THEORY

307

language
and about

!?.
the

The

metalanguage
meanings
of
we

is ^-sentences
statements

the

language (interpretations,
like consists
set

we

use

to

talk

about
It

i? is
every the

models).
is "<p basically which
a

language
valuation

in in

which

make

satisfied
of is
E
sentences

by
concerned
a

31".

This Thus

English
actual

and collections.
on a

unformalised,
collection
and
are so on.

metalanguage intuitive,
the
A

of with

theory,
form the relation
are

if-formulas
of
These

collection,
is
a

model collection
the

SI
of metalane

is

based
ordered
metalanguage.

individuals,
collections and
we

denote hand
The somewhat

pairs, They membership might

distinction

described
to
use

by
the

"metasets",
of
such "sets

continue
The

symbol
A
on

to

collections. in
these the
two
our

individuals of

in
or

the

other

be

called between

sense

31",
can

simply
be
we
as

I-sets".

levels

perhaps
lives in

made,
at

some-

colloquial y,
with
that

by
of of
us,

contrasting
an

perspective,
person

look

31 31

"from

outside",
aware

imaginary
of
-

who in metauniverse

"inside"

and

is

only
to

the
A

existence is
a

the

individuals
our

A,
in be

i.e.

of of

the
metasets

3I-sets.
-

While
the
A

set not

an

individual
A
at

3I-person
represents
of when
A

does
the

see

all for

as

an

individual

his

world. if

Rather,
Be

whole
Be

universe

the that
may

3I-person.
not
an

Similarly
3I-set
to
an

is

subset
However
occurs

(i.e.
is

A),
in
is
an

the
some

metaset
cases

(if
3I-set.

A).
This

it

possible
there

corresponds
whose

3I-set

(i.e.
xeA

be

A)
and

E-members
We

are

just
to

the

e-members

of

B,
are

i.e.
members

={x:
of

xEb}.
e

shall
the

return

this is
the

point
Now member when

shortly.
if
of
a

and
b"

b
when

A(a,b
the
means

A),
aEb.
are

then
means

statement

"a

uttered
ones,

by
these
E

the

standard
standard
the

if
relation
e

is

simply
A

on interpreted it 3l-person two interpretations the meta-membership

metalevel

aeb.
some

However

In
the
same.

models,
Thus
a

model
to

is

relation

restricted

A,

i.e.

={(x,

y):
the

A,

and

y}.
distinction
can

In

standard
If

model,
is
an

metalevel/object-level
and
any
sense

be
that

very the

delicate.
statement

31-set,
makes

xey,

we

cannot

then

assume

"xey"
not

inside
be
unaware

31.
that

Unless of
we
an

xeAas the

well,
of
for
x.

which
Thus !?-

is
he

necessary,
may
not

the

3l-person
all the the

wil

existence do.

recognise
now

-members
<p
=

We

recall

expression

as

abbreviation

the

formula
Axiom
of

((=>)(=><).
Extensionality.

This

is

the

if-formula

Ext:

308

CATEGORIAL

SET

THEORY

CH.

12,
are

12.3

which In
a

formalises model

the

principle
x

that

sets

with

the

same

members

equal.

SI, Ex={z:

if

A,
and

let

zeA

zEx}.
x

Then
Null

SI Ext
Set:

ifi

Ex=Ey

implies

y,

for

all

x,

A.

C0(Vu)(~(uet))
"there
x

exists
e

set

with

no

members".

In
metaset.

SI

this

is

true

when

there

is

some

such

that

Ex

is

the

empty

Pairs:

VwVu3f

[V w(wet
and

w~uvw~

u)]
a

"given
i.e.

sets

there

exists

set

having

just

and

as

members",

"{x,

y}

exists".

Powersets:

Let

"v
".

"

abbreviate is
the

the

formula

Vw(wzv

=>

weu),

i.e.

"u

is

subset axiom

of of

The

powersets

sentence

formalising just
Unions:

the the

statement

"for
x".

any

x,

there

is

set

whose

members

are

subsets

of

Intuitively,
are

all

individuals collections. of
If

in This
x.

the

universe

are

sets,
the existence

so

the

members
of
the

of union

themselves
the

axiom

states

of

all

members

Separation:

<p(t>)
axiom

is

formula schema
=

with

free

v,

the

fol owing

is

an

instance

of

the

Separation Vw3f[Vu(uef
"given
<p".
of
the
x,

Sep., :
i.e.

())]
a

there

exists

set

consisting

ex

just
&

of exists". in

the

members This is
1.
a

of formal

satisfying
statement

Or,

"given separation

x,

{: principle

<p(y)}

discussed

Chapter

CH.

12,

12.3

FORMAL

SET

THEORY

309

Bounded
<p
occurrences
are

Separation:
at

formula form
the

is of
<p

bounded of
the

if form
Thus
v

all

occurrences

of and
in bounded exists
as

in
all

the

front

of 3
are

subformula
the of

of
have
f".

of

3v(v?t
form
"for
It

).
all

Vv(vEt=>i(f), quantifiers
t"

formulae in
the The

readings
separation

in schema

and
takes

"there
out"

bounded

(A0-separation)
<p.

axioms
a

all

formulae
x

Sep^
by
to
a

for

bounded

allows
that the

us

of
are

defined
restricted

formula,
range
over

provided
sets.

"separate quantifiers
to

subset formula

of

that

The

system
for
Null

Zo
first-order

of

axiomatic

set

theory

axioms

logic
Pairs,
one
can

with derive
=

ality, Sep^

Set,
Ext

Powersets,
in

identity Unions,
Zo
the

has, (11.3),
and
sentence

in

addition
the

to

the

classical ExtensionFrom

axioms

of

Bounded

Separation.

and

Vii3!f[Vu(uef
that
asserts
are we

veuA(p(v))]
of
a

the

existence

unique
of
the

set
x

having
for

the

property
<p holds.

that Because

its

members this
abbreviations

precisely
expressions
for certain
that

those

members
of

which

of
as

introduce

form
The

{u:
use

<p},
of

called
class

class
abstracts

abstracts,
is deter-

if-formulae.
we

determined

by

stipulating ve{u: v~{u:q>} {u: (p}ev

play
in
the

write

<p}

for
for

(p[u/v]
\/t(tev
=

<p[u/f]
~{u: <p})
role
<p

for
the
same

3f(feuAf
sort

Class

abstracts

of If

in

i?

as

do variable of all

the

corresponding

expressions intuitively
in determine
the

metalanguage.
denotes
a

has the

only
collection
<p.

the

{u: universe)
a

<p}
metasubset
=

collection,
the

sets

free, (individuals

then

having
of

property

For

model

51,

{u:

<p}

wil

A,
and

viz

the
<

collection

%9
In
occurs

{x:
the is

[x]}.
correspond
to
an

some

cases,

metaset
some we

21
yeA
find

wil such
that Null

% -set,
=

as

above. and

This

when

there

that

%v
=0
axiom

Ey
empty
is
true

{x:
in

xeA

xEy}.
and

Thus

if
The

is
to

~iu~u),
an

%v
Set

(the
the

metaset),
51.

corresponds
formula

-set
can

if
now

the

Sep.,

be

given

in

form

This

is

true

in

when

for

each

xeA

there

is

some

yeA

such

that

310

CATEGORIAL

SET

THEORY

CH.

12,

12.3

Some

familiar
0

abstracts,
for for

and

their

abbreviations

are

{u:~(u~u)}
{t: {u, {t: {f:
tuvt

{u,v} {u}
uflt) u\Jv
u

v}

for for for

v

u} teuAtev} teuvtev}

for for for

{t:
{z: {z: {0}

teuA~(tev)} 3f(feMAzet)}
Vf(teM^zef)}

Um
1
u

for for for

uUM
{z:zcM}
be
that the

3>{u)
Exercise 1.
Let

<p(t>)
Show

formula

~{u:

uev}.
of

Explain
first-order

xeA,
Exercise

%\=(p[x].
2.
y,

<p(v) v)
be

is
the

theorem

why, logic.
Show
that

for

any

Let

<p(f,
z}.

u,

formula

t~{u,

v}.

211=

<p[x,
Exercise

z]iflEx={y,
3.

Show

that

the

Pairs

axiom

can

be

writ en

as

Exercise

4.

Rewrite
the

the

other of The

axioms

of
and of

Zo

using

class

abstracts.
denote

To

formalise
abstract i.e. that

notions

relation

function
this
sentence

we

by simply
that

(u,v)
it

the

{{},
we

{,
can

v}}.
derive

point
in

definition

is

works,

Zo

the

which

captures

the

essential for for for

for

property

of

ordered

pairs. ><)}

Then

we

put

{(u,

v):q>}
txw

{t: {(u,

3w3u(f v):
uet

~(u,

OP(u)

Rel(w) Fn(ii)
Dom(ii)

for
for

Rel(u)AVuVfVwu,

t)euA(v, ))}

{f:

3ut,

CH.

12,

12.3

FORMAL

SET

THEORY

311

Im(u) A(m)
vu

for

{t:3v((v,t)eu)} {(v,v):veu} {(t,w):3s((t,s)euA(s,w)ev}

can

for for
we

Using
a

these

definitions

construct
our

from definition
elements

any

Z0-model
of
the The such

21

(A,
Set.

E,
The
are

category

%(
are

by
the

formalising
2I-sets,
where

category

gtSlQ-objects the triples

i.e.
a,

the

aeA. b
are

gt2I)-arrows
that

(a,

k, b),

k,

and

2I-sets,

where

q>(t,

u,

v)

is

the

formula
~

Fn(u)
We take the

1)()
domain of
=

1() /
to

v.

arrow

be

a,

and

the

codomain

to
=

be
g,

b. is

The

composite (a, h, c),

of
where

(a,
he
A

k, b)
has

and

=(b,

I, c),

where

cod/

dom

g/

SIN

MAM],
the
arrow

(,
The

u,v)

being

formula for
a

t~vu.

identity
we

is

ida

(a,

k, a),

where,

for

<p(f,

u)

the

formula

t~A(u),

have

Theorem

1.

If
topos.

SI

is

model

of

all

the

Z0-axioms,

then

%(W)

is

well-pointed
Exercise
5.

Verify
in and

in

detail
the

that

Theorem of

holds,

by
Set.

formalising
terminal

in

??,
?

and

interpreting

exponentials,
Axiom
of

21, subobject
Let

descriptions
classifier

pullbacks,
for

object,

given
the

Infinity:

inf(M) =>>{}).

be

formula

\/>(>
Intuitively
of
x,

inf(M)
and
Hence
x

asserts

of under

set
successor

that

the

initial

ordinal

0 is
n

an
=

element
n

is

closed
<oc.x,

the
x

function
many

(recall
members.

+1

{n}

in of

Set). infinity
Inf:

and

has

infinitely

The

axiom

is

3M(inf(u)).
Z0
+

In

Inf

one

can

derive

t(inf()

{:

inf(m)})

312

CATEGORIAL

SET

THEORY

CH.

12,

12.3

and

so

in

any

Zo
of

model

21 such
the
we
can

that

SINInf,
all

there

wil

be

an

2I-set

that

the the

2I-person
discussion
numbers
Axiom

thinks

is

set

of
then

finite
that

ordinals. this

By
Si-set

formalising

12.2
for

show

produces

natural

object
of

%(ty,
There

i.e.

#Bl)l=NNO.
some

Choice: the

is

choice

about
set

which

sentence

we

use

to

formalise
is

choice

principle

in

classical

theory.

Perhaps

the

simplest

ADom(t)
which
sentence

Alm(f)
12.1.
For

Dom(u)
a

Autu~u)

formalises
we

the

statement

AC

of

Z0-model

of

this

wil
Regularity:

have

Axiom

of

Reg:

\/(~()=>(~))
Reg
x

Intuitively,
and
of
the

asserts

that

if
in
common.

x0

then
The

has basic
sets

member

ex

such
set

that

have

no

members
we
are
as

viewpoint
are

of
up

theories
below"
that

type
then have

that

developing
union,
of like

is

that

built
etc.

"from
asserts

by
x

operations exists,

such

powerset,
must
x

separation
have

Reg
somewhere,
of
x.

if
we

its
all members

construction

started of members
xey
^

i.e. This
as

cannot

consisting
xey
ex,

axiom well
as

proscribes "infinitely
Axiom
asserts
of

relationships descending"
Replacement:
if the

xex,

ez

ex,
3

..

etc.,

membership

chains
the

Intuitively,
domain of
or
a

replacement
a

axiom

schema in
the

as-

that
so

function
The

is

set

(individual
function
with
two

universe)
with is
the

then

is

its

range,

image.
by
a

type

of
<p

it

deals variables.

functional

relation

defined

formula

free

<(,
This
asserts

u))}).
with
the

that

if

the

ordered of that

pairs
functions,

satisfying
and

<p

form for
q>,

relation
uet,

"unique unique {f(u):

The

output"
individual

property
such

if

each

f(u)
the

is

the

(u,f(u))
system
We

satisfies
of
see

then

collection

t}

is

set.

Zermelo-Fraenkel

set-theory,
then
that

ZF,
ZF The

can

be is
a

defined
much
more

as

Z0 + Inf powerful

+Reg-(-Replacement.
system
than is needed

to

construct

topoi.

description

of

Set,

CH.

12,

12.4

TRANSITIVE

SETS

313

when

formalised,
topos.
of
set account

turns

any In

model
to
reverse
we

of
have

the the
to

weaker

system
and further

Zo
construct

into

well-pointed
models theoretic

order from

theory
of
the

topoi, membership

procedure, analyse

the

arrow-

relation.

12.4.
A
set

Transitive

sets

determines

metamembership
a

structure

that

can

be

displayed

as:

level

the

set

level

members

of

level

members

of

members

of

level

members
members

of
of

members

of

This

diagram point)
top
is
transitive
xeA

is
each

called

the

membership
there The

tree

of

B. all

The

tree

is

in
the

fact
the
tree

upside
root

down-from

point
tree.

is
collection

unique
TB
called

path
of

upward
points
transitivity.
in

towards
In

(top
the
A

of

the

except
a

point

has

special
the
x

property
condition
<=

general

set

if

it

satisfies

implies
member
that

A,
all members

i.e.

if
A.

is

of

then

of and
of of
x

are

themselves

members
on
a

of
then

(Notice
for each wil

if
the

a x

model
all
same

21 is
the

standard,

is
x

based wil
we

transitive Thus of

A,
the

9I-set
see

metamembers members
level then
But The
A.
n

be

3l-sets.

Sl-person
Now in

that all

do.)
members
is
any
x

if
at

appears
n

in
+1. So that

TB
TB

at

say

n,

the
A that

appear
set

TB
level

level

is

transitive.

if if
all

transitive
Be.
n

that that in B. It

contains
all

B,
1

it

fol ows
of
A

are

A.

assumption
Then level A. 1

means

points
of
that

TB
all

in
level

points
by containing
an

are

A,
is

transitivity proof

puts

points
all

in

Thus
sets

inductive

we

show

TB

is

contained

in

transitive

314

CATEGORIAL

SET

THEORY

CH.

12,

12.4

the

"smallest"
of B.

transitive

set

containing

B,

and

so

is

called

the

transitive

closure

Axiom

of

Transitivity:
of

We

write is

()

for

the

formula

Vv(veu

=>

).

The :

axiom

transitivity

Vt3u(tcMATr(u))
Z0+TA
we
can

In

derive
?

Vt3!w(t
which,
exists
Exercise
as

()
states

Vu(t
the

()
the

))
transitive closure of
any
set

under
an

interpretation,
individual
1.

that

in

universe.

Derive,

in

Z0+TA,
?

n{:t?t3ATr(u)})
The role level

of
tree

trees

in of
A

membership particular
topos
notion
Boolean
An

is of

describing isomorphic
the -tree.

membership
to

is the Julian
tree

this:
of all
was

AeB

if
below

the
a

points
lifted
to

point
Wil iam
and

This

observation
Cole

to

the the from

setting
of "f-tree"

by

Mitchell

[72]
construct

and

[73]
of reconstruction

define

thereby
to
a

models

set-theory
of

topoi.
alternative
was

approach subsequently
of
those that

theory
characterisation

developed Set-objects
if
x

topos-theoretic by Gerhard
that
are
x

set
on
a

Osius
transitive
e as

[74],
sets.

based

Transitivtransitive
if

Transitivityof
A
sets
are

simply
This
are

means

then
The the

3P(A).
that

property
not

gives
under
A
x

transitive
e".

sets

i.e. @>(A), a tractability

is
not

enjoyed
on a

by
set

"closed

relations

EgA
rE
:

XA A

in
then

bijective
rE

correspondence
assigns
to
=

with
the

functions

0*(A).

Given

E,

subset

rE(y)
In the
case e

{x:
E

and

xEy}

,
relation

of

A.

that

is

the

membership ):
x

{(x,

and

y},

we

find

that

rs(y)
But

{x:

xeA

and

xey}.
x

if A

is

transitive,

this

simplifies:

implies

xeA

for

A,

and

so

CH.

12,
we

12.4

TRANSITIVE

SETS

315

Thus

see

that
to

for

transitive
A
<=L*

A,

the

membership
as

relation

gives
Now
if.

rise
let

the

inclusion
the

2P(A)
of
means

re,

making
"membership"

\ subobject
e

on

of

us

consider
know
and

We

already
a,

what

problem xe/
is
other
a

defining
if of of
x

in
1

a a

topos
of
g
an

is
a

an

"element"
But

g-object
where

/:
is
to

b
some

>-

g:c>-H>a

subobject subobject
if element
be
an

(4.8).
a? and

what

about

e/,
of

Returning
A,
wil
then have

Set,
is
that whether

we

see

that
be
an

g:

<=

/iB^A

are

subsets

if

going
so

to

of
arrow

B,

then with

since

we

CeA,

there
g

wil

g:{0}^A
deciding
whether

g@)
CgB is

C.

But

then,
equivalent

to

knowing deciding

exists,

i.e.

CeA,
i.e.
whether

equival-

ge/,

factors
Thus the

through question
of
arrows

/.
of
once

membership
we

of

in

can

be

resolved
g

in

the the
and

language
event

that

is

transitive,
g:

know, the problem

^

categorial y,
can as a

whether
be

exists. into

In

transferred
of

2?(A)
to
=

restated. "element"

In

general,

A,
the
see

subset of

A,
where

corresponds

an

:1^0>()
0>(A)
A have
>

of

ppwerset
that if
there

A,
becomes
an

rg1@)

C.
name

Idenof

Identifying
Xs
we :

with
as

2A,
in

we

rg]
is
an

rxR\
inclusion
from
1 to
re:

the
A
^

denned

4.1.
g
to
as

Then

5?(A),

that

CeA,
g

i.e.
g

denned make

is

arrow

A,

if

rg^

rs,

that

is,

if

exists

<=-^~

factor

(uniquely)

through

re.

316

CATEGOMAL

SET

THEORY

CH.

12,

12.4
set

Altogether
theory" /if
of
CeB if
subsets

then,
the
name

for
of
A.

transitive
For

A,

we

can

characterise
and

the
we

"local
have

f:Bcz^A
factors

g:C<^*A,

ge

of

through

ref,

i.e.

if

rg1 er^f.
the

Characterising
sufficient
deal
set

local
of

set

theory
the

of
the

an

for

the the

needs

"working
within
context

object mathematician",
of
for with

(set)
some

is,
fixed
i?
can

as

Osius
who tends

notes,
to

with
A.

any

But

given "global"
First
g:

^^>

problem

"universal"
be

question
we a

of
to

membership
deal

reduced
it
g
even

to

the

local
>

one.
a

need

equality
we
-

of know
that
same

subobjects.
what
means

If in

/: b
for
But

and
g
to
a

have the
same

the

same

codomain,
it
means

/ /:
may

and

represent
and
g:

^>

"subset"

/
set,
>-*
<=

Sub(a).
if
g:

b distinct

>-*

d
In

may

stil
the
may
g.

represent
codomains
have it
D

the

they

>-*

have
D
case

codomains.

Set,
we

of

overlap,
we

and
want to

indeed

f(B)
is
clear
T
=

/: g(C)
this
U

and

D,
that

in

which
if
T
are

would that
i:

put
both
and

/
A

But

in
A
=

situation

is

any

set

includes
A
<=+

and
D
=

(e.g.
then
the

D),
if definition

so

that

there
=

inclusions
Thus
So

j:

<=+

T,

f(B) general
of
any

g(C)

i(f(B)
of
that

j(g(C)). /
=

/=gif
the

in

Sub(T),
of
to

J/
the
g.

jg.
-

identification

subobjects

is
the be

resolved

by
as

localising
of both fol ows.
g
g

set-theory
The

>-*

object
for
>-*

includes
Set
can
now

co-domains described

/
if

and

global
A

membership
and
T g:

For

/:
some
we

we

put
A

for

transitive have
as

including
<=>

both

and
<=>

D,

in
k

&(T)
Here

[/(g(O
above. the
For

T]
a

[J(/(B))
T
we

T].
may
<=
use

i and

j
closure
same

are

the of

inclusion
ADD.

suitable

the
T
are

transitive
not

Although
definition
as

arrows

/
bear
^

and

the other.

thing,
are

the

of
and

because each
set.

they

equal
the

subobjects,
arrows

Similarly

membership i.e. they ](g(C))

is
the
T

J(f(B)) justified
relation

precisely
""

to
same

represent

the

Exercise

2.

Verify

this

last

statement.

CH.

12,

12.4

TRANSITIVE

SETS

317

Exercise choice
Exercise Exercise that Thus
In
g
e

3. of

Show

that
T.

the

definition

of

ge/

does

not

depend

on

the

appropriate
4. 5. For
Let
any

sets

A,
the

B,
transitive

show

if

idA
A,
in in
so

idB.
that h
A
e

TA
some

be

closure

of
h and of

TA.
<=+

Show

if

for if
these
g

h:

c*

TA,
a

0>(TA),
TA.
an

(f(B)

TA).

ge/

is

"equal"
considerations

to

member

/(B)
if,
we own

lifting
domain
and

to
r:

a
>~^>

topos
ila defined

take power

is

the

of

subobject
er
>

of

its
on

"membership" /: b >^>

relation
a

can

be

Sub(a)

g'-object object. by putting,

that
a

Then

for

g:

a,

ger/

if

tg'erof

i.e.
of

rg1 Xgpra:lxa-,f2.
if

factors this
that

through
definition
r

rf,
can

where
be made
not

rg^
for

[Xg
any

is

the of this
essence

exponential
form,
of
the

adjoint

Although requirement
Indeed,
arises
normal

simple
<3>()

be
even

monic

does

capture
fact
that
e
=

the

transitivity.
E,

it
from

does the

not

capture
since
if

the relation

for

transitive
For
and

A^A^
if 91
=

metamembership
then

A.

(A,
=

A)
rE:A^>
represents

is

any

56-model,
wil
So be

rE(y)
only
of

{x:xeA
when
set.

xEy}
A
>^>

Ey,

9'(A)
the the Collapsing

monic
remains

(and
of

problem

if) determining
transitive

21NExt.
r:

&(A)

membership
Lemma

relation

(Mostowski
a

[49]).
set

Let

be

relation

on

A.

Then

there

exists

transitive

such

that

{A,E) if
A) B)
E E

{B,e
and

\B)

extensional, is well-founded.
is

318

CATEGORIAL

SET

THEORY

CH.

12,
means

12.4

Here,
that every and

A)

means

that
there

rE:A-^
subset

<?>(A)
of
A

is
has
an

monic.
?-minimal that

Well-foundedness
element. That
so

non-empty

is,
if

if

CcA then
The

^0,
sense

exists

xeC in

such

Ex

0,

that

Ex,
"?-

y?C.
of

isomorphism
A

membership" requires (*)

For such

within
that

looks
a

exactly
map all

like

there

be

bijective

(A,E)ss(B,e "e-membership" f: A=B

\ B)
such
that

is within

that
B.

This

xEy
an

if

/(x)e/(y),
diagram

x,

in

A.

/,

the

commutes,

where

<?>/ assigns
The

to

{/():

C}eSP(B).

diagram

Ce^(A) requires,

(i.e.
for

CcA)
x
e

its

/-image

/[C]

A,

that

i.e.

which Mostowski's

for
It

bijective
lemma
can
on

/ is equivalent
has
as

to

(*).
as
a

been
a

stated
sentence

fact formal

about

our

metaset-

theory.
a

be
A"

expressed
would
an

of

the

language
cjx",

??.

"B

is

relation

be abstract

replaced
of formal
the
sentence

by
form axioms.

"1()
e

\ only

would

be

replaced
so
on.

by
The

f t={(u,v):
then Thus
all be

uetAvetAuev},
derived
the
e

and
assume

the
a

ful

resulting strength
only
if lemma fact with
can our

can

if

we

of

the

ZF

Mostowski's
ZF-axioms.
that

"theorem"

is

theorem that
B.

metaset-theory

satisfies
in

Note
on

the

implies
be

particular
if
then that
we

\
our

is

well-founded

This
the

in

deduced For
=

assume

metaset-theory
there
x

satisfies
be
some

Regularity
e

axiom.
x

if

is

non-empty

wil

0,

so

if
A

be
manner

,
used

making
to to

e-minimal

in with
nno's.

B.

Now

well-founded
A

relation

on
a

can

define

functions

domain
The

by

"recursion"

in

similar
to

the where

intuitive

idea

is

that

in

order

define

/(x),

operation f:A^>B,

of

CH.

12,

12.4

TRANSITIVE

SETS

319

we

make

the defined
to

inductive
for
some

assumption
all other Thus

that
of

/(y)
x.

has
We let

been

defined

for
the

all

Ex,
the

i.e.

/ is

"B-members"

then

input
be

collection
to

{/(y): resulting

yEx}
output.

function

and

f(x)

defined

be

i.e.

(**)
Since from
we

/(*)
want to

/(x)eB,
B.

and

since

^/(?x)e3P(B),
states

has

to

be

function

5P(B)

Equation
f>

(**)

that

the

diagram

)
commutes.

() / exists
the
to

But,
determined
1.
E

given

g,

if

make

this

diagram

commute

then

it

is
Theorem

uniquely

by
is

equation
on

(**).
A

well-founded
exists

if
function

for

any

set

and

function
the

g:2P(B)^B diagram

there
commute.

exactly

one

f:A>B

making

last

be

proof expressed Z0-axioms.

A

of
Thus

this
as
an

result

is given

by
but

Osius this

in time
and

[74].
it that
can

Again
be
are

the derived

statement

can

^-sentence,
we

just
can

using
exten-

see

that

in

ZF,

transitive

sets

essential y

sional

(monic)
This
wil wil also
sets.

well-founded
even

relations,
in

well-foundedness

be

characterised,
lead
we

Zo,
a

by
the

an

arrow-theoretic
of

property.
sets" in of
a

us

to

definition

"transitive

topos,

for
between

which

appeal

to

fol owing

description

inclusions

transitive
Theorem

2.
A

If

and
f

are

transitive

then

320

CATEGORIAL

SET

THEORY

CH.

12,

12.5

commutes

if
If
=

Ac

and

is

the it

inclusion is

CL>

B.

Proof.

is

the
=

inclusion,
x,
so

clear,
commutes.
=

for for
=

(hence
the other To

A)
if
that

that
the

/ diagram
the

{:

ex}
we

the then show

diagram
f(x)
that

On

hand,
show
or

does

commute,
have
to

inclusion
C
=

/[x], f(x)
=

all
x,

xeA.
x

is

all

in

A,

that

{x:xA
need
to
a

and/(x)^x}
assume
g

(?
is
of
but

To

do Then is

this
if

we
were

\
subset

well-founded.
A

non-empty
C.
Thus

it

would

have

an

element

x0

that

g-minimal
yex0

in

xo^/(xo),
y^C,
and

(using

transitivity)
=

implies
=

so

/(y)

y.

But

then Theorem

/(x0)
2

/[x0]
be

{/():
expressed
to

x0}
as an

{y:

x0}

x0,

contradiction.
in

can

if-sentence
of
Theorem
on

derivable
g

Z0

Reg
of

(Regularity
the theorem

being
indicates
and

used

give
lies

well-foundedness behind
the

\ A).
i.e. of
how

The

proof
inductive

what

1,
property

definitions
for

constructions

depend

well-foundedness

their

validity.

12.5.
Images:

Set-objects
If

f-.a-^-b
a we

is
define

an

arrow

in

topos

g",

then
>-*

for b of
g

each
under

g:c>->aof
the

the

image

/[g]:
factorisation

/(g(c))

subobject f

to

be

monic

part

of /8

the

epi-monic
.

Thus/[g]
This
has Now
an

im(/g).
establishes version used
in
a

construction
internal

map

from
^>

Sub(a)
In Set

to

Sub(b),
ilf
is
the

that

in

fact

?lf:
the

last

.
with
an

function
the

S?/:S?(A)-^S?(B)
by
with
the

section. their
arrow

identification

of
to
we

subobjects
h:a^>fl

characters,

image
Then,
take
the

construction

starting image

assigns f:a-^b

each

f[h\:b^>Q.
and
then

form
:

1x/:/2axa^/2axb
x
a
-

1n<.

x/[eua]

of

eva

under

1n

xf.

CH.

12,

12.5

SET

OBJECTS

321

flf

is

then

defined

as

the

unique

arrow

making

commute,
Exercise

i.e. 1.
2. If

ilf

is

the

exponential
b
is

adjoint
then of
and

of

1nx/[eua].
/g.
in Set.

/:a>>
that
that

monic,
definition

/[g]

Exercise
Exercise

Verify
Show

the

(If-characterises
if

3.

/21

1n.,

that

commutes,

then

so

does

i.e.
Exercise

nsf

nsnf.
4. Given
c>-> a^>

b, show

commutes.

?
A

Definition.

transitive i.e. i.e.

set

object
and
g'-arrow

(tso)
of

is

an

g'-arrow

r:

>>

that there

is is

A) B)

extensional,
recursive,

monic,
for
any

the

form

g:flb^>b

322

CATEGORIAL

SET

THEORY

CH.

12,

12.5

exactly

one

g'-arrow

f:a^b

making

commute.

(/ is said
5. 6. If r:a^>fla

to

be

defined
a

recursively

from

over

r:

recr(g)).

Exercise

0/2
_L
:

is
1

tso.

Exercise

(l

is

tso

(why
are

is "relations"

this

so

in then

Set?)
h:
a

? >b
is
in-

and

s:b^>?lh
s,

an

inclusion

from

to

writ en

h:

<=^

s,

if

commutes.

We

write
that

if

there

exists

an

inclusion

h: for

Exercise
Exercise

7.

Show

0)

(:

>^

/2a),

any

tso

r.

8.

rgr.

Exercise

9.

rgscj

implies
between

r^t.

(cf.

Exercise
if

3)
it
to

An
see

inclusion

transitive
a

set-objects,
that where

exists,
each

is monic
of

unique.
s:

To

this,
a

we

introduce
arrow

construction described
in

assigns
b
is
the The

>-*

ilb
arrow

unique
classifier

s:(lb^>b,
t\b:

codomain
arrow

the

partial

-^>b

11.8.

wil
defined

in

fact
as

be the

monic,

since
arrow

r\b

is

(Osius

[74],

Proposition

5.8(a)).

is

then

unique

making

CH.

12,

12.5

SET

OBJECTS

323

pullback
1.

(note

that

?l'r[bs
is

is

monic

if and

is

monic).
:

Theorem

If

r:a-^>ila
is
an

recursive,

>^>

ilh

extensional,

then

A)

f:a^>b

inclusion
.

if

aOa

aO^

i?

/jb

commutes,

if
If A)
r

r]bf
s

recr(s).
is
a

B)
Proof.

then

there

unique

inclusion

ci>

of

into

s.

Consider
r.

Vb

The

right
an

hand

square

always
left if
the the

commutes,
square

by
commutes,
of of
the

the

definition
hence
the
commutes

of whole

s.

Then

if

is

inclusion,

the

hand

diagram
then

does.
means

Conversely,

precisely

that

perimeter perimeter

diagram
diagram

this

the

commutes,

and the Then

so

by

the

universal exists
and
so
as

property
shown
to

of make

the
the

inner whole
upper

square

as

pullback,
commute.

unique 1bfc

=/,

=/.

Hence

from

the

diagram triangle

Since

1""

is

monic,

this commutes,

gives

previous

diagram

sf making

ilf

r,

i.e.

the

left

hand

square

of

the

an

inclusion.

324

CATEGORIAL

SET

THEORY

CH.

12,

12.5

To
r

complete
the

part

A),
from

note

that

since

when

il^
rjb

ilf,
is
the

recursiveness

of
arrow

implies
B)
If is

diagram
<=*s
we

commutes
s

precisely
over
r.
r

/
=

unique
=

defined

recursively ft: r

and

f2: f1=f2-

<=

s,

then

by

A),

r)bf1

r\bf2

recr(s).

Since

r]b

monic
2.

get

Theorem

If
the

and

are

tso's,
inclusion
s,

then
r

A) B)
Proof.

If r<=.s, Ifrc.sc.
A)
Consider
a

(unique)
r,

<s

is

monic.

then

i.e.

the

inclusions

and

are

iso.

f^

g-^

Here

is

defined

by

the

construction

prior

to

Theorem

1,

so

rO,^r

commutes,
In

the
f
=

showing previous
commutes,
over
s.

that

r]a

is

the

arrow

recr(r).
inclusion
the
arrow
r

diagram,
g

/
defined

is
to

the be

<^>

s,

so

the

left

hand

diagram
from

is
then

recs(r)
commutes,
be

given
and

by

recursion
so

But

the

whole
so

diagram
/ itself
must

g/
3.1.2).

recr(r)
B)
If

t\a.
rgsc

Thus
r,

g/
then

is

monic,
from

monic

(Exercise

r-

na
we
see
=

that 1
a.

gf:rc^>r. Similarly

But

obviously
b,

1a

: r

<=

r,

so

by
g

Theorem

1
to

B),
each

g/
other.

fg

hence

f:a

b,

with

and

inverse

CH.

12,

12.5

SET

OBJECTS

325

Thus,

defining
classes

if

and

s^r

leads

to

definition

of

equality
to

of
the

(isomorphism
inclusion constructions for
the

of)
becomes

transitive
a

set-objects,

with Osius

respect
then

which
construc-

relation

partial

ordering.
b
>

gives
to

(i)
greatest

intersection
bound

s s

,
inclusion which

which

proves

be

the

greatof
r

lower

of
rUs

and
: a

in

the

ordering
is
the

of least

tso's;
upper

and bound

(ii)
and
For
s.

the

union
cube

>,

(i),

the

>

is
the
a

formed
of front

by
face

first

defining
-.

/
Thus

to

be the

pullback pullback

For

/ along
the whose

square

defining
property

recr(s), right-hand /. The

and bottom

obtaining
face is
square the the

the square

top
proves

face

as

the
s, to

defining
be

then
arrow

universal
the

yields
commute.

unique
arrow

aC\b
rC\s.

making (ii),

whole
comes

diagram
from
the
g2

This

is

pushout

of
outs.

gx

and

g2,

with

arising

from

the

co-universal

property

of

push-

326

CATEGORIAL

SET

THEORY

CH.

12,

12.5

Definition.

set-object

in

topos

is

pair

(f, r)

of

g'-arrows

of

the

form

where

is

transitive of

set-object.
is
that

Equality
tso t:
e
>

set-objects
such

defined
t

as

fol ows:

(/,

r)s(g,

s)

if

for

some

and

sc(,

we

have i and

i[/]~

y[g]
are

in
the

Sub(e),
inclusions

(i.e.
i:r<=*t

if~jg,
and is holds
t
=

since

i
t.

and

are

monic)

where

:sc^>

Osius
tso
?

establishes

that
r

the
s:

definition
condition
when

independent
for
some

of
such

the
?

choice if
it holds

of

the

containing
f

and

the

for

all
Exercise

such

(hence
10.
11.

if

it

holds

rUs).

(/, r)-,(g,
Suppose
1

r) if
that

in

Sub(a),
er

g.

Exercise

and

rg1
1

s,

i.e.

there

are

commutative

diagrams

for
rgi

X1
/
show and
g.

Show
that

\'
/er1a,
ges

certain and
s

elements t,

1d.

For

such

that

(f,r)^s(g,s)
i.e.

if

if

jg,

commutes.

CH.

12,

12.5

SET

OBJECTS

327

"Membership"

for

set

objects

is

defined

by

if

for

some

tso

t:e^ue
1

such

that

r^t

and

szt,jgetif,

i.e.

g1
Again
the
f
=

factors definition
U
s.

through
is

ti

f.
of
the

independent
of

choice

of

t, and

can

be

given

with

Equivalent
(i)
There

definitions
exist
set

objects

(g, s)E%(j, (g', i) (f,r)~*(f',t)

r)
and

are

(f,

t) with

(g,s)-,(g',0.
and

g'e.f,
and

(ii)

There

exists

g':

c'

>^>

such

that

(g,
and

s)=8f(g',

r)

g'G,/Exercise 12.
For
set

objects
if

(g, ger/.
of
an

r),

(/, r),

(g,r)^(f,r)
We
now

have

definition

i?-model

where has

A%
been

is

the

collection
for
any

of

all
.

set

objects
Osius
then
proves

in

Notice

that

the

definition

given
3.

topos

Theorem

Zo-axioms,
axiom

().

If together If

is

well-pointed,
with the
axiom

is
in in

model
and
%

of
the the

all

of

the

of ES)
holds

Regularity
holds

Transitivity
Axiom

NNO Axiom

(respectively of
Choice)

then

of
?

Infinity

(respectively

Sl(g').

328

CATEGORIAL

SET

THEORY

CH.

12,

12.6

It

is

also
when

shown
set"

that

for
sense

each

tso

r:

>-*

,
the

the

set

"transitive
in

in

the

of
as

),
the

i.e.

.^-formula

object ()

Aa,
is

r) is
satisfied

is

interpreted

8l(g)-set

Aa,

r).

12.6
We
now

Equivalence
have
two

of
construction

models
processes

of determine
other. To

well-pointed
the

topoi
extent

from
to

models

of
these

Zq
constructions
that

and

conversely.
are

It

remains
to

to

which
to

inverse
lemma

each

do Rather

this
than
as

we

wil
confine

need

assume

Mostowski's
we

is
statement

true

in of

31.
the

ourselves

to

ZF-models,

take

the

lemma

further

axiom.
Representation:

Axiom

of

Transitive the

This

is

the

^-sentence

that

for-

formally
ATR:

expresses

statement

Any

extensional,
to

well-founded
the

relation relation

isomorphic
transitive

set

membership
of

r?:B

<=

:-^() $>(B)

is
of
some

B.

is
The

called

the

transitive
Z

representative

r.

system
let
us

is

Z0+Reg+TA+ATR.
31
=

Now

assume

(A,
from b in

E,
the

)
Zq
+
sense

is
TA

Z-model. there

If

be
an
so

is
wil

an
a

3l-set,
that be
an

then,
the

working
transitive

"inside"
closure
of
<=^a.
on

31,
Moreover
the

wil

be

21-set
there

is

of
Ext

31,
and
a

and

31-inclusion relation

f:b
ra:a-^0>(a)
hence

by
21-transitive
But

Reg
wil

the be

31-membership
2I-monic
and
ra f

object
the

21be

well-founded,
arrows

3t-recursive.

3t-functions
be
a

/ set-object
Ob(a)

and in
=

wil i.e.

in

the

topos
in

(,
the

and

so

individual transformation

("set")
from
a^c

.S?-model 31

(/, ra) (.
to

wil

(81),

an a

Putting
8l(g(8l))

(f, ra)
satisfies

gives

i?-model if

if-model

that

()^()

and aEc

if

())().

CH.

12, the

12.6

EQUIVALENCE

OF

MODELS

329

In

opposite
then
r

direction,
is
a

given
monic,
in and

set-object
arrow

3t(g"CI)),
well-founded

recursive
31.
an

in

(f:b^> g"CI),
in

a,

r:a^>

)'
extensional,
is
makes
be the
some
r

i.e. 31
let there that

an

relation
set
to

Since

ATR

holds
g:
on c.

31-

transitive

ceA,
the the Theorem

3t-bijection
relation
b in

21-

isomorphic "g(/(a))",
In

i.e.

31-membership 31-image
2 of
a

We

St(X)

31-set

of

under

the

31 -function

g/.
are

view

of
so

12.4,
map

transitive
St

representatives

unique
be shown

(in
to

Z) and satisfy

this

gives
if

us

from

3l(g"Cl))

to

31

that

can

X^mY
and

St(X)=*St(Y)

XE%mY
Moreover

if
and
St
are

St(X)ESt(Y).
"almost

Ob,

inverse"

in

the

sense

that

we

have

and

Were

we

to

"normalise"
classes
we

31
would

and

()
obtain

by
two

^-equivalence
Exercise 1.

replacing ful y
that

individuals

by
^-models.

their

isomorphic

Show,
31

for

any

.S^-formula

<p,

N<p[a]

if

3l(f (Sr>)

t<p[Ob(a)l

and

St(f (ST))N<p[X]
Exercise 2.

if

3IN<p[St(X)].

Show

31 and

N<p[a]

if

31

N<p[St(Ob

(a))]

St(f (STOMX]
Beginning
F-.))
an now

if

St(f (St))N<p[Ob(St(X))].
well-pointed
fol ows. If
where X

with is
defined
a

a as

topos
is
an

transformation

-^

())
and

object
r:a>/2a

then

X
are

is

2l(g)-set,
We

i.e.

g'-arrows.

put

set-object F(X)

dom

(/, r), /
=

f:b^*a

b.

330

CATEGORIAL

SET

THEORY

CH.

12,

12.6

Osius
functor

shows

how

to to

define
.

on

i?(9l(i?))-arrows
image g-objects
of
F

so

that proves

it
to

becomes
be
a

from of

(%))

The
those

in
that
a

are

ful
and
an

subcategory
Partial
an

containing
of b from
means

partial y
r:a-^ a

transitive. in

transitivity
g'-monic in

that

there
a.

exists
makes

tso

,
i.e.

object
Axiom APT:

f:b>^>a )),
partial

to
=

This

(/, r)

set-object,

with

F(f,

r)

b.

of

transitivity:

Every
that

object
if

is
any

partial y
Z-model,
APT.

transitive.
then The the

Notice 2l-functions
every

31

is

topos
of above

gBl)
Ob(b)
wil
be
an

of

2l-sets
shows

and
that

always
b

satisfies

definition described
F

is
if

partial y
? N

transitive.
then the

Now

APT,
whole
defined
are

functor
Moreover

be

"onto"

its
of

image categories, categories. isomorphic isomorphic partial y

that the

is

the
as

of
in

if.

wil

to two

then and

equivalence
are

They objects
in
the

Chapter "isomorphic
in

9.
up
we

Thus

gBl(&))

each
Cat

obtain
of
then

category

all

small
the

isomorphism". (skeletal) categories.

functor
well-founded
F
can

By

equivalent identifying
that if used
to
are

categories
Furthermore be

is

transitive

(i.e.
ATR of

gNAPT)
transitive
if
R

show

axiom
a

representation
is transfers
be the
an

holds

in

),
relation

and
on

so

)
inside
becomes

is

Z-model.
then
a

For,
R

an

extensional
to
an

21 (g)
tso

corresponds
F
to

2l(g)-function
this
to
a

r:X-^SP(X)
tso
t:
a
->

which
in of
X
.

in
then

(%)).
proves

The in

set

object
In
the
set
a

Aa,
summary

f)

transitive
exact

representative
correspondence
between

).
of

then,
Z

there

is

models
The

of first-order

theory "well-pointed

and

language
between
can

well-pointed, partial y of categories,

of
as a

partial y
transitive
and
two

transitive,
topos"
so we can

topoi.
be
an

concept
in
corresponthe whole the

expressed
exact

have

correspondence

models
be treated and

first-order
one,

theories.
the

Indeed

exercise "function

(arrow)"
theory
version
those
are as

the

syntactic categorial
of
may

set-theoretic of

definition

of

definition
two

"set-object"
systems
in
set

providing
each other.
A

theorem-preserving
The

interpretations
developed
of
that the be

formal
to

extended

stronger
can

theories.
to

categorial
characterise
nature

topoi given
,
the that

Replacement correspond
9
APT

schema
to

be Further
event

defined

characof

models In

of
the

ZF.

results
that

this in
seta

in

Section axiom
any

of A

Osius. is
has

epics
to

split

well-pointed
theoretic
tso

redundant.
a

By

lifting
(and objects

the

>

proof &{A)),

object
be shown

well-ordering
ES that all

hence
are

it

can

from

yields partial y

CH.

12,

12.6

EQUIVALENCE

OF

MODELS

331

transitive.
models
A

Thus of ful er ZC
account

well-pointed
(Z+axiom
of of
the the

of

topoi choice).
technical

satisfying
details of is
to

ES

correspond
theory
found in

exactly

to

the be

including
Johnstone

proofs

main

results,

described, just Chapter

of

[77].

CHAPTER

13

ARITHMETIC

"Abstraction

is

crucial
and and

feature
because
to

of
in

[rational]
order the
structures to

knowledge,
compare

clas-

classify shapes,
phenomena

immense

variety phenomtake
account, but

of
all

around

us

we

cannot

their have
ones.

features
to

into

select
we

few reality
to

significant
an

Thus
map
are

construct

intelwhich

intel ectual

of
reduced

in

things
outlines."

their

general

Fritjof

Capra

13.1.

Topoi
theory
as

as

foundations
promotes
in
the

Category
taken

fundamental

place
that

topos
on

theory
a

substantiates
it

viewpoint of "membership", position.

for
to
a

that

the

concept
and
the

of

"arrow"

be

development
natural

of

By

imposing
natural

conditions

topos
make
extent

can

(extensionality, correspond
that
set

sections

epics,
model
a

numbers

object),
set

we

to

the does The

precisely theory
What
then

of

classical
for of

provides
are

foundation
attractions
the

theory. mathematics,
new

Thus,
so

too

topos
first

theory.

the

this
of

system?
topos

thing
ones

one

could
the
as

are

natural

to

originally
algebra.
nature

developed
The

point practising a language

account

to

is
for it and
has

that

concepts

theory
theory
was

mathematician.
use

Category
in
the
areas

of

topology
of

and
the
most

alternative mathematical
one.

subsequently
their

produced
features

of

structures

essential

is

compelling
which

Entities
their role
that
a

are

characterised
in

by
to

their entities.
most

universal
Thus

properties,
it
conveys

specify
property
and

relation
has
to

other
that

is
it

the

universal
usage

product

effectively
objects
is from

its

function
Once
-

in

relation

the

two

which
its internal

is

obtained.
structure

this
way

"operational"
it
was

description
-

known,

the

constructed
332

is

of

lesser

importance.

CH.

13, It
was

13.1

TOPOI

AS

FOUNDATIONS

333

suggested provide
and entities.
a

in

Chapter

that

the

purpose the
nature correct

of of

foundational mathematical
way
to

studies
con-

is

to

rigorous
There

explication
is

of
course
no

concepts

of
know

single
another. such

do

this.
either

Set
one

theory

offers
retort

one

might
and
be
new

that have.

we

approach, really
yet
as

topos
what

theory
as

As
as

against
whole
them.
Forms

things
are

numbers
there

are,

always
and deal

And in
new
a

long
to

there

mathematicians,
describe
Contexts of old

wil

dif erent

attempts
the

define of
To
new

and
Whenever
some

and

perspectives change
re-examined

change
to

light

knowledge.
this

language
ideas
are

with
in

dif erent

perspectives. light.
Just
to

occurs,

people,
familiar
somehow

discovering
ideas carries in
a

topoi
new

wil
lan-

constitute
language,

revelation.
them
even

re-expressing
concepts,
new

relating
It
may

dif erent
new

the

force

of

explanation, explaining.
diet
been

if

the

concepts
the seek

themselves
that those what

ultimately
bought
to

require
up
on

well
When

be,
wil

in

future,
to

solid
have

of wil

"arrow-language"
standard
emerge.

reappraise
new

them

wil
new

fare.
the

that

happens,
of

concepts,
structure

and

foundathe how the that

..

foundations
One

of

new

analyses
is
an

mathematical
account

developed
what
sets"
we

by
are

categorial they

foundation behave.
of
that
structure

alternative
the

of

sets
are an

and

Instead
sets".
have In

of

"universe
theories
that for
have
a

of like

(ZF)
ZF members
a

offered

"category
members

formal
members

set

is
that

entity
have indeed

has The

membership
about
that the the

determined
tree

membership
ZF-set-theorist

by example
his

set

can

be

very The

rich

(think

of

0>()).
is
an

informal
cone

picture

has

of

universe

open-ended

I
I

with
the

the

null
As

set
are

at

the

base
up

universe

built

point. Starting by repeatedly

are

with

0,
of

all

the

individuals
and and

in

forming
sets

powersets greater

taking
greater

unions.

these

operations

iterated,

334

ARITHMETIC

CH.

13,

13.1

complexity
infinitum.
Now indeed
the

appear elements
sets

at

higher
of the

and

higher

levels
that

that used

pile
in collection

up

in mathematics
of

the

cone

ad

collections
Thus
a

are

are

often
a

themselves.

topology
P+.
An
find

is

subsets,

as

is

powerset,
of

and

Heyting
and

algebra
with
levels

analyst
whose in

deals

daily
are

with
them-

collections
themselves
more

functions.
than

functions, Rarely
three
or

function(al)s
does
one

inputs practice
Even
then
the

however
four of the

need
one

for
can

of
use

membership.
of
a

distinguish conception,
"an whatsoever". abstract

these

examples
essential

set

theory
As has

from
Lawvere
no

the

actual

the
set

idea,
has elements

of
is

what each
a

set

is.

[76]
internal is
used
one

puts
structure

it,

X A

of

which
word group

set, Indeed
One

"naively",
in

collection "abstract"

of

indeterminate,
to

quite
convey

arbitrary, precisely
groups of the
topology,
as

things.
that
sense.

algebra
studies

the

abstract
a

theory
structure,

when

studies
the
nature

collections
of of those elements
a

that

elements the

support collections

certain

algebraic
immaterial.
are

being
space
was

In

general
called

topol-

topological
as

universally
"that

"points",
no

therein

point
in
the

being,
category
elements
us

it of

for
a

Euclid,
set

which
X that

has has

parts".
elements

Likewise,
1
>

sets, fundamental

is

an

object
and

X,
shown

these

has

how
terms.

to

being develop
is,
and of
the

indivisible.
for standard

Topos
mathematical
central

theory

foundations wil doubtless

It of
our

concepts Intuitive

in

these
set

theory
for
the

remain,
is
about in

to

our

metalanguage
which
we
or

doing
whether whether groups,
or

mathematics.

part
discourse

of which

the be
we

language
geometry,

in

speak,
foundations,
spaces,
as
a

object
the
sets.

algebra,

objects
Seen per
se

speak
stands

be

topological
not
set
so

this
as an

way,

topos
a

theory
to

much

rival
of
"set".

to

set
a

theory
notion
One

in of

presenting
most

theory rigorous
achievements
set

alternative

formalised
of
our

explication,
of
in
we
one can

foundation,
theory
that the "set

intuitive

the the

significant
of

topos
concept

is is

to

have in

crystal ised
such

core

basic
contexts.

theory
Thus

manifest
of

hitherto
and
our

diverse

apply
of
In

points"
we

notion

familiarity logic,
and
how
to

with monoid foundations with and wil

i.e.
the the

it

to

the

structures

algebraic
this
of

geometry,

intuitionistic
look
can

representations.
of
a

chapter
natural The

shall of

briefly
be

at

the

arithmetic
numbers

numbers
power

lifted of

any

topos

natural

object.
to

the the

axiomatic
heart

method,

ability
be 1
->

of

abstraction
home of

simplify
one

and reflects
below

get
that

at
a

things

perhaps
element

brought
N

if

"natural

number",

N,

referred

to

might

in

CH.

13,

13.2

PRIMITIVE

RECURSION

335

fact
germs

be

anything (local
or
a

from

continuous
to

function
an

between

sheaves

of

sets

of

homeomorphisms)
natural

equivariant
set-valued

mapping
functors

of

monoid
defined

actions,
on an

transformation
small

between

arbitrary

category.

13.2.

Primitive
this
1

recursion section,
^>
N. So
for
g"

Throughout object unique

i.e.

denotes
any
a

-^

topos

that 1 -^>
a

has
->

natural

numbers

diagram
defined

in

8 from

we

have

"^-sequence"
making

h:N-^>

by

simple

recursion

and

x,

commute.

Now

there

are

many

basic

arithmetical forms
of the this the
sequence
m

functions

that than of
m

can

be the

defined

inductively
axiom
of
two

by
NNO. numbers. 1
to m,

more

complex
for
We
may

recursion
process

that

captured
sum

by
m

the
+
n

Consider,
m"
m

example,
do

forming
fixed
and

by

holding

"repeatedly

adding

to

generate
m

+1,
defined
m

2,. .,

n,. .
on

Then

is
m+0=

by

"recursion

n"

from

the

equations

and

i.e.

s(n)
used of

s(m

n).
is
NNO the for define other
set
same as

The

form
The and
x

of A

these

:1> generalises.

equations to verify
m

those in

that

defined
and
x

the

unique
generalset

"parameter"
in
and

is
n

replaced
we
a

Bn(I) by
B.

12.2,

readily
of with
an

an

element

A,
A

place
outputs

+
some

function
To
start

h(x,n)
the

arbitrary inputs
on

from
n

u),

in

induction

we

336

ARITHMETIC

CH.

13,

13.2

need

function

of

the
=

form

h0:

>

so

that

we

can

put

A)
Then,
of

h(x,0)

ho(x).
function h.
Thus
=

assuming /
wil

f:B-^B
we

has

been

given,

repeated

application

generate

put

B)
By A)
and

h(x, B)

l)

/(h(x,

n)).

the

diagram
1aXs

commutes,
commute.

and the
>

defining
that

by
id^
x

these

equations
and

is

the

only
the
successor

way

that

it

can

In
s
: a)

case

h0
+:a>

is

:&)>&>

/
from

is

function

a),

the

unique
function
1.

h defined
&)>&>.

recursively

h0

and

/ by

A)

and

B)

is

the
Theorem

addition

(Freyd
is

[72]).
exactly
one

If
%-arrovi

g"t=NNO,
h:axN>

then

/or
b such

any

diagram

a4(j->()

there

that

commutes, Construction

where

Oa
for

is

the

composite
h
is the

of
"twisted"

>

>

N.

Proof,

exponential

adjoint

of

the

unique

sequence

>

ba

that

makes

CH.

13,

13.2

PRIMITIVE

RECURSION

337

commute.

Here

fa

is
^>

the

exponential
b

adjoint

of

fev

ba

->

baxa

In
to

Set,

fev

maps

<g, x)eBA

xA

to

/(g(x))eB,

so

that

fA

maps

geBA

Applying
h
:

Theorem JV
>

1 to

diagram
from

of

the

form
1
b

b-^b^b,
/
has

the

unique
recur-

defined

by

recursion

and

in

Set

the

recursive

equations
h(x,O)
h(x,
n
=

+1)
h

f(h(x,

n)).
the sequence

Thus

for

fixed

x,

generates

x,f(x),f(f(x)),f(f(f(x))),. .
and
The
so

h iterate

is

called

the

iterate
successor

of

/.
arrow 6:

of

the

>

is,

by

definition,

the

addition Exercise Exercise

arrow

What

N
does

>

N. look

1.

be
the

like of

in

Set*

and
that

Bn(I)?

2.

Let

i(f)

iterate

/.

Show

bxNxN

'tf)x4

commutes.

338

ARITHMETIC

CH.

13,

13.2

Exercise

3.
for

Explain
addition".

why

Exercise

2,

in

the

case

o,

gives

the

"associa-

"associative law
Exercise

4.

Show bxN

that

X1n>

bxN

i(f)\
b and bxN

\i(f)
f>

-^^

bxN

bxN
commute.

i(f)

>

Exercise
Exercise

5.

Show

that

<ON, O>
=

1N>O
O.

<1

ON)O=(O,

O>.

6.

<O,
+
m
=

Exercise

7.

@
N

m).

Show

that

commutes.

Exercise

8.

(Commutativity
2'
>

of
NxJV

Addition)

N
commutes.

basic
been
n

The

idea

of

recursion
serves as

having h(x,

defined,
as

captured input
are

by
to

Theorem
some

is
natural

that

h(x,
to

n),

function with

obtain
inductive

+1)

output.

But

there

some

functions

CH.

13,

13.2

PRIMITIVE

RECURSION

339

definitions
and well
x n

in in
as
a

which

h(x,
direct
way,
to

1) depends,
i.e.
we

not

just input
for
n

on

h(x,
or

n),
both the is

but

also
x

on
n

x as

very

need

to

one

of

and

h(x,
of
x

n) by
xxO
n,

get
i.e.
"x

h(x,n
added

l).
to

Take

example
times".

xn

itself

This

multiplication given

by

the

equations
=

i.e.

xsin)-fix,
the function

xn) h(x,
1)
that

where
For
an

is

addition
in which
p:

function.
n
a>

example
case we

depends
has
p

directly

on
n

consider
n
=

the

predecessor
which

a>
=

>

pin)
is

put
=

p(n)
0

0).

Recursively

specified

(unless by

0,

in

p@)

p(n
These
two

l)=n.
may

considerations
and

be
we

combined define

into

one:

given
by

functions

h0: recursion",

->

f-.-^
the

h.Axoi-^B,

"primitive

through h(x, h(x, 0)

n
=

equations

ho(x)
=

+1)
the
of

fix,
>

n,
&>

h(x,
and

n)). /
function
as

By
the

the

putting resulting composite

ft)

h0
h

as

the
p.

nd

projection"
Using
the
same

prf:
h0,

&>3
but

>

a>,

is

predecessor
pr3)
+

with

<prt,

ft)

>u)

we

recover

the

multiplication
Theorem

function

as

h.

Primitive
any <g-arrows

Recursion

(Freyd f:axNxb^>b

[72]).
there

If
is

g"t=NNO,
a

then

for

ho:a-^b

and

unique

<S-arrow

h:axN-+b

making
1-X<<

axN

commute.

340

ARITHMETIC

CH.

13, that

13.2

Construction

for

Proof.
axN

By

Theorem

1, there

is
<

unique

h'

such

^^

axN

axNxb
commutes.

<pfl'pf2'f)>
(x,
n,

In

Set

(prt,

pr2,f)

takes

y)

to

(x,

n,f(x,

n,

y)).

Hence

h'

has

the

equations

h'(x,
The desired axN
g'-arrow

+1)

<x,
is

n,

f(x,

n,

h'(x,

n))>.

the

composite

^-^

axNxb

of Corollary.

h'

and

the

projection If
h is

to

b.

defined
x :

recursively
1
>

from y:l-No/a

h0

and

f
and

as

in N
we

the have

Theorem,

then

for
(i)

any

elements
=

and

h(x,0)

hox

>/
axN

\hox
b
y,

(ii)

?i<x,

dy)=f<x,
1

h(x,

y
axNxB

^-^^,

Proof.

Apply
of
arrows

the the

elements

x:l->a

and

<x,
3.8.

y):

l->
and

xN the

to

the rules

two

diagrams

Primitive

Recursion
in the

Theorem,
of

use

for

product

given

Exercises

CH.

13,

13.2

PRIMITIVE

RECURSION

341

The
context

original
of

formulation

of

the
the

Primitive
is
two

Recursion
to

Theorem,

in
states

the that ful

well-pointed

categories,
h

due

Lawvere of the

[64]
extensionality

and

there

is
of
show

unique
this is

proof
to

given

satisfying by
of

conditions wherein

corollary.
is

Hatcher

[68],

invoked

uniqueness special
cases

h.

Some

A)

(Independence
h:axN
>

unique

of n). making

Given

ho:a-^b

and

/:axb-b,
x

there

is

axN

axN

ra,

h) axb

I
recursion
=

commute,

(h
B)

is

obtained

by

primitive
1axN
h0:

from

h0
b there

and

f{pra,prb):axNxb-+b,
(Independence
h
: a

using
x

<pra,
>

prN).)
b
and

unique

>

b
axN

of x). making

Given

/:

>

is

axN

axN

I
Nxb
commute.
-

L
b

C)

(Dependence
h:N
>

only
b such
N

on

n).

Given

ho:l->b

and

f:N>b

there

is

unique

that
N N

commute

(this

comes

from and

Case the
1

/prN:Nxfe-)b D) (Iteration). ho:a-^b,f:b-^b,

recursion

using
Theorem
the

defining B), isomorphism

is
: a
-+

h':lxN-+b
1
a

from
N
=

h0

and

N).
case:

itself
x

special
by

given
recur-

unique
xNxb

N b.

>

b is

defined

primitive

from

h0

and

prb:a

342

ARITHMETIC

CH.

13,
we

13.2

Using
define in

the
any

Primitive

Recursion
with
a

Theorem natural

and

its

topos

numbers

object

special analogues

cases,

can

of

many

arithmetical
Definition 1>N

operations. (Predecessor).
and

1N

:N>N
N

p:N>N (Case C))

is
as

defined

by
arrow

recursion
that

from exists
N
to

O:

the

unique
N

make

^-

N
commute.

lN

Corollary,
Proof. If

is

monic.

4/
9.

dg,

p4/
that
p

pdg,

i.e.

1N/=1Ng.
?

Exercise

Show

is

epic.
-:NxN->JV

Definition

(Subtraction).
arrow

is
'lx*

the

iterate

of

p,

i.e.

the

unique

for

which
NxN
>

NxN

N
1

>

commutes.

Exercise

10.

Verify
(m 'm
m-

that

in
n

Set if

lo
.

otherwise.

Exercise

11. NxN 1nX<<

>

NxN

^^ commutes.

NxN

CH.

13,

13.2

PRIMITIVE

RECURSION

343

Exercise

12.

((n

1)
NxN

n).

The

diagram

N*'1^

commutes.

Theorem

2.

A)

[(m ^-+

1) (n
NxN

l)

m-

n]

N
commutes.

B)

N
commutes.

Proof.

A)

Consider
NxN

That
arrows.

the For

upper

triangle
the other

commutes

is
we

standard

exercise

C.8.8)

in

product C.8.8)

triangle
=

have

p<,x1N1N 1Nx1N
* NXN-

344

ARITHMETIC

CH.

13,

13.2

But

the

lower
4
as

part
above

of

the

Exercise
commutes

(tipped

diagram over).

commutes

Hence

the

by the boundary

second of the

diagram

of

diagram

required.

B)

Consider NxN NxN

The

this
upper

upper theorem.

square

commutes

by

Exercise
is

11,
part
of the

the

lower

one

by
,

part
and for

A)
the

of

The

lower
we

triangle

definition

of

triangle

have

<,

2><1

oN>=<e<i
=

oN>, AON>
it is

Pr2<i

oN

(definition).
showing a simple
(Theorem
exercise
that

Thus is
the

the

whole

diagram
iterate
of

commutes,

1) that
the

(,
of

pr2)
1N
?

unique is p^-.NxN-^N.
Corollary.

1N.

But

iterate

NxN

NxN
commutes.

B)
monic.

(,pr2):NxN-+NxN

and

(pr1,

:NxN-NxN

are

both

Proof.

A)
^,

^2><,

pr2)

(pru
' IVXIV-

pr2)

(Theorem,

part

B))

CH.

13,

13.2

PRIMITIVE

RECURSION

345

B)
But

From

A)
since

(as

in

the

proof

that

<

is

monic),

we

get

(,

pr2)

monic.

then,

NxN

commutes,

using

Exercise

8,

and

so

too

does

NxN

the

fact

that

the

twist

arrow

(pr2,

pr)

is

iso

means

that

(1

is

monic.
?

Order
The

relations standard
L
=

ordering

on

&>

yields

the

relation

{(m,
m

n):
=?n

=S

n}.
for
some

Since,

in

general,
L
=

if

pea,

n,

we

have

{(m,
is
so we

m+p):
the
have

m,pe&>}.
output
the

But

(m, (m,

p)

of

the

function

(,
factorisation

):

for

input

p),

epi-monic

,>

a>

<pri,

Thus NxN
we

in that have The strict

g"

we

may

define from
seen,

the the

order

relation factorisation is monic

from

on

to

be
of

that

subobject
Since,
take
it
may

of
as

arises

epi-monic
arrow

(,).
we

just
the order
m<n

this
on

already,
=?

to

represent

order
<

N.
on
&>

is

given

by

the

condition

if

346

ARITHMETIC

CH.

13,

13.2

Thus

in

we

define

>-

by

the

diagram

NxN

<j

1N

is

monic,
of
13. N
x

being
N.

product

of

monies,

and

so

is

indeed

subobject
Exercise

Define

the

gf-arrows

corresponding

to

the

relations

{{m,
and

n):

ms?n}

{{m,
on
&>.

n):

>

n}

Definition

ON

and

(Multiplication). (Special
NxN

:NxN->N
Case

is the

defined

recursively making

from

A))

as

unique
NxN

arrow

^^^^

NxN

NxN
commute.

Exercise

14.

Show

that,

for

x:

and

(x,
Exercise
Exercise

y)e

(prl5
15.

if

for that for

some

N,

6(x,
if
for
some

z)

y.

Show

(x,
any

y)e
x :

1
-

z,

6{dx,

z)

y.

16.

Show

N,

that

CH.

13,

13.3

PEANO

POSTULATES

347

Exercise

17.

Define

in
m"

g"

analogues

of

the

fol owing

arithmetical

arrows

in

Set

(i) (ii)
(ii ) (iv)
Further

exp(m,

n)
=

(m

n m

|m-n|
max(m, min(m,
information
is

]I
n) n)
=

if
otherwise

mS^n

n
=

maximum minimum
about of

of
m

and

n n.

and

? numbers
of

recursion

on

natural

objects
section
has been

in

topoi
based.

given

by

Brook

[74],

on

which

much

this

13.3.
In

Peano
Set
one

postulates
can

prove

of
xew.

the

system
=

1>-^>
all
x,

<w.

that

A) B) C)

s(x)#O, s(x)
if
Acw

all
=

s(y)

only
satisfies
and
xeA

if

y,

(i) (ii)
then Statement A
=

OeA,
whenever
&>.

then

s(x)eA,
the

C)
Any
number

formalises
number is

principle
obtainable
from tel
us

of that known

Finite
0

Mathematical

Induc-

Induction.
finite
a

natural of of three the

A.
statements

by
process

repeatedly
always
Peano of

adding
results

times,

(i)

and

(ii)
B),
axiomatic

this

in

member The

A),
for
an

C),
Set,
the in

as

the

Postulates,
number if

provide
theory.
was

basis characterise system

*

development
in the
sense

classical

They
any other

that of

1<w'-^<w'

satisfying
for which

analogues

A),

B),

C),

then

the

unique

<w'

commutes

would that h h is is

be

iso

(i.e.
and

show

<w',

i.e.

injective, surjective.

C)'

bijection) applied

in
to

Set.

A)'

and

B)'
shows

are

used

to
=

h(a>)^a>'

that

h{ay)

348

ARITHMETIC

CH.

13,

13.3

In

this

section

we

show then
of
a

that

an

nno

in
some

any

topos

satisfies
results
of

A),
show

B),
that

C).
the
be

We

wil

appeal
natural

to

notion
Peano clear

numbers how
the

deep object
condition

analogues Freyd
characterised

of

[72]

to

is

exactly

by
It
to

categorial
should

Postulates.
to

the

reader

"s(x)#O"

abstracts

PO:

i.e.

N
does
not commute

^>

N
for Postulate
any

"natural

number"
asserts

N.

Alternatively,

A)

that

where

s~1({O})
to

{xg<u:
the

s(x)
inverse
of
another

O}
subset

is

the of

inverse
a

image
subset of the the

of

{0}
in

under

s.

According by pulling
Hence PI:
we

3.13,
inclusion

image
back

codomain

arises

the

that

along
of

function

question.

contemplate

abstraction

Postulate

A)

N
is
a

^-

pullback.
B)
states

Postulate
so

precisely
is

that

the

successor

function

is

injective,

and

becomes monic.

P2: In Postulate

C),
(i)
becomes
1

the

subset

is
there

replaced
is
some
x

by
:

monic
a

/:a
for

>-

N.

Hypothesis

/,

i.e.

which

commutes.

Hypotheses
x e

(ii) image
of
A

states

that
s.

s(A)^A,
the

where

{s(x):

A}

is

the

under

Recalling

discussion

of

s(A) images

CH.

13,

13.3

PEANO

POSTULATES

349

at

the

beginning /
are

of

12.6,

s(A)

generalises
Thus

to

4[f]

im(jf),
statement

and

since that in

and

monic,

<*[f]
i.e.
a

<if.

(ii)

becomes

the

Sub(N),

<sf<=f,

commutes

for

some

g.

Altogether
P3: For

then

Postulate

C)
a>->N
f

becomes of

any

subobject
and

N,

if

(i) (ii)
then
Theorem 1. P3. PO:
If

Oef, <(fc/ f~"\N.

natural

Any

numbers

object

NN

satisfies

PO,

P2,

and
Proof.

<s

for

some

x:

N,

then

and

so

i.e.
x
=

have

(by
=
N
*

definition

of

p)

But

then

we

and

so

if

is

defined

by

recursion

>

N
h

a
Erom

false

and
true
=

we

would

have

false

hO

false

350

ARITHMETIC

CH.

13,

13.3

which
P2:

would

make
was

g"
to

degenerate.
be

shown

monic
there

in
are

the

last

section.

P3:

Suppose

and

commuting

diagrams

and

N Let h be
defined

from
N

and

by
N

simple

recursion

and

consider

The

upper

triangle previous diagrams. unique

these
last

and

square

commute

by
the

definition

of

h,

the

lower

two

by fh obviously

the
as

Hence
arrow

whole

diagram
recursion
define
from

commutes,
and

revealing
a.

the

defined
arrows

by

But

two

recursively

1N.

Hence

>

>

commutes, Exercise The

1.

showing
Derive
of in
N

that P0 in
g"
we

1Nc/,
from
PI.

and

so

/.

?
?

elements

Set

are

of

course

just
n

the
e

finite
an
arrow

ordinals
n:

Correspondingly,

define,

for

each

<w,

by

times

The
more

arrows

wil
natural

be

called numbers Peano

the

finite
x:

ordinals
1 N

of
of

g\
we

Using
can

these,
formulate

and

the
two

general
of
the

if,

variants

third

postulate.

13,

13.3

PEANO

POSTULATES

351

For

any

a>^N,
Oef, xef
J
and

if

(i) )
then
:
For

implies

xef,

all

1 ^>

any

a>->N,

if
and

(i) (ii)
then
Exercise 1.
=

Oef, nef
j f

implies
1N.
that in

anef,

all

uea

Show
all i.

Bn(I),

is

the

section

of

prx:

<u

->I

that

has

n(i)
Exercise natural

(i,n),
2.

Show

that

in

Bn(<w),
with ^

the
n,

diagonal
all and
n.

map:-^

is

number
3. Show

A:1-*N,
that that Theorem P3B P3B

Exercise

implies
holds 7.7.2 in

P3A

P3A and in
in

implies Bn(I)
a

P3 and

in

general.

Exercise Exercise

4.

Show

Set*
show

Top(I).
topos
P3

5.

Use

to

that

well-pointed

implies
Before First
we

P3A.

examining
observe
id

PI,
that
!

we

look

at

two

further

properties

of

<u

in

Set.

=z

{0}
in Set. For
if

is

co-equaliser

diagram

/os=/id<o
induction)

/(n)

=/, /@)

then all

for
n.

each
Thus

new,

f(n
is
a

l)=f(n),
function

and

hence

(by /@)
its

inducsole

constant

with

352

ARITHMETIC

CH.

13,

13.3

output.

Putting
x

x@)
uniquely
formulate
N-^1 is

/@)
denned

then

makes
and exists

the

last

diagram

commute,

and

clearly
Thus

is
we

if /s

=/.

Fl: Exercise

the
to set

co-equaliser
3.12
where Show
the R

of
codomain

<t

and

1N.
of the

6.
s
<w

According

and
on

is

the

having
universal

quotient nRs(n),
relation

/R,
.

is

the

smallest

co-equaliser equivalence
one a

of

id^

relation

all

that

there

is

only

such

R,

the

R=(aXa,

having

<w/R

={<w},

terminal

namely object

in

Set.

Since,

in

Set,

Im

{1,
so

2, 3,. .},
the

we

have

A))
Im have
s

{O}nlms=0,
=

and

union 0:1
<w

is

{0} disjoint
and

Im

a>.

But
+

one-{0}
Im
s

(Postulate Imss{0}U
monic
s

a>.

Identifying [0,

{0} s]:

with

with

the

we

and F2:
Theorem

thus

we

formulate The
Fl

-product
and F2 that hold

arrow

[O,
for
any

<*]:
natural

1 + N

>

is

iso.

2.

numbers

object.

Proof.

Fl:

Suppose
*

=1N

f4=f.

Put

x=fO,

/*
N
so

that
N N f

CH.

13,

13.3

PEANO

POSTULATES

353

commutes.

But N N

commutes,

and

so

by

the

axiom

NNO,

commutes

as

required.
fol ows

That
from

there
the

can

be

only
!: N

one
->

such
1 is

making
To
see

this

diagram
observe

commute

fact

that

epic.

why,

that

commutes, F2:
Let

and f.l
+

use

the N-*

fact
1 +

that N be

is
arrow

epic

(or

derive

the

result

directly).

the

/[O,

d]

1+N

354

ARITHMETIC

CH.

13,

13.3 i and

where t,

i and

are

the

injections.

Let

be

defined

by

recursion

from

and

consider

Since

is

an

[O,
then
Now

d]j[O,
gives
the

injection, d] d[O,
=
=

[O,

<s\i
Hence

O. the

Since
whole

/ is

an

injection,
commutes.

[O,

4Jt
NNO

d].
1N.

diagram

[O, <j]g diagrams

N
i

1 +

-^

1+N

and

1+N

both from

commute.

The

first

is

left that

as

an
=

exercise.
gd.

For

the

second,
tg4
=

observe
gdd
as
=

the

previous
and
these also hence

diagram
tgO /O diagrams,
i. Thus
an
=

tg
=

This
But also

desired, /1NO=/O,
From
one
we

g<iO.
as

yields tgO=
desired.
a
=

j[O,
j.
the
From
=

<i]g
the

gdO,
NNO

last

two
=

have

gO
that
7. In
g

g[O,
inverse
Fl
to

have Exercise
any

shown

is

gives g a] [gO, gd] [, <], making

=

previous
Thus
we

[i, /]
lat er

1ixniso.

?
Show
x :

deriving
with

we

used is

the

fact

that!:

N- has
an

1 is

epic.

in 1
-

category
!:
a

1, that

if

non-empty,

i.e.

element

a,

then

1 is

epic.

CH.

13,

13.3

PEANO

POSTULATES

355

Lemma.

In

any

topos,

if
a

v-I-^

b
is
a

k>
with
g

pushout
By
)
:

monic,
Arrow

then

is

monic

and Theorem

the

square

is

pullback.
the
clas-

Proof.

the
>

Partial

Classifier with

(11.8),
a

using

classifier

associated

b,

we

have

diagram

whose

boundary
the
commute.

is

pullback.
of

The the

co-universal
x

property
as

of
to

pushouts
the whole

then

implies diagram straightforward

existence
That

the

unique original
since

shown

make

square

is
=

also

pullback
h must

is
be

then
too.

exercise.

Finally,

xh

r\b

is

monic,

?
Theorem
PI: 0
>

3.

Any

natural

numbers

object

satisfies

lo
N
is
a
-

pullback.
Since,
established

Proof.

by

F2

we

have

an

isomorphism

[O,

a]:

1 + N

N,

it

is

readily

that

356

ARITHMETIC

CH.

13,

13.3

is
then

co-product
makes
fol ows 4. it

diagram
immediate

in
that

The the

co-universal

property
for 1 PI

of
a

co-products
and
so

diagram
0

is

result
Theorem
any

by
The

the

Lemma,
PI,

since

is

monic

pushout, (3.16).

the

?
Fl

conditions

P2,

and

P3

together

imply

and

F2

for

diagram

in Proof.

topos.
Fl:

Suppose

that

f<}=f,

and

let

g:

v^

be

the

equaliser

fo

of

and

fO\N.

Let

fO\N
N

h.

Then

since

1-^-

INO
then

1ls

it

fol ows

that
g,

hO=fO.
hence
eg.

Since

equalises

and

h,

must

factor

through
observe N
d^ that

Next,

l\
lNd /g through
so
=

A,

from Thus

which

it i.e.

fol ows

readily
^gc
g.

that

h<ig
that P3

hg.
og

But
must

hg
factor
g
to
=

f4g.
the
g
=

h(og)=zf(<iog),
g,

implying
The the

equaliser
is

postulate
lat er

then

gives
enough

that

iso,
Hence

in

particular

epic,

being

1 give

f=h

fO\N.

foO

CH.

13,

13.3

PEANO

POSTULATES

357

commutes.
so

But

!: N

is

epic,
of
and
a

since
that

has

the

element this

0:1

N,

and

/O
establishes
F2:

is

the
P2

only
Fl.
and

element

wil

make

diagram
so

commute.

This
associated suffices

By
to

PI,
that that

are

with
show then

Theorem

5.4.3

[O,

<s\

is

gives epic.

[O,
<j]

disjoint <j] as

monies,
monic.
To prove

the F2

Lemma

then,

it

Suppose

f[O,

<J=

g[O,

From

the >->N oh
1

h:b

diagram equalises
factors
from

we

see

that
g
we

fO
must

gO

and

f6
and

g6.

Then

if
=

f f
any
=

and

have i.e.
Thus

eh,
is

since
P3

then

foh
then

goh,
h

through
g

h,
fol ows.

<ih^h.

Postulate

gives

which
In

[0,
are

d]

right
equivalent

cancellable.

Corollary.

topos
is
a

i?,
natural the the
Theorems 4.

the

fol owing
numbers
Peano

the

form A) B) C)
The

l^N^N.
The The

for

diagram

of

diagram diagram diagram

object
Postulates Postulates
1 Fl

satisfies satisfies B): C): A):

Theorem

PI,
and

P2,

and
F2.

P3.

Freyd
and

Proof.

B) C)
The

A) implies implies

implies

3.

Freyd
of

[72],
A)
scope. and

Theorem

5.4.3.

equivalence
our

C) Freyd
numbers

established
also

by
establishes

Freyd
the

beyond
topos
of

present
exists exists
a a

requires equivalence

techniques
in
any

(a) (b) for

which

there there

natural
monic

object,
>-

f:
1

and

an

element

x:

of

its

domain

>

358

ARITHMETIC

CH.

13,

13.3

is

pullback,
there exists

and
an

(c)
With

isomorphism

of
that
sets

the

regard objects
has
one
more a

to

(c),
are

observe finite element of

so

in
with
a.

form Finset,
the
same

1 +

a.

where

there of

is

no

nno,

isomorphic
1 +

number

elements,

and

than

The all
The
terms

intuitive distinct
natural

import
and

(b)
forms

is
a

that

the

sequence

x,

f(x),
of
a

subset
then

{x,
arises

f(x),. .}
as

f(f(x)),. . isomorphic
of and

has
to
a>.

numbers

object
>->

the

"intersection"
have
to

all

subobjects
These

g:b
ideas numbers
8.
are

that

contain
in another

this

set,

i.e.

xeg

fgcg.
of

formalised

approach

the

characterisation

natural
Exercise

objects
Derive
PI

developed
and P2

by directly

Osius

[75].
F2.

from

CHAPTER

14

LOCAL

TRUTH

"a

Grothendieck
most

topology

apa

appears

naturally of
the that'"
F. W.
nature
case

as

modal
is

operator,

'it

loc-

locally

the

Lawvere

The of sheaf

notion

of

topological
The

bundle involves of
open
sets

represents
the

but
of

one a

side sheaf
Our
as

of
a

the functor aim

coin

theory.
on

other

conception
in
a

defined
is
to

the the

category

topological
that

space.

now

trace

Grothendieck's
category

development generalisation,
sheaf
on a

of
to

ideas the and

leads
of
a

from

this
the

notion,
on a

via

notion
and the

"topology"
there
to

categ-

and

its
of
a

attendant

concept,
topos
The
to

from

first-order sheaf

concept
of Lawvere

topology
and

resultant
is

axiomatic

theory
and

Tierney.
direct
the

chapter
the

basically
literature.

survey,

its

intention

is

to

reader

appropriate

14.1.
Let
I

Stacks
be
a

and

sheaves
space,

topological
under U

with
set

its

set

of

open

subsets.
in

&
the
from

becomes
arrows are

poset

category
the
A

the
<=
over

inclusion
I

ordering,
a

which
functor

just
Thus
[/c^Va of
arrow

inclusions
or

V.

stack
a

stack

pre-sheaf assigns
Fu:
such
and then

is
open

contravariant
V
a

to

Set.

to

each

set

F(V),
the

and

to

each
-

inclusion
reversal

function

F( V)
that

F(U)

(note

contravariance

(i) (ii)

F^
if

direction), idu?
=

U^V^W,

F(W)

/
F(V)

>

F(U)

commutes,

i.e.

F"

'W

F{,

r^V

Fv.
359

t-'W

360

LOCAL

TRUTH

CH.

14,

14.1

Example.
4.

Let

/:
stack

be

sheaf
as

of fol ows.

sets

of

germs

over

I,

as

in

Chapter

Define

Ff:
=

6)
set

Set
of A:s

Ff(V)

the

local is
is
A

sections

of
and

defined

on

{V
U
<=*

-^

continuous
the
over

f
or

V=^I}
map
s

For

an

inclusion
to

V,
s:V-^>
s

F^,
with

"restricting"
V

"localising"
\
U: U
we

that
*

assigns
U.

each

section sections

its

restriction
have

to

Identifying

their

images

s(I)^A

the

picture

which
over
arrows

indicates
I.
The
:

the

origin
St(I)
the

of

the

word
as

"stack".

Ff
the stacks i.e.

is

the
F:

stack
>

of
Set

sections

category
F-h>

has

objects
that

and

as

natural
-

transformations,
G(U)
such

collections

:Ue@}

of

functions

:F(U)

F(V)

G(V)

F(U)
U^V. functor 0

G(U)

commutes

whenever
a

Now

contravariant

Set
to

can

be

construed
to

as

covariant
Thus

Junctor
is

from

@op,
to

the
the

opposite
topos

category

0,

Set

(cf.

9.1).

St(l)

equivalent

Set0""

CH.

14,

14.1

STACKS

AND

SHEAyES
an

361

Exercise

1.

Let

h:
sets

(A,
of
germs

f)

>

(B,
over

g)
I.
maps

be
For
a

arrow

in
open

the

spatial
V,
define
to

topos

of

sheaves
to

of be

each

hv:

Top(l) Ff (V)

Fg(V)

the

function
*

that

section

seFf(V)

>

hs,
and

i.e
that

hv(s)
the

hs.

Verify
for Show from
all

that

hs
form

is

section
the

of

g,

i.e.
and

hv(s)eFg(V),
of
an

Th:Ff-T>Fs
constitute
a

in

hv's, St(I).
S? stack i.e. is of is
a

Ve<9,
that the
to

components

arrow

assignments
St(I)arises
as

/->Ff

h>->Th

consti?

functor

Top(l)
F,
to

Now
a

given
of

the when be

question
is
found

to

when
germs
to

is
such

(isomorphic
that

to)
in

stack
=

sections,
answer

there in
the

sheaf
answer

of

f
another I.
of

St(l),
about that

Ff.

The

the

behavior

local collection
of their
the the

sections
of

of

f:A-^>
is
The
a

question Suppose
indexed
some

{Vx^A:xeX}
set

local

sections

f,
of

by
open
can

some

X,

and for all

that
x,

each

domains and

Vx

subset

set
we

V.

Thus,

sxeFf(Vx)
all

Vx
sx

V.
to
s

"paste"

together
The rule i
e

of

sections desired
=

form is

question single
if have This
e

is-when

section
i
e

s:V-^>Ae choose
s
=

Ff (V).
that that union has each of

defining
and

this:
to

V,
means

some

Vx

Vx,
i
e

put
a

s(i)
member
of

sx(i).
of
at

In least V of open

order
one
=

dom

we

require
V

be

Vx.
: x

that

is

the

the In

collection

Vx 's,
V.

i.e.

U{Vx
sets

X}

{i:
union

for

some

xeX,
V

ieVx}.
called
In order
an

general
open
cover

collection
of the be
e

whose

is

wil

be

for of

to

satisfy
should
i

definition
Thus
if
i
e

s(i)
Vx
and and

Vy,
In

we

"unique independent require

on

output"
of the
=

property
choice
So

of

functions,
Vx

the i.
our

of
any

containing
of local that

sx(i)
the
-

sy(i).
Vx

two

sections

sx

sy
common.

must

agree

part

Vy

of

their

domains

they

have

in
for

symbols
sx

all

x,

eX,

\ VxCiVy=sy
s s

\ Vx
be is the
A
a

Vy.
member
over

Under

this with
to
t
=

"compatibility"
s

condition,
=

wil

well-defined

of
V

Ff (V),
restriction
then

\ Vx
Vx
is

sx,

all

x.

Moreover
sx.

only
has

section
t

whose
x

always

For,

if

t:V^>

\ Vx

sx,

all

X,

s.

362

LOCAL

TRUTH

CH.

14,

14.1

Now

the

compatibility
maps

condition

on
a

the
F. We

sx's
let

can

be

of
and

the

restricting

FZ

of

functor be the is that

and

FJ:
of

expressed F(Vx)
the the

in
->

terms

F(VX
of

Vy)
Vx

<=

FJ:F(Vy)^F(VxnVy)
c*

Vy
V.

vx
case

and

VxnV,Q
we

Vy,
have shown
the
open

F-images Fx :F(V)
the

inclusions

->

F(VX)

image
obtains

Vx

Then

what that
Given F

fol owing of for

all
=

condition

for

the COM:

is
any

of

form
cover

Ff.
sx

selection

of
s

elements
i.e.

{Vx: eF(VX),
=

xeX}
x,

an

open

set

V,
are

and

any

all

xeX,

that then there

compatible,
one

F*(sx)
such

Fl(sy)
Fx(s)
that wil

eX,

pairwise is exactly
stack
over

eF(V)
is
F
a

that

sx
can

all be called

xeX.
made
a

Notice
F:

that

COM

statement

about

any

Set.
the ful be
2.

Any
denoted

satisfying
of

COM

be

sheaf objects

of

sections

I, and
COM
Exercise
a

subcategory Sh(l).
that the

St(I)

generated

by

those

that

satisfy

wil

Show

constant

stack

1:

-^

Set,

where

1(U)

{0},

is

sheaf. 3.
Let
=

Exercise

Consider

the

space

I all the

{0,1},
and

with

5P (I)
all

(the

discrete where
F

topology).
f @) sheaf,
Exercise
Exercise

F(U)
0.

{0,1},

Ue
cover

F^
{1}}
of

f, I,
show

ULV,
that

f A)
i.e.

By

considering
fails.

{{0},

is

not

COM
4.

Why
Show

must

F@),

for

any

sheaf

F,

be

one-element

set?

5.

that

F(V)

F(VX)
commutes

3
Vy
a

>

F(Vy)
and
so

whenever

Vx,
for

F(V),
is

together

with
of
to

the the the be the

maps

Fx,

for that

all
and

xeX,
the
cone arrows

forms be
denoted

cone

the that
that

diagram
COM

F^.
universal

Show for

consisting equivalent
i.e. that

objects
condition limit

F(VX)
of

this

diagram,

F(V)

the

diagram,
Now
germs

F(V)
an

limxeXF(Vx)
stack be denned.

(cf.
F:'&>Set,
For

3.11).
a

given
pF:

arbitrary
I
may

corresponding
i
e

sheaf I the

of

AF

>

each

collection

CH.

14, i

14.1

STACKS

AND

SHEAVES

363

{F(V):
associated
is
denned

V} of restricting
to
an

F-images
maps,

of
forms

neighbourhoods a diagram
denoted
~t

of

i, together
The

with
over

their
i in

in

Set.

stalk
of

AF
if
we

be

the

co-limit,
relation

limieVF(V)
is and
defined
on

this
i
e

diagram. V}
thus:

Explicitly, sxeF(Vx)
put

equivalence

U{F(V):

and

syeF(Vy)
if

(where

Vx
=

Vy
for

are

i-neighbourhoods),
i-neighbourhood
element

sx~tsy

Fl(sx)
the

Fl(sy),
of

some

v^vxnvr
Intuitively,
Thus
same
s

Fl(sx)
sx
~;

is

"localisation"
are

the that The

sxeF(Vx)
is
when

to

Vz.
the of
at

sy under

when
to
~h

they
some

localisation
e

"locally (-neighbourhood.
set

equal", ={t:
the
set
=

they
class the
germ

have

equivalence
is called

[s];
of
i
s

F(V)
stalk
stalk
onto

i.e.
over

the
i is

[s];
AF

The
The

for space

pF

then

is I.
For The

the

union each
open

U{F;:
Ve<9 all

t}, F; ={<i, iel},

~t

i.

[s];>:
and
pF

U{F(V):
the let
a

V}}.
of

is

projection
N(s,
on

AF {(', Mi): making

Exercise Exercise

and

seF(V),
generates

V) AF

i
pF

e
a

V}.
local

collection

of

N(s,

V)'s

topology

homeomorphism.
that
~;

6.
7.

Verify
Define

is

an

equivalence by

relation.

p'v:F(V)-^Fi
=

pUs)
Show that

<.[s]i>,

all

seF(V).

F(V)

>

F(U)

commutes

when
on so

Lfc

V,
is its

so

that

the that

pv's
this

form
co-cone

co-cone

for

the

diagram
for
the

based

{F(V):
that 8.
If
i
e

ieV}.
F?

Prove

is

co-universal

diagram,
Exercise

co-limit,
define

F^lirriigvFCV).
sv:V-^AF
sv

(cf. by putting
the of sheaf the

3.11).
sv(i)
pF:AF-^>
sheaf
for
=

seF(V),
V.

{i, [sl>
I. of

plv(s),
Exercise
pF.

for

all
9.
Let

Show
be
define
sv

that

is

section
of

of

FPf
V,

the the

sheaf

(stack)
of of
an

sections

germs

For
=

each
sv,

o-v:F(V)-^FPF(V)
is

by
pF
arrow

putting,
in

seF(V),
8.

<rv(s)
the

where

section

defined

Exercise
in

Show

that

crv's

form

the

components

cr:F-r^FPF

St(l).

364

LOCAL

TRUTH

CH.

14,
*

14.1

Exercise

10. if

Let

F
a

-r*

be
at

an

arrow

in with
the

St(l).
s

Define

hT
say,

AF

AG
be of the

as

fol ows:
germ

(i, [s];>
in

is

germ

i in
tv

AF,
is

eF(V)

let

(i, [tv(sI>
that

AG,

where

component

F(V)

hT@ G(V)

Show

AF

AG

commutes,
Exercise

and

that

hT
that
to

is

Top(I)-arrow
the

from

pF

to

pG.

11. <g
from

Verify

constructions

->

pF,

->

hT

constitute

functor
Exercise

St(I)
Let

Top(l)I
-^

12. and

f:A

be
I

any

sheaf
the
s

of sheaf

germs

over

I,

Ff
Define i.e.

its

stack
a

of
map

sections,
k:A-^>
of
Let

pFf:
as

AFf
fol ows.

the

associated
use

of
A

germs.

AFf
f
to

If

a&A,
local
be the

local
:V
s
~^>

homeomorphism
through
a,

property
a

show
=

that

has

section
germ

s(V).

k(a)

(f(a),

[s]f(a)>

of

at

/(a).

)
Fig. Check that
a

I
14.2.

the

definition chosen. Show

of that

k(a)

does

not

depend

on

which

section

through

is

commutes,

so

that

is

Top(I)-arrow

from

to

pFf.

CH.

14,

14.1

STACKS

AND

SHEAVES

365

Exercise

13. is
an

Prove

that
arrow

the

map

fe of

the

last

exercise

is

bijection,

and

hence

iso

in

Top(I),

making
be that
av

Ppf-

Exercise

14. in Exercise
open

Let

orv:F(V)FPe(V)
9.
covers

the

component
if
<y

of the

cr:F-^FPr
COM stack
F

defined holds

Show of
V.

is

bijection
that is

condition if
the

for
i.e. Exercises

Hence F

show
to
us

iso

is

sheaf,

that 1

FPu
11

if

belongs
with
of

Sh(I).
functors

?
if:

and

provide
the

Top(I)
in)

^iStCD-^TopCD,
Exercise

with

image

if

being

(contained

St(I) Sh(I).

and

By

13,

f
However

%(&(/)),
Exercise

all

Top(I)-objects
for

/.
we

by

14,
if

FeSt(I), FeSh(I)of

have

Thus

if,

and

the

restriction
that the

"S

to

Sh(I)
of of
of germs
to

are

equivalences
sheaves
over

of of

categories
over

(9.2).
equivalent
We

They
to

establish
the

category

sections
sheaves

is

topos
this
of

of

sheaves

I.

conclude il ustrations

brief
the

introduction
behaviour

stacks

and

with

two

major

Sh(I)-objects.

I.
The
constant

NNO

in

Sh(J)

category
sheaf
that

Sh(I)
natural-number-valued
has

has

natural

numbers

functions

on

object-the I. Specifically

sheaf N:

of

locally
-H>Set is

the

is

continuous},
the

where

<w

is

presumed
UgV.
that that
g

to

have

discrete
for

topology,
the

and discrete
that that that that

N^(g)
topology

\ U
on

whenever
The
means

requirement

be

continuous

is

precisely neighbourhood
Thus condition is each
on

is
of

locally
i, with
number

constant,

i.e.

for
g

each

e
a

V
constant

there

there
g
true
can

1
g;
e
<w

V,
such
as

such

\
=

is for

function.
This constant" of

is

g(i)
the
some

g;
statement

all

.
is

be

interpreted
its

saying
i.e.
true

"g

locally
of
V.

of

domain

V,

of

neighbourhood

point

366

LOCAL

TRUTH

CH.

14,
out
6

14.1

The

arrow zero

0:1
function
successor

has V
arrow
on
<a.

component
a>

Ov
on

:{0}->
V-th
6

N(V)
component
=

picking
v:
s : <w

the

constantly N(V)
the
successor

V.

The
has

N(

V)
<w

of

the

for

Sh(I)
that

v(g)
is

g,

where
constant

is

function

(Note
NNO

sg

locally
construction.

if

is).

Exercise

15.

Verify
For
,

the

axiom

for

this

Exercise

16. the

let the

nv:

<o

have
for the

nv(i)
ordinal

n,
arrow

all

e n:

V. 1

Explain
-*

how

nv's

provide

components

in

Exercise

17.

If

geN(V)
sets,
i.e.

show

that

V
=

has

an
x

open

cover
on

{Vx:x
of

eX}
which
g

of is

pairwise actually
Now
as

disjoint
constant.

Vx

Vv

if

y,

each

let

prT:

u>

be

the

sheaf continuous
to
over

of
be V.

germs g:
a

that

is

the the

nno

for

Top(I),
map

described

in
V

12.2.
x

For is of

each
seen

Vxa,
of this
in
prT,

product
an

(idv,
the

g):
stack

readily
sections for in

section
hence

i.e.

element

of

bijection

Fprr(V) N(V)=Fprr(V)
),
so

Indeed

construction

gives
we

each

Ve0,

Sh(I)

have

that

Top(I),
I=CS(N)
Define
be the

Exercise
constant

18. <u-valued

Let

pN:AN-^>
functions.
is
the

sheaf

of

germs

of
=

locally

f:IXoi-^AN
n"

by
defined
prT
=

f((i,n))
in Exercise

(i,[nI]i),
16.

where

Show

n,?N(I) directly

that

is

"constantly a bijection,

function

giving

<S(N).

I.
If P

Set"9
is in
terms
a

and

Sh(P)
then of which
the
we

poset

collection
have the

P+

of

P,
form

category
a

P-hereditary (topos)
we can

sets

is of
a

topology
of

on

Sh(P)
define be

sheaves

the

F:P+-H>Set.

Given

such
as

functor

Kripke-model

(variable
of

set)
sets,
indexed

F*:P-H>Set

fol ows.
transitions

F*

is

to

collection
whenever

{F*:pGP}
pCq.
We

by

P,

with

Fj,:

F*

F*

put

(note[p)GP+)
Whenever the

pCq,

we

have

image

of

the

inclusion

[q)^[p), [q)

so

we

take the

FfQ:F([p))
contra-variant

>

F([q))
functor

to

be F

[p)

under

CH.

14,

14.1

STACKS

AND

SHEAVES

367

Since

is
Exercise

sheaf,
5

and
above

since
we

for have

each

P+,

{[p):

V}

covers

(cf.

10.2),

by

This

shows
a

us

how
set

to

define
from

sheaf

of
all

sections
the
the

over

the have

from
we

variable define

F*:PSet.

In

Set,

can

F(V)

{Ff
cone

:pe
p
e

U
lat er

y,

then

{Ff:
wil

U}c{Ff:
a

V} V},
the

by
so

diagrams equation
universal
and
so

topology limits,
Moreover,

P+
and
so

(*).
cone

if
for the

F(V)
may

diagram

be

for

former,

F^

be

F(V)

F(U)

defined Thus

as we

the

unique
an

factoring
exact

arrow

as

shown.

obtain
we

correspondence
functor ^ -^Pwe from find
copy
=

between
the

objects
of sections
in stalk

in F:

Set1"
P+
a
=

and

Sh(P).
to

If the sheaf
turns

pass

via
germs
to

the pF: be
=

sheaf that of
is

Set

of
out

AF

the the

AF
set

over

point

peP
The

an

isomorphic

bijection
in Exercise

F([p))

Fp
7) having

(Fp

stalk

over

p)

original given by

Ff
function

F([p)).
pfp)

the

(defined

pfp)(s)=<p,[s]p>,
The
reason

all is
so

sgF([P)).
the

other

why p-neighbourhoods
at

this

is

that

(Exercise
is
the
same
as

p-neighbourhood 10.2.3),
at

[p)
so

lies
germ
s
=

inside of
any

all

that

the

s'

F(V)
In view
have

the

germ

of

its

localisation
stalk

F^p)(s')
co-limit
for each
we

to

[p).
of that the

description
if
F

(Exercise
related
to

7)
F*

of the

the

Fp
(*),

as

then

is

by

equation

then

peP,
lim
>

peV

Exercise

19.

Verify

that

pfp)

is

bijection

368

LOCAL

TRUTH

CH.

14,

14.2

Exercise

20.

Show

that

F(U)

commutes

whenever
p
g

V,

and

so

F*
property

is

the

apex

of
co-cone.

co-cone

for

{F(V):
The

V}.

Verify
interested
paper

the

co-universal

for

this

reader the

in "What
is

the
a

origins
Sheaf?"

and

history
Seebach

of
et

sheaf al.

theory

should

consult

by

[70].

14.2.
The

Classifying
object
of that

stacks
of truth-values for in

and

sheaves
is

St(I)
9.3
=

obtainable

by
as

dualising
is
the the
sets
a

the

descripof open

description If
subsets

given
,
of
on

Set0""
=

in

(or

10.3,
0:
U<=

6>op
be

Ve

let V.

v (Since
V.)
A

collection

<3>{V)
is
open,

{Ue

V}

poset collection
called
we

category).

topology
when

the

is in fact 6>v of @v V-open

of
open

relative
is

(subspace)
a

V-crible
that

it

is

closed

under

taking
We

subsets,

i.e.

when

have

if UeC,
The

and
-*

has

We

(i.e.

We0v),

then

WeC.

stack

Set
=

has
=

n(V)
and
Exercise

{C:
&v

is

V-crible}
W
e

,)
1.

{W:
if
V
=

and

U}

whenever

t/

<=*

V.

0V
In
the

U.
the

Exercise

2.

opposite

to

inclusion

ordering,

VC

if

V,

of

Exercise

3.

If

l/c

V,
poset

then

is

V-crible,
V-cribles
and

with
under

U@v
the

U. inclusion rela-

Exercise

4. is
a

The

(/2(V),
with the

)
union

of
meet

relation their

Heyting

algebra
CHD

join
What

of
are

V-cribles \C and

C,

being
?

intersection

and

CUD.

)?

CH.

14,

14.2

CLASSIFYING

STACKS

AND

SHEAVES

369

The

arrow

true:

1>{1
=

has

components
the

truev:
V-crible.

{0}-h>/2(V)

given

by

fruev(O)
Given
a

6>v,
:

largest
G
character for
x

monic

arrow

F>vs> the

of

stacks, Xt'G-^

with

each
has

tv

inclusion

F(V)

(Xr)v

G(V)

->

c+G(V), fl(V),

being V-component

the

where

G(V),

Exercise

5.

Verify
Sh(I)
is is the
=

that

(xT)v(x)
of
the

is

V-crible.

In

the

category
which

sheaves
same
as

of that

sections for

over

there

is

classifier,
truth-values

not

St(I).

This

time
that has

the

subobject object

of

contravariant

functor
the

/2,-:
of U^+V
open the

Set
subsets

ni(V)
while

6>v,
to

collection

of

V,
map

flj
that The
arrow

assigns
takes

each We

inclusion

restricting
tmejV:
set.

/2j(V)>
6>v given by

@v
>

to

Wfl
V-th

Ue

.
component

frue,:

1
=

jf2j
V,

has

{0}

trae,v(O)
If

the
arrow

largest
in

V-open

t:F>t>G

is

monic

Sh(I)

its

character

xl'-G-^flj

has

component

where

V:

(,
Exercise

being

topology,
6. Show
that

is

closed

under

unions

of

arbitrary
COM.

sub-collections).

that the for

is

sheaf,

i.e.

satisfies

Exercise

7. holds

Verify
in

construction
1

just

given
the

shows

that
at

the

the

axiom condition

Sh(I)
is

truej:

identifying

point

which

COM

needed.

Notice result is

that the

if classifier

the sheaf

F of

->

pF

construction of
open

(the
subsets

functor
of
as

<S)
I,
which

is

applied
is in

to

the the

germs

subobject

for

the

spatial

topos

Top(J)

described

precisely Chapter

4.

370

LOCAL

TRUTH

CH.

14,

14.2

In

order
terms

now
we

to

describe
define
a

the function

categorial
each

relationship ;V:/2(V)

between

O(V),
by

and

for

in

putting

V-crible

6>v,

Exercise

8.
=

iv(@u)

@u,

for

Ue6>v

(cf.

Exercise

3),

and

so

;v(fruev@))
Exercise

9.

Ccjv(C),

i.e.

Cn/v(C)

C.

Exercise

10.

7vOV(C))=7v(C)/v(CnD)=jv(Qnjv(D),
if
and

Exercise

11.

hence

Exercise

12.

C^D

then

jv(D)cjv(D),
of
the

for

any

C,

Deil(V).
is
that

Exercise

13.

V-crible
that
=

form
then

0,
U

for Ce

Ue

6>v,
show

called

principal

V-crible.

Noting
/V(C)

if if

Ce6>v,

v,
V-crible

is

principal

(cf.
Exercise

Exercise

8).
14.

/V(C)
If

0V
any

if

covers

(i.e.
t/?

if

UC=

V).

Exercise

15.

is

V-crible,

and

V,

let

Cu={WnU:
Show
that

WeC}.

Cu?
16.

Exercise

Prove,

in

Exercise

15,
is
an

that open
=

if

cover

of

if

[/=UCu
the last has
D
an

U{WnU:
exercises,
open
cover

WeC}.
that
D

Exercise

17.

Show,

using
if

two

Uejv(C)

U with

uYj(C).

CH.

14,

14.2

CLASSIFYING

STACKS

AND

SHEAVES

371

Exercise

18.

If

[/?

V,

show

that

ilu\

U(IJ)
commutes.

lu

>

O(U)

Now

if
we

Ec^il(V)
know
E

is

the

equaliser
in

of

id and

and

jv:O(V)-+u(V),
Exercise

then

by

what

of

equalisers

Set,

by
Ue

13,

we

have

{C
ev:
a

(V):

;V(C)
/2(V)
between

C}

{:
=

v}
is
E.

But

the
so

map

and

gives

<9V bijection

having 0v
=t

ev(U)
=

u
and

monic,
Thus

by
we

Exercise find that

1,

Oi(V)

is

an

equaliser
form

diagram
the

in

Set.
of
an
e:

But
arrow

the

j'v's
also

components
of
a

import j@:u^>u
,
and
we

of

Exercise in find

18

is

that

the
are

St(I)that

The

ev's

components

monic

>->

is

an

equaliser

obtained

of
have

diagram by equalising
true
=

in

St(I).
j@
is
a

Thus

in

St(I),
Moreover

f2y
making

arises
since

as

that

subobject
8
we

and

1n.
arrow

by

Exercise

]@

true,

there

unique

commute.

Clearly
Not

is

in
arrow

fact

the

arrow
a

only
those this
on

does

the

characterises, categories,
how

by
works
the
we

property
over

j@ give expressible
I that that of
are

characterisation
in the i.e.
an

of

/2j5
language
COM.
J:

it

also of

first-order

stacks
first

sheaves,

satisfy
operator
G.

To

see

observe

j@
each

mduces

Sub(G)

Sub(G)

HA

of

subobjects

St(I)-object

372

LOCAL

TRUTH

CH.

14,
:

>-*

14.2

J obtained

assigns by

to

the

subobject
true

F>-^

the

subobject

J(F)

pulling

back

lrue

along
Exercise

;xT,

so

that

Xjm

JXtwe

19.

In i.e.
=

Sub(G)

have
=

(i) (ii) (Hi) (iv)

(cf.
Exercises

),

))

if

)
=

-)
a;

<),

hence

then

-)
D
lat ice that
is

9-12).
on
a

In an general, operator to Exercises (corresponding is the example operator that t o each subset assigns I . I f i n cl(X) superset) cl(X) then we By analogy say in Sub(G). J(t)^1g
Exercise

satisfies
as a

(i),
closure
a

(ii),
operator.

and

(iv)
An
space,

9,
on

10,
BA its
then
a

12)

known
where

the Xcl
=

''(), topological
X

is closure
be

topological (smallest
in
the
space

closed
I.

I,

is
:

said F>^>

to

dense in

that

monic

St(I)

is

dense

if

20.

Show

that
covers

J(F)

:0^>Set

assigns

to

Ve

the

subset

{*:
of

(Xr)vOO
that the

V}
of

G(V),

and

components

are

the

corresponding

inclu-

inclusions.
Exercise 21. Show that F>^> G

is

dense

if

for

all

if

G(V),
?

then

(xT)v(*)
Now localisation
statement
to

{U:

GZ(x)
"Gu(x)eF(U)"

F(U)}
can

covers

V.

the

statement

be Thus

construed if
true at

as

the
covers

localisa-

Us

of

the

statement

"x

F(V)".
of

(xT)vto
some

V,
of

the

"x6F(V)"
each
an

is in
V. of Hence

locally

true

V,

i.e. when

neighbourhood G(V)
is

of

point
element

is

dense

every

element

locally

F(V).

CH.

14,

14.2

CLASSIFYING

STACKS

AND

SHEAVES

373

Theorem

(Lawvere).
cr:F^> H
one

stack
codomain

is

sheaf
H,
and

(satisfies
every

COM)
dense
arrow

if for
:

every F>^>

St(I)-arrow
there is

with

G,

exactly

<t':G^>H

such

that

commutes.

?
H
one

Thus

is

sheaf

if from

every its

arrow

ending
to

at

can

be in which

"lifted"
that

in domain

one

and is
be

only
dense.
It
can

way

domain
that the

any

object proof
of

be

shown from

(Tierney)
fact

the that the

this

characterisation

can

derived

entirely

diagrams

n
all
commute

i@

in
to

St(f).
for
any

These

diagrams

correspond
Exercise
on a

to

Exercises
shall
reserve

9,
the

10,
name

11,
of

and

hence

conditions

(i)-(ii )
operator

of

19. lat ice

We

local
Exercise
Exercise H.

operator 19.
22.

that

satisfies

(i)-(ii )

Let
F
-*

St(F,
G,
let

H)
0:

be

the

collection

of
-*

all

Given

St(G,

H)

St(F,

H)

be

St(I)-arrows given

from

F
=

to
<

by

(<)

Show

that

is

sheaf

if

for

every

dense

monic

is

bijection.

374

LOCAL

TRUTH

CH.

14,

14.3

Exercise

23.
to

Let each
on

H
a

(H,
eH of

C)
its

be "double

any

assignment
local

Heyting algebra. pseudo-complement"

Show

that
iia

the is
a

operator

H.

14.3.
Grothendieck's
notion
the
covers

Grothendieck

topoi
generalisation (cf.
a

Artin
space

et

al.

[SGA4])
on

of

the

functorial that of
open

of

sheaf

over

topological
in
c*

is
of of

based

the
V

observation

axiom

COM

is

{Vx:
essential

xeX}, properties singleton

or

expressible {Vx
of
set

terms

V:
covers

xeX},
needed
a

categorial objects
are

properties
in
the

category

0.

The

A) B)
an

The

{V}
V,
then
=

is

cover

of

V. each
x

If
open

{Vx:
cover

X}
Vx,

covers

and

if,

for

X,

Cx

={V*y:

Yx}

is

of

U{Cx:xeX}
is
an

{VJ:xeX
for
open then

and

ye

YJ
the

open

cover

of

V.

Thus open
sets.

the

union

of

covers

sets

itself
inclusion t/

covers

union
the

of

those

C)
collection

If

{Vx:
Vx:
unv,

xeX}
x g

covers

V,
U.

for

any

U<=->V,

collec-

{Un

X}

covers

Notice

that

Vx

c^

is

the

pullback

U
of A

>

Vs

c>

along
on

U
a

V.

pretopology Cov(a)
that
The

category
sets

^ of
'if-arrows

is

an

assignment
with
codomain

to

each
a,

^-object
called
covers

of of
a,

collection
such

of

A)

B)
a^
-cover

If

singleton {ax-^a:

{1a }(),

: a

->

a}eCov(a).
and for
each

xeX,

we

have

an

then

{a*

^^

a:

and

YJ

().

CH.

14,

14.3

GROTHENDffiCK

TOPOI

375

C)
for each

If

{a^a:xeX}eCov(a),
x&X
the

and

g:b^>a

is

any

Harrow,

then

pullback
>

<*x

&|

I/,

of

fx

along

exists,

and

The site.

pair

(<<?, Cov)

of

the

category

<<? with

the

pretopology

Cov

is

called

Examples
Exercise 1.

of

sites

@,
the

Cov@),
collection

where,
of open

for

open
covers

Ve0,
of V.

Cov@(V)={C:

C^0

and

UC=
Exercise

V}

is 2.
a.

(<<?, 'Cov),

<#

any

category,

where

lCov(a)

{{1a

: a

a}},

all

<<?-objects
Exercise

3. the

(<?,

dCou),
of
all

<
sets

any

category,
of
^-arrows

where

dCou(a)
codomain

3>({f:
a.

codf

a})

is

collection
4. Let
arrow.

with

Exercise

be Can

the you

poset
find

category
ten

({0,1},
dif erent

non-identity
A

=s) with pretopologies

^

!: 0

>

1 the

only
D

on

2?

stack,

or

presheaf,
functor
F:
to

of
<<?
>

sets

over

category

is of all

by

definition stacks
let
over

contravariant is
thus

Set.

The

category

St^)

equivalent
Cov is
ax
a

the

topos
on

Set*0".

If

pretopology
x

<,

and

{ax

^> a:xeX}eCoe(a),

ay

av

ax

>

be

the

pullback

of

fx

and

fy,

for

each

x,

X.

376

LOCAL

TRUTH

14,

14.3

If

is

stack and

over

<#

then
^>

gives
x

rise

to

the

functions
of
denote also

the

:F(ax)^
two
new

F(axxay)
arrows arrow

Fl:

F(oy)
by
>

F(ax
this
the

ay)
pullback.

as

the

F-images
We

obtained

F(fx):
A

F(a)
F

forming F(ax).
over

by

Fx

the

stack

is

sheaf
any

site

(<#,
:

Cov)

if

it

satisfies

COM:

Given

cover

{ax^>a
of
s

xeX}eCov(a)
sx

of

<#-object
that then
there
are

a,

and

any

selection

elements
i.e.

&F(ax),
=

for
all
=

all
x,

x&X,

pairwise is exactly
The
over

compatible,
one

F^(sx)
such

Fl(sy)
Fx(s)
A
one

yeX,
xeX. that
are

eF(a) generated
be

that

sx

all

ful
the

subcategory
site

of

Sti'e)
wil that

(<#,
any

Cov)
category

denoted is

by those Sh(Cov).

objects
Grothendieck
of

sheaves

topos
form

is,

by
Exercise

definition,
5.

equivalent pretopology

to

the

Sh(Cov).
of Exercise

If

'Cov

is

the

"indiscrete"

on

<#

2,

then

Exercise

6.

Let

F:2Set that

be

stack

over

2,
show

and

choose

soeF@),
s0

S!eF(l). compatible

Assuming
if

{1b!
s0,

:0>

1}A),

that of
!: 0

and 1.

Si

are

Fl(st)
Use and

where

Fj
exercise

is

the

F-image

Exercise

7.

the

last

to

show

that

StB)

Sh(Cov)

if

Cou(O)
An
a

={{10}}
a-crible
that is

Cou(l)

={{1J,
a-sieve)
is

{1b
collection

!}}.

(dual
closed
a

to

of i.e.
stack

arrows

with

codomain
then has

under

right
g'-arrow

composition,
g:

if

f:b^>aeC
Q.-.'g*Set

g:

for
=

any

b.

The

/2(a)
while
for

{C:

is

an

a-crible}
a,

each

^-arrow

f:b^>

O,f:()

?l(b)

has

The

StOeO-arrow

true:

/2 cod

has

component
=

Ta
the

:{0}^
a-crible.

/2(a)

given

by

Ta@)
Exercise

Q
that

={/:
if
=

a},

largest
then

8.
a

Show
then

&),
.

/2f(C)e/2(b),

and

that

if

f:b^>

eC

CH.

14,

14.3

GROTHENDffiCK

TOPOI

377

The

sheaves

over
as

site
the is

(<#,
classical

Cov)
case

can

be Cov
each

described
=

by
Cov@.
The

an

arrow

-r

fl

icoaa

exactly :()>

in

a-th

component

fl(a)

defined,

for

-crible exists
a

Ce/2(a),
cover

by

ic<,va(C)={

b-^>

there

Cf&Cov(b)

with

This
in

is Exercise

direct
17

generalisation
of the last section.

of

the

description

of

jv(C)

for

Ve

6>

given

Exercise

9.

Verify

that

jCov

as

defined

is

St^-arrow.

Exercise

10.

Show

that

A)
B)

^<1n,7cot,>=1n
jcov
]cov
~

]cov

C)

^G

The

characterisation
for

theorem

of when
are

the

last

section

for

sheaves

in

St(l)
in
the

holds
of

Cov needed

-sheaves
to

in
prove
case.

StOe1)
this

j@ is replaced

by
of

jCov.
Exercise

The

properties
10,
as

jCov
Notice

precisely
5

(l)-C)
7,
it is

classical

topological
that,
of

pretopologies
category

by Cov1 sheaves,

Exercises
and i.e.

and
the

possible
that

to

have lead
to

dif erent
the
one

Cov2

on

same

category

However,
Thus The
to

it the
arrow

can

be

shown

that

this
to
a

last

equation
Grothendieck refined
such that

holds Verdier

if

jcov^Jc
topos.

jCov
of

corresponds
has
on

unique
further

notion
a

yield
distinct

notion of

pretopology of "topology"
categories
of those

been
a

by

category
The characters of

distinct

[SGA4] topologies
are

yield
functors 10.
A

sheaves. whose
account

Verdier

/2-precisely introductory
discussion
can

satisfy
this

detailed
extensive
be

theory

topologies (l)-C) is given operations

sub-

of

Exercise

by
on

Shlomiuk
related

[74].
An

of in
the

sites article

and

categories

found

[74]

logical by

Gonzalo

Reyes.

378

LOCAL

TRUTH

CH.

14,

14.4

14.4.
A that

Elementary
topology
satisfies
on an

sites

elementary

topos

is

by

definition

any

arrow

/:

Cl

>

fl

A) B) C)
The

j
77=7

true

true

n.0"xfl=7on. pair
gy by
1.
=

(g,
the

/) is
has

called been

an

Exercise

14.3.10

elementary replaced
for

site.

Notice
the
we

that

condition

A)
=

of

by
which

simpler
need

/T

T.

This

is

justified
Exercise

fol owing
In
any

result,
category
with

1,

square

of

the

form

commutes,
Theorem 1.

i.e. For

gf=h,
any
arrow

only

if

it

is (I

pullback.
in
=

/: f2

topos,

^0nni)=^n
Proof.

if
the

jtrue

true.

Consider

diagram

|
1!
If the
the
r\

|AfiJ> I"
a

An, pullback unique

=

j)=
arrow

1n

then
n,,

the
so

boundary
its
the
so

commutes.

But

the

bottom
that But then !:

square 1
>

is
1

defining making
and

universal

property
square
commute.

implies

is
=

top
=

(T,

T)

<1n,j)T
Conversely
a

<T,/T),
if
The

/T.

/T
PBL

T,
then
=

then

the

top
the

square

commutes
as a

and

is and

(Exercise
so

1) by
the

pullback.

gives

boundary

pullback

/2-axiom,

rv<1n,/>

xT=1n-

CH.

14,

14.4

ELEMENTARY

SITES

379

Examples
Exercise
2.

of

elementary
For
any

sites

site
/2 is 17 /2

(<#,
a

Cov), topology
is
a

(St^),
for

jc^)
any
g.

is

an

elementary

site.

Exercise
Exercise

3. 4.

1n
traen
1i:

/2
:

/2 /2

topology.
topology,
the

Exercise
any

5.

is

double

negation

topology,

on

topos
A

g"

(cf.

Exercise

14.2.23).
/2 induces
as a

each

topology g-object

j: /2
d,

>

local
case

operator

on

the
to

HA

Sub(d)

for
d the

exactly

in

the

j@.

assigns

f:

>->

subobject

J(f):J(a)>-*d

having

An

g-monic 6.

f:a>>d f
In is

is

j-dense
if

if

J(j)
trued.

'\d

in

Sub(d).

Exercise

/-dense
any

jXt ]:
1 +

Exercise

7.

g",
use

[T,
Exercise

1>>

is

1i-dense.

(Hint:

show

that

8.3.27).

Exercise

8. 9. 10. in

For

/
the

1n,
site

J(f) (g, truea),

and

f
Xj(f,
=

is

/-dense
trued,
=

if and

1d.
monic
is
if 7. dense.

Exercise

In

every

Exercise

In Use

the

elementary
this
that
to

site

g-,-,
dif erent monic

1d
Exercise

Sub(d).
11.

give
for
any

(g, 1i), of proof

f
Exercise

is

dense

(-/)

Show

f:a>->d,

fUf

is

1i-dense.

?
A
g-arrow

j-sheaf
g:
a

is,

by
b
that

definition,
and
any

an

/-dense

<?-object f:

b with
a
^>

the there

property
is

that
one

for
g'-arrow

any

exactly

g':

>

such

g'f=g-

380

LOCAL

TRUTH

14,

14.4

Exercise

12.

is

/'-sheaf.

Exercise

13.
a
>->

If b
*c

is
Exercise

an

equaliser
14.
15.
a

diagram
If If
>

in and b

and

and

are

/-sheaves,
is
a

then

so

is

a.

are

/-sheaves,

so

b.

Exercise

>

is
Exercise

pullback,
16.

and

c,

d, 1n,
site Consider
>

b
every

are

If
In

/-sheaves, g"-object

then

so

is

a.

is
the

j-sheaf.
sheaves
are

Exercise

17. of
g".

the

(f,
the

truen) diagram

only

the

terminal

objects

Hint:
>

b
Exercise

18.

is

/-sheaf

if

each

/'-dense

: a

>->

induces

bijection
?

)
Theorem

%(a,b).
The

(Lawvere-Tierney).
by
that
result

ful
is
an

g"j- generated a "sheafication" b, and j-sheaf

site From

the

j-sheaves

subcategory elementary
that limits. Grothendieck
site
F
to

shj((?)
topos.
has

of
Moreover

an

elementary
there
=

is

functor
preserves it
case

all
that the

:g"^sh,(g")
finite
any

,()

for

each

this In

fol ows
of

topos

is &

an

elemen-

elementary topos.
is
the

the

elementary
stack

(St(f),

j&),

St(I)

Sh(Z)

composite proof
of

SP

, taking
theorem
may

sheaf

FPf.
in

this
That it has

be

found

Freyd
is indicated

[72]
that

or

Kock

and

Wraith
12-15. whenever

[72].
That

sfy(g")
Its

has

all is

finite
proven

limits

by
ba is

Exercises
a

is.

exponentials subobject

by
truei:

showing
1

/-sheaf
as

classifier

/2,

is

formed

the

14,

14.5

GEOMETRIC

MODALITY

381

of

j and
An
=

1n.

important
1i.

The

application sh^^itg) topos

This
and

of

the

sheaf

construction

occurs

in
in
g"

the

case a

of
established
maps

"double-negation
a

sheaves"

is

always

Boolean

toposl

is

ifAj([T,
result then that

_l_])
the

that

SfAt
by
Exercise

by /-dense
and

showing
monic
can

that
to
seen
a as

in
an
an

sh,(g"),
iso
in

[T, sfy(g").
H

,]
The

is
the
a

fol ows

7,
=

be

fact

regular
of
any

(i\a
H.
f
we

a)
can

elements via
used of
set

of
the

Heyting
functor

analogue algebra
to to
a

of
form

Boolean
Thus

subalgebra
from

topos
This
of the

pass

JfA-,-,

classical
a

subtopos categorial parallels

Cohen's

sh_,_,(g").
proof
Cohen's

process

is

by
the

Tierney
Continum
This of
the

[72]
work

develop
that
reveals

independence
for

Hypothesis

proof
to

classical
is sheaf.
to
a

theory.
version
More

that of

from
been

used

"weak-forcing" pre-sheaf by

technique
its
associated
Marta

technique
the

passing
has

Bunge
Souslin's
g"

independence
Exercise

of 19.
for
Let

[74] hypothesis.
and has

give

recently topos-theoretic

method

proof

of

the

Setp

-i-i.

Show

that

/2_,_,:P

-*

Set,

the

classifier

\i-sheaves,

/2_,_,(p)
where Boolean

the

set

of

regular
if

members
=

of S. Show
subsets

[p)+,
that of

S<=[p)+
subalgebra
20. of 21. Show
the

is

regular
of
that the

-ip(-ipS)
of

^_,_,(p)
[p).
i is
a

is

HA
in

hereditary
the of
open

Exercise

Top(Z),

stalk
sets

of
at

/2_,_,
i.

over

Boolean

subalgebra
Exercise

HA
that

of

germs

Show

in

M2-Set,

/2-,_,

{M,

0}.

14.5.
Modal
sentences

Geometric

modality
is concerned
has
a

logic
that

with

the of

study
that"
to

of

one-place
"it is
that"

connective

on

variety
"it and

meanings,
is
"it known

including
(epistemic
be

that"

(alethic
that"

believed

modality), (doxastic),

ought

the

case

necessarily modality), (deontic).

true

"it
The

is

382

LOCAL

TRUTH

CH.

14,

14.5

quotation
geometric
arrow

that

heads

this

chapter ?1,
i

invites
the

us

to

consider

what

we

might
to

call
an

modality.
of
the
to

Semantically
form
the
arrow

modal
as

connective

(l^>

just
of

the

one-place
Lawvere

corresponds negation
suggests
the that

connective
when
the has

corresponds
arrow

this
on
a

form.

is
"natural"
Let
us

topology reading
now

/: /2
"it
the extend

/2

topos
the
case

then
that."

modal
of rule

connective

the

is

locally
sentential
V then
and
so

language
the is
case

PL

Chapter

by

the

inclusion

of

new

connective
is
a

formation
Va that

if (Va
Let

sentence, "it is of
,

is the
an

to

be be the

read class

locally
all
v,
sentences
~,

the

a").
from

generated
=>,

propositional
is
any

let ers

by

connectives

V.

If

g,extends

(g,
with

/)

elementary
to

site,
whole of

then

g,-valuation
the

:0g(l,
semantic
rules

)
of

uniquely

the

using

6.7,

together

V(Va)=jV(a)

V(V<*

We

may
to

then
mean

define that the

the

validity
=

of for
that all has

any

aei'on

the

site its
the

gy,
sole schemata

denoted

g",l=a,
Let

V(a)
system
the

true

g,-valuations.
Detachment EL
as

J
and

be
as

axiom

inference

rule,

axioms

forms

I-XI

of

together

with

VVa

=>

Va.
be defined

(Alternatively
schemata

can

by

replacing

the

first

two

of

these

by

(a
and

=>

/3) V(a

(Va

=>

V@)

=>a).)
the

Then

we

have
any

fol owing

characterisation

of

validity

on

elementary

sites:

for

ael?

\-a

if

for

all

sites

g,,

gyl=a.

CH.

14,

14.5

GEOMETRIC

MODALITY

383

The

proof
for truth".
one

of
the

this

theory
"local

(described language
There
are

in

Goldblat
from
two
senses

[77])
an

uses

Kripke-style
of
we

model the
have

1,
in of
set

developed
fact
of
the germs,

analysis
which
to

notion used of sections. this

the

of

in
the other

idea,

relating
the

to

sheaves

sheaves
~(

(I)
germ

Recall

definition
an

equivalence
0
at

relation
the

that

defines

[L/];
We have

of

open if
We

Ue
U
and

i in

sheaf
same

/2 the

for

Top(Z)
with

(Chapter
some

4).
i
or

L7~;V
if
of
x

have
to at
mean

the

intersection
statement
some

-neighbourhood.
"x

V"

interpret is locally
in
turn

this
true

that
true

"[/=

V"

i, i.e.
the

throughout
notion
that

neighthe
was

neighbourhood
statement
to

i. This for all

represents
"close"
to

intuitive
same

state-

holds the

points
of
germs

i. The

interpretation
in
the

given
AF
as

description
the "a
statement

of

sections

seF(V)
true at

stalk rendered

space

of

14.1.
Thus

"a
at

is

locally
close

p"

may of

be

(i) (ii) Intuitively containing belongs topological

this
substance
a

is is

true
true

all

points
some
are

to

p", p".
is is close
to

"a

through
and

(i)
all
to

(ii)

neighbourhood equivalent.
close
to

A
p,
course

all spaces

that points p-neighbourhoods. (any than

are

while
there

p-neighbourhood a point
in
are can

any p

set

when

it in

Of
that
p

most
no

significant

classical
close
be
to

is
itself.

at

least

Tj)
notion
of

points
topology,

sense-other

The

however

given
wherein

sub-

by
is

Abraham

Robinson's
to

theory

non-standard

space

enlarged
his
the

include

points
the of U
germ

"infinitely
of
the

close"
U
at

to

the
a

original
subset
set

ones.

Indeed

in

article intersection
to
a

[69],
p).
poset close
can

is
of

literally
p

of of

U,

namely infinitely
Given
the the

with

monad

(the
p<q

points
P,
with
on

close
now

P
to

we

introduce

binary
a

relation
model

on

reading
connective

"q

is V

be

p". semantically
p<q

Then

given

as

(P,

V)

based

interpreted implies
(i).
M\=a

M\=Va

if
condition
=

thereby Writing

formalising fi(p)

{q:
a

p<q}
if

for

the

"monad"

of

p,

this

clause

becomes

where,

as

in

8.4,

384

LOCAL

TRUTH

CH.

14,

14.5

In

order

for

the

structure

(P,
pCq,
i.e. if

C,

<)

to

validate
all

the

logic

$ it suffices

that

it

satisfy

(a) p<q (b) < (c) pCq C-hereditary).

Notice
to

implies
is

i.e.

fi(p)c[p)
then

p,

dense,

p<q,

p<r<q

for

some

r,
ensure

and that

implies
that for all
we

fi(q)cfi,(p)
do
p,
we

(this require
that

is

needed

to

M(a)
were

is

not

p<p, p<q
if
the
to
same

i.e.

fi(p).
Thus

Indeed

this
to to

hold
means

would
close
to

have but
not

pCq.
as

"q
which

is is

close akin

p"
the

really topological point

To

"q
notion

is
of

p",
formalised

"p
condition

approximates

q"

as

by
a

"p

is

limit

of

{q}".
the P

formalise of

(ii)

we

could and

introduce

collection

Np

of

subsets

(the

p-neighbourhoods)
if

put

MkVa One

for
of

some

CeNp,
an

Cci(o).
be
to

possible

construction

Np,
for

would

take

relation

<

and

put

N^
Exercise
same

{C:

fi

(p)

},
structures

each

1.
sentences.

Show

that

the

(P,

<)

and

(P,

N")

validate

the

Exercise

2.
p <

Given
q

any

poset
is
a

(P,
limit

C)

define of

if
=

point

{q}

in

the

topology

P+

(in

which

"open"
Show
that

"hereditary").

p<q

if
of

ptzq "local
truth"

(i.e.
of

pCq
that
an a

and

p^q).
to
or
an

?
stacks of of
space connected
as

(II)
to
a

The

sense

applies
open

sections
a

refers

property
at
a

holding point.
Chapter
domain
Thus

locally
for if
a

set,
covered

object

site,
is said

rather
to sets.
on

than

example
open
set

classical
is

locally
In its which
In the open

connected this the

each

topological by
by 14.1.17).
have

be

open

function
that is
constant
a

has

been

described
is covered

"locally
open

constant"

when

domain

sets,

on

each

of

function
context

(Exercise
F,
all if
s,

of
=

stack

teF(V)

Fx(s)

Fx(t),

CH.

14,

14.5

GEOMETRIC

MODALITY

385

given
is from

some

cover

{Vx:
of

X}
at

of
all

V,
a

we

can

take of
some

this

to
cover

mean

that
of V. It

"s fol ows

F

t"

locally
COM

true

V,
that

i.e.

true

members

then

if

is

sheaf,

locally

equal
true

sections of
the

of

are

actually
This when
true

equal.
same sense

of

statement

being
a

locally
V appears

an

open

set

V of

of

all

members

of

cover

of

in

interpretation
of then
open
we

j@-density
If
we

of think the Cov

monies
now

given
of

in
P

14.2.
=

poset
the

(P,
to

C)
the

as

being
inclusion

the

category

sets

of formalise where of

topology, assigns
define,
MtVa

with

opposite
discussion

ordering,
structures

may

foregoing
to

by
collection

contemplating

(P,
the

Cov),

each M
=

pePa
(P,

Cou(p)s0*(P),

"covers"

p.

We

for

V)
some

(*)
(Note
that,

if
formally,
this

for
is
that

CeCou(p),
the
same as

CcM(a)
the

"neighbourhood
the

system"
operator
Cov
must

approach
In order

described
to

above.)
guarantee

M(a)

be

hereditary

satisfy

only
i.e.,
Example every
1.

if
a

Cou(p)c
q-cover.

Cov(q),

p-cover

is

Grothendieck Exercise
the V-th 14.3.1.

topology:
component
V-crible

Let

(P,

Cov)

be

the

site

@,
=

Cov&)
if
based
on

as

denned
If
covers

in

/v
V,
then above

is for

of

definition

(Exercise

0,
the

M(a)v

=M(a)

0V

is

always

j@, then 14.2.14). a V-crible,

jv(C)=
If
M

0v
is and
any
we

truev(Q)
model find

that,

using

(%),
if
element

MtVa

jv(M(a)v)
M(a)v M(a):
as

truev@). fl(V)
The

Identifying
obtain is then
a

the

of

with
role

an

arrow

{0}^>/2(V)
as a

we

St(Cou0)-arrow given explicitly,

1-^/2.

of

j@

modal

operator

if
true\
commutes.

386

LOCAL

TRUTH

CH.

14,

14.6

Example

2.
1i

Cofinality:
is if
T

Lawvere

suggests

[70]
put
into

that

the
as

double
'it

negation
is

topology
case

"more

appropriately
and
T
are

words

cofinally
is

the

that'".
In

general,
in if

subsets

of

poset

P,

then

said

to

be

cofinal

for
i.e. If
every
we

all

peT
of
T

there
has
a

is

some

qeS
of

such
S

that

pCq,
after" it.

member define

member

"coming

Cou(p)={Scp:
then for any

S
1
on

is
we

cofinal

in

[p)}

model M?Va
if
p

find

that

M?
fact

a.
p

This

is

based

on

the

that if

M?

M(a)

is

cofinal

in

[p).
8.4,
canonical
structure

By P.?

adapting
=

the

techniques
definable
for

described
which

in

(P,

C,

-<)

is

F^a
On
the

if
Set^
a
>

ha.

topos

topology

/:
to

/2

>

/2

is

then

obtained

by

defining

the

component

/p

flp

satisfy
and

7P(S)={q:pCq
for We each

/x(q)sS},
site

S thus

[p)+.
obtain
the

canonical

%g

for

J,

for

which

it

may

be

shown

that

^$?a
and from

if
fol ows
the

V9?a completeness
semantics
of
theorem for

this

$ mentioned

earlier.

14.6.
The "local

Kripke-Joyal
character"
due
to

properties
Joyal,
that
the

of

sheaves
that the

gives
aspects
truth-value

rise
of

to

semantical
ILis
sentence

theory, semantics,
determined

Andre
with its

incorporates

Kripke's
of
a

together by

principle

local

truth-values.

CH.

14, We

14.6

KRIPKE-JOYAL

SEMANTICS

387

have
on

already
some

noted open V.
A
set

that V the

an

true
some arrow

if of
there

it
very

equality is locally
essence

"s
true

t"

of

sections i.e.
true

of

sheaf that V.

is

of
the is

V,
sheaf

throughout
is
over

cover
s :

of V
>

Indeed
is
a

of
I if it

concept
a

an

section when from

/:
is

A
a

>

other

words,
is To

seFf(V)ifi
true
an

cover

{Vx:
Vx
-for

locally x eX}
all
xeX

section

In
-

with existential

Fx(s)e

Ff(Vx)
quantifica-

"seFf(V)"
take

localised
Lawvere

to

example
that

[76]

involving

quantification, suppose
A

h>

is

map

of

sheaves does there

of

germs

and
a

teFg(V)

is

section of

of
over

over

V.

We
=

ask-when Answer
a
-

exist when such

of V there

section is
that
a

seFf(V)
cover

precisely

{Vx:
hsx
=

/ X}

with

hs
for
statement

t?
x

of Thus
true

with
the of V.

each

section
=

sxeFf(Vx)
t)
the is
true

3s(hs

precisely
Joyal's
in
know
what

when semantics
a

it is

is

tfVx. locally
this.
We

Briefly,
interpretations
g:a^>c,

basis

of

consider
arrows

of

formulae suppose 1= <p[/,

<p(vuv2)
we

site
it

(<#,
means

Cbu).
for

Given

interpretaf:a^b,
satisfy
and
<p

</, g)
we

to

at

a,

denoted

g].

Then if
x

for
there

particular
is
that
an a-cover

f:a^b

put

al=3u2<p[/]

{a,,
1=

-^a:

xeX}
all

arrows

^:
The

gX}

such

ax

<p[f

fx,
interpretation:

gx],

xeX.

disjunction

connective

gets
if
for
a*
some

similar

ak<pvtl/[f]
each The
x

{a,^a:xsX}e
<p[/
universal

Cov(a),
^

we

have

for

that

N
the
e.g.

/x]

or

1=

/r[/

/x].
are

other
of
a

connectives,

and

quantifier,

interpreted

by

analogues

Kripke's
1= <p
=>

rules,

/>[/]

if

for

any

axf-^
if

a,

[//]

then

NVu2<p[/]

if

for

all

and The for

any

all

ax^c,
in
the consequence

"local formula

character

of

truth"

is

then

embodied

that

<p(v),

at=<p[f]

if

for

some

{ax

^>

a:

xeX}e

Cov(a),

<[//],

all

xeX

388

LOCAL

TRUTH

CH.

14,

14.7

The

details

of

the

sites,

Boileau
For

theory.
non-classical

[75] applications
interpretation "Beth-Joyal
A rather

Kripke-Joyal for general

of

semantics

are

topoi
it
to

and Kock
and

Osius

given by Reyes [75 (i)] for categorial

In is
more
as

[76]
it
to

for
set

cf.
v

[76].
3 would
it

much

as

gives
Beth

analogous
be
has
as a a more

models,
appropriate
name.

and

semantics"
model
than
one

Beth

for for has

first-order

individuals,
11.6.
The

each
the

state

perhaps logic peP

standard

appropset
structures

single
the

of of

in

universal

quantifier
if for
3

interpretation

M?$fvcp
while
the

for reads

all

aeA,

M?pcp{a]

clause

D<p

if

there there

is
is
to

bar

for

such

that

for

each

qeB

some

aeA

with

An

application
of Dalen its

of

this relation

modelling
to

intuitionistic

metamathematics

and
may be

an

indication
van

topological

interpretations

found

in

[78].

14.7.
Let
A

Sheaves
be for
an

as

complete
where
a

il-sets

s
:

-set,
is

is
A

a
*

CHA. fl
that

Then,
satisfies

as

denned

in

11.9,

singleton
(i) (ii) (ii )
for
consequence

function

all

x,

A.

(These of (ii )
that

are

conditions

by

singleton
-set Example
any
set

{a}
if
each

of

its

assigns singletons
=

putting [x

(vii )-(x) y.)

each
the

of Each
xsA.

11.9.
element
A

Note
a

that
e

(ii)

is the

A
a

al
is of

to

is
a

called

yields complete

form

{a}
subsets

for of

unique
a

aeA.
I. which the
set

1.

Let

i}
space

@,
X

the
we

CHA have
a

of

open

space

Then is

for the

topological
of

corresponding
functions
on

-set
I.

Cx,

continuous

X-valued

partial
of the form

Cx
V
e

is

of

all
of

continuous

functions

/:

X,

for

all

with

degrees

equality

measured

as

CH.

14,

14.7

SHEAVES

AS

COMPLETE

fi-SETS

389

Now

suppose be
a

that the subset

s:Cx^>
of

is
to

singleton.
open
set

For

each

/
dom

Cx,

let

/s
above,

/ \ s(f) is s(f)
itself.

restriction of

/
of
see

the
the that

s(f).
of

By /,
and
a so

condition

(ii) fs belong
is

[/~/I,
by
if
i
=

i.e.
we

domain
the

But

then since

functions,
and
Thus
so

/s (i)
we

f(i)

(ii ) belongs g(i)

to

/s's
and

form dom obtain

In
other
g,

compatible
must

just family
to

s(f)
of

to
=

dom the

/s

it

[/
as

gl
of

gs

(i). /s's
just
to
a

may

"patch"

together
each

single
words,

element
as

Cx f

whose
on

restriction
set

s(f)

is

fs.

agrees

with

the

s(f),

giving

For with

the

converse

that
Thus that

iedomgs ies(f).
we

inclusion, =s(g).
see

if
But

f(i)
then

as(i),
the

then

/(?)

g,(i)
condition

g(i)

for

some

extensionality
s

(i)

implies
To
see

that
with

our

original
this

singleton
observe

is

the

function whenever

{as}.
{t}
=

as

is
agree

unique
with
each

property,
of
the
same

that
to

{g},
/
and

i.e.

/
g

and
agree

all other

members
to

Cx
extent

the that

same

extent,
agree

then

with
so

they

with

themselves,

and

(cf.
on

Ex. that This

16

of

11.9).
which the

Thus
means

/
completeness

and
that

have

the
=

same

domain,

and

they

agree

domain,
establishes
2.

/
a

g.

of

Cx.
function
the local

Example

Analogously,
-set

given Cfc
whose elements

continuous
are

>

I,

we

obtain sections
above.

the
Z-> In

(partial)
established
to

continuous

of

k.

The this
be

particular,
Cx
itself function and
can

completeness assigns
identified

of
a

Cfc
set

is

exactly
each sections

as

complete
with
the

-set
of local

object
of
>

of
the

Top(I). projection (/,V^Z):V^XxJ. homeomorphism,

The
treatment

Xx/^X, (Note
hence
not

by
that
a

the

identifying projection

f:
need
not

X be
a

with
local

Top(I)-object.)
an

?
allows
a a

completeness
of the

property
idea this
p
e

for
the

-set
of
to

very
to
an

elegant
open

abstract
set.

of

restriction is function
due Dana

function Scott and that

The

development
Given
a one
a

of
e

and

theory the
Exercise

Michael

Fourman.
~

{a}
If A

\
is
the

assigns
then

[x
of
a

is
p,

to

is

singleton
b
a

(11.9,
g

17). \
we

complete,
restriction the

there
to

exactly
denote
=

with

{b}
now

{a}
on

p.

We

call often

and

it

\
to

p.

of

(From Ea).

wil

abbreviate

extent

[]

|[~1

390

LOCAL

TRUTH

CH.

14,

14.7

Exercise

1.

(a
a

\ p) \
Ea
=

\ (pnq)

Exercise

2.

Exercise

3.

E(a
a

\ p)

Eanp

Exerciser

\{a^H=b
\ (EanEb)
=

\1~
a

Exercise

5.

\ Eb
that

Exercise

6.

Write

aj
=

to

mean

a\Eb
i.e. that
a

b\Ea
compatible.
Ea

and

are

Prove Eb

that

a\b
Exercise
7.

if

[ ].
defined
in
the

Show

that

\b,

as

last

exercise,

if

holds

for

all

x,

A.

Exercise

8.

Show

that if
a

the
=

relation b that and for and

some

=?,
Ea

where

is

partial (i) (ii) (ii ) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii)

a

ordering

on

satisfies

=?, implies
a*Sc

a=?b
if

EaCEb

fpb
c,

fp,

and if

b=?c,
if a=?b

then

aXb,

a^b a=?b
a

[,
EaCp,
a

fp
t
p
=

if

EaCp,
and

a=?b

if

aX^
ae

EaCEb.

Exercise

9.

Define
for

to

be

the

/oin

of

A,

writ en

\/B,

if

(i) (ii)

b =?a Ea
=

all

and

U{Eb:beB}.

CH.

14,

14.7

SHEAVES

AS

COMPLETE

/2-SETS

391

Show

that

complete
subset

-set

satisfies

the

fol owing pairwise

abstract

version

of

COM:

Every
a

BgA

whose

elements

are

compatible

has

unique
that

join.

Prove

in

fact

s(x)=
beB

U
when

[xb]

defines and
N.B.: know
that

singleton
the To
a

has

pairwise
of many of A

compatible
to
s

elements
is
to

(use
you

Ex.

6)
to

that

corresponding
do CHA

element

\/B.
fol ow,
wil
n

this

exercise,
satisfies
the

and

those

need
over

fol owing
all

law

of

distribution

of

LJ:

xi-i(UC)=

(-ic),

Ccfl

Exercise

10.
=?, and

(i)

Prove
that

that in

\JB,
a

when
set

it has

exists,
a

is

the if
it

l.u.b.
has
a

of

for for

the this

ordering ordering. (ii)

A A

general

join

l.u.b.

{\jB)\p
FA:

\J{b
>

\p:beB}.
Set
over

?
the

presheaf by putting

poset

category

is

denned

for

complete

FA,{p)={x&A:Ex=p}
for from
of the each
p
e

Q.
to

Whenever

pCq,

the

assignment
We

of this function

to
as

is the

function

FA(q)
fl
order
-arrow

FA(p)
p
*

(Exercise
q.

3).
over

take
the

FA-image Covn(p)
to

In
be

to

discuss
of

sheaves

category
of

fl
that have

we

define

the

collection

all
of

subsets
the
to

definition
be
a

fl
The

|_JC given

p.

This

is and

an

obvious

generalisation Covn)
over can

of site.

Cov& corresponding

in

14.3
category

(fl,
sheaves

be

shown denoted

of

fl

is

Sh(/2).
and
are
-

Exercise

11.
e

Let

CeCovn(p)
that

consider

selection

of the
sense

elements

Xq

FA(q),
or

all

qeC,
this section Exercise

pairwise
mean

compatible
the
a

(in

given
definition
x

in

COM,

in
in

they
construct

same

thing).
x

Use

the

of
q
=

join qeC.

given
Hence

9 to
that

verify

FA

is

sheaf

unique (satisfies

FA(p) COM).

with

xq,

all

392

LOCAL

TRUTH

CH.

14,
construct

14.7

In

the

converse

corresponding
AF
be the
= =

-set

direction, AF.

given
We

sheaf

over

Cl

we

let

{(x,q):x?F(q)}
union
of
any
p,

disjoint
q.

the
we

sets

F(q)

for

all

qe/2.

For

a=(x,

q),

put

E(a)

Then
a

for

define

[p
us

<FJnq(x
to

and

this

allows

put

[asbIAF=U{pe/2:a
Equality
can
now

\p
be

p}.

given

by

IabIAF=[as&]AFnE(a)nE(b).
Exercise Exercise
Exercise 12.

[~1 [
Verify
Let

=E(a)
=

13. 14.
15.

(()())|[
AF
is
be
an

that

Q -set.

Exercise

Example pairwise
that
s
=

by compatible, {a}, for

1 Hence

s:AF/2 showing
and
a

singleton.
elements

Generalise

the for
it the all

argument

of
are

that
use
a

the the

\ s(a),
as

aeAF
to

property
wil is
in

COM fact
be

unique
show
that

(which
AF

applies join

to

show

of

the

elements

\ s(a)).

complete.
a

?
in functions

Example
The has sheaf

3.

Let

/2
*

Set

and of

be

topological
X-valued

space

as

Example
on

1.

Fx:

continuous

(partial)

FX(V)
with each inclusion
In

={V
V
case

-4
<=>

X:
W

is

continuous}
assigned
are

by they
the
see

Fx.
consist associated then

this of
that

FX(V)
sets

and functions
we

being FX(W)
with

the

usual

restriction

operator
when

already
domains,
the

disjoint
and of the
of

so

W,

as

of

distinct take
the

in

forming
We
1.

-set

may other

simply
than axiomatic
a

union

Fx(V)'s.

AFx
16.

is

none

-set

Cx
of
to

Example

?
of
ele-

Exercise
elements
over

Develop
a

truly

theory
over

"restrictions
be
a

CHA"

by

defining

presheaf

set

together

CH.

14,
a

14.7

SHEAVES

AS

COMPLETE

/2-SETS

393

with

pair

of

functions

-.^
that

satisfy
=?,
version
to

the and
of show that

laws

of

Exercises

1-3.
a

Define

compatibility,
and call
the it
a

the

restriction if it satisfies
for whose

ordering
the

join
COM
such

for

such

structure

sheaf
of
structure

given
a

in
sheaf

Exercise
carries

9.
a

Use and

definition

equality

AF
a

complete-/2-set
extent

operation
\
17. A

(defined
and
Let E

via started

singletons)
with.
the

function

[]

are

the

original
Exercise

you A

be

-set

based

on

\ p={aeA:EaCp}
as

with

join
The

equality belongs
constructions
an

for A

A.

Show
Hence

that

if

BcA that A

\ \
can

p p

has is
be

join

in

then

this

to

p.

show
and
F>-

complete
extended

if

is.

?
to

A^FA
between

AF
and In due in
s

to

arrows

give
generated

equivalence by the
category

each

Sh(/2)
objects.
a

the fact

sub-category
Sh(/2)
to to
>

of

to

-Set
the

complete
-Set

is

larger
is
We

itself,
A
set

result

originally
-Set
:

because
take

Q-set
as

is of

A*

the

isomorphic all singletons

equivalent D. Higgs complete

A,
with

[73].
-set

This

A*.

of

[s~tL.=
ieA

U
%

(s(x)nt(x))
to

("there
are

is

an

belonging

both

and

t".

In

Set,

overlapping

singletons

identical).
18.
A

Exercise Exercise Exercise Exercise Exercise

each

19.

[{a}~

20.
21.

[{a}=

22.

(cf.
let

Example /s
be
=

fe
so

A*,
that

the

1). Let singleton

s:A*^u

be
as

singleton
in

of

A*.
17

For

f \ s(f)

denned

Exercise

of

11.9,

fs(x)

f(x)ns(f).

394

LOCAL

TRUTH

CH.

14,

14.7

Define

as(x)=
(i) (ii) 7)
that

U
feA*

Prove Show
that the

/s

's

are

pairwise

compatible

in

the

sense

(of

Exercise

they

satisfy

(ii ) (iv)
for
Thus

Show all

that

as

is

singleton
has

of

A,
=

with

If
s(/),
that

aJA*
/.
Show

s(f),
that

all

feA*.
h

Suppose / (i.e.
prove 23. that

that

heA*
=

I/hI
and

all

\ s(f)=fs

h(x)ns(f)
A* Since
s

is

fs(x)), complete.
is
p

hence

h =as.

Exercise

A*

complete,
as

each the

element element
defined is

seA*

has,
teA*
the

for

each

correspondintog

restriction
the

defined

unique
t

correspondequation

singleton

{s}

of

A*

(i.e.

by

Show

that that

this

t
=

is

precisely

the

singleton

of

Exercise

17

of

11.9

(i.e.
Exercise

t(x)
24.
s

s(x)np).
Show that
in

A*,

\ s(a)={a}
aeA.

\ s(a)

all
Exercise

seA*,
25.
an

In

view

of

Exercise
that

23,
A*
an

use

the

ideas

of

Exercise

16

to

develop
Exercise

alternative
26. Prove if it
that

proof
in

is
arrow

complete.
/:AxB->fl
from A
to

O. -Set,

is

(i)

monic

satisfies

(ii)

epic

if

it

satisfies

xeA

("y
Exercise

exists

in
27.
to

to

the

extent

that

it

is

the

/-image
by iAx,s
in

of
=

some

in

A").
the

Define
show that

iA:AxA*^fi
iA:A^>A*
is
iso

s(x).

Use

last

exercise

/2-Set

CH.

14,

14.7

SHEAVES

AS

COMPLETE

-SETS

395

The The

topos
last

-Set
exercise
we

implies
may

that
our

as

far
take

as

concerned,

confine
context
we

attention
can
a

to

categorial complete
approach
function
from

constructions
fl
-sets

are

(also
to

called

-sheaves). taking
Let

In
the

this be

dif erent

arrows,

by
to
set

lf(x)~yl
and

notation fl -sets,
and

for
g:

f((x,
A
>

literally.
set

satisfying (i) (ii)

Define

IxyLLC|Ig(x) [Eg(x)IBC=[ExIA.
g:AxB-^fl
by

Exercise

28. 29.

Prove

|[Eg(x)I
that
g

[Exl
an arrow

Exercise

Show

is fl

from

A from

to

in
to

fl

-Set,

i.e.

an

extensional,

functional,
of avoid
arrow,
are

total

-valued

relation

(conditions
?

(iv)-(vii)
To

11.9).
confusion,
while
the
a

function fl -Set
the
arrows case

satisfying
wil
be
a

(i)
referred

and
to

(ii)
as

wil

be

called
The
two
x

strong
notions fl is
a

weak.
If

equivalent
arrow,

in for

of
aeA

complete
define
sa

codomain.
:
>

/:

weak

given

fl

by

Exercise

30.

Use B.

the

weak

arrow

properties

of

to

show

that

sa

is

singleton
If
=

of
is
b.

?
there

complete,

wil

then

be

unique

beB

that

has

{b}

sa.

Put

&(a)
Exercise

31.

Show

that

gf:

-*

is

strong

arrow

from

to

B,

with

&=/
Exercise

32. 33. 34. then

If

is

strong,
that

with for

cod

complete,
A,
giA
are
=

prove

that

gg

g.

Exercise

Show If

complete
and h:

>

idA.
arrows,

Exercise

/:
ghOf

>

weak

with

and

complete,

is

the

functional

composition

g(tg/-

396

LOCAL

TRUTH

CH.

14,

14.7

Exercise
g for

35.

Suppose
one

every

weak
arrow

arrow

with
that

codomain

is

of weak

the

form

exactly
one-element n

the

strong !7-set

g.

Show

is

complete
and
the

(Hint:

consider
arrow

{0}
=

with

[O

OIHIEsIb*,

withfO,y
If
A

Exercise preserves

36.
extents

and

are

complete,
i.e.

show has

that

g:

->

is

strong

if

it

and

restrictions,

g(a
all
a

fp)
p
e

g(a)

\p
?

A,
category

The

Ci3-Set
with in Set.

is

defined
arrows

to

be

that

which

consists and

of
compo-

the

complete
composites
Exercise

!7-sets

strong

between

them,

identities

being

as

37.

Let

f:A-^B

be

weak

arrow,

and

seA*.

Define

fs:B^?l

by

/,(y)=
XSA

U
is
a

(f(x,y)ns(x)).
of

Show

that

/s
of
arrow some

singleton
member

/-image
strong

of

(" s")which

belongs
Show
that

to

/s to putting

the

extent

that
=

it
defines

is

the
a

f*(s)

fs

/*:

A*

B*

for

all

aeA,

beB.

Exercise

38. and

Let have

the

functor
=

F.CO-Set-^
g. Let

/2-Set

be have

the

identity

on
=

objects,
and Show
Exercise Show that

F(g)
and

F*:/2-Set-^C/2-Set
the

F*(A)
two

A*

F*

(/)
that

/*.
F

F*

establish
be
to

equivalence
arrow,

of

the

categories.

39.
in

Let

g:A^B
preserving
if

strong
E

with

and
=s

addition

and

f,

preserves

and

complete. V,

i-e.

(i) (ii)
Exercise

x^y

only
=

g(x)sg(y)
all be
C<=A.

g(VC)
40.

V{g(c):ceC},
Let
s

{a}

\ s(a)

are

pairwise
S
=

singleton compatible,
a

of

A.

Show

that

in

A*,
i.e.

the

elements

and

their

join

is

s,

V{{aHs(a):aeA}.

CH.

14,

14.7

SHEAVES

AS

COMPLETE

-SETS

397

Exercise the
sense

41. of

(i)
11.9.

Let

f:
Define

>

be

subset

f*:A*^>
(f(a)ns(a)).
of
g:

by

(extensional putting

and

strict)

of

in

f*(s)
Show
that

U
a

f*
a

is

subset

A*

that

has

f*({a})
show
that

f(a),

all

aeA.

(ii)

Given

subset
=

A*

/2

of

A*

g*()
defines
a

g({a})
g^.

subset

of

A,

and

that

g(s)=
aeA

U
subsets
Let

(g*(a)ns(a)).
of

Thus
Exercise

show

that
42.

A*

correspond
be
the
arrow

uniquely
weak
iso

to

subsets of
we

of

A.
27.

Show

that

the

iA:AxA*^fl corresponding

arrow

Exercise
denote

strong

(which

also

iA)

assigns
Exercise that there

{a}
43.

to

a.

Let

g:A-^>C
exactly
one

be

strong
arrow

arrow,

with

complete.
for which

Show the

exists

strong

h:A**C

diagram

commutes.

(Hint:
Exercises
44.

Consider

the

elements

g(a)

\ s(a),

all

aeA,

for

seA*.

Use

39,
Show
of
=

40).
either 37 is
aeA

Exercise

function

Exercise

directly uniquely
and

or

via

the

last

Exercise

that

the

determined
beB.

by

the

fact

that

it

has

If*({a})={b}I
The

f(a,

b),

all

?
be obtained

topos-structure
functor of

of

C!7-Set
-Set. which
The

could
relevant
we

by

applying
admit how-

the

completing
however

F*

to

constructions
now

simplified object

descriptions,

outline.

Terminal

1 is

the

set

with

[p

q\

q.

398

LOCAL

TRUTH

CH.

14,

14.7

We

have

Ep
that the

p,

q =pmq,
case

and
=s

Ipssql
lat ice

(p Oq).

on

Notice

in

this

is

the

ordering
function

the

and

V
The
Exercise

is

lat ice

join
arrow

(l.u.b.)
A^l

LJ.
is
the
extent

unique
45.
let the
we

--[a
space.

~aIA.
If

Let

/2

6),
Cx

and

be
to

topological
V
the

continuous,
V.

fo
two

>

assign
that

each

restriction
arrows
an

/:I>X / \ V
show

is
of
that

to

Interpret
Cx,
Thus show establish

conditions

define and
a

strong

to

in

C6>-Set
of

have that Hence

fo :1CXg(V)
show that

Conversely,
has that

given
V,
that

"element" the

domain
there

g(V)'s
that

are

compatible.
elements

is
a

unique

there

is

bijective
and

>

Cx

of

Cx

in

6> -Set

globally

feCx correspondence defined

has

g:l^>Cx pairwise fo
=

g.

between continuous

ele-

functions

Exercise

46.
A
=

In

view if
Ea=T.

of

the

last

exercise,
such
:

we
an

say

that

is

of

in
a

C!7-Set

For
that

element,
6
to

define show
that

global /a:f2>A
the element

element

by h(p)'s
a are

fa(p)

and

show

Conversely, compatible, with fa

Exercise

given
and
=

?i :1> hence
prove

fa A,
that

1
use

>

A.

Exercise
there

is

unique

global

of

h. 47. The

complete

-set

(Exercise

17)

is

based

on

the

set

Show

that
as

this

is

CHA with

in

its

own

right

with
ie

the

same

LJ

and

operations
complement

O,, =>e

but

pseudo-complement by

and

relative

pseudo-

given
=

\eq

\q

\q

and

all

q,

Initial
Recall aeA element

object
from is
a

11.9

that

the

function
so

from for

to

that

assigns
to

_L
a

to

every

singleton,
We
have

and

complete
-L,
all
x.

corresponds

unique

0AeA.

[x:=0AJ=

CH.

14, The

14.7

SHEAVES

AS

COMPLETE

-SETS

399

initial
=

object
-L.

for
arrow

Ci3-Set
0>

is
A

the

one-element

set

{},

with

I-L
Exercise

J.]|=
48.

The

unique
0A
then

assigns
subset

0A

to

_L.

(i)
=

is

the
a
=

join

of

the

empty

of

A.

(ii)
Products

If

Ea

_L,

0A.

Ax A-

is

the

set

B={(a,b)eAxB:Ea=Eb},
)**(,

with
=

,
We
have

d>]

|[ac]|r-i|Ibd].

E(a,
and

b)

EanEb

<,)=(
Projection
arrows,

,
and

>
of
arrows are

products

defined

just

as

in

Set.

Coproducts
A+B

is

the

set

={(a,b)eAxB:EanEb=

},

with

giving E(a,b)
and
=

(,
The

)
iA:A^A

=(

\p,b
+

\p).
B

injection
b The
e

takes
B

aeA

to

(a,

0B),
arrows

while

iB(b)

@A>

b),
to

all

B.

coproduct b)
the

[/, g]:
join
49.

>

of

two

strong

/ and

assigns

(a,
Exercise

in

of

f(a)
that

and

g(b).
and

Verify
and

f(a)
g
are

g(b)

are

compatible

in

when

(a,b)eA+B

/ and

strong.

400

LOCAL

TRUTH

CH.

14,

14.7

Fullback
The domain

of

the

pullback

r
A

of

and

as

shown from

has

{(x,

y)e

B: the

/(x)
evident

g(y)}
projections.

with

its

in-

inequality
Exercise

inherited

AxB.

/' and
only

g'
if this
a

are

50.
of D is
D has

Show
a

that

aeD

eD

all

.
to

Prove

that Hence

if

subset
that

join

in

then

join

belongs

D.

verify

complete.

Subobject
The

classifier

object

of

truth-values

is

fl,

where

and

giving

E(p,
and

e)

(p,
The
arrow

e)

fq=(pnq,enq>.
has

true:l-^fl
true

(p)
is monic

(p,
in

p),
C/2-Set
then

all

pefl. (which
just
b
e

If
set

/:

>

means

that

it
the

is

injective
truth-value

as

function-exercise)
as

for

each

we

define

of

"bef(A)"

[bef(A)I=

[f(a)-bl

CH.

14,

14.7
to

SHEAVES

AS

COMPLETE

-SETS

401

("b aeA").
The

belongs
character

/(A)
Xf
'

to

the

extent

that

it then

is

equal by

to

the

/-image

of

some

>

ft

of

is

given

Xf(b)=0bef(A)lEb).
Exercise 51.
Prove

that
=

\b
("b /(A)"), belongs
and
to

/(A)I
/(A)
that

U{Ea:
to

A
that

and

/(a)
there

=?

b}
exists
a

the the

extent

restriction
is

of
the

b
set

in

show

image

/(A)

of

under

precisely

Hence
arrow

show

>

how

to

define

the

subobject

of

that

is

classified

by

given

ft.
52.

Exercise

Show

that

the

(i) (ii)

false
The

(p) negation

(_L,

p)
arrow

defines
i:

propositional false
ft
>

logic
:

of

C!7-Set

is

as

fol ows:

>

/2

/2

has

p,
=

> ne,e)
and

<ip disjunction,

(cf.

Ex.

47)
>

(ii )
have

Conjunction,

implication

as

arrows

fl

e)
?

))}
Exponentials
BA
is
A
>

the

set

[A
a

>

B]
function

of

all

/:

is

set

pairs satisfying

of

the

form

(f,e)

such

that

fl

and

and

Equality

is

defined

by

W,e)~(g,e')l=

(Ex=>If(x)g(x)Dnene'

402

LOCAL

TRUTH

CH.

14,

14.7

giving E(f,e)
and
=

(f,e)
(where
The

is
the

</ \p,

enp)
x

/ \
evaluation

function
arrow ev
:

i-/(x)np [A

as

usual).
is

B]

>

given

by

Exercise

53.
to

Given

assigns

the

g:CxA^B, pair (g.,

show

that
g<.:

the
A
>

exponential
has

adjoint

to

Ec),
.

where

&(a)
Exercise

gc
that

fEa,a
a

54.

Show
that

function
elements

/
of

preserves
are

global \ and
the

element E.

(f, T)
Hence establish

of

BA

is
that A-^B.

essential y
the

global
?

BA

essential y

strong

-Set

arrows

Power
A

objects simpler /:
A

description
>

than

flA

is

available.

2P(A)

is

the

set

of

pairs

(f, e),

where

has

and

(t)
all

Ha\p)
aeA,

f
\
that
are
as

.
E,
55.

Equality,
Exercise has

and
Show

in

the

exponential
to

case.

assigning

(f, e)

the

pair

(g,

e),

where

g:

>

fl

<f(a),Eane)
of
element

establishes
Exercise

the

isomorphism
A

2P(A)
of

and

.
is

56. satisfies

global
above.

S'(A)
such
a

essential y
is

function

f:A-*(l
and

that i.e.

(t)

Show

that

function

extensional

strict,

satisfies

Ixy]r-i/(x)C/(y)

CH.

14,

14.7

SHEAVES

AS

COMPLETE

-SETS

403

and

Conversely
In

show other in

that

any

extensional
that the the A

strict

function elements
of
i.e.

satisfies
the the

(t).
power

words,
GO-Set
power
are

prove

global
subsets

object
of
the

5P(A)
"weak"

essential y
for

of A,
described
in

elements

object
Prove

in

/2-Set

11.9.
that

Exercise

57.
can

that

2P(A)
to

is

"flabby",
is
a

which restriction

means

each
element.

of

its

elements

be

extended

(i.e.

of)
arrow"

some

global

Exercise

58.

Prove

that

the

"singleton

{}A:A-^g>(A)
(cf.

11.8)
of
has

assigns

({a},
elements

Ea)

to

aeA.

Object
A

partial

={(a,

e):

,,

andfiaCe}

with

[(a,
As

e) (a', e)
=

e')I
e,

[a

a']n

e n

e'.

usual

E(a,

and

(a,e)
The

\p=(a
):

fp,enp).

>->

imbedding

has

Notice

that

I
59.

ft

explicitly.
g

Exercise

If

is

partial

arrow

>-^-^

404

LOCAL

TRUTH

CH.

14, g:

14.7

from has

to

with

dom

gcAas

shown,

show

that

its

character

where

?
Formal
We

logic
shall
as use

in
the that

-Set
same

formal for

semantics /2-Set
to

for in
R
an

quantificational
A

languages
SI
to
a

in

C!7-Set

developed
=

11.9.
a
r

model
arrow

for

our

sample
in

language
C!7-Set.
element

5?

{R}
Exercises

should
55

assign
and
hence

strong

r:AxA->fl

By
of
of
Ax

54 strict

such

corresponds
56
we can

unique
it

global
with
the
a

^(AxA),
A
to

and

by

Exercise

identify allowing

subset

theory
There
as

of
is formal in

11.9
one

(extensional proceed
is

function
in and

AxA-fl),
with is of in
that the

unchanged.
working
that
terms

notable

logic
of

advantage concerned, definite-description

If

complete they
form

-sets
allow
a

as

far

natural

interpretation
described
formula

\v<p(v)
and

(as

deis
a

11.10).
with
one

21 =<A,

r)

is

an

<?-model
a

C/2-Set,

<p(u) by

free
=

variable,

define
=

function

fv

fl

/()
Exercise

[E(c)
that

Vu(<p(i;)

( ~c))I singleton
in
ones

60.
or

Show

fv
this
the

is

of
terms

A,
the

either

by
of 20 of

direct

calculation,
which
you
can

by
derive

expressing
from
rules

fact

of of Exercise

t-truth

formulae

91-true
inference. is
a

11.9,

using
?

9I-truth-preserving
Since
take A

of
there

is
element

complete,
as

unique
of

aveA
the
term

that

has

{av}

fl(:.

We

this

the

interpretation
SI-truth
of

lv<p.

Exercise

61.

Verify

the

1;((;)

<)

^^.^
Now,
define subset
the

,)
r)
is
an

<?)
in
the weaker

?
-Set, where Now Exercise

if of

St=(A,
associated

!?-model
model
to
r

category
=

we

complete

to
as

be

SI*
Exercise

(A*,
41.

r*),

r*

is

the

A*xA*

corresponding

in

18

CH.

14,

14.7

SHEAVES

AS

COMPLETE

-SETS

405

of

this

Section

states

that

in

A*

U
the

[s{a}I
set

which

means

that 22

{{a}:
lat er

aeA}
may

generates
then

A*
used
to

in
carry

the

sense

of the

Exercise
next

of

11.9.

The

be

through

result. 62. of
For

Exercise
elements

any

sentence

<p

whose

closed

terms

denote

only

ele-

A,

Exercise

63.
.

Suppose

is

complete.

Prove

that

for

any

formula

<p(vu

.,

vn),

I(p(c1
for

p,. .

cn

\
?

all

cu

. .,

cn

and

il.

Comprehension
Given
a

model

21

based
a

on

an

il

-set

A,
A
In the

formula of

<p(u)
A,
of

with
the

one

free
-set

variable
A-elements
of the

determines

having
il -axiom
as a

the

subobject "property"
of
true

^.
<p.

namely
the

il should

of

light
arrow

realisation

(4.8)

form

the

Comprehension
along
an

principle,

be

constructible

by

pulling

back

that
In

semantically
CfbSet
to

the

interprets appropriate
c&A the

<p.

definition

is

to

let

I<pl

be

the

function

which

assigns
Exercise

each 64.

pair

A<(),).
is
Describe
a

Prove

that

[<pl

strong
the

arrow.

Exercise

65.
then
>

(Exhausting).
that
<p
as

arrows

traeA,
the
same

VA,3A
of

in

Cil-Set,
?
lead

and

verify
of

\<p\
that that

as

just
is

denned

is

precisely
the

interpretation
11.4.
are

?1

produced

by
of
true

g'-semantics

Since
Exercise

51
to

is

to

be

the

pullback
that

along

[<pl,

we

by

conclude

ceAv

if

[()

406

LOCAL

TRUTH

CH.

14,

14.7

and

so

={
with
In

[(I}
being
as

fl the

-equality
notation

in

introduced

for

A.

for

subobject

classifiers,

we

have

Exercise

66. sheaves
set

[deAvl

l3v(<p(v)Av~d)%l

Simple
Any

can

be

made

into

an

fl

-set

by

providing

it

with

the

rigid

equality [x yielding simply simple

In the the
=

yl

j l-L
fl-set

[T

if if
X. A

y
,

x^y
The

rigid
denoted fl X-valued

completion
obtained
natural X define for

(set

of in

singletons)
this
the
way

of

wil
a

be

X*.
=

C/2-Set-object
has
a

is sheaf

called

sheaf.
case

0,

X*

representation
on

as

Cx
here
we are

of

continuous take
open.

partial
topology
on

functions which

(Example
singleton

1),
subsets

where

the

discrete
continuous

{}

Given

/:

>

X,

for

all

eX fol ows

The
that

sf(x)'s
sf s:X^>@
so

are

in

X,

it

is

disjoint singleton
is
an

for
of

distinct
X. of
we
s

x's,

and
for

since

Ex

=T

Conversely,

if
=

element

X*,
may

define
a

we

have

s(x)ns(y) /s: V
The

0,
that

with

V=

>

X is

which

rule

corresponds for input

=

U{s(x): uniquely,
i
e

xeX}
to

function

by

the

construction

just

given.

V,
xeX
such

/s(i)
Then

the

unique
is open,

that

ies(x).
continuous
for the

/s 1({x})

s(x)

making

fs

discrete

topology.
Exercise

67.

Verify

that

the

operations

s^fs

and

f*-*sf

are

mutually
?

inverse. in in for

We
that

noted continuous

14.1,
functions

discussing
a

natural-numbers
discrete

codomain

are

objects precisely

for those

Sh(I),
that

CH.

14,

14.7
constant

SHEAVES

AS

COMPLETE

-SETS

407

are

locally
of
may I. Its

(constant
domain).
Thus
of
as

throughout
in
the elements the of
are

some

neighbourhood
case,
constant

of

each

point
X*
on

their be

topological
locally
of
course

the

simple
functions members
a

-sheaf
functions
that

thought (Ea
defined X
that

sheaf domain

X-valued

global
set

are

globally

=T) (have
such

I). by
alliel
Thus functions.

We

may

just identify
with
identified
may

those

of the function

the

original fa:I^>X
in

with has

functions
=

fa(i)
total y
of

for

associating (fa corresponds

X of number is There
a

X
the

to

singleton
the
set

{a}
of

X*

by
elements

the

above

construction).
constant

with
however

globally global
then

defined there

be open
constant

other

X*.
well be

If

is

made

up

of

disjoint
of

pieces
func-

may

globally
constant

defined values

but

only
to

locally
each

functions

which

assign
a

dif erent

these

disjoint
has

pieces.
In

general, {a}
=

rigid {b}
This
and

fl

-set

is
a
=

reduced,
b
the

which

means

that

it

only

if
that

for of X

all into

a,

implies
since

assignment
20)

of

{a}

to

is

an

injection

X*,

(Exercise

we

may

simply
Then
Es=

identify by
U
HEX

and

{a}
we

and find

regard
that

as

subset

of

X*,

i.e.

XcX*.

Exercise

18

[s^alx*
means

for the

sheaf

seX*, computation X*,

all

which of formal

that

X
of

generates
for
a we

X*.
model have

This

greatly
on

truth-values
22

21 based

the

simplifies simple

since

by
=

Exercise

11.9

IViwpb
and

(c)=><p(c)b

Ptxpb=
so

U
ceX

1()<(),
the range the lat er
to

that

we

can

confine
set

of

quantification
elements
are

to

the

elements

of

the these

original equations

(rigid)
reduce

But

all

global

in

X*,

so

(via
=

=)

ceX

|Vtwpb
(t)

)
)

U
ceX

408

LOCAL

TRUTH

CH.

14,

14.7

We

shall

use

these of

facts /2-sheaves.

later

when

we

come

to

construct

number

systems

in

categories
as

Topoi
When
over
some

sheaf-categories
an

may

elementary

answer

topos
that

g"

be

construed
we

as

the

category
examine below

of

sheaves
some

question
of of g"s the

shall C/2-Set.

of

the The

/2^ alternatively
=

properties Heyting Sub(l)

be
to

of

enjoyed algebra subobjects

of
as

by
most
u^>

topoi
naturally
1

form
associated terminal

with

is of

the
can

algebra
alterna-

object
truth-values the of lat er

(il%
to

order
as
a

thought develop
For

the

HA it for

g"(l,
over

)
il that
set

of
we

global
need
g"
x

).

But

in

sheaf

theory
this
that

be

complete

lat ice.

suffices
any

have

subobjects
arrow

of
ux
>

1, i.e.
1 is
u,.

{ux:
associated

eX}
ux

arbitrary ^-objects
object,
then

coproducts
whose

of
unique
which
we as

monk The factorisation

there

is

an

co-product
xSEX

denote
the

limxfEX epi-monic

lat ice

join

LJ

may

be

obtained

U
of

ux

the
The

coproduct
existence for
of
g1
to

of of be
sets

the

ux's
a

(cf.
of

the

construction

of

unions of for
any

in

7.1).

coproducts
sheaf-category of objects.
is
to

arbitrary
since
Given
a

sub-collections

B%

is

also
has

necessary

-Set,
set

il,
above

coproducts
the

all
A

coproduct
of of
e

limxeXAx
+

denned,
fl-set is
a

by
of selection
all
a

{Ax: generalisation
selections
=

xeX}

of of

-sheaves,
the the
an

definition member
ax

B,
xeX

be
such
=

the

disjoint
{ax:

of
e

Ax's.
element

this
each

coproduct
i_

X}

of

Aj.

for

that whenever
x

Equality

of

selections

is

given

by

[a~bl=
xeX

^!
assigns
to

and that

the
has

injection

Av^>limxeXAx
ay
if otherwise
x
=

a^&A^

the

selection

0A>

CH.

14,

14.7

SHEAVES

AS

COMPLETE

-SETS

409

Exercise

68.
their
other

Given

collection
arrow

{Ax
limxeX by
In

-^C:xeX}
Ax
>

of C. wil
an

arrows

in

C/2-Set,
?

describe
The

coproduct
property

question weakly
domain i.e. in distinct
To has

is extensional
a

weak
there

enjoyed extensionality.
if is
a

-Set

that

be

used
a

to

answer

our

general
distinct
x :

g-object
arrows a

wil

be

called with

for

any the

two

parallel
1
>

partial
each

element

that

f,g:a^>b distinguishes
as as

them,
denned denned.
are

12.1,
see

fx^gx. just
how

Thus

whole

topos
is

is

weakly
extensional

extensional,

in

case

<?-object
obtains
Thus
we

weakly
in

just

this
arrows.

property
each
g
set

strong
a

have

f(a)
a
=

C/2-Set, g(a)
strong
Here 1
arrow

suppose for
some

/,g:A^>B
aeA.
x:l
<=^

But

then

assigning
distinguishes
of
x.l

to

qCEa (since
il

gives

\ Ea^A
1

that

/
based
A.
on

and
the

x(Ea)
\ Ea

a).
e

={q

il:

qCEa}

\ Ea (Ex.

is
so

the that

subobject
we

47),

have

Exercise

69. b
>

In

any
>

?,

given

and

f:u-^a

take

the

pullback

>

I*.

>

of

/ along

r\a

and

let

be

the

unique

arrow

making

the

boundary

of

"

pullback.

Prove

that

the

right-hand

triangle

of

this

last

diagram

com-

commutes.

Exercise then
two

70. distinct of shall

arrows
a. a.

Use

the
arrows

last

exercise
with domain

to

show
a

that
are

if

is

weakly

extensional

distinguishable

by

global
?

element
We

call

an

f-object
domain is
last

a a

extensional
are

if

any

distinct
1

with
%

distinguished

parallel by
all of
a

pair global
its

a^b
element

of

(Thus
The

well-pointed
exercise

precisely

when
that
an

objects
elements

are

extensional).

implies

object

of

partial

410

LOCAL

TRUTH

CH.

14,

14.7

is each

always

extensional

whenever A is
we

it monic
?
to

is i.e.

weakly
is A>-> extensional
a a

so.

Thus

in of and
and

sheaf-category
an

object (since
two

sub-extensional,
have
1 suffice
a arrow

object,
The of it deal and

subobject A).

extensional

conditions of
to

that

be make

weakly
g"

have indeed used result

coproducts
to
a

subobjects equivalent
of

heavy
has

CCl^-Set. machinery
"abstract
a

The in
nonsense". the

original
form
that

sheaf-category, proof
of

make

of

this

great

"geometric
recent
more

morphisms"
work

?^>Set

such-like

However
is it
much

by
and
how
an

Michael
has the

Brockway conceptual
becomes The
a

provided advantage
and

of vice-versa.

proof making

accessible
see

possible
to
an

to

just
a

object
set
a

sheaf

/2g.-sheaf
^-elements
as

Aa
of the

corresponding
a,

partial
obtained

with
of

the the

equaliser

degree diagram
domx

^-object of equality

has of
x,y

Aa
:

as

the
-~->

of

being

domxndomy
dom
Here the

intersection
dom
x

of

domains

>
>

is dom

given

as

usual

as

their

pullback

dom

dom but
dom

since
x

this
and
so

is
dom

done
y.

over

the

terminal
a

1,

the

result is
as one

is
way the

the
to

product
obtain

of
a

Now

equalising
alternatively

product

pullback,

[x~yl
lx
=

is

characterised

pullback

y]

>

dom

dom

of
In

and

y.
case

the of
local

1?

A),
of
a

this

construction bundle

produces

the 2

now

familiar

sheaf

sections

topological

(Example

of

this

section).

CH.

14,

14.7

SHEAVES

AS

COMPLETE

-SETS

411

Even
set

in

the

case

Set

it elements.

has of

some

interest
Here

in of
course

assigning

the
not

to

each
the

set

its

XU{*} algebra
When

of considered

Boolean

partial consisting
as a

is

2-element

T=

and

_L

2-sheaf,
the

XU{*}

0. is actually
=

simple
to
see

sheaf that

X*
the

obtained

by

completing
s:

rigid
are

2-set those with

X.

It

is

hard
to

only together
serves

singletons
with
as

>

corresponding
empty
every
extent

elements
=

of
The

X,
lat er
as a

the the null for Y

unique entity
if
Y
on

singleton
*.

(Es
of C2-Set
then

_l_).
the X

In

fact

object
X all
=

arises

simple
relation distinct
Exercise

sheaf,
of elements
71.

is

2-sheaf X

and

{0Y}

equality global
and

is

rigid
have

(i.e.

makes

elements
=

of

Ix
this

yl

_L.)

Thus

X*

Y.

Prove

last

statement.

?
the

In

order

to
=

categorial y
we

recover

object
Ex
If
x

X*
for
=

XU{*}
x

form
x

the

coproduct
Ex
=

all

X*.
Ex
=

If
_L

e
=

X,

then
so

*,

then

0,

that
=

the

Set-object (disjoint {0}, so coproduct

=

from

the

C2-Set
extents

we

union) identify
becomes

of
Ex

the with union

{x}.

the

U{{x}:xeX}U0
Thus
copy
extents
we

X.
each
a

reconstruct

X
extent

of

its

own

by representing is (which
reason

element

of

X*
then

together.
is
that

The in

why
are

X*
wil

all
not

elements
however

of subobject this procedure rigidly separated if elements

for of I. the A^>I.

1)
does
of

and

by putting

disjoint
these

faithful y (disjoint).
the
the

reproduce
The
same

construction
so

work Consider

sheaf
case

overlap
?
=

and

are

to

some
=

extent

equal.
set

where

?1%

0,
in

the
the elements

of

open

subsets
we

their
sheaf

images
of

stalk

space

have

example Identifying fol owing

A

Top(I),
with of
the

local
sort

sections
of

picture

partial

of

bundle

Fig.

14.3.

412

LOCAL

TRUTH

CH.

14,

14.7

If
these

we

now

identify
we

each

with
a

its

extent

Es
space

and

take than in
the

the

coproduct
A.
new

of
The
two

Es's elements

wil
s

construct

stalk

larger copies

displayed

and

wil

have

disjoint

space,

with

Fig.

14.4.

part
we

of
must

being
"reduce" that
that

duplicated
the

in

the

copy

of

t,

and

vice

versa.

To of

recover
s

A and
t

the

extent

they
the
extents

coproduct originally
of
s

by
coincided.
and
t

glueing
are

together

copies
thus

to

Notice

arranged

Et

Fig.

14.5.

where

the

shaded does Es
the
not

area

is

the
the

part
in and

[s

tj

of

Es

Et

on s

which and
are

and The that

agree.

This since
to

reflect
Et

either,
way

and

overlap
the
structure

relationship places
to

between where from

and
t
s

faithful y

and

distinct.
an

reduce

coproduct,

build
of
s

Es

and

Et,

object
the

accurately

represents

is

to

co-equalise

diagram

Es+Et

CH.

14,

14.8

NUMBER

SYSTEMS

AS

SHEAVES

413

giving

coequaliser

In

the
s,

case

of
feA
a

general
put
of
arrows

/2g,-sheaf
them

we

take

the

above

diagram
construction,

for

each

pair yielding

and

all

together

by

the

coproduct

pair

Co-equalising partial Brockway that Cf2g,-Set of ? consisting only requires

constructions sheaf
of has

this

diagram
elements.

gives
these

an

g-object
ideas
to

that

has

the

original
between?

as

its
and

developed
establish
of
that
can

that the
W

the

lat er

is

sub-extensional
have

all
out

coproducts
at

functors provide to equivalent ^-objects (as of subobjects But

the

ful
of

denned

subcategory above).
so

This these subin

any

1,

that

be

carried

all.

if
?

is
so

also all

then,

by
It
can

Exercise

70,

each

is

extensional,
to

weakly objects
of all
a

extensional
a

are

extensional,
be it of terminal
a

making
shown

Cft^-Set
that
to

equivalent
in order
to

itself.

have
copowers

coproducts

subsets

of
for its

Cl%

topos

suffices

have
Thus

arbitrary
to

of
characterisation
to

1,
that

i.e.

coproduct
in is it the

set

objects.
hypothesis),
its is

put
order 1

this

strongest

form sheaves
that
?

(weakest
over

in of
copowers

know

category
to

of

subobjects
extensional.

(global
of 1

truth-values)
and
that each

suffices

know

has
a

elements

arbitrary weakly

object

of

partial

14.8.
In

Number

systems
classical

as

sheaves
have
to

Set,
the the

the
set

number
of natural and

systems
numbers
the

representations
obtain numbers
the

that

are

built
rationale

up

from

integers
C.
These

Z,

the

Q,

reals

R,

finally

complex

constructions

414

LOCAL

TRUTH

CH.

14,

14.8

can

be
so

"internalised"
any such

to

any has

topos
within of of it results in this

that

has it

natural-numbers
of

object,
all
our

and

category

analogues
is
to

these scope, the

number but
construcwe

systems.
wil
constructions
In

The examine
are

ful
some

development
aspects
and the

work rather

beyond
(I

relation

-sets,
as

where

accessible
the

striking.
is

object
d:N>-+N is

N+

of
of

positive
N

integers (in
Set,
The
the

obtained
of of

the

(image
monic
successor

of

the)

subobject
function
Z
=

image
oi
the

the

ft)+={l,
is
the

2, 3,. .}).

object
<o+

integers
and
the

is arise

the

coproduct
copy
a

N+A
-2, where, 1,
when

{..
Z and
In
x

3,

ft)+, (m',
fl

0} thinking
m

of

union disjoint w). Classically of (m, n)

isomorphic
as we

rationale

quotient (m,
the

of

as

the

rational
this
the

m/n,
within

identify
gr1

n)

n')
-Set,
in

n'

m'

n.

Developing
to

produces
<,

rational-numbers
these

object objects
they

Q.
turn
are

out

be

rigid
may

structures

Q,
1*

while
and

C/2-Set
In

the

corresponding
C@-Set
constant
we

simple
take
on

sheaves
them

<+, <u*,
to

and

<o+*,
be
the

Q*.

particular
of
the
T

for

appropriate
Exercise 1.

sheaves Define

locally

functions

I.

(rigid)
if otherwise. arrow"
n

weak
=

successor

arrow

: <w

>

<w

by

11
Define
that the

weak

"zero

:1^><

in

Cl -Set

analogously.

Verify

/2-SetNNNO.
2.

Exercise

Define

^*

and

:*-^<*

in

Cft-Set

and

verify
?

NNO

for

that

category.
come

When the
equivalence

we

to

the

reals,
methods

the

situation of

is
real

not

so

clear

cut.
are as

two

most

familiar
of
cuts

classes

Cauchy-sequences
of

denning of rationale,
out

numbers
and
on

Classically equivalhand
as an

the

other

Dedekind

Q.

When

carried and

in
an

g",

these

approaches
Rd
of
have

produce
"Dedekind-reals" in
N

object
which
Now als
uses

Rc
in

of

"Cauchy-reals"
are

object
What
we

general
in il -Set is

not

isomorphicl
of entities
set

do

general
^>

is of the of members rationsame

that

the
the the

construction
same

Cauchy
as

sequences in Set
and leads

Q
to

conclusion: also functions

basically Rc proceeds
Q

rigid
with
there

R. the

The classical
many

definition
case,
more

of
uses

Rd

however,
subsets
than

which

by

analogy
and

Q,

i.e.
of

may

be

of

these

CH.

14,

14.8

NUMBER

SYSTEMS

AS

SHEAVES

415

In

Set,

real

number

IR

is

uniquely

determined

by

the

sets

l/r={ceQ:r<c}

Lr={ceQ:
called
the upper and
x

r>c},
lower
of subsets
cut

of

r.

In
a

general
Dedekind

an

ordered

pair
if it

< I/,
satisfies

L>

3P(Q)
the

0(Q)

of

is

called

real

number

sentences

E1) E2)

3u3w(ueUAweL)

"non-empty" "disjoint"
=

Vu-(ueUAveL)
Vu(ueL Vu(ueU Vt)Vw(t)>w3t)eUvweL))
the

E3) E4) E5)

where standard
members

3w(weLAw>u))
=

"open
"open
"close

lower upper

cut" cut"

3w(weUAw<u))
U

together"
e

symbols membership
of reR

and

denote and the

the

subsets variables
there

U
v

and

L,
w

denotes
over
one

the the

relation,
For with such
a

and
one

range

Q.

pair
and
L
sentences

(U,
=

L)
L,.
an

is

and

only thought

real of

number Now
sentence

U=Ur
of where
r
=

the

conjunction S(r),
r

the

(U,

L)

is
Thus

(S1)-(S5) "ordered-pairs
in
an

may

be

as

symbol"
axiomatic

denoting
of denned

members

(U,L)
theory
the

of

(^(Q)J.
Dedekind
as

development
is

classical

set

real-number
the
set

system

by

the

Comprehension
Rd

principle
={r:
then,
in

S(r)
il-Set

is

true}?
we

By
defined this

analogy by
is
the
set

obtain
to
our

Rd
earlier

as

the

subobject
of

of

&(Q)

x9>((Q)

S(r).
Rd

According

discussion

Comprehension,

={r:
power Ex.

ErC[S(r)I}cg>(Q)xg>(Q).
objects, 8), so
=

Now

in

elements

il-Set, (11.9,

and

hence

their
to

products,

have

only

global

this

simplifies

Rd={r:lS(r)l
In order
to

T}.
truth-value
v,
w

compute
variables
so

the

[S(r)I
in
need S range
to c,
ones
over

for know
The

given
the

r,

we

observe

that

the standard

quanitfied
rationale,

rigid
"atomic"

set

Q,
truth-values

i.e.

over

that

we

the

Ic<dl,
interpreted

[c>dl,
as

[ceUl,
the standard
T

[ceLl,
if c<d

for

deQ.

numerical

orderings

are

(rigid)
otherwise,

[c<dl={

l_L

416

LOCAL

TRUTH

CH.

14,

14.8

and

similarly
extensional

for

>.

Moreover

(U,L)
so
we

is

pair

of

subsets

of

Q,

i.e.

strict

functions

il,

put

[ceUl=l/(c)

in

accordance Next
we

with notice
that

our

interpretation
since
all

of

subsets

developed
function

in

11.9.
is strict semantical
fol ows
that

Q
of

is

rigid,
these

every

Q
with
of

il
the

and

extensional. rules
a

Thus,
of

11.9

and

putting general
number in

pieces
is
a

together

lat ice-theoretic
il-Set

properties
pair
r
=

il,
functions

it

Dedekind-real
that

(U,L)

of

il

such

(Si) (Sii) (Sii ) (Siv) (Sv) (remember

Now

U{U(c)nL(d):c,deQ}
l/(c)r-iL(c)=_L,
all

ceQ
all all

L(c)=\J{L(d):d>c},
U(c)=\J{U(d):d<c},
l/(c)i_iL(d)
Ec=T,
in the
case
=

ceQ ceQ

T,

all

OdeQ

all

il

ceQ). @,
I
*

we

can

obtain
I
and

such

pair

by

starting

with

real-valued

function

/:

IR

on

defining

and

where

(-oo,
and

c)

{xeR:c>x}

(c, )={xelR:c<x}.
Now
open

if
sets
=

is

continuous
are

(which

means

precisely
to

that

the

inverse
on

images
R,
then

of

open)
wil be
a a

with

respect
of

the

usual

rf
element

(Uf,Lf)
Conversely,
i

pair

functions
r

from
=

to

given
61,
we

Dedekind-real

(Ur,Lr)

topology satisfying in 0-Set,

0

(Si)-(Sv).
and
an

ele-

put

CH.

14,

14.8

NUMBER

SYSTEMS

AS

SHEAVES

417

and

Then

(,
real

Lt)

proves

to

be
e

classical

Dedekind

cut

in
a

Q,
function

unique
Exercise

number
3.

rt

R.

Putting Verify

/r(i)
that

rt

defines

determining fr:I

a
>

R.

(Compulsory). (Si)-(Sv).
is
a

(i) (ii) (ii ) (iv)

usual

rf

satisfies

()
The

classical

Dedekind

cut.
r
>-

operations
is continuous
on

fr topology
we

/ (remember
>-

rf

and

/r
the

are

mutually
sets

inverse.

that

(c,

),

(,

c)

generate

the

R).
that in continuous continuous real
over

Thus

have

established

0-Set,
function

Rd
real-valued
of

can

be
the

of

all

globally
as
a

defined
is
standard
a

represented functions
form I>
reals"
a,

as on

the

set

I.
we

"Dedekind-real"

R,

which

envisage
stalks
each
a

number I.
In

"varying
these

of
e

bundle)
the that

particular,
function

continuously" "global
output

(through include,
in

the

for
way
we

R,

determine
The

analysis
in

total y Rc>-^ just

of
the

constant

with

and

this

Rd.

given
continuous
set

adapts partial
We

immediately
functions

(in
on

fact

reverses)
I. If
Ve

to

give
then,
as

representation
defined

14.2,

0v={We0:
is
own

V}
V,

the

subspace Notice right.

V

topology
that,
elements
to

on

in "below

the

making terminology
V"

(V,
of in
the

0V)
Exercise 0.
of
R

topological
47,
We

space

in
the

its

0V
also usual

is

0
the

Now

of in I has

all

shall the

introduce

symbol

0R
saying topology

denote that

the

open
>

subsets
R

for

topology.
on

/: 0
we

is
meant

continuous
that

partial
for
each We

function

I,

where

have

0^

we

have

f~\W)
But in fact this last

{ieV:
condition

f(i)
is

eW}e equivalent

0.
to

f-\W)e0v,
and domain
so

the V
are

partial

continous

R -valued

functions continuous

on

(I,

0)
functions

that

have
on

precisely
the

the

global
above

R-valued

(V,
the

0V).
Dedekind-reals

But

lat er,
in

by
the

the

construction,

correspond

precisely

to

topos

@V-Set!

418

LOCAL

TRUTH

CH.

14,

14.8

In
to

other

words,
within
in

if &
this

we

take
context

partial
/
And

continuous is
all

/:
we

I find of

~~*

IR and

relativise
becomes
the lat er
a

\ Ef,
arise
let

which
in

global,
members of
so

that

/
in

Dedekind-real

\ Ef-Set.
way.
to

Rd
il-sets.

category
Now

us

move

the

topos
sheaf

Cil-Set

object
constant

Rc
R
cuts

is
-valued

the

simple
functions.
as

R*,
Rd
is

that

complete Cauchy-reals
denned

Here
are

the

locallyaxioms for

again

by

our

Dedekind

the

subobject

{r:
This
time
sheaves
that
to

ErC([
is in
range the

simple
we

sheaf
have the

Q*,
Q
e

and

we as
a

saw,

in

analysing
set

models

on

simple
means

that

Q*

generating
of

for
can

0*.
confine

This
the

determining
over

truth-value elements

<5(r)
of

we

quantifiers given
A

the

(global)

(cf.

the

equations

(t)

earlier). typical
of

element

of

9>(Q*J
the
same

is

now

pair
i.e.
Er
->

(U,
=

L)e9>(Q*)
EU
=

0>(Q*)
e,

of
U

elements

94Q)
a

with

extent,

EL

say.

itself

wil

be

pair

(Ur,

e),

where

Ur:

Q*

satisfies

(i) (ii)
all
We

l/r(a)Ce, Ur(a

\)=) .

aeQ*,
put

IceUl=l/r(c),
Similarly,
we

all

ceQ
and

have

L=(Lr,

e),

put

In in

fact Exercise

the

condition
14.7.56
on

(ii)
that and

is
it

immaterial
means

to

our

purposes,
that that such But and the
we

since

we

observed

precisely
14.7.41

Ur

is

strict
that
we

extensional

function

Q*,
strict

in

Exercise functions
functions

functions
know
anyway
set
as

correspond
the
are

uniquely
are

to

extensional O,-valued
the

on on

Q.

lat er

simply
in

all exercise

Q,
of

only
for all

interested
the

Ur
-

-values
we

of
may

members

present
where

simply /(c)Ce,
truth-values
all

regard

generating 9>@*)

Q.
set

Thus of

the

pairs
estab-

</, e), Having

establish
that

/:Q
determined
the Er

the

has

e<Q. atomic

of

sentences,

we

can

defining

condition

[S(r)I

CH.

14,

14.8

NUMBER

SYSTEMS

AS

SHEAVES

419

for
the

Rd
values

is

equivalent
of

to

the

satisfaction
are

of

the

fol owing
by
e
=

Ur

and

Lr

"bounded
=

above"
e

(remembering Er).

that

(Si.) (Sii.) (Sii J

U{Ur(c)nLr(d):c,deQ}
l/r(c)nLr(d)=

Lr(c)=U{Lr(d):d>c},
Ur(c) t/r(c)L_iI+(d)
4.
=

all

ceQ
all

(Sive)
(SvJ
Exercise
more

U{Ur(d):d<c},
=

ceQ

e,

all

c>deQ

Verify
than

(8ie)-(Sve).
for

(The

Heyting-algebra

involved

is

lit le

complex
The

(Si)-(Sv).)
between

correspondence
dif erence
and

only

is

that have
=

in
e.

(Si)
But

and

(<5ie)

(<5ve)
fl

we

(Si)-(Sv) (Sv) by passing

and
we

(8ie)-(8ve)
have
to

is

apparent.
of

The
where in

the

unit

fl

the

\
to
means

{q:
is

}
in

(Ex.
which
that
e

14.7.47)
that
what
in

we

relativise topos

an

(<5ie)-(Sve)
the
in
r
=

algebra precisely

is

the

unit.

So

we a

see

the functions

pair

(Ur,
Q
>

1^)

of with

is

Dedekind-real
is Dedekind-real

e-Set.
if
a

Conversely,

pair
they
is
we
a

(Ur,

?/
In

\ e-Set, e),
summary
e
e

then

Lr) satisfy
have

of

(8ie)-(8ve),
in established

and

course

(i),
=

so

that

(.,

e
then

Dedekind-real

C/2-Set,
that

Er

e.

for

any

given

fl,

and

given

fl,
the
set

of

Dedekindwith the
set

reals

in

Cil-Set

that

have reals
in
an

extent

can

be

identified Returning C@r-Set

i.e.
a

of
case

all

Dedekind
=

fl

\ e-Set.
r

to

the

topological
Er
=

@
a

again,
Dedekind
on

element real in

that

has

V,

say,

is function
in

essential y
defined

0
Thus

e Rd \ V-Set,

in

continuous the
continuous

R-valued

all
extent
on

of

(V,
V
are

@v).
have
us

Dedekind-reals
R -valued "local-reals"

C@r-Set partial
for

with

precisely
domain
to

the
V.

functions
all

I that

Putting
that

these

together Rd
is
on

Ve@

allows

conclude

in

C<9r-Set, functions

the I.

sheaf

CL

IK

of

all

R-valued

continuous

partial

420

LOCAL

TRUTH

CH.

14,
constant

14.8

Amongst
ones

the

continuous
and that

R-valued

functions

on

I that

are we

the have

locally
Rc>->
of

of
For

course,

observation
there

confirms
is
also which
two

Rd
available

in

C6>-Set.
an

arbitrary
to

,
classical
a

representation
we

Rd
of
the

relating
map.
n

the
as

reals
between

R,

for

need

the preserves

notion

an

n-LJ

This
and

function
has
=

CHA's

that

operations

U,

i.e.

/(xny)
and

/(x)

Such

functions

are

natural

objects
on a n

of
set

study
I

in

this

generalised
a

topological
of
the

context,
,

since
?

topology
is closed
under

is

precisely

subset

lat ice

>

that

and

LJ.

Exercise

5.
=

Prove

that
a

the

restriction

operator
map.

g,:u>

e,

where

ge(p)
Exercise

pr~ie

is

(surjective)
/:!>
=

n-LJ

6.

Let

be all
map,

continuous.

Define

gf:

0P

>

0t

by

gf(W)
Show that

r1(W),
-LJ

We0K
and that for any Ve

gf

is

an

&z,

6>r
commutes

(which
In
the
we

may

be last

writ en

gf
and

v=

gf earlier
is

\ V).

light
make

of

the the

exercise,
definition:

the

representation
n-LJ
map

of

Rd map),

in

0-Set if
g:

fol owing
an

0p

arbitrary

an

("and-Or"

put

CH.

14,

14.8

NUMBER

SYSTEMS

AS

SHEAVES

421

and

[ceLj=g(c,oo).
Then

the

pair

rs=(Ug,
given
r
=

Lg)
(Ur,Lr)

satisfies

(Si)-(Sv) satisfying assigns

definition rational
end

and

is

Dedekind-real
define

in

n-Set.

Conversely,
map
gr:

(Si)-(Sv)
to
uses

we

an

n-LJ
R

0R
of

(I.

Intuitively,
and
the

gr

each

open

subset
fact
For

the
W

truth-value is
a

of union

"reW",
intervals

the

that

each
e

such

(c,

d)

with
n

points.

c,d

we

put

[re(c,
(since,

d)I

[ceLj

[deUj

classically,
re(c,d)
if
r>c

and and
of
=

r<d

if
Then the

ceLr
gr

deUr).
is

general

definition
=

&(W)(
gr
can

[reWl)
to

U{[re(c,
-LJ
map

d)J:

c,d

and

(c,

d)

W}.
uses

be

shown of

be

an

by
in
R.

an

argument
constructions
we

that
g

the rg
and

compactness
r
i>

closed

intervals

[c,
of
all

d]

The
so

>-

gr

are,

as

always,
as

mutually
the
set

of

Rd

in

-Set

inverse, -LJ

and
maps

have

the

presentation
>

of

the

form

0r

(I.

Exercise

7.

You

should

by

now

be

able

to

guess

what

this

exercise

says.

Exercise

8. the

Prove

that
maps

in

Cil-Set,
0r
*

the

members

of

Rd

with

extent

are

precisely

n-LJ

e.

It the

should
term

be
"the

emphasised
real-number that
may

that

it

is
for

by

no

means

determinate

what in
a

object
g".

continuum" fail

denotes

topos

One the

classical

property

Rd

is

order-completeness,

i.e.

property
every

non-empty

set

of

reals

with

^-upper-bound

has

least

^-upper-bound.

422

LOCAL

TRUTH

CH.

14,

14.8

counter-example
is
the

to

this

unit

interval

(from [0, l]cR.

Stout The

[76])
basic

is

available idea

in

j-Set, by

where the

is

conveyed

fol owing

picture.

V2

Fig.
The

14.7.

ordering
relation

in

Rd

(=

global

continuous

functions

R)

is

the

-valued

In

this

model,

since
=

everything
in
case

is

global,

we

wil

have

that

"/?

g"

is

true,

i.e.

[/=SgI

T,

just

(ii )
In the

f(i)^g(i) picture,
r:I*
1

for
1R is

all the

iel.

characteristic

function

of

[0,),

i.e.

if

0^i<k
Rd
has

Now
r

consider
in
the
sense

the

set

of

all

continuous
that

functions
be
and
so

that

are

=s-below with
"arbitrarl.u.b.

of

(ii ).
But

=s-upper-bounds
r

constant

output
from is
at
r

1).
below" But

it is

evident
members

can

(e.g. approximated
the
at

the

function

"arbitrarilyclosely
for

by
r

of

B,

only
i

possible
and
so

itself.
in 9. and

has

"jump

discontinuity"

=,

does

not

exist
Exercise =s-l.u.b." It

all

Rd.
Write
show
that what
out
a

formal

sentence
=

<p(B)

that

expresses

"B

has

that the
we

I<p(B)I
counter-example
have

Ig}

is

patent
since
of the

applies dealing
with is

to

the
the

sheaf
set

Cr-Set,
elements

been

just

of

Rd global

in

lat er.

CH.

14, It

14.8

NUMBER

SYSTEMS

AS

SHEAVES

423

is

possible
*R
within

in

fact

to

"plug
satisfies

the the

holes" of

in

Rd

and

expand
extension

it

to

its
of

order
A

completion Dedekind-cuts-style
rationals
John

which

definition
constructive

an

least-upper-bounds order-complete
seems

principle.
the have

analysis Christopher
obtained

to

first

been

given approach
sentences

by
to

Staples
that

[71].
*R
can

show

be

by

Mulvey replacing

has axiom

modified

this

(85)

by

the

(86) (87)
The
the

Vu(ueU
object
Hahn-Banach

3
been

w(v

>

Vu(ueL
Charles

>

u))).
to

*R
like il-Set.

has

used in

by

Burden

derive and in il ustrates

more

version

of

Theorem
A
as

categories
of

of

sheaves those
are

general
which
has how

topoi
Dedekind-reals,

characterisation
have

we

defined
in
the
a

them,
way
structure

topoi order-complete
systems.
validates

the been
the result

given underlying
is
law that

by
Rd

Peter

Johnstone,

that

graphically
of number
the

logic
=

determines
if
the

This
De

*R

internal

logic
|3).
of wil
be

of

topos

Morgan's

~(a
We

|3)
to

(~a
the

wil
where

return

subject

Dedekind

cuts

and
rather

order-completeness
more

below,
form.
As

the

8 -axioms

put
are

into

perspicacious
as

for

complex

numbers,
x

pairs
R,
we

(x,
define

y)
a

+
an

iy
of in

of

real

they numbers,

represented
and
so

classically

ordered

associated
continuous
as a

complex-numbers
IR-valued
functions

given object
function

real-numbers
=

object
R
x

R.

Since domain

in it

particular
can

pair
that

with
on

the that

same

be

construed

single
Cd=Rdx
on

-valued

domain,
of

transpires complex-valued
Complex
Rousseau,

C@-Set,
in
a a

Rd
been of
the and

is

the

sheaf

continuous
RousTheorem for interto

functions

I.
has

analysis
who

topos
version

developed
Weierstrass establishes
the rise
result She

by
Division

Christiane
that when

derives
of in
the theorem
a

in

functions

single
topos
for of

complex
sheaves

variable,
over

interpreted
classical
the

"~1

is
has
to
an

equivalent
also

the that

functions

of

variables.

observed
H that

concept

of

"holomorphic

function"

gives

object

has

and

that

is

suitable

develop
any

>^>

complex JRd.

analysis,

"object although

of

complex
it
cannot

numbers"

upon

which
as

to

itself

be

writ en

R2

for

424

LOCAL

TRUTH

CH.

14,

14.8

To
construct

close number record

this
the

particular
systems,
we

segment
return

about
to

the
the

use

of numbers

formal
once

logic
more

to

natural

and

fol owing

version

of

the

Peano

Postulates,

taken

from

Fourman

[74]:
E@)

i;)~(i(w)

=>v

w)

VS((OeSAVu(ueS=M(t))eS))=>Vt)(ueS)),
Here subsets
Exercise in
to

the

symbol
of 10.
the
set

S of
/u,
/s A,

is

second-order

variable

whose

range

is
S

the

set

of

all

natural
be the

numbers,

i.e.
of of
/u,

the

range

of
sentences.

is

9>(JV).
Show

Let

conjunction
a

the

above

that
way

Cil-Set,

<*>*,<>.,
the

(A, .

OA)

is

model

if

it

is

isomorphic

in

unique

Ordering
The

continuum

standard
on
a

orderings
0-set
whose
=

<,
elements

=s,

>,
are

s=, functions

can

be

lifted r:I^>
R

to

-valued

relations

by

putting

{i:r(

and

similarly
in brackets
We the

for is

>,

5=

(if
of

both

and

continuous

then
as

the the
set

interior
within

operator
the wil
I
a as

definitions

<,

>,

are

redundant,
with
It wil let ers
as

already
each
R

open).
rational
as

identify
*

ce?3
sole refer

the

constant

continuous
matters

function
commit

having
of abuses

its

output.
to

simplify
c,
r,. .,

if

we

series
informal

of
to
even

language
as

indiscriminately
formal

symbols
and and
r,

by using elements,
in
such

indiscrimiconstants c,

individual

in

sentences,
to

variables t, above
to

sentences,

d,

b,

e,

refer

always
Exercise

rationale,
11.

s,

general
definitions

reals.

Show
=

that

the

yield

(i) (ii) (in) (iv)

lc<dl [(c<d]=T [(c<d)I [c^dl

l
or
=

or

[cdI

or

[(c<d)v(cd)l.

CH.

14,

14.8

NUMBER

SYSTEMS

AS

SHEAVES

425

The

import ordering
as

of

these
rationals
were

facts This

is is

that often

the In

structure

of

the

rationals that
we

is the
reason

rigidly
of with

determined
the them if

(constant).
of
we

expressed
other

by
words

saying
classical

theory

is

decidable.

may

working
law

in

and word

applying
that that
elements,
comes

logic
from
a

(e.g.
intuitionistic

(ii)

above
The

gives
relation

the

of
is called

excluded

middle).
apartness,
a a

where
sense

mathematics,
constructive been this

it dif erence

denotes between

relation
be Scott Brouwer's

conveys

positive,
apart
structures

con-

of
first

(i.e. dif erent).

to

be Indeed

is models

to

have

constructively
kind
were

demonstrated

to

of of
to

devised
of that
R
>

by
the

Dana

[68,70]
continuum,
theorem

to

provide
and
on on

intuitionistic obtain
states:
a

theories model all

real-number

validates
R
are

particular continuity
closed
intervals.

in

that

functions

uniformly

continuous

Exercise

12.
T
=

Show

that

the

fol owing

formulae

are

true

(i.e.

are

assigned

truth-value

J).

(i) (ii) (ii ) (iv) (v) (vi) (Vii) (vii ) (ix) (x) (xi)

~(r<sAs<r) (r <s)a(s

(r s) (rsSsssO^r^O
=

((r

*?s)

(s =?/))

Exercise

13.

If

and

are

continuous,

then

[(r^S)^((r<S
(converse
to

(ii )

above).

Exercise

14.

If

r,

s,

are

continuous,
=

then
T

(i) (ii)

I(r<s)=>.(r<f)v(f<s)I

426

LOCAL

TRUTH

CH.

14,

14.8

Exercise

15.

is

continuous

then

the

fol owing

are

true

(i) (ii) (ii ) (iv)

(where
A

3c,d(c<r<d)

3c,d
word
elements.

abbreviates of caution:
For

3c

3d

etc.)

we

are

dealing
reals
some
or nor

throughout
of
r

this these
statements

exposition
must

with
be

global
modified.

local
true

12.(vi)
=

is

whether

is
=

global,
T,
have

since

definition,

$.

But for

false

(v) non-global

and

(vi)

together
elements.

yield
What

lr^r}
we

which
in

is, place

do

invariably by definiof (v) is

the

point
and

being
so

that what

for

local
true

elements

we

need

to

take

account

of

their

extents,

is

is

the

universal

closure

Exercise

16.

Check

out

the

rest

of

Exercises

12-15

in

regard

to

local

elements.

The

principles
(r<s)\/(r<=='s)\/(r>s)

and

both
two

fail

in

general.
continuous

counter

example
functions
on

to

both
=

is

provided

by

taking

the

displayed

[0,1]

CH.

14,

14.8

NUMBER

SYSTEMS

AS

SHEAVES

427

We Let

have
us

Ir=?sI=I,
now

Ir
return

<

si
the

{},
are

to

axioms
that
the

Ir (Sl)-(<55)
the

sl pair

{}
that

and of

[r>sl
cuts

0.
a

characterise for
we

those

(U,L)
real

of number after

sets
r.

of

rationale

(Ur,Lr)
of

pairs unique
rewrite

By

invoking
conversions

definitions
as

and

Lr

can

these
01: 02:

appropriate
3c,d(c<r<d) \/c~(c<r<c)

03: 04: 05:

We

Vc,d((c<d)=>(c<rvr<d)).
have
in

fact
r:I^>

observed
R. As
one

in the

the would

above

Exercises

that

01-05

hold

for these

any

continuous axioms
Exercise

expect
functions.

from

our

previous

work,

characterise
17.

continuous
r:I^>
R

Suppose

satisfies

01-05.

Prove

that

for

all

i,

\.u.b.{d:ield<r}}.

Hence

show

that

and

and
In

so

is

continuous.
if

sum

then,
-set the

0(r)
of
of

is all

the

conjunction
functions Dedekind-reals
for 05

of

01-05,
on

we

find

that
defined

the

subset

of

the The

AB

R-valued
of

that

is

by

0(r)
example

is

precisely
that

object
Rd
was

Rd

for

-Set.

necessity
showed

continuity
not

is

il ustrated
for
I
= =

by

our

earlier
With
r

order-complete

[0,1].
I,
while that
has

the

charac=

characteristic

function
U

of
=

[0,|)
Indeed

we

have for
any

I|<1]
rational

I|<rlulr<ll
0
=?

[0,
that

|)

(|, 1]

!-{}

=?

we

find

so

that

is

not

rigidly
There

determined is
a

to

belong
these

to

either
two

Lr={c:
cuts.

c<r}

or

Ur={c:

r<c}.

big

gap

between

428

LOCAL

TRUTH

CH.

14,
1
we

14.8

Notice

also

in and

this this
means

example
shows that that in

that the

if

is

strictly
non-continuous

between

and

have

\
essential.
away

r]

T,
This

continuity
of the

assumption
continuum.
The

in

Exercise
reals lat er
we
move

13
has the
as

is

considering
theory
and abstract in the
R

from

the

intuitionistic

"close

together"

property
move

05,
to
a

introduces

apartness axiomatic
0-axioms.
of when order be and the level
We

by
and shall
that
to

definition explore
assume

meaning
Let
us

(r<s)v(s<r).
now more

the

order that
we

properties
are

that

are

implicit
an

only
a

dealing
on

with that

extension

rationale restricted for

the

has

binary point
of
word

relation with wil intuitionistic

Axiom be the
to

<

it what

satisfies decidable

01-04,

and of
<
can

is The

identical

classical
see

theory
of the

rationals.

properties
that

derived

using
are

only
empty.

principles
The
a

01

logic. implies
often used

sets
an

Lr
intuitionistic
that
to

Ur
is

not

inhabited
sense

is of
proven

here,
To know

term

conveying
is
to

positive
construc-

membership.
only

inhabited
that
A

have
to

constructively
proven

( ~(A

A),
i.e.

whereas

know

is

non-empty

is

to

have

=0)

~(),

which

is

equivalent

~~3a(aeA).
03

implies (c
<

two

things
d <

about
=>

Lr.

First

it

gives

r)
1^

(c
is in

<

r),
on

which
member

means

that
of

unbounded

the from

left

(anything

to

the

left

of

Lr

is

also

Lr).

Secondly,

it
else

implies
look

that like

Lr

has

no

end-point

to

the

right,

and

so

must

be

all

of

Q,

or

04

gives

dual

description
neither
can

of be

Ur,
Q
and

and
we

02
must

implies
have

that

the

two

sets

are

disjoint,

hence

The

linear

picture
law

is

perhaps r)\/
the
we

misleading,
(r <c).
gap

in

that

we

do

not

have

the

trichotomy

(c <r)\/
Indeed,
we

(c
take that

*=

shall

in

the

line
to

between

Lr
between

and the

.
two

to

consist

only

of

the

points

know

positively

be

cuts,

i.e.

CH.

14,

14.8

NUMBER

SYSTEMS

AS

SHEAVES

429

those
every
sentences

that member

we

know
of

to

be
The

less gap

than then

every

member
denned

of

Ur

and

greater
of

than the

Lr.

is

by

the

conjunction

\fd(r<d=>c<d)
and

Vd(d<r=>d<c).
To

consider
then

negative
that define
s=?t

membership
is
an

(~(c
abbreviation

.))
for

we

introduce

the

symbol
Exercise

=?

by stipulating and (iv)),

~(t<s)

(cf.

12

By

02

we

get

which

negatively depend

implies (~(r<c))
on

Lr
the

Ler.
terms

Similarly
of
04. From

Ur
the the

U^r.
we

Since
of obtain

L^r Ur,
its

is order

denned

nega-

in axiom

members
lat er

properties

which

by

contraposition

gives

leading

to

the

transitivity
<

law

(d
This
is
states

=?

)
is

=?

r.

that

LSr
derivation

unbounded
of

on

the

left.

The

dual

property

for

given

by

the

from

03.

Thus

far,

the

picture

is

V,,

It For

is if

easy
we

to

see

that

all
and
so

members
r<d

of

LSr

are

positively
but
not

to

the
we

left

of d<c Thus

Ur.

have

c^r,
and

(hence
by
04.
But

d
this

<d,

get

(Q
we

is
have

decidable),
proven

r<c

contradicts

~(r<c).

430

LOCAL

TRUTH

CH.

14,
r<c

14.8

But lead

conversely,
to

if
the

is

less

than
c<c.

every

member
we

of

Ur,
have

contradiction

Therefore

assuming ~(r<c).

would

This

estab-

establishes

and

dually

The

picture

is

now

Recall

the In the

axioms

66

and

67

given
66 becomes

earlier

for

the

order-complete

reals

*R.
06: and d 06:
07:
=?
r

present

notation
=

\fc((c<r) dually
so we

3d(c<dA\/b((r<b)^(d<b))))
by
the

for
have

07.

But

above,

Vb((r

<

b)

=>

(d

<

b))

is

equivalent

to

Then

from

06

we

obtain

which
the and

means

that of
to

any

member This
a

of has the

L^r
effect

has of

the

property

that
the
gap

everything
between

to

left

it

is

in

L,.

reducing

Lr

L^r

(at

most)

single

point

and last

so

closes
we

the

gap

in

the

line.

Alternatively

by

contraposition

on

the

formula

get

which
Exercise

we

can

interpret

as

reducing
only

the

overlap
of

of

LSr
prove

and that

U^r
02

to

point. implied

18.

Assuming

decidability

Q,

is

by
02'

Vc,d(c<r<d=>c<d).

CH.

14,

14.8

NUMBER

SYSTEMS

AS

SHEAVES

431

Show

that

02

together
Forget
have the their

with

either

03

or

04

implies
of

02'.

Exercise
c^r

19. and
r^c

negative positive

definition

=?,

and

assume

only

that

meanings

and

Vd(d<r=>d<c) respectively. (i)

Prove

02'

is

equivalent

to

each

of

Vc(c<r=>c=?r)
and

Vc(r<c (ii) (ii ) (iv)

Exercise

06
07

and and of

02'
02' 06

together together
and
07

Each

imply imply implies

03 04

02'.

20.

Show
and 05

that

(i) (ii)
The

02',
02',
discussion
that determined

03 04

together

and

05

together

give give
these

06.
07.

? could
there how
these

preceding
the axioms for
a

exercises that
To
see

be is
no

summarised

by
gap
at

saying
cut

*R number.

ensure

positive
axioms
lead

the
to

by
of

real
we

also

order-completeness only principles

Let that
us

continue
be the

the

derivation of
r<c

of

order

properties .)
of that subsets

using
of

intuitionistic *R
06 and
to set

logic.
all

define

pairs
and

(Ur,
mean

Q
and in

ceL,
Exercise

01, satisfy respectively,

19. 03
=?.

and

07,
c^r

where and from

we

c<r

ceUr
as
r

r^c

have

their 18 the and

positive
19 that

meanings
satisfies
that that

It

then and deal

fol ows hence of with.

the

Exercises
could
recover

02,
we

02',
of fewer

and
The

04

negative
is of
course

characterisation
have 20

advantage
to

present
Notice
also

axioms

approach by

Exercise

Rd

*R.

Exercise

21.

If

r,

se*R,

show

that

(a)

\/c(s<c^r<c)

432

LOCAL

TRUTH

CH.

14,

14.8

together

with

06

implies

(b)
and
We

\/c(c<r=>c<s),
dually
now

(b)
define of
22.

and

07

together
s,

give
r,s
e

(a).
to
mean

?
that

r =?

for Exercise

*R,
obtains.
if

either

of

the

equivalent

conditions
Exercise upper

the
Prove

last

that

=?

every

rational

upper

bound

of

Ls

is

an

bound

of

L,,

i.e.

Show

that

this

is

equivalent
lower bound

to

the

statement

that

every

rational

lower

bound

of

.
subset

is

of

Us.
=?
s

?
that

If B,

is i.e.

of

*R,

we

put

to

mean

is

an

upper

bound

of

that

Suppose
define
cuts.
a

that
least

upper

is

inhabited
bound for rational
r0

Cs(seB))
for

we

and

has
to

an

upper

bound.
and
lower

To

have
mean

give

its

upper

Writing

B<d,

d,

to

that

Vt(teB=>t<d)
we

put ro<c c<r0

if if
we

3d(B<d<c) 3d(c<dA~(B<d)).
have
to

The

first

thing of by
so

prove
cut
to
s

about
of there of
(=?

r0

is
inhabited:

that

it

is there

in

*R
exists if

:-

Verification
B^s,
(=?
s

01:

The d

upper

r0

is is
s.

an

with

and
<

01
(<

d,

applied by definition
the fact

some

d>s.

Then

(eB
so

we

get

This
teB.

establishes

B<d,
01

taking
a

any

c>d

puts
we use

ro<c.
that
(<

Dually,
Then
so

there

is

By
with

again
02.

there Hence

is

d <
<

t.

any

< <

d d

would

imply
c<r0.

d,

in

contradiction

~(B

d),
?

gives
of
06: d
=?

Verification
We prove

Suppose
r0.

c<r0.
For
,

Then
r0
<

for is

some an

d,c<d
e0

and

<

~(B<d).
<
e.

that

if

e,

there

with

e0

Now

if

CH.

14,

14.8

NUMBER

SYSTEMS

AS

SHEAVES

433

e=?d,
would d < <e<d.
e,

then

any

teB

would

have
to

imply
which
Then

B<d,
means

contrary
that
d
=?

r0

as

t<eo<d, ~(B<d). required.

for
some

hence
Thus

t<d if

by
we

04.
must

But

that

ro<e,
any

have
with
turn

Conversely, by ~(B
d=?r0
<

suppose

c<d^r0

d.

Take
it

rational which
be that
c<e

if
the

<e,
contradiction
<

we

have

B<e<d,
d<d. Thus

implying
must

r0<d,

in

e),

gives giving of

and

r0.

Verification ro=?d,
d Hence
=?
e

07:

ro<c
Then
<
e

then

B<d<c
some

for
e0,

some

d.

To

show
But

<

that then
e0.

take

any

e<r0.

for
e0,

e<e0
04
to

and the

~(B<e0).
contradiction
show
then

would
we

imply
must

d <
<

have if
r0
our

d
c,

as

leading required.
an
e

by
with
So

Conversely,
this wil
So

=?

d < desideratum
e^

take But then

d <
let

<

we

can

<

e,

yield
for
we

ro<c.

teB.

eo<t
the

by

03

eo<e1<t t<er.

some

B<e1

would

give
which
07

contradiction

have

~(B<e1),
(=?<i
But

implying
since

eo<ro,

by
for
t

ro=?d

gives
(<e

eo<d. required.

This

establishes

d<e,

gives

as

The

role

of

r0

as

least

upper

bound

of

is

given

by

the

fact

that

for

any

se*R,
B^s

if B^s.
we

ros=s
Then
s<c

Proof.

Suppose
if teB

implies
hence t<d.
let teB.

s<d<c

for

some

d that

@4).
B<d<c,
have

But

then

get
assume

t^s<d,
ro^s,
and

This
Then

shows

putting
Conversely,
and
proves
so

ro<c.
if
s<c
we

ro<c
04.

for
f=?s.

some

d,B<d<c.

Hence

t<d<c,

giving

by

This ?

Exercise

23.

Show

that

01

and

the

"close

together"

axiom

05

yield

the

property
05' V is for that

,d(c<r<dAd-c<-\
a

where arithmetic Show

symbol rationals).
05', 03,

for
and

positive
04

integers together
imply

(assume
05.

the

classical

theory

of

434

LOCAL

TRUTH

CH.

14,

14.8

Exercise
n

24.

Show

that

each

of

06

and

07

implies

that

for

each

integer

>

0,

the

set

\(c,
is
05":

d):
in

<<-< the
weak That

|
sense.

non-empty
Vn

is,

3c,d(c<r<dAd-c<-\.
Construct

Exercise

25.

examples
05",
05",
to

of
07.

r,s&*R

satisfying
?

(i) (ii)
Let
law
us

01,

04,

06,
07,
now

but

not not

01,
return

03,

but
result

06.

the

stated

earlier

that

*R

Rd

if

De

Morgan's

~(A/3)
is suffices valid.
to

(~av~/3)
.,

Since show
is

Rd
that

^'*R,
any

the

various satisfies rational

e

results

given
05.
we

earlier the

imply
present
set

that
up,

it the

re*R
any

Given have

proof

quite

brief.

For

@2)

~(<<)
and
so

De

Morgan's

law

gives

~(e<r)v~(r<te)
which

by

the
to

earlier

analysis

of

the

consequences

of

03

and

04

is

equivalent

Now have

to

derive
e

05,
=?

suppose
hence
c<e^r

c<d. and

Taking
so

any
<
r

with

c<e<d,
or
r =? e

we

then
so
r

either 07.
date

r,

by

06,

and

<

by
To

?
have of that
r<s

we

studiously
*R.
In

avoided
the
case

reference classical
case,

to

the

ordering
of

<

for
in R

general
guarantees

members

the

density

just

in

3c(r<c<s),
and 28

this

last
It

condition

is
not

used do however

to

define for

<

on

Rd
and

in the

below).

wil

*R,

general procedure

(cf.

Exercise

adopted

CH.

14,

14.8

NUMBER

SYSTEMS

AS

SHEAVES

435

there

is

to

invoke
r<s

the

arithmetical

structure
+

of

to

put

if

3d(d>0Ar by
if c-d<r r<c-d.
+

d^s)
its
upper and lower
cuts

where

d clauses

is

defined

specifying

by

the

(obvious?)

c<r+d
r

d<c Show

if

Exercise

26.

that

d<=*R
of
r,se

if

re*R. *R
with
c.
r

Exercise for Exercise

27.

Give

examples
fails
for
all

d^s

for

some

d >

but

which

r<c<d
28. Use
=s

rationale

the

above

CO-Set, by (r<s)v(s<r).
the Exercise

giving

by
Show

either
that with

density its positive

in the

condition
or

to

define

<

on

Rd
and

in

negative
case

description,
il subsection.
that
the
to
=

r^s
lead
to

-valued
29.

relations
Let
<

which
any

topological we began

these

this
Show

X
etc.
on

be X

of

<u

Z,Q,
the

R.

standard

rigid

relations

lift

to

simple

sheaf

X*

satisfy

h
etc.

<

tl
the

Uds
properties

aln[f
of

:
these

<

eX}
order

Investigate

/}-valued

relations.

Points

important generalisation
An

feature of
the

of
the notion

the

study
of
a

of

number

systems

in
space.

C/2-Set
A

is

a e

point
that

in

topological

given

determines

function

fi:0I>2
o if
so

has

av,
in

fi
an

is

an

ii|

-LJ | map
to

map,

and

general
il
*

point
as

of
abstraction

made

, from

is

denned

to to

be

of view
rather
spaces

the
a

form

2.

The

@
up

il its classical
i
e

is

movement

generalised
than

"space"
its

being [76]).
form
These

of

parts
I. Such
Haus-

(open topological
spaces

sets)
are

points
<9Z
*

(Lawvere
2 is
are

In

some some

every

point
(all

of in

the

ft

for

called
so

sober
in

points
IR

focus).

include

all

dorff

spaces,

particular

is

sober.

436

LOCAL

TRUTH

CH.

14,

14.8

There

is

categorial
functions
and

duality
the
between

between

the of

category
CHA's
and

of

sober
maps

spaces that the

with

continuous
a an

category
the

with CHA's
all

n-LJ
of

gives
0.
For

natural

arbitrary
space

isomorphism
is
one

former
the
set

type
of

let

sober

having

/3(/}) Is|3(#i)).

be

of

points
let

il^2

il.

(A

For

pefi

be

the

set

of

points
Prove

/
that
=

that

"belong

to

p".

Exercise

30.

VpnV,
U
peC

VprY,
VUC
all

all

p,qeil
Ccj]

VP
implies

This

result

that

the

collection

0n={Vp:peil}
is
on

closed

under

finite

intersections

and

arbitrary

unions,

i.e.

is

topology

/3(Jfi).
31.
Given
a

Exercise

point

g:

0n

define

fe:il^2

by

Show

that

/g

/3(/})
=

and l

g(Vp)
Thus
we
see

if

/geVp.
0n)
that

?
is
the sober

that

previous
map

exercise

(@(il), implies

topological
p
i->

space.

Moreover
a

the

function wil
be

Vp
have

is

surjective points

n-LJ
if it

(CHA-homomorphism).
Vp
This is
an
=

il

said

to

enough

satisfies

Vq
them

only

if

p=q,

all

p,qeil.
that

extensionality
in

principle,
("/ep
if

asserting
/eq")
and then

if
are

two

parts

have

the
a

same

points
0 function
Thus the

they
the

equal.
condition
and

topology
the

has
p
->

enough

Vp
At

is CHA's
the

an

spatial

points, conversely between isomorphism (the topologies)

other
extreme

Obviously implies
those that that
are

that

il
are

0n.
have

precisely
exist

enough

points.

there

CHA's

quite

CH.

14,

14.8

NUMBER

SYSTEMS

AS

SHEAVES

437

pointless,
exhibit
and

and

the

associated

sheaf behaviour.
constructed "facts"

categories
For

of

such

structures

can

extremely
Martin
such
square
e

pathological
Hyland
standard
have

topoi
as ax

instance, along
"every
=

Michael
these

Fourman
that

lines

fail
has

to

satisfy
a

mathematical
"the

complex
has
a

number real

root", (R",
account

equation
unit

x3

solution
is and

for

a,b
An

and
6 of

"the

interval construction

[0,1]
of
and

is
number

compact".
systems
details
of
the

of
Johnstone

the

in order also in

topoi

Chapter
cal

[77]
Rd
The the
may

further
in Conference
Stout

properties sheaves).
of
Scott

of

be

found
source

[76]
information
on

(cf.
sheaf

Mulvey
this
area

given topologi[74]
is

in for
the

spatial Proceedings Mulvey,

mentioned

major
Durham

of details
references.

theory
results that

(Fourman,
have been

[79])
in

which section

contains
without

of

all

the

this

CHAPTER

15

ADJOINTNESS

AND

QUANTIFIERS

"..

adjoints
in many
..

occur

almost

everywhere
Mathematics.
use

branches
a

of
il-

systematic
these
Maclane

of

all
and

these

adjunctions clarifies
Saunders

il uminates

sub-

subjects."

The
most

isolation

and

explication
contribution
that

of

the

notion this all

final

of

adjointness
has

is made
we

perhaps
to

the

profound general
of

category
In

theory
chapter
its

the

history
at

of
nature

mathematical this
that
then

ideas.

shall

look
a

the
of

concept,
encompass
see

and

demonstrate almost

ubiquity
that
we

with
have the

range

il ustrations
We
Theorem

concepts
the

discussed.
Fundamental

shall of

how

it

underlies
examine

proof
role

of in
a

Topoi,
in
a

and

finally

its

particular

analysis

of

quantifiers
15.1.
The

topos.

Adjunctions
basic
data
<#

for
and

an

adjoint
functors

situation,
F and

or

adjunction,
between them

comprise

two

categories,

3),

and

in

each

Given

direction, 'e'-object

enabling
a

an

interchange
b
we

of

their

objects

and

arrows.

and

2)

-object

obtain

Fig.

15.1.
438

CH.

15, in

15.1

ADJUNCTIONS

439

G(b) correspondence
indicated

<#

and
broken is

F(a)
of
arrows

in

2).
in

Adjointness
between these the

occurs

when

there

is directions
from b in

an

exact

objects
so

in that
any

the passage
to

india

by
in
we

the
<#

arrows

picture,
a

to

G(b)
words

matched for

uniquely
each
a

by
and

passage

from

require e^-.aKFiaW^i^Gib))
the
set

as

shown,

F(a) bijection

2).

In

other

A)
between the

of

2>

-arrows

of the
means

the

form

F(a)^>
of

and

the

'g'-arrows

of
be
as

form in and

a a

Gib).
and

Moreover

assignment
that

"natural
a

b",

which

it preserves
to

vary.

"hom-set"
to

2(F(a),
Set

assignment
that these When
to

of
the
two

Specifically, b) generates and <' (why establishes ^{a, G(b))

the

the

assignment
a

functor <#?
of

from

not

Examine
another
a

such

is to bijections structure categorial the (a, b) of pair the product category the while details), functor. We require
between

the

the

6ab
such F

's

form

components
we

natural

transformation

functors.

exists
to

call

the

triple
to

(F,
G,
between

G,
F

)
and

an

adjunction
G,
G

from
G

<#

Qs.

is then

said

be The

to F, adjoint i s A) presented
a
-*

G\~F.
G(b)

schematically

left adjoint relationship by

denoted

F\

while

is

as

right
in

given

by

which
An
arrows

displays adjoint
associated
a

the

"left-right"
is with
each

distinction.

situation

expressible
object
and
to

in

terms

of and

the

behaviour
in
on

of

special

of

<#

3l:=

Let the
'g'-arrow

be

appropriate
r\a
=

particular component)

'e'-object,
the
to

put

b
unit
to

F(a)
arrow a. a

identity
the

A). F(a)
for

Applying
we

(i.e.
the
we

obtain b in
b
]

0AF(a)M
g:a^>

be

called

of
find
to

Then

any

2>,
under

know

that

any

G(b)
of

corresponds
in
a

unique
in
such

/:F(a)
fact
g

6ab.
certain
one

Using
co-universal such

the

naturality
property,
such that

and
that

we

that there

namely

any

enjoys is exactly

B)

F(a)

\f
b

440

ADJOINTNESS

AND

QUANTIFIERS

CH.

15,

15.1

commutes.

Indeed

6ab(f),

and

so

C) Naturality

eab(f)
of
a

implies

also

that

=*->

G(F(a))
G(F(k))

G{F(a'))
commutes

for
a

all transformation

such

'e'-arrows t]:

fc,
1<g
2>
-r

and

so

the

rja's
the

form
unit

the

components
of
in
the

of
adjunction.

natural
let

GF,
and

called

adjunc-

Dually,
the

b
to

be the
on

particular
natural
to to

object
co-unit
-arrow

put

eb

a
=

G(b)
apply
of

A).

to

is
the
the

inverse
arrow

isomorphism
get
any

(
*

0~b),
b
there

identity
universal
'g'-arrow

G(b)
that

the

=A())

b.
is

eb

has

property
g:
a
>

2)
that

f:F(a)

exactly

one

G(b)

such

D)

F(G(b))

"

G(b)

F(a)
commutes.

Since

/=Tab(g),
=

we

get

E)
while
the

Tab(g)
eb's
the other define

ebF(g),
the

form co-unit

components
of
the

of

the

natural
and

transformation
of

e:FG-r>1a,
On
we

adjunction.
transformations
and and the

as

the

hand,
natural

given

natural

this

form,
their
of
to

could

transformations

by
be

components

by

diagrams
other,
hence

B)

and each

equations D)
a

C)
hold, bijection,
G
to to
as

E).
6ab
and
the

universal
would

specifying properties
inverse
from
<<?
to

then

each

giving
above, G,

an

adjunction
are

2).

Thus,

given
F

and

fol owing

equivalent:

(a) (b) (c) (d)

is

left

G
there there

is

right
exists exist

adjoint adjoint
an

F-\G F, G\-F
(F,
G,

adjunction
transformations

)
rj:

from

<#

to

3>
and

natural

1-p>

GF

e:FGr*19

CH.

15,

15.1

ADJUNCTIONS

441

whose

components

have

the

universal

properties
of
and
a a a

of

diagrams
general

B)
phenomenon.

and

D)

above.

Diagrams Suppose

B)
that

and G:
of

D)

are

instances
a

more an

2>
a

"g1

is if for

functor b and
any

object
}:
a

of

<6.

Then

(b,
ouer

r\)
a

consisting
witJi
one

2>-object
G

'g'-arrow

G(b)
g:
a

is

called

pair free
there

respect 2>
-arrow

to

'g'-arrow

of
that

the

form

G(c)

is

exactly

f:b^> G(b)

such

F)

_^

\G(f)
G(c)
commutes.

Such

pair
whenever

(b,

rj)

is

also
the

known

as

universal

arrow

from
over a

to

G.
to

Thus,
G.

F\G,
given
a a

pair
F:^^3)

(F(a),
and
arrow
e

])
a
:

is

free

with

respect
a

Dually,

functor
a

3)-object

b,
called
a

comprising
with
arrow

'g'-object
to
>

and each

an

respect

if

to

/: F(c)

there

is

pair unique

(c,

/)
g:

F(a) comprising
>

b is
'g'

pair -free

(a,
over

e),
b
an

'g'-object
that

and

in

such

G)

F(c)
commutes.

Such 1.
over

pair
a

is

also

called

universal
G
to

arrow

from of

to

b.
that

Exercise

Describe Qs

right
with

adjoint
respect
to

in

terms

pairs

are

co-free
Exercise

-objects
that
r\: <g'-arrows

>

F.

2.
that the

Suppose
arrow are

(b,
a
>

Show
whose
are

r\) G(b)
of
that

is
the

universal
an

arrow

from in
the

to

G:

3)

c.

is

initial

object /:
a
*

category
whose
arrows

objects
2)
-arrows

form

G(c)

and

g:

d
a

such

G(c)
commutes.

G(g)

442

ADJOINTNESS

AND

QUANTIFIERS

CH.

15,

15.2

Exercise

3.
4.
a

Dualise

Exercise for Construct

2.

Exercise

Suppose
G-.OJ^tg.

that

every
a

'g'-object
functor

a,

there

is
such

universal
that

arrow

from
Exercise

to

F:<e^>33

F\G.
?

5.

Dualise of
of
maps

Exercise

4.

The the

existence

an

adjoint
functor.

to

functor

has

properties
(i.e. diagram
The

that
the

For of F
account
a

example,
in

important if F\G,
to
a

consequences then

for
G
preserves

limits
that

limit while
brief
on

diagram
preserves

limit
of

for

the

G-image
may be

of

in of

),
this
text

co-limits.
of
the

details

theory

adjoints

found

in

any

standard

category

theory.

15.2.
Initial
Let
^

Some

adjoint

situations

objects
=

1 2j

be

the

category
F:l^

with
2> is
left

one

object, adjoint
to

say

0,
then

and

G
any

the

unique
in

functor

-1.

for

O^G(b)
since
there

is
b. Hence

exactly

one

arrow an

G(b),
in

there

is co-unit

exactly
eb

one

arrow

F@)->
b
Exercise has
a

F@)
arrow

is

initial
*

object
b.
terminal

2).

The

:F(G(b))-^

is

the

unique
1. Show

F@)
that

2>

has

object

if

the

functor

!:2)1
?

right

adjoint.

Products
Let
to

:<#

>

<#x<g

be

the

diagonal
Suppose
A

functor
has
a

(f,f):(a,
Then
we

)-^{,
have
->

b). G(x)

taking right

to

(a,
G

a)

and

adjoint

CH.

15,

15.2

SOME

ADJOINT

SITUATIONS

443

where

is

in

<#

and
'e'-arrows

(a,
p
:

is
freeness"

pair
h:c

of

b) is G(x)
for

in

<# x<g\
a

The

co-unit
q
:

ex
*

and

G(x)

b.

4(G(x)) Using

>

(a,
"co-

b)
is
a

the

property
*

of

ex,

any

arrows

f.c^a,

g:c^b,

there

unique

G(x)

such

that

G(x)

and

hence

commutes.

Thus

G(x)

is

product
have the

axb

of

and

with

ex

as

the

pair

of

associated

projections.

We

adjunction

,
*

The
Exercise

unit

tjc

is

the

diagonal
has

product co-products
if

arrow

(,

1>.
has
a

2.

Show

that

left

adjoint.
It
can

?
be
*#

shown

that when

the

limit

and

co-limit from
J is
J
a

of

any

type
and

of left

category

arise,
functor
that the

they
where

exist,

right
canonical is
the
co-cone,

"diagonal"
"shape"
The

<><%1,
diagram
left
the

category
discrete
the

diagram adjoints having

{0,1}).
for co-unit

in

a a

of
the

of

(for

products,
is
cone.

category

unit

for

adjoint
universal

the

universal

the

right
Topology
There

adjoint
and

is

algebra

are

many

functors.
left
that

The

significant forgetful
the

constructions functor

that

arise

as

adjoints
groups
to

to sets

forgetful
has
as

UiGrp^-Set
to

from
each the
set

adjoint
set

functor
"free" has

assigning
precisely

the

free

group

generated
associated with

by

(here
an

above

meaning

units

of

adjunction).

444

ADJOINTNESS

AND

QUANTIFIERS

CH.

15,

15.2

The

construction
left

of

the
the

field

of

quotients
functor

of
from

an

integral
the

domain

gives
of fields
to

functor
the The

adjoint
of

to

forgetful
domains.
discrete
indiscrete

category

category

integral
of the the

specification
Top
*

U:
The

Set,

while
of

completion
from

metric metric

space

topology topology provides

to

on

set

gives
a

left

adjoint
to

to

provides
a

right
to

adjoint
the

U.

left spaces.

adjoint

forgetful

functor
The and

complete
wil
in
find

spaces
more

metric of and

reader

many

examples
Herrlich

adjoints
Strecker

from

topology

algebra

Maclane

[71]

and

[73].

Exponentiation
If
<#

has

exponentials,

then

there

is

(3.16)

bijection

for
Let
cXa.

all

objects
F.'e
Then
*

a,

<#

be

F
any
arrow

has

ba
to

and
the

composite

indicating product right as adjoint right /: * b to fa fev':caxa^>c^>b,

c,

b,

the

presence

of
-x
a

an

adjunction.
of

the

functor
the
:

9.1
<#

functor
*

(
which
i.e.
the

)a
is

<#

taking taking
for

any any

to

b to

ca

ba,

the

exponential
arrow

adjoint
which

unique

commutes.

The

co-unit
and in

eb:F(ba)^b
its
"co-freeness"

is

precisely yields

the

evaluation
the

arrow

ev:bax

a>b, given
The

property
is

axiom

of

exponentials

3.16.

adjoint

situation

Thus

has
a.

exponentials

if

the

functor

has

right

adjoint

for

each

^-object
Relative This condition

pseudo-complements
is
a

special
cnaCb

case

of

exponentials

(cf.

8.3).

In

any

r.p.c.

lat ice

the

if

CH.

15,

15.2

SOME

ADJOINT

SITUATIONS

445

yields

the

adjunction

lat ice
a.

is

r.p.c.

if

the

functor

taking

ctocr^a

has

right

adjoint

for

each
Natural
A the
<?

numbers
arrow

objects /
is

(cf. (from
aOf. aQfto
b The

Lawvere

[69])
if

endo
or

"endomorphism")
category <
a

dom/
as

cod/,
the
such

i.e.

has

form
an

f
arrow

:a^a,

has

objects
h:a-+b

'e'-endo's,
that

with

from

bOgbeing

'e'-arrow

*!>

f
a

>

i.e.

commutes.

Let
a.

G:<--<1
has
-

be

the

forgetful

functor

taking

f:a^>a

to

its

domain

Suppose

left

adjoint

G(b)
-*

F(a)
and denoted
the freeness let the

'

endo
>

F(l)
N.

be

denoted is
over

N^^
of
course

and

the

unit

-r^:

G(FA))

0:1

The

notation

intentional:

of

(F(l),

ih)

G(A)
means

A A:a^>a h
:

that is
a

for

any
arrow

endo

and

any

^-arrow

x:

there

unique

F(l)

A,

i.e.

446

AD. NTNESS ADJOI

AND

QUANTIFIERS

CH.

15,

15.2

such

that 1

i\
a

and

hence
N*
o.

commutes.

Thus if
a

(F(l),
NNNO,
1
X

)
4

is define

natural

numbers

object.
to

Conversely,
xN

F:^~>^O

take

to

the

endo

>axN
to

and Then
any

f:a
endo

->

b
the

/x1N.
theorem 13.2.1

by

of
arrow

f:b>b

and

any

Freyd, ho:a>b

if

<?

has

exponentials,
is
a

then

for

there

unique

h for

which

Ixo

commutes.

We

have

the

situation

indicating
which
we

that
recover

F~\G.
O:1-^N

The

unit
under

,r]1

now

becomes
the

natural

A15 O): isomorphism

<g

>

from

lxNsN.
a

Altogether object
We

then,

cartesian

closed

category

has
a

natural

numbers

if
also

the

forgetful
obtain
the from

functor
characterisation
the

from
terminal

^Qto
of

<?
a

has natural this

left
functor.

adjoint.
numbers

object

as

universal

arrow

object

to

Adjoints
Let

in

posets
and
that

(P,

C)

f:P^>Q

C) is monotonic,
(Q,

be

posets.
i.e.
has

functor

from

to

is

function

only

if

/(p)C/(q).

CH.

15, g:

15.2

SOME

ADJOINT

SITUATIONS

447

Then

Q
p

>

P
->

wil

be

right

adjoint

to

/,

gO)

if

for

all

peP

and

reQ,
if

pCg(r)
On
the

f(p)Cr.
wil
be left

other

hand

adjoint

to

/,

when

g(r)Cp
For
have

ifi

rCf(p).
function

example,

given

f:A>B,

and

subsets

A,

Ycfi,

we

if
and
so

/CX)=Y
taking
of

the
to

functor
the

adjoint X)?B.
As well

functor

/ :3k(B)->3k(A) 0>(f):0>(A)~>0'(B)
a

YgB

to

/^OO
takes
XcAto

is

right

9.1,

that

as

having

left

adjoint,

S?(f)|

/~\

has

right

adjoint

given
inverse

by

/+()={:}^}
image
of

where

/ {}
from
the

{:
fact

/W
that

y}

is

the

{y}.

That

f |
if

/+

fol ows

f-\Y)czX

Ycf(X).

Subobject
The

classifier

display

(Lawvere

[72])

where

!>-^>d
expresses

denotes
a

an

arbitrary
related Set

subobject
to

of

d,

indicates

that

the

/2-axiom
The each

property
collection

functor

Sub

:<#>

described of

in

adjointness. 9.1,
of
that

object
the

d
function its

the

subobjects

Example d, and
takes
contravariant.

11,
to

assigns
each
arrow

to

f:c>d
of

Sub(f):Sub(d)
along

Sub(c)
Sub
is

each

subobject
However,

to

pullback

/.

As

it

stands,

448

ADJOINTNESS

AND

QUANTIFIERS

CH.

15,

15.2

by
covariant

switching
functor

to

the

opposite

category

of

"?

we

can

regard

Sub

as

Now and
Now
so

in

the

case

<e

W
to

(a topos)
a

the
tj

arrow
:

true

is

subobject

of

corresponds
consider
11

function

={0}-^Sub(f2).

the
^

diagram
Sub(f2)
subtf)

;/
d

Sub(d)
A

function
a

as

shown

picks
ar|d

out

subobject

g0:

>>

of

d, for

which

we

have

character

&,>

pullback

in

gf.

Thus

/
takes

(XgoH"
true

is
to

an

gop its

arrow

from

f2

to

d.
i-e.
to

Then

originally)
so

pullback
But

along

x^,

the

Sub(f)( subobject
of the
g0

Sub(xJ
g0,

and

the
g0,

above
the

triangle
only
gop
arrow arrow

commutes.

by
true

the

uniqueness
back
commutes
to

character is

of the

along
for

which
the

pulls
1
>

give
is

X&,

and

so

only
Thus

which

triangle
true
:

(X&,H"respect
to

the

pair
the

(O,
freeness
say

tj),

i.e.
of

(O, (,

is
that

free

over

1 with

Sub.

Conversely
and
so

tj>

implies
<&
arrow

we

can

that

any
a

category
universal
Theorem

with

tj(O) pullbacks
1
to

classifies has Sub: <

a

subobjects subobject
>

classifier
Herrlich
Exercise of

if
and

there Strecker
Let of

exists

from
30.14).

Set.

(cf.

[73],
Rel(-,
the
maps

1.

a):
form R

"<?-^

Set

take

each

"-object
from

b to b to

the

collection

all

"g-arrows

R^->bxa >->bxa
to

("relations"
its Show
a,

a).

For
so

any that has

f:c^>b, Rel(-,
power

Rel(f,a)
a) as objects
defined

pullback
that
"?
a

is iflE for each

contravariant.

along (finitely
arrow

/x1a, complete)
from

"g-object

there

is

universal

1 to

Exercise

2.
terms

Can

you

characterise
arrows?

the

partial

arrow

classifier

\:

>-

in

of

universal

CH.

15,

15.3 that the

THE

FUNDAMENTAL

THEOREM

449

Notice

il
=

-axiom

states

that

Sub(d)
and

W(d,

gp(a

d)

similarly Relib,

we

have

)=(,
f?op "hom-functors" functor

)
Set

%(,
versions
of the form

b),
of
Sub and

and

so

the

covariant
to
a

isomorphic general representable. possession

<g(d,
to
are

Rel(-, -) (9.1,
a

a) Example

are

naturally

G)).
is called

In

Set-valued
of

isomorphic
functors
over

hom-functor characterised

Representable objects

always

by

their

free

in

Set.

15.3.
Let

The
<g
be
a a

fundamental category
with functor

theorem

pullbacks,

and

f:a-*b
b ><?

"
as

-arrow.

Then
the

induces

f:

S^(B)

"pulling-back" -^ S^(A)

/*
of
the

:<#

|
section.

I /*

which

generalises
in
the

example

last

acts

diagram

is

arrow

from
a

to

h, /*(g)
arrow

and
c->m

/*()
as

are

the shown

pullbacks
which
we

of

and
as

along
The

/, yielding "composing

unique /"
functor

take

f4fc):f(g)->f00.
with

takes

object

g:

to

fg:c>b,

and

arrow

to

450

ADJOINTNESS

AND

QUANTIFIERS

CH.

15,

15.3

Now

an

arrow

from

Xf(g)

to

f.b

m<g

lb

corresponds

to

unique

<

arrow

k'

from

to

/*(t),
adjunction

by

the

universal

property

of

the

pullback

f*(t),

and

so

we

have

the

g->/*@

Ms)-**
showing
For
set

Sf-\f*.
functions,

/*

also

has

right

adjoint

Given bundle

g:
over

A,
B.
set

then

^ (g)
all
set

has

the

form of
g,

k:Z^>B,
the g

which

we

regard
b function
e

as

Thinking
of
the

likewise
local of all sections

stalk

in
on

over

B,
with

i.e.

fc~4b},
Formally
domain

is

the
Z

of

denned
such
that

f~l{b}^A.
h is
a

is
such

pairs

(b,

h)

/~1{b},

that

commutes,

that

is if

the g

projection
is inclusion
an

to

B.
g:

Notice h
as

inclusion

'-^

then

the that

only

possible
Thus
one

section
the element
set

above
over

is b Thus

the

/-1{}
is

c->

X,
not

provided

f"'{i)}cX
and
has

stalk
otherwise.

in

empty
be identified

if

f'{i)}cX,
with the inclusion

can

of

the

into

B,

and

so

the

functor

/+

is

special

case

of

CH.

15,

15.3

THE

FUNDAMENTAL

THEOREM

451

Now

given

arrows

g:

A Y

and

consider

>

f*(h)

is
the

an

arrow

from
to

h
A

to

(g)
of

in

Set

B.

/*(h),

the

pullback

of

along

/,

is

projection
P
=

the
=

set

{(a,y):f(a)

Thus

if
over

(a,
a.

stalk
includes Set In

y)eP, f(a)
Put

lies

in Thus

the

stalk

over

f(a)
section
s

in

B,
of
g

and
over

so

f(y)

is

in

the

of

Ilfig).
t'((a,

t(y) s(a).
a

is
Then

y))
establish

t'

is

an

arrow

from

/-1{/()}, f*(h)

which
to

in

A. this
way
we

correspondence

which
Exercise.

gives
How

/*^.
do
you go

from

t':f*(h)-*gtot:h-*Hf(g)?
Fundamental
Theorem

The Theorem For

ful

statement

of

the

of
category

Topoi

(Freyd

[72],
a

2.31)
any

is

this:

topos
any
arrow

and

<?-object
a

b,

the

comma

and both
The

for
a

/:

b the
a

left
existence
to

adjoint
of

Sf
in
that

and

pulling-back right adjoint

only partial

functor

f*:%
The

\,b lb>W

is

topos,

ia
of

has

I f.
pullbacks.
arrow

Sf requires
it
uses

construction

is

special
are

partial
Given

topoi, functions).

classifiers
for which

(N.B.

local

sections

f:as>b,
a

let

be bxa

the

unique

arrow

>(f' 1a)>

452

ADJOINTNESS

AND

QUANTIFIERS

CH.

15,

15.3

is

pullback,
is
h

where

now

denotes h:b
arrow
>

the aa

partial
the

arrow

classifier
the

of
to

11.8
k.

(why
Set

(/, 1a)
takes
for

monic?).
b
from
any g:
e

Let
to

be

exponential
to

the
to

corresponding

adjoint partial

(In

function

/-^bjc^A
Then,

A).
a,
>

define
ca

(g)

to

be

the

pullback

-ny(c)

where

is

the

unique

arrow

making

the

pullback

and
It

ga
is left

is

the
to

image
the reader

of

g
to

under
show

the
how

functor this reflects

that

)a

>

the

definition
has

of

Tlf

in

Set.
The

| B,
their

functor with in Set

is
once

also
more,

used

to

Il ustrating
Set

given
is
of
the

verify objects
form

<g

lb
B.

exponentials.
h all
:

f:A~>B
hf:
over

and
*

to

in
the

description
where

exponential Chapter
Y

According
of

4,
makes

the

stalk

in

consists

pairs

(b,

t)

t:f~^{b}^>

commute.

Now

if

we

form
P

the

pullback

f*(h)

?>

}
and
P
at

define

f'

as

shown

by
seen

t'(a)
to

(a,
a

t(a)),
section
t

then of is

recalling

the
over

description
i.e.
a

of
germ
an

given
b of the

earlier,
bundle

t' is

be Moreover

f*(h)
recoverable between

/^1{b},
as

I f(f*(h)).
and
an

gt',
and

giving

exact

correspondence,

isomorphism,

hf

I f(f*(h))

in

Set.

CH.

15,

15.4

QUANTIFIERS

453

In
as

then,
since

given
hf.
the

f:a-+b
We
can

and

>

we

find

that

(f*(h))
in the

serves

the

exponential

alternatively
functor

express

this

language

of

adjointness,

product

is

the

composite

functor

of

Wlb
This is
because the

/*

>%laf-*%lb.
product

of

and

/,

/,

in

is

their

pullback

But

each

of
of

/*
the

and

Sf
Fundamental

has

right
a

adjoint,
right
Theorem

If
adjoint
may
to

and

/*
-x/.
found

respectively,
in

and

their
The
or

composite
details and Kock Wraith

Hff*
[71].

provides

be

Freyd

[72]

15.4.
If

Quantifiers
21
=

(A,. .)
the

is

first-order

model,

then

formula

<p(vu

v2)

of

index

determines

subset

of

A2.

The

formulae fashion

3u2<p
subsets

and of

Vi>2<p,
A.

being
These
can

of be

index defined

1,

determine in
terms

in
of X

corresponding
as

3p(X)={x: Vp(X)
The
=

for

some

y,

(x,

y)eX}

{x:forally,(x,y)eX}.
the

"p"
is
for

refers in
any

to

first the

3P(X)
that

fact

precisely
XcA2
and

projection image

from

A2
of
X

to

A,

having
p,

p((x,
and
so
we

y))
know

x.

p(X)

under

Yc

3p(X)cY,

454

ADJOINTNESS

AND

QUANTIFIERS
to

CH.

15,
->

15.4

i.e.

3P

&(A2)
in for

->

0>(A)
xe

is

left

adjoint
=

the

functor

p1:
see

&(A)
that

&(A2)

analysed Since,

15.2.
any

A,

p~1{x}
p-\x}
have

{(x, X}
=

):
p+(X)

we

Vp (X)
(cf.

{x:
we

15.2)

and

so

p~\Y)<=X
and
In

if

YcVp(X)
/:
and is
A the

altogether

3P|p
then,
be
the

| Vp.
for
any
~>

general
wil
with

B,

the

left

adjoint

3?(/)

to

f:

0>()

~>

renamed

3f,

right

adjoint explicit by

/+
the

wil

be

denoted

Vf.

The of

link

quantifiers
and

made
as

characterisations

Vf(X)

f(X)

V,(X)
Moving
now

{y:
general

Vx(f

(x)
topos

implies
g",
an

X)}. f:a-+b
induces
a

to

arrow

functor

that

takes
A

subobject

of

to

its

pullback
to

along

/ (pullbacks
by
denning
we

preserve

monies).
left
g:c>-^

adjoint
a

3f:
to

Sub(a)
the

-^

Sub(b)
arrow

f1

is

obtained

3f (g),

for

be

image

im(/g)

of

/g,

so

have

t*b

Using through
Exercise

the

fact which Show it

that factors that

the

image
(Theorem

of

an

arrow

is
the

the

smallest
may

subobject
attempt
the
functor.

5.2.1)

reader i.e.

1.

gcfi
the

implies adjoint
situation

3f(g)?3f(h),

3f

is

Exercise

2.

Analyse

3,(g)->h
for The
g:o>a

and

h:

>

b,

that

gives
>

3f | f .
to

right

adjoint
a^-%

Vf:
lb

functor

I f:<gI

Sub(a) (recall

Sub(b)
in

f
/+
is
a

is

obtained

from
case

the

that

Set,

special

of

Tlf).

CH.

15,

15.4

QUANTIFIERS
to

455

Vf
speaking, ambiguity
Exercise

assigns
g,

the
a

as

subobject subobject,
is taken
then
care

g:c>-H>a

the

subobject
class

nf(g).
of
arrows.

Strictly
Any

is

an

equivalence
by
and
so

however 3.
4.

of

If If

gc

Vf(g)cVf(fe),
V/(g)
=

Exercise

g^h

then

Vf(h).

The

adjunction

b->Vf(g)
showing
By
a

/-1H
selecting
ia
takes
:

Vf,
a

derives

from

the

fact
to

that

/*|
each

TIf.
subobject, direction,
and
an

particular
*
>

monic

represent
the
g:

we

obtain
:

functor

Sub(a)
g:
a

Sub(a)

to

la. a-a(g)

In
=

im

opposite g(c)>>

<

>

a,

g"

arrow

\/
the

to

inclusion

a-a(k),

which factors.

exists For
the

because
same

im
reason,

is

the

smallest
g:

subobject
a

through
h:d-^-a
we

which
have that

given

and

g(c)

\jrng
a

im i.e.

factors

through
when

>

h, i.e.
there

<ra

(g)
arrow

h, precisely

when

factors

through

h,

precisely

is
d'

an

456

ADJOINTNESS

AND

QUANTIFIERS

CH.

15,

15.4

in

g"

a.

So

we

have

the

situation

making Putting
"doctrinal

<ra

left the

adjoint
work

to

ia.
these

of of

last and

two

sections

together
for
the
arrow

we

have

the

diagram"

Kock

Wraith

[71]

f:a^>b

A
/* nf

Sub(a)

Sub(b)

with

Exercise

5.

Show

that

3fo-a=o-b2f

||

An

even

more

general
in

analysis
Set
we

of
define

quantifiers quantifiers

than

this

is

possible.

Given

relation

RcAxB

"along

R"

by

3R(X)
VR(X)

{y: {y:

3x(xeX

and

xRy)}
x

Vx(xRy

implies

X)}

CH.

15,

15.4
an

QUANTIFIERS
arrow
r:

457

Given

>>

in

topos

there

are

actual

arrows

which
are

In

correspond by given particular,

Street

for

internally [74] a given

to

3R
they
are

and

VR
further

in

Set.

Constructions

for

these

and

analysed
these

by
constructions

Brockway
to

[76].
the

f:a^>b,

applying

relation

(the
counterparts

"graph"

of
to

/)
the

yields
functors

arrows

of

the

form

the

>

,
!:

which

are

internal obtain
the

Vf
by

and

3f.
/
the
to

Specialising
arrows

further

taking
under

be

arrow

a
=

1,
become

we

Qa*Q1,
arrows

which

isomorphism

quantifier

used
The

for functors

the semantics
their

semantics

in and

topos
the
case

of
the

Chapter
that

11.

Vf
basic

3f,

in

/
Reyes

is

projection,
school.
More

are

used information

in

the

topos
about

developed

by
is

Montreal

properties

given

by

[74].

CHAPTER

16

LOGICAL

GEOMETRY

"It
notions

is

very

interesting

fact
developed (abstract)

that

originally
purposes

for

the algebraic

of
turn to

algeto

geometry
related

out

be

intimodel
exist-

intimately theory.
existing
versions

logic
to

and other
the with

Compared of
logic being
appear

algebraic
has

logic,
distincob-

categorical
distinction

of
that
Makkai

concerned
in

objects

mathematical
Gonzalo

practice."
Michael and

Reyes

The sheaf of
we

theory theory
the

discussed
and
on

in

this
and
for

book the the

the

emerges
most

from

an

interaction dwelt lat er.

gone In
on

between
the

logic,
the ways

part

we

have
the has of
a
a

former

conceptual
in
we

framework
which

of

this the

wil

consider

application
concept
that
et

in
role In

impact chapter opposite

a

direction. certain
of the

Specifically,
kind
of

study
(Artin
henceforth this
some

geometric
central their

morphism,
in book Makkai

functor

between school

topoi

Grothendieck

al.
referred

plays [SGA4]).
to

the

work
First and

Order

Categorical
have

Logic,
shown and about
that that the

as
can

[MR],
be

Reyes logical
Michael

notion

of

morphism
theorems

reformulated

in and
be

terms,
Barr

important
of

of

Pierre
can

Deligne
derived
is

existence
of

geometric
The
essence
a

morphisms
of their and

by
associate denned

model-theoretic
a
on

constructions.

approach
identify
from
a
a

to

theory
the site
a

(set
with

axioms)
models
of be

with

given

site,

functors
certain

this

theory.
a

Conversely,
that adds
new

type
of

of

theory (cf.

site

can

built
to

by
the

method

dimension
con-

mathematical

significance

well-known

Lindenbaum-algebra
below,
theorem
is with
our

construction
These
to

6.5).
wil
the the fact that be

developments
for of

described

main

aim Set-based

being
to
a

account

Deligne's
Godel

actually
Theorem

equivalent
for

version
semantics

classical

Completeness
458

of

first-order

logic.

CH.

16, Model

16.1

PRESERVATION

AND

REFLECTION

459

theory
mathematical
of these

is

both

an

independent
structures

science and
most

and

an

effective their

technique properties.
with the
one

for

studying
Abraham
-

explaining
closely
it
for the in

The
name

second
of papers

aspects

is
who

perhaps
summarised
a

associated
the title
of

Robinson,
"Model

of

of

his

theory
was

as

framework

algebra"
part

(Robinson
his
career,
contrast

[73]).
this with
which

Since attitude
the

Robinson
has become

at

Yale
as

during
"eastern"
with of

lat er

known

model
Alfred formal is
in

theory,
Tarski
at

"western"
on

focuses
The work

the of

approach, general
Makkai
as

associated

by Berkeley,
their and

properties
and
a

languages
the
eastern

and

semantics.
constitutes

Reyes
for

style,
One

"model

theory
is
to

framework their
between

topos
of

theory".
Theorem
eastern

of
as a

the

goals major
is

of exercise

this

chapter
in

exhibit

applied
The

mathematical
distinction

proof logic.
western

Deligne's
and

model
page

theory
of

given
the

syntactic
former

expression
is

by
with

H.

J.

Keisler
formulae

(cf.
of

48

Barwise

[77]):
while
of

concerned

all

first-order
formulae
-

languages,
those these
We
-

the
form
to

lat er

\/vl.
axiomatise

emphasises \/vn3wx..
the
of

universal-existential

the suffice
see

3wm<p,
main
structures

with

<p

quantifier-free
of

since

classical
an

algebra.

wil

that in
that

the

logic
it the

geometric
by
<^,

morphisms
formulae,
where
<p

has called and

is

expressed
form

analogous "geometric"
have
no

syntactic
or occurrence

emphasis,
"coherent",
of

that
have

the

symbols

16.1.
In information

Preservation
order
about
to

and
define
how in

reflection

geometric
the
its

morphisms
of
a

we

need

some

general
existence <?
>

informaof

behaviour

functor

affects

the let F:

limits
functor

and
between

colimits

domain <$
monic and in
for any

and 3).

codomain.
F

So,
is said
is
to

3) the
in

be

<$
F

-arrow

categories f, it f is
monies
in
F
to

preserve

monies

if,
other

for hand
then what

any

c,

then

F(f)
-arrow

monic
if
or

in

3).
monic
here

On

reflects

if, Replacing
or

%
these

/, "epic"
lat er

F(f)
"iso"
of

is

3S

/
it

is is

monic
for

c.
preserve

"monic" reflect
to

by

defines

types
if in
to

arrows. e

in

Similarly, c,

is

said

preserve

then

implication
reflection
to

F(e) always
and
the

equalises
holds,

F(f)
then
of of

equalisers and F(g)

F

whenever 3).
If

equalises
of
To

/
this describe it
Let

and last

the

converse

is

said and

reflect
limits
of

invoke

preservation language

categorial diagrams

constructs

equalisers. in general,
3.11.

is
D

helpful
be
a

460

LOGICAL

GEOMETRY

CH.

16,

16.1

diagram
The

in action

c,
of

comprising
F
on

" -objects
D

dhdb..
a

and

%
in

-arrows

g:^><i,.
comprising
the
F

produces
and -arrows

>

diagram

F(D)

3)
*

^-objects
D

F(di),
if whenever

F(dj),. .
{/;:
for
D

F(g):
a

F(a\)
of
->

F(dj).
forming
is
for
a

preservesa

-limits

4}
F F

is

collection

arrows

limit

(universal
in

cone)
On for

in

<<g, then
if
then
two

{F(fi):F(c)
always
preserves
maps

F(di)}
a

limit
D

for in

F(D)
^
to
a

2.

the

other

colimit

F(D)
in

hand, in 3s,
last

colimit

colimits

of
the

D.

Reversing
of
F

the

implications
limits
To

these

definitions
of
we

yields
D.

notions

reflecting

and be
even

colimits,
more

respectively,

general
F

may
P

"property",
property
of
an

then
P has

preserves
P

if

the
and then

simply image
F

say under

that
F P

if of
whenever

P
an

is

some

categorial
in
the P

entity
has

with

property
from <
has

in
P

entity

in

SJ, 3),

reflects
that

if

F-image
in

entity

itself

%.

Exercise commutative Exercise

A

1.

Show

that

any

functor

preserves

identities,

iso

arrows,

and

diagrams.
2. functor

If
F:

preserves

pullbacks,
Q)

then if it

preserves
on

monies.
each

?
"hom-set"

%
the

>

is

faithful
This

acts

injectively
that

%{a,
^-arrows
Exercise
not

b)

(cf.
with
3.

Example
same

9.1.6).
domain
the
or

means

for

any

pair
=

f,

and

codomain,
functor

if

F(f)

F(g)
is

g:a^> then

of
g.

/=
but

Show
on

that

forgetful
on

Grp^Set
arrows.

faithful

is

bijective
4.

objects
that
a a

identity
functor

Exercise iso's

Show
domain

faithful and

reflects
commutative

monies,

epics

(and

hence

if

its

is

topos),
that

diagrams.
equaliser
for
any

Exercise
arrows.

5. Show that
if if
F F

Suppose
that
is
a
a

has

an are

parallel
is
then iso.
F

pair
Hence

of

parallel
functor
on

pair
%

equal
preserves

if

their

show

that

equaliser equalisers,

reflects

iso's
It

only
fol ows

is
these

faithful. exercises is
that

by

functor,

defined

on

topos,
arrows.

which
There

preserves is
functor
assume

another that that

equalisers important
reflects
F

faithful
variant

if,
of of

and

only

if,

it
To

reflects
which be
g

iso is the

faithfulness,

notion
we

of need
of
to

inclusions
preserves

subobjects.
Then if

precise,
are

monies.

and

subobjects

CH.

16,

16.1

PRESERVATION

AND

REFLECTION

461

*
that

-object
F
in

d, F(f)
is conservative

and

F(g)
if
whenever

wil

serve

as

F(f)

<=

subobjects F(g)

of in

F(d)
it

in

3).
fol ows

We

say

Sub(F(d)),

that

/eg
Exercise

Sub(d).
6.

Suppose
that if
F

that

has

equalisers,
then
has
are

and
F

that

these

are

preserved

by
Exercise
arrows,

F.

Show

is
that

conservative,
'

is
of

faithful.
all

7.

Suppose
that of

pullbacks

and
if F

these intersections

pullbacks

preserved
7.1.2)

by
show

F.

appropriate Using
that
F

the

pairs pullback
iso's

of

characterisation

(Theorem

reflects

only
Thus preserves
"preserves

is it

conservative.
fol ows that and all
for functor which

?
is defined

on

equalisers
iso's"
are

pullbacks,
concerned

"faithful",
with Such is
left
one

"conservative",
functors
a

topos and
all

and

"prefinite

equivalent.
that
functor preserves
exact

We

wil

be

particularly
of
a

preserve is
called

limits

while,
finite
If
a

(i.e. dually, diagrams.

category
it
can

limits

all

finite
exact

diagrams).
functor

left
colimits called cf.
be left
or

exact,
of
exact.

right
One

that

all

that
is

is
for

both

and

right
has
F

is finite
on

"
be shown that

finitely
that
F preserves

complete
a

(i.e.
functor

all

simply limits,
%
to

3.15),
exact

then suffices
preserves

defined

it
F

either
terminal and reader. Since

terminal

objects,
Strecker and 3.13.9

equalisers, [73],
Theorem

and

objects products
The
of
see

and dual limits

pullbacks, of pairs
statement

that

of

% -objects
is

(Herrlich
the

24.2).
cases
we

left

to

monies

epics
and
In fact.

are

respectively epi-monic fol owing

Exercise

(Exercise
factorisations.

its
view

special dual),
of

and
exact

colimits
functors
we

respecpreserve have the

that

Theorem

5.2.2,

then

important
8. of
arrows,

If

is
i.e.

an

exact

functor

between

two

topoi,

then

preserves

images
One

F(im/) preservation adjoint

is
an

is

im(F(/)).
of

?
certain
limits

context

in
is that

which
of
an

and

colimits

is

guaranteed
Theorem

situation

(15.1).

1.

If
all

(F,
colimits

G,

Fpreserves
Proof.
We

) of^H,

adjunction
while the

from
right
adjoint
that

< to
G
F

2,

then
preserves

the
all

left

adjoint
SD-limits.

outline

the

argument

showing

preserves

colimits,

giving

462

LOGICAL

GEOMETRY

CH.

16,

16.1

enough leaving Using {ft: <

of the

the fine notation

construction
detail
of
F
as
a

to

display
exercise
let
D

the

role

of

the

adjunction,
that

and

worthy

for
a

the
in

reader. ^ has the

in
*

the
>

3.11,
preserves

be

diagram
the

colimit
wish
another

c}.
F(di)
>

Since

commutative
a

diagrams,
for

collection

{F(/j):
to
cocone

F(c)}
it is co-universal in

wil

be

cocone

diagram
let

F(D)

3).
be

We

show
for

that

for

F(D).
that

So,

{h;

:F(di)

d}

F(D)

3),

meaning

commutes

for
0
we

each

arrow a

g:

d,
4
naturalness

in
>

D.

Applying
G(d)}
of of

can

the

components
which invoked proves to show

0^

of
to

then
a
cocone

obtain
for

family
since

{0(h;):
the

<$

-arrows

be

D,

be

that

always
for

commutes,

where

is

as

above.

But

then

as

{?
that

d^

>

c}

is

colimit

D,

there

is

unique

^-arrow

f:c^>

G(d)

such

---
all
the such

G(d)
4
inverse
that

commutes

for

in

D.

Applying

of

the

component

0cd

to

/,

we

obtain

an

arrow

F(c)

-*

Fid,)

always
of lead the
us

commutes.

Indeed

that

is the is

edF(f),
the

where of
arrow

:FG^>

1
the

is last of
the

the

counit of

adjunction.
to

Moreover,
conclude
in

couniversal and

uniqueness only
property

/
for the

and which
unit
to

injectivity
this
tj

always
adjunction

commutes

expressed

(the B)

of
can

diagram adjunc?

C)

of

15.1

be

used

prove

this).

CH.

16,
Thus

16.2

GEOMETRIC

MORPHISMS

463

we

see

that

left

exact

functor all

which

has

right

adjoint
Functors

must

preserve this
now

all

finite
at to

limits
the

and heart of

colimits
notion of

(and

hence

be

kind

lie

the

geometric

exact). morphism,

of
we

which

proceed

define.

16.2.
Let X

Geometric
and
Y be

morphisms
topological
of member if
in spaces,
sets.

with

and Y is
a

<9Y
continuous member

their of

associated

poset
when

categories
each

open
of

function
back

f:X>
under

precisely
x,
i.e. the

Y
3.13.2

pulls
where of the V of

/ image
becomes
which in
for each

to

Ve0Y
discussion

only
this
case,

f-\V)e&x,
map

)={1:/()}
inverse
to

Example
the

/~()
a

as

(recall pullback).

In

f*
map

taking

f~1(V)
(and
discussed

functor

f*:
case a

@Y
of the

>

which x pulling-back has

a

is

an

n-LJ

CHA's

is

special
As
e

functor

/*:<|^<|
/*:
x

15.3).
U

functor,

f*

right

adjoint

defined,

@x,

by

Exercise

1.

Why
Show

is
that

f*

left

exact?

Exercise

2.

/*(V)?t/
and hence continuous functors above If
we

if

/,(U),

f* | f%
function
between the

?
be

/:X^>Y
topoi
define

can

lifted
and

to

pair
which

(/*,/*)
generalises

of

adjoint
the fol ows.

Top(Y)
the
functor

situation.
g:

First
A

we a

Top(X) /*:Top(Y)^>Top(X),
a

as

is

Top(
h
of

Y)-object,
g

i.e.

local thus:

homeomorphism

into

Y,

form

the

pullback

along

in

Set,

XxA
Y

i
The
to

domain
be
a

of local

inherits

the

product
hence

topology
a

of

and
We

A,

and

proves
=

homeomorphism,

Top(X)-object.

put

/*(g)

h,

464

LOGICAL

GEOMETRY

CH.

16,

16.2

and define
Exercise

leave

it

to

the

reader

to

use

the

universal
and
to

property
show

of

pullbacks
left
exact.

to

f*

on

Top(Y)-arrows
3.

(cf.
how

15.3)
can
an

f*
as a

is

Top(
on

Y),

To

and

Explain /* :Top(

@Y
-

be

regarded
extension
of

subcategory
map

of

Y)

Top(X)

the

n-LJ

induced

by
define

/. f*
in
are we

?
switch
how

from

sheaves

of

germs
to

to

sheaves

of

sections. whose
the map
>

We

saw

14.1
those
But

Top(X)
have
can

is

equivalent
functors

the
*

topos
Set
rise which
to

Sh(X)
an

objects
axiom

contravariant
we we

F: that with

COM.
*

just
compose

seen

@x / gives
F
to

satisfy n-LJ Y

y
In

x,

and

so

this
we

obtain

/*(F):

Set.

other

words,

for

Ve

Y,

put

This
to
a

definition
functor leads
to

of

f*(F)
>

turns

out

to

produce
the
to

sheaf

over

Y,
of proves

and

gives
Sh
to

rise

/. :Sh(X)
to
a

Sh(Y).
from

Applying Top(X)

equivalence
that

and
be

then

functor

Top(Y)

Top right

adjoint
Exercise

f*.
4.
of

Explain
the
Let
an

how

this

right
x
>

adjoint
Y
defined
map
on

can

be

construed

as

an

extension

function

/*:
il
>

earlier.
between

Exercise

5.
define

f*:
iT-set

il'

be

an

n-LJ

CHA's.

If
as

is

an

/2-set,

/*(A),

based

the

same

Set-object

A,

by

putting

Ixylr(A)=/*(|Ixy]|A).
Using

completions Sh(il)
>

of

il-sets

(14.7),
show
to
a

show

that

this the process

-^

gives Sh(il) 6,

rise
of that for

to

functor

f*:
with
a

Sh(il')'"
left

Conversely, gives
rise functor

that

"composing
has of

f*-.n-*
left
exact

/*:
and Scott

Sh(il')

f*
this

as

adjoint

(cf.

Fourman

[79],

details

construction).
In view of functors
f*
n

?
the

analysis

thus

far,

we

are

led

to

the

geometric

morphism

f: ^a
of

>

^2
form

elementary

topoi

fol owing ~t

definition: and

^2

is

(/*,

/^)

of

the

such

that

f*
part,
and

is

left

exact

and

left

adjoint
part,
of

to

f*.
the

f*
geometric

is

called

the

inverse

image

f*

the

direct

image

morphism.

CH.

16, As

16.2

GEOMETRIC

MORPHISMS

465

inverse

explained image
limits

at

the

end
of
a

of

the This

last

section,

the entail

conditions that the

of
a

on

the
of

part
and
of

/*
arbitrary CHA's, topological situation,
in

geometric
and

finite
an

colimits.

n-LJ
In
any

map

hence,
spaces.

morphism naturally ultimately,

determines
any
two

it

preserves

generalises
that

notion
continuous

function natural functor

between

adjoint
isomorphism, are naturally
IV,
or

each the and

sense

functor

the left and

other of
a

up

to

that
to

adjoints
dually (MacLane
In

isomorphic
Strecker

each

other

given [71],
each

Chap.
part
of

Herrlich

[73], uniquely

Cor. determines

27.4).
the

this other.

sense

geometric

morphism

Further
Example

examples
1. The inclusion
over

of

geometric
functor
a

morphisms
Sh(J)
space

-St(J)
I
to

from
the

the

topos

of

sheaves
over

of
I

sections
is the

inverse

(14.1) image

direct

topological image
"sheafification"

topos

of

presheaves
whose

part

of

geometric
functor
F

morphism
i>

part

is

the

FpF
The

(Exercise

14.1.9).
Example
2.

Example
'>

extends

to

any
into

elementary
~i mentioned
has also lat er
means
as

site left in
be found

(<?, /).
the In in the internal

incluleft
exact to

inclusion sheafification
the

shj{~?)
references
and

~i functor

of

the

/-sheaves

adjoint
14.4.

given 3.3,
of
its

~& Veit

>

shj{~?)
may

addition

there,
and

details

Tierney
construction

[73],
of of
the

Johnstone

S^jsite. Example

[77] proof

[81].

The

gives
of
the

left

exactness

by

logic

3.

The

fundamental
arrow

Theorem in has
an

of

Topoi
<?,

(15.3)
then the The

states

that

if

f:a^>b
functor

is

any

elementary
a

topos

pulling-back

geometric
Example left
Example
nature
exact

f*:^lb^^Sia morphism
4.

right
a

from

~
are

to

adjoint ~? j. b.
the

TIf.

pair

(/*,

x
a

form

If

~&x
left
Kan

and

^2

topoi,
the

and

adjoint
Extensions.

to

functor
Let

projection taking
and 3s

functor

<?x

^2
to

the
be

<?j-object
two

(a,

~& 1).
whose

is

5. wil
F

4
A

categories,
F:

functor

qualified :St()^StCS)
be

below. between
to

given pre-sheaf
crc

functor

>

3)

induces takes
the

categories
and the
tf(c).
arrow

which
:

St()-object
a:GF^>GF'

G:3)->Set
where the

G^F:^^Set,
component

G^> is
a

to

is

There

general

466

LOGICAL

GEOMETRY

CH.

16,

16.2

theory,
to

due F
.

to

Daniel
are

Kan,

that

Full for of d is of
a

details

given

and

Verdier
a

F-(G)
extension
If

[SGA4], St(<e)-object G along

Exp.
F.

produces in [MR], p. We I, 5).

G:->Set.

left

adjoint
also

F': MacLane
the

St(<#)

StB>)
Ch.

38
wil

(cf. F(G)

[71],
construction
the

X,
of
Kan

describe
is

called

left

colimit the d such

pairs F(c).
that

Si-object, diagram. (c, f) such

a

F'(G)(d)
First that
from

wil
we

be
a

an

object

in

Set,
whose

realised

as are

define
is
a

category
and

d[F
d

objects
of

An the

arrow

(c, /)

^-object to (c',

/')

in

/ IF

-arrow
is
a

the
g:

form

^-arrow

'

diagram
d

F(c)
commutes.

^
There is
=

He')
a

U(c,

f)
Of

c,

?/(g)
is

g.
as

The

"forgetful" image
colimit

functor
of of

[/:^|^^

given
a

by
in

G
this
on

is existence limit that

then

diagram
of

Set.
in

F'(G)(d)
course

defined this

the

diagram.
the
to

definition

depends
this
we

the
of

colimit

question,
The

and

to

guarantee
is

have the
sense

the
it

"size"

^
and

and colimits Strecker

3).

category
all small

Set

bicomplete,
(cf.
MacLane

in "small"

has

limits

of

diagrams
The

[71],
is
a

Ch.
to

V,
a

or

Herrlich
Thus

and

[73],
i.e.
if of
a

23). Set-object,
collection

adjective
rather
of than

applied
class

collection
a

which

is
is definition

set,

proper
arrows

(1.1).
a course

diagram
same

small

its

objects
to
a

and

forms Of

set,
many

and of

the the

smallness

applies
are

category.

categories
/2-Set,
which

we

deal

with
often for any

not

small

(e.g.
weaker
a

Set,
condition
and

Top(X),
of collection

Sh(X),
local
of

they
that
in

satisfy
two

the

St(^), smallness,
all
arrows

etc.).
means
a

But

objects
is

b, the
and 3)

from then the wil

F'

to

the
Now

category
if

small.
small

^
in and

is wil

category,

is the

IF

above

be

small,
Under
to

and these be left F

hence

diagram defined,
limits To and that
sum

Set.
proves
are

conditions

locally image then,

F,
and

small,
of

category
be
is
a

G
left

small

the

functor
exact

wellfinite

preserved
if

by
is
a

up:

^
is

finitely
exact,
to

adjoint ([MR], complete

then the

to

if 3l
form is

has

p.

39).
small

category,

locally
a

small,

F--^-
from We

left this

pair
below

(F',F)
in

geometric
Grothen-

morphism
wil

St(Si)
up

St(^).
construction

take

again

relation

to

dieck

topoi.

CH.

16,
A

16.2

GEOMETRIC

MORPHISMS

467

geometric
part
this
iso's.

morphism

/:
^i
is
a

\
faithful

>

^2
functor.

is that

called

surjective By
the be work
of

if the

its

inverse

image section,
reflect

f*:z^
is
The

previous
or

equivalent

to

requiring
for

/*

conservative,
is

that
in

it the

justification

the

terminology

contained

fol owing
Exercise

exercises. 6.
Y. If Let

/:X->Ybea

continuous

function

that

is

surjective,

i.e.

Im/=

are

two

parallel gk
that 7. 6 works that
in
=

Top(Y)-arrows
hk,

is where

such

that
>

/*(g)=/*(h)
is

in

Top(X), / along
is A^Y.

show

that

:XxYA conclude with

for
any is 3

the

pullback

of

Noting
Exercise Exercise the
sense

onto,

that the
arrow

/*:Top(Y)-Top(X)
of

faithful.
of

Show,
if

help f:a^b
then the

5.3.1,
in
any

that

the

construction

^-epic
above

geometric

elementary morphism

topos

e3, in
>

^la

^|b

given
Exercise iso
arrow.

Example
8. Hence If

is

surjective. ^-arrow,
to
an

/:
iso's,

is

an

show the
arrow

that
last in

in

~?\
that

a,

/*(im/)
if

is

an

show,
then then

ia
If and
is
a a

reflects ^ is

conversely / is
an

exercise,
~?.

/*:

>

epic
is
>

topos,

geometric geometric

morphism morphism

^-topos f1: ~?x

which

pair
A

~?.

makes

(~ /x) morphism the diagram

comprising

topos

~?x

f:^1^>^2i

/\
commute

up

to

natural
as

isomorphism,
are

i.e.

the

functors the e3.

A

/2*/*
arrow

and

/1*
the
over

are

naturally
An

isomorphic,

/*/f
defined morphism
The

and
over

/?.
e3, and
over

'-topos
is

is

said
a an

to

be

/
defined
determines
reasons

in

above

diagram
wil
structure

called
of

be

called
an

geometric S-topos.
can

topos
Set
the

Set
the the

extent
seen

to

which

S-topos

be

by

examining

behind

468

LOGICAL

GEOMETRY

CH.

16,
most

16.2

fact

that

for

any

topos

~& there

is,
Set.

up

to

natural

isomorphism,
the

at

one

geometric f% provides,

morphism
for

/:
each

>

This

is
a

because

adjunction

of

/*

and

^-object

b,

bijection

which

is

natural
to

in elements
so

b.

But

in of the

Set,
set

arrows

of Also

the

form

1^f^b)
left this
way

correspond
exact,
we

bijectively
terminal

/*().
is

/*,
in
~&.

being
In

preserves

objects,

that

/*A)

terminal

obtain

bijection

natural

in

b.

Hence

if

such
up
to

geometric
natural thus

part

f*
By

is

determined

(Example
pursuing
an

9.1.7).
this

Since

/*
analysis
for any

is of
two

morphism isomorphism determined,

can

exists,
as

its

direct

image

the

functor

?A,

)
too.

its

left

adjoint
conditions

/*
of

is for the

/,
with

we

find
a

sufficient
and the hence the
a

form

to

be

a^b

S-topos. correspond
1 form
arrow

First,
x
a
=

^-objects
those

b, ^-arrows
form 1
x
a
>

bijectively
1> in

of

b,
with
the

via those
"name"

the

isomorphism
of of the
an

ba,

(Exercise by exponentiation
a

3.8.4),
there is that ^
of

and

bijectively
discussion
between and the
small extensions.

(cf.
between and

of

4.1).
as

Therefore

?A,
It
sense

ba)
fol ows defined

and that

so,

above,

one

bijection ?(a, b)
is the
a

^(a,

b)

and in the

Set-object
category,

f*(ba).

~?{a,
the

b)

is

set,
in
our

locally
Kan

Secondly,
us

previously preservation
that
? in is lim that of ~?. has

discussion

of

properties
arbitrary
of

inverse
copowers

image
of indexed and in
of
so

part
1. This

/*
by
a

allow
means

to

conclude
any
a

set-indexed
terminal
S is lim is
a

that has

collection

{ls:seS}
For,
in

coproduct

Set
But

^-objects, seS{s},
terminal small
any

setS,
exact,
set-

as

colimits,
so

/*(S)

S(=sf*({s}).
that
an

{s}
is

Set,

and
s

/* f*
as

preserves

left

/*({s})
Thus
we

ls,
see

implying

/*(S)
S-topos
But
a
=

is
if

coproduct locally
is

{ls:
and
that

S}
has

desired.
these

has

arbitrary
by

indexed

copowers
we

1.

topos

two

properties,

can

define

) and/*(S)
Exercise 9.

geometric limseSls.
any

morphism

/:^^>Set

putting

Show

that

for

topos
that it

exists

there
if

is

at

most

one

geometric
finite
for

morphism ^-objects
There is
If
a

?^>Finset,
a

and b. direct
a

$(a,b)

is

all

and

?
of with

S-topos.

particularly {*} is

way space

showing
the discrete

that

one-point

Top(X) topology

is
in

always
which

an

all

CH.

16,

16.2

GEOMETRIC

MORPHISMS

469

subsets

are

open

(this

is

the is
is

unique morphism
space
Y

function

X^>{*}

only continuous,
But
a

possible
and
a

topology
so

on

{*}),
a

then

the

induces is
a

Top(X)^>Top({*}).
for

Top({*})-object
homeomorphism. topology, underlying

geometric topological
however,
the lat er Y. Hence

which
when
as
soon

Y>{*}
Y
as

local the

This,
and
set

is
is

only
determined

possible
is
an

itself
we

has
are

discrete the

given
of

of

Top({*})
Exercise

isomorphic
For any

copy

Set.
show that there is

10. show
It

is existence
an

an

n-LJ

map

2^/2.

Hence is

that that that the

Sh(/2)
the

S-topos.
of

?
set-indexed
of
1 in is

notable

copowers

topos

implies
was

HA
at

Sub^
the end

A)

(or,
of

(this
Exercise

mentioned
11. Let
arrow

isomorphically, 14.7).
be
a

?A,
The

/2))
is
as

complete

proof

fol ows.
of
1

{as
\s

>>

l:seS}
'

set

of seS.

subojbects
Show that

in

^, xs's

with
of is
a

characteristic
the

for

each
arrow

the
of the

support

subobject
of

whose the

characteristic

is

the

coproduct

join
Geometric
To

as's

in

Sub(l).
of
we are

morphisms
discuss

Grothendieck

topoi
to

these,
a

terminology pretopology
category

lit le.
on

Let
a

going (<#,
the wil

modify
be
a

our

earlier

notation

and
of
a

Cov)
c.
The

site

(14.3),
of

consisting
the
be

Cov

category

ful
over

subcategory

pre-sheaf
denoted is
a

St(^)
instead
The
to

Sh(C)
category.

of
name

generated Sh(Cov).
"Grothendieck
of the

by

form all
sites

sheaves
be

wil

now

called

small be sites reserved

site

if

^
for

small wil finite that

of 1

topos"

wil for

categories
we

equivalent
assume

those

Sh(C)
are

small

C.

Moreover

throughout
For

that
sites

finitely
the
two

complete,
conditions
of is set-indexed

i.e.

have

all

limits.
small
to

C,
it
case an

suffice

make

Sh(C) S-topos.
of the
a

satisfies
The
fact

given
copowers

above the

existence that and

a

is
every

just
the

special

Sh(C)
colimit. which

bicomplete
This allows fact all

in derives

sense

that
limits

small colimits

from

diagram bicompleteness
to

has
be

limit
of

ultimately
categ-

Set

itself,

set-indexed
the

and
category in

constructed
or

"component-wise"
MacLane

in

pre-sheaf
is
a

in

St(^) Sh(C), Sh(C).

(cf.
the

9.3,
limit the of other

[71],
St(^)
the
proves

V.3).
to

Then

if

small
a

diagram
D-limit

in hand

be for

sheaf,
in

and

hence

On

colimit

St(^)

is

transferred

by

470

LOGICAL

GEOMETRY

CH.

16, colimit
of of ZF
sets

16.2

the
D

colimit in
For

preserving Sh(C).
local

sheafification
of
to

functor

St(^)
first
that

>

Sh(C)
the axioms collection

to

for

smallness
us

Sh(C)
the

we

note

set

theory
indexed

allow

form

by

set

I,
is
: a

as

the

product Set-object
&

limieI

A,

of

Ab

{/:
Now
a an
arrow

function G
to

dom is
a

f=
natural

&

f(i)

A;

for

all

I}.
hence
is

F-r> of the

in

Sh(C) ^-object Set(F(c),

is

transformation,
a

and

function
a

assigning
member

each
set

set-function
But

tc:F(c)^>
if

G(c),
then

i.e.

G(c)).
so

is

small,

the

collection

|^|

of
from

^-objects
F
to

small,
included

the in
the
set

collection

Sh(C)(F,

G)

of

Sh(C)-arrows
lim

is

Set(F(c),
small.

G(c))

and the
two

thus

is canonical
other is the

itself

Assuming
as

only
functors

that functor

is

locally

small,
I

functor
can

Ec:
be

Sh(C),
the
The

known

([SGA4],
<& :<?
of
of

4.4),
and

defined

as

composite
second
forms the is
is

of of

^StC^)
or

Sh

iStW
whose
account

->Sh(C).
functor

these inclusion

sheafification

"associated-sheaf"

that direct

inverse
the

image
to

part
the work /
is

the

geometric
For
a

morphism
detailed

image
Sh
or

part
reader

Sh(C)c>St(c).
Verdier
dual
to

of

the Schubert

referred

[SGA4]
form contravariant
of

I .2,
the

[MR]1.2,

[72],

20.3.
The functor

the

fundamental
hom-functor d any the

Yoneda

functor.
c):^
transformaa,

It

takes
of

the

^-object
9.1.10,
to
a

the the

(,
to

>Set

Example

and

^-arrow

/:
where,

>

natural with

transformation
component

c(-,f):c(-,
assigned f): ^(a,
in

c)^'c{-,
by d).
functor

d) c#(,
Note

for is the the local

^-object
smallness

the

compo-

f)
that

"composing
%!(,

/"
of

function
is essential
in

^(a,
here

c)
for the

4(a,
the the
In

4
values
of

order known

^(c),
of

i.e. / is
it
a a

c),

to

have

its
II any

Set.
and

Underlying
theory
Strecker

definition
Yoneda its there
=

very

important
[71]
that for

as

Lemma

(MacLane
states

piece 2,

category
and

Herrlich

[73]
F:

presheaf

30). ^""^Set,

dual is

form

^-object

bijection

St(<2/(c),F)
between

F(c)
(i.e. F(c).
natural

St(^)-arrows
elements

transformations)

from

*#(,

c)

to

and

of

the

set

CH.

16,

16.2

GEOMETRIC

MORPHISMS

471

Exercise

12.

If

xeF(c)

and

is

any

^-object,

show

that

the

equation

defines
components

function
a

xd

^(d,

c)

F(d).

Show

that

the

xd's
that
that

form

the

compo-

of the

natural

transformation

/(c)^F,
above.

and condition

this this

construction

gives
Formulate

bijection precisely,
in

asserted

and
F.

prove,

the

bijection

be

"natural"
In

and
the

Lemma

particular,

Yoneda

implies,

for

any

^-objects

and

d,

so so

that

'

acts

embeds

and
Now

<3J(c),
in
us

bijectively ^ isomorphically and regard a cocomplete

form

on

hom-sets. into

It

is

also

injective
it
of of

on

objects,
to

and

St(^),
subcategory
the

making
existence

possible

identify

^ union

as

ful

St^).
set-indexed
xe

topos,
of
>

coproducts
of of

allows

to

the
F

any F

set to

{Gx
be the the enables
of
so

>-

F:

X}
arrow

subobjects
the

of

an

object
arrow

F,

by

defining

\JXGX

image
formation
us

(lim
3
a

Gx)
of
A
set

(thereby
This construction
F: is

extending

of
to

unions
the
to

coproduct given
topos
itself
cover a

by
of

Theorem
into F

7.1).

make

site! in

if,

Sub(F), requires
v^Fbe of

{Fx Uxim/x

^->
that

xeX}
1f

arrows

is

defined
=

be
of

definition

the

(and coproduct
the

Ux/x(Fx)
arrow

F).

Equivalently,
the
arrows

the

[im/x]
pre-topology,
to

im/x
This
case

:/X(FX)
notion of
a

epic.
cover

defines

canonical
proves
so

which
the

in that
maps

the
all

Grothendieck

topos

Sh(C)
sheaves,
way of

have Yoneda
canonical

property
functor
covers

the into

hom-functors

^(c)
There

are

that

the

<#

Sh(C).
is

is

another
to
>

defining
and

in colimits.
for

Sh(C)
We

which
say

formally

simpler

express
e

avoids

reference

to

that
g:

{Fx
of

F:
arrows

X}
with

is

an

epimorphic
domain

/,
then

>

parallel

F,

if

family //x

if,
=

any
all
x

pair
e

/x

for

X,

/=g.
13.
Show that

>

Exercise

as

above the

is

an

epimorphic

family

if

the

coproduct
Exercise

[/x]:lim
14.
to
an

Fx
Show that
arrow

of

/x's
parts lim
that the

is

epic.
Fx
-

the lim Hence

epic
Fx
-

/X(FX)
which
is

of

the factors
if

arrows

rise

[im/x]:lim
so

epic /X(FX)>F.

/X(FX) [im/x]
epimorphic

[/x] [/x]
is

show

epic

/x give through and epic,

?

the

canonical

covers

are

precisely

families.

472

LOGICAL

GEOMETRY

CH.

16, need

16.2

To

place
the

the

canonical

pretopology
conditions
the Lemma.
a
cover

in
under

broader which

perspective,
<2/(c)
COM of Set
of sx:

we

to

examine
do

general
reformulate
the Yoneda
e

is
be

sheaf

over

C.
the elements
terms

To
and

this,

we

sheaf
Let the "elements"
sx

axiom F:

14.3
a

in

given {a* ^- sxeF(ax) Compatibility

all
x,

by
a: we

<#
Instead
arrows

>

presheaf,
with

X} deal,
have of

of

site

C.
with
sx

via of

Exercise
such that and

12,

dealing <2/(ax)>F.
xeX

Compati-

of

selection
X
we

for

each where

requires

that
g
are

for
the

<2/(/)

sy

^f(g),

and

pullback

in

<#

fx

fy:

Fulfil ment
that Now

of for if
This all F
on

COM

for
X the makes form allows
to

this this

situation

requires
diagram
the fact
to commute.

unique injective diagram

is called

arrow

<2/(a)^>F
on

x,

is leads

of hom-sets

^(c),
us

that

<2/ is
above

objects
back
into

and

bijective
itself.
A

pull
notion.
of

the

the
=

collection

{ax
if
for

^->

fol owing
a:

epimorphic {a*

family
^ >c:

any

xeX} ^-object
such that

^-arrows
c,

an

effectively
D
=

and all
x,

for

any

we

collection
have

xeX}

of

^-arrows

for

gx/=
'ig-arrow
A

gyg,
g:a-c

where
D

/
such

and that

are

the

pullback
=

of for
all xeX. this

fx

and

fy,

there

is wil

unique
called
com-

g/x
the the

gx

collection
with

satisfying
C.
Thus

hypothesis
definition

of

definition
that

be

compatible compatible
Exercise

requires

any
arrow.

collection

with
15.

is
Show
If

factored
that is the
an

through
effectively
set

by

unique

epimorphic
of
arrows
an

family
with
condomain

is

epimorphic.
a,

Exercise

16.

empty
if
a

show

that

is

effectively

epimorphic

is

initial

object.

CH.

16,
It is

16.2

GEOMETRIC

MORPHISMS

473

apparent

from

our

discussion
the
a

that

for is
called
an

site
are

all

in

which

every and
In
the

cover so case

epimorphic, in Sh(C). embeds Such of a general finitely complete stable is called (or universal) The effectively epimorphic. precanonical pretopology ([MR], 1.1.9). Proposition
is

effectively

horn-functors

sheaves,

<2/

pretopology
category
if
stable
on

precanonical.

<,
its

effectively
along

epimorphic
any
other the
arrow

family
is form
one

pullback effectively
includes is
known the

also
a

epimorphic
any
as

families

<#
Hence

that it

precanonical
canonical

pretopol-

pretopology In

on

<.
a

Grothendieck
prove 13
to

topos
be

Sh(C),
the

stable

effectively
families
we

families Exercise

([MR],
thus functor the
that E

site,
canonical
sheaves
turns

we

wil

precisely Proposition be referring E: Sh(C)

Sh(C)
is
an

->

on

site

wil

epimorphic Whenever 3.4.11). to epimorphic from Sh(Sh(C)) then be just

so

as

defined
to
as

refer the

epimorphic prior Sh(C)

covers.

to
as a

families

The

Sh(C)
the

to

category

of
It
are

Yoneda
and
us

out

equivalence,
in the
sense

that

equivalent
Grothendieck

categories
topos
of
this fact is
as

of

9.2,
of
of

Sh(C) allowing
on
a

embedding. Sh(Sh(C))
to

think
site.

of

any
The

being
of that
a

the number

topos
be

sheaves

canonical characterisations
IV.

proof
Grothendieck Theorem isms

part
fact

fundamental
in
to

of

topoi
1.4.5.
between between The

may itself
is

found
needed
are

[SGA4],
show that

1,

or

[MR],
morph-

geometric
certain
continuous

Grothendieck

topoi
sites,
and D
=

determined
now

by
see.

"continuous

morphisms"
If F:

as

we

shall

C=(%

>

Cov)
D

B),
<#
>

Cov')
3} that
and

are

sites,
is

morphism
sites
i.e. if has
are

is
to

functor
be

F:
if

left
preserves

exact

(remember
covers,

presumed X}eCov(c)
is
preserves a

finitely
{F(fx):
in the

only
continuous

complete) xeX}e
of
usual

{fx:xe /:
V^W

Cov'(F(c)).

For

example,
then

function
covers

open introduced
to

topological topological
is

spaces,
sense.

/*:
to

0W
an

0V
-U

pre-

Similarly,
respect
of the
left
members

map
of

f*:O>fl'
Covn
amounts
means

between

CHA's

continuous
to

with 14.7.11-indeed
and

definition
exactness

just

prior
of of

Exercise

preservation
[_|that

,
the

preservation
of of

of

Covn
of
sites

preservation
The

examples
that
to

indicate of notion

concept

continuous

morphism
spaces, if
of

generalises
linked
the
then

continuous
of

function

topological
Indeed,

and

hence
>

is
~?

the is in

geometric
of
a

morphism.
geometric
to

/*:

Sh(C)
sites. is
are

is
is

inverse

image
continuous
that
context

part
with

morphism
the

Grothendieck canonical

topoi,
This characterised

/*
colimits

respect
the

associated

because

notion
and

of

by

(viz.

coproducts

epic

epimorphic arrows),

family
and

colimits

preserved

474

LOGICAL

GEOMETRY

CH.

16,

16.2

by
continuous.

/*.
x

Moreover,
In

the

canonical both

functor preserves and

fact,

Ec
in

{fx: family
can

eX}e
in compose
more

Cov(c) Sh(C)
Ec

if

only
and continuous

([SGA4],
and

I .4.4,

/*
as an

to

get
every extension

and

obtained
To Theorem show

importantly, uniquely
this
1.
we

geometric
of

to be :<>Sh(C) proves and covers in the sense that reflects if {Ec(/X): is an xeX} epimorphic we Thus [MR], 1.3.3). Proposition > & Conversely, morphism can be ^>Sh(C) morphism a continuous of this morphism type.

need

the

fol owing
be
a

result. continuous is
a

LetF.C>D small.
Then

and such

locally
that
the

there

geometric

morphism morphism

with of sites, f: Sh(D)

>

small

Sh(C)

diagram

-^*

Sh(C)

F\
D
commutes.
-=-

\j*
Sh(D)
there
>

Moreover

is,

up

to

natural this

isomorphism,

at

most
so

one

continuous

Sh(C)
up theorem the 1.3.12.
reference
to

unique
This

natural
is We wil the
proven

that Sh(D) isomorphism.

in
is Theorem

makes

diagram

commute,

that

is

Proposition
1.3.10,
with
here of
Kan
more

1.2

of

[MR],
from

the

Expose uniqueness
outline
in

II

of
clause

[SGA4]. coming
of

In

do discussion

no

than

the

definition
5

/.
list

Recall,
of

from

extensions
a

Example
F
:

of

our

geometric
a

morphisms,
left
exact

that

F F\
=

induces
Now

functor
the

StB>)

St(^)

that

has

left

adjoint

consider

diagram

Sh(C)

t= Here,
inclusion.
any

Sh(D)
functor,
Sh
a

denotes

Yoneda
to

sheafification
and

functor,

and

3
natural of

an

/*
adjoint

is
the

defined

be

situation,

each

ShDF'3c, adjoint
of

/.
that
of

is the

SficFiD.
other
up and
to

(Since,
hence

in

determines

isomorphism,
If
we now

uniqueness
Theorem canonical

/*
the

implies
case

/*,
is is

/.)

apply
the

1 in

that
then

itself
an

Grothendieck
whose

topos

~?, with

pretopology,

ED

equivalence

CH.

16,

16.2

GEOMETRIC

MORPHISMS

475

"inverse"

morphism
Theorem

Sh(?)-^? Sh(C)
2.

may

be leads

composed
to

with
the

/*

to

yield
result. and

continuous

'S.

This

fol owing

is
a

central

(Reduction
then

Theorem). for
any

If
up
to

small

size,
F-.C-^'S

? there

Grothenexists
a

dieck
continuous

topos,

continuous

morphism
natural

f*:

Sh(C)

'S,

unique

isomorphism,

such

that

-^*

Sh(C)

commutes.

Moreover

f*

is

the

inverse

image

part

of

(thereby

unique

up

to

natural Thus

isomorphism)
we see

geometric
that
to

morphism
morphism
by
that the reduces

/:v?-^Sh(C). /:
the continuous of
to

any

geometric

Sh(C) geometric

is

determined
functor

uniquely Ec.C-^'S,
isms
continuous

up

natural

isomorphism
this result

f*
morphcontinunotion

and

by
Grothendieck
denned

construction

between

topoi
on

the
next

construction

of the later

morphisms
be As

small
terms

sites.
of

In

the
of

section,
theories.

wil

reformulated final

in

models
consider
so

logical
the
that need

topic
in is of Theorem

on

this
2

theme is discuss forms

a

we

question
the
to

as

to

when

the that
means

functor

/*

faithful,
this
set

associated know for

the

geometric
fact This
the

morphism
-Ec-image
that form
arrows

surjective.

H in

To

we

Sh(C)
is then

of

generators
of
arrows

Sh(C).
from

for

any
to

Sh(C)-object
epimorphic.
there
that

H,
is if

the
In
a

family
other

objects
-& G
are

of

the

Ec(c)
in that To
prove

words,

if
and

,
an

distinct

such

Sh(C), <.
this,
But
-r>

"#-object
,

arrow

p:Ec(c)-^H
some
x

observe

then and

for

some

c,

and

H(c),
an

<()
arrow

(). p': /(c)

Sh

by
H

the
such

Yoneda
that

Lemma

(Exercise
=

'()
with

x,

so

12), p' uniquely

determines

'.

Then

by
func-

the

co-universal
functor

property

associated

the

left

adjoint

sheafification

:StO#)->Sh(C)
<H(c)
>

(cf.

B)

of

15.1),

p' factors

Sh(<Sl(c))
A/

\p

476

LOGICAL

GEOMETRY

CH.

16,
of

16.2

through
is the We
see

an

arrow

p:

Ec(c)
must

(using
have
every

the

fact

that

the

right

adjoint
a

Sh
of

inclusion)
then
of the

which
that in

then

<.
object
role
may

Sh(C),
This
whose

is

"covered"
of in these

objects
to

form

Ec(c).
result,

generating
proof
be

by objects [MR],
Lemma

family gives
1.3.8.

rise

the

fol owing If e:K>>Ec(c) ^ {Ec(cx)

^-arrow 3.
Let

found

Lemma.

is

monic

in

Sh(C),
each

then

there
e

is

an

family
some

K:

xeX}

such

that

composite

hx

is

epimorphic Ec(gx)

for
?

gx:cx^c.

Theorem

F:C-^>?

be

continuous

morphism
F

as

in

Theorem

2.
any
set

Then

the

extension

f*:
^-arrows ~?

Sh(C)
with

<
a

of
common

along
is

{gx: xeX} epimorphic

Proof.
Let

of
in

Ec codomain,

is

faithful
in

if,

for

{F(gx):xeX}
Sh(C).
such

is

only
:

if {(^)\

eX}
of

epimorphic
Sh(C)-arrows
seen,

cr,

G what such

be
we

pair
have
that

that

/*(cr)

/*(t).
an arrow

If

then

by
of
cr

just

there Let

is

<?-object
be is
an

and

equaliser of arrows family e hx is .Ec(gx) is epimorphic

p:Ec(c)-^>H in Sh(C)
hx:
for in

.
p.

e:K>>Ec(c)
there

the

and
*

By
for all

the
x

Lemma

epimorphic
that each

Ec(cx)
some

K,

in

some

set

X,

such

%x:cx>c.

Since

/*
exact,
are

is

continuous,

?.
these

But

since
last
two

/*
Therefore

is
arrows

left

/*(e)
equal,
is

equalises
since

{/*(fix): f*(<rp) /*()

which
=

xeX}
and

/*() f*
readily

in preserves

<, and

/*()
it But

and fol ows

composites.
that

f*(e)
is
=

iso,

from

{f*(e)f*(hx):

xeX}
x

an so

epimorphic
the

family.

/*(e)
Theorem
=

f*(K)=f(e implies (o-op)ehx

entails that

that

K)=f*(Ec(gx)) {Ec(gx): ={jp)ehx

cr

X}
=

is

F(gx), epimorphic.
to

hypothesis
However

of

the

(crop)Ec(gx)
of
our

(Tp)Ec(gx)
hypothesis.

(by

definition
Thus

contrary

e), assumption

so

this

en-

that

<
Corollary

must

be

false.
4.

?
F

If
fol ows

reflects immediately

covers,

then
from

f*
the

is

faithful.
that
x

Proof. i.e. Points If Y

This if

fact
e

Ec
is
a

preserves
cover

covers,

{g/.

X}

is

cover

in

then

{(^)\

X}

in

Sh(C).

is

function

topological {*} >

to

space,

then

isomorphic

Y, where this Set,

{*}
in
turn

is

the

point one-point gives

determines
space.

continuous

Since

Top({*})
morphism

is

rise

to

geometric

py:Set^Top(Y).

CH.

16,

16.2

GEOMETRIC

MORPHISMS

477

Exercise

17.
to

Show stalk Show

sense

that
over

the
y,

inverse
and each

image
arrow

functor
to

p*
its restriction

takes

each
to

Top(Y)this stalk.

object
Exercise

its
18.

that of

for

any

rise
to

fl,
a

an

rn-Umap
morphism

fl>2

(i.e.
from

point
Set
to

of

fl

in

the

14.8)

gives

geometric

Sh(/2).
In

?
view
of

these
be preserves

examples
p:

we

define <.

point
of

of

an a

geometric
1 As in

morphism
? wil
also
in the
a

Set

By

left

exactness,
1 in

mapped
notation

p*
'S.
In

where,
in that
subsets

Thus

point

of

constraining
the
of in

~? to

topological
Y,
the
sense

by p* to a subobject obtain we colimits, of 14.7, fl% is the a point ? gives rise to an ensures be S-topos of case, subobjects
can

thereby

of

an

S-topos subobject so Set, n-LJ

of

to
>>

be
1 of

p*(a)
map

{0,1}. flg-^>2,
e

Sub^(l)
fig
that

subobjects
from Exercise

of 11

in

and

sober,
of

Sub(l) (defined

be
in

identified
that
every

14.8)

complete Top(Y) correspond with (cf. @Y 4.5). f:@Y CHA-point

is
a

(recall fl-g

HA).
to

open

If

Y
2

is

is

the

form

0
for
those More
some

ify^V
the

ye

then from
we

geometric
of

points
Y
a

Set-^-Top(Y)
the

are manner.

precisely points
of
an

that 0>

arise

elements
can as

in

above
on

generally,
by

define
opens
=

topology
collections

the

class

of

S-topos

taking

the

Va={p:p*(a)
for

l}
In
to

each the

a>->

1 in

Sub^(l).
of

the

case

of space

Top(Y),
/3(<9Y) 4, [75],

this of and

produces
all

space

topologically (called 7.2).

Now with the
In

isomorphic
"soberification"

the

sober

points
Johnstone

of

&Y

Y-cf.

Wraith

[77],

if
other

is

class that

of

points

of is iso

<,
in is
not

we

call for

sufficient
p
e

if
P
must

any

^-arrow

/
iso
one

property

p*(f)
whenever is
not

Set iso

all in

itself
is
at

be
least the

in

<.

words,
that

/
iso this

,
the
to

then
work those

there
of of

peP
should faithful
Exercise
arrows,

such

p*(f)
that

in

Set.
is linked

By

16.1,
conservative

reader

recognise
functors.

concept

and

19.
if

P
=

is

sufficient

if
for all

for

any

p*(/)

p*(g)

peP,

then

parallel /=g.

pair

f,g:a^b

of

<-

478

LOGICAL

GEOMETRY

16,
of
any

16.2

Exercise

20.
if

is

sufficient
for all

if

for

any

two

subobjects

f,

object,
Exercise

p*(/)?p*(g)
21. There exists is

peP,
sufficient

then class

/cg.
of

^-points

if

and

only

if

the

class

of

all

^-points
that
In

sufficient.

We sufficient.

say

'S
the
case

has
of

enough Top(

points Y),
a

if

the

class
of

of

all
arrows

points

of

'S

is

pair

f,

parallel

\7
Y
are

equal
Exercises
and

if

and

only
17
and

if

By points,

19 that

they then,
the when the
case

agree

on

the
that

stalk the
of has

of

over

each

point
has

it
set
a

is

clear

topos

Top(Y)
is

yeY. enough
has
some

indeed
as answers

{py:
topos
that

Y}
'S
the is
set

The

question
over
a

to

points enough
Grothendieck
fact of

sufficient.

points
topos
that
if

interesting
sheaves

in small
then

< is there

Sh(C)
does have
of

of

site it Johnstone such

has

C.

First
a

the
is

Sh(C)
The
to
comes

enough

points,
IV

sufficient

points.
involved

([SGA4],
an

6.5(b),
of

[77],
a

7.17)
reduction Yoneda

too

proof give
be
of
a

this
but
the

here,
from
shown

inkling
functor
whose

why
with

size
of is the

is

plausible
it
can

knowledge
any

that,
from

the
to
are

aid Set is small. hom-functors

Lemma,
as
on

that
in class
of

constructible <$.

the

colimit
4 Set is

diagram
the

Set*
all is such determined

objects
hom-functors

Since

small,

But

any
to
can

geometric
from
to

morphism (Set
a

Set-^Sh(C)
is
of
course

by
topos,
a

continuous

functor

Grothendieck
Now
set
:

being points

equivalent
of

Sh({*})).
combined
into Boolean and
P
as a

of

Sh(C)
Here the

be

single
of is
a

geometric
set-valued
to

morphism
functions

Set1"

Sh(C).
on

Set1"
discrete

is

the

topos

/:P-H>Set

category

P,

equivalent
discrete under this

Bn(P)
makes discrete is
we

(9.3).
Setp
to

Alternatively, equivalent topology @P

it
the
as

to
=

by Sh(P),
Yet

14.1.11,
where another
P

viewing
becomes
way

poset
the

space
at

0i(P).
Grothendieck
to

of

looking
denned

category
where

identify
take define its

the
it

topos
the Boolean
the

Sh(/2),
power-set
Theorem

in

14.7,

be

algebra
Set1"
the
as a

To

suffices

by
part
be

Reduction

2P(P). (Theorem
continuous

2) morphmorphism

to

specify
morphism, and

inverse
indeed it

image
would

*:

Sh(C)
to

enough

specify

continuous

CH.

16,

16.2

GEOMETRIC

MORPHISMS

479

tv*
ism

EC:

Set1".
as

In

a a

similar
continuous
to

vein,
a

we

can

regard

each

geometric

morphthat

peP
up

being
to

morphism
continuous

p:

Set

extends,

uniquely

isomorphism,

p*:

Sh(C)

Set

making

commute.

Setp

is

the

P-indexed

power

of

Set,

i.e.
functors

the

"P-fold

itself",

having
where

projection

(evaluation)
and
arrow

evp
for each

peP,
7*
is

evp(f)=f(p),
the

then

product
-2->

of

evp(ar) {p*:

o-p

product Set1*-^ Se^-arrow

functor

of

Set
for

with

Set,

each

<r:/-7>g.
making

P},

i.e.

the

unique

Sh(C)

Set

b
Set
commute

for

all

P.

Thus

t *(F)

Set
the

is

the
natural

function

that

takes

to

p*(F),
pth
Our
can
now

while

component
earlier
be 22. In order for and

*(): *():
remark made
P

t *(F) p*(F)
about

t *(G) p*(G).
link

is

transformation

with faithfulness

the

between

sufficiency

and

precise:
is

Exercise

sufficient
to

if

is

faithful.

ir*
in

determine
preserve

geometric
canonical

morphism,
covers,

it i.e.

must

be

continuous,
families.
Lemma.

particular

epimorphic

set

={/*
the
set

""

>/:

xeX}

o/

Se^-arrows

if for
Proof.

each
We
that Op
to

peP
prove

eup(A)={eup(crx):
the
arrow
a:

xeX}
converse

is

epimorphic epimorphic
is
more
us

in
in

Set1"
Set.

necessity,
an
>

Note function

define
:

/-r>
p
e

/(p)

g(p)
a

for
is
of

each then

g in Set1" P. As P

being requires
is
a

straightforward. to just
category
in
p,

discrete natural

specify (i.e.
so

has
any

only
P-indexed

identity
collection
that

arrows),
A

automatically

functions

/(p)
and

>

g(p)
take

defines

an

arrow.

Suppose

is

epimorphic,

peP.

Let

k, f:/(p)

>

be

480

LOGICAL

GEOMETRY

16,
need

16.2

arrows

in that

Set
k
a
=

such

that

fceup(o-x)
g:P^Set

levp(o-*)
by

for

all

xeX.

We

to

show

l.

Define

Setp-object

putting

and

define
Then

arrows

,
=

p:

/4>
for
=

by
all desired.

putting
xeX

r^p.
that

t<tx
p,

pcrx

Since

,
A

is

i, and epimorphic,

pr

idy(r)
it

for ?

fol ows

and

so

in
in

as

Now that

if

is

cover

Sh(C),
is

then

for

each in

p,

continuity
Hence,

of

p*
the
covers.

p*(C),
is
of

i.e.

(*())
Set1*.
that
U for for

epimorphic
This
in limits
a
a

Set.

by
left-exactness

implies Lemma,
Left
of

*()
exactness

epimorphic
*
the i.e.
a cone

shows similar
are

that
way,

is

established
fact

using
Set1*
is

preserves the in
a

each

p*,
eup

and

constructed
D

Set1*
D-limit

by
if

pointwise
eup

evaluation,
an

(D)-limit
23.

in

Set
has

all

diagram peP. points

Setp
of

in

(U)

is

Exercise

Sh(C)

enough

if

there

exists

set

and

surjective
The the criterion

geometric

morphism
of

Sh(C).
can

?
also be

question given

faithfulness
in then with
a

*
4.

approached
Set1*
is
covers,

in the i.e.
is be
an

terms

of

Corollary
the
common

If

continuous
if

morphism
set

*,
of

criterion
in for

is

that

reflects
and

is if

^-arrows
in

codomain,
a cover

()
wil
we

family

Set1*,
is

then

is

C.

But

()
Since

epimorphic epimorphic

(())

epimorphic

in

Set

all

p<=P.

have

Sh(C)

Setp

-JJ-.
=

Set

evptv
Theorem

Ecp*
5.

p,

this

leads

to

the
A

fol owing
set

result.

([SGA4],
any
set

IV.6.5(a)).

of points
is
in
not
a

of
cover

Sh(C)
in

is

sufficient
there
exists

if,
?

and
some

only peP

if, for
such

of
is

%-arrows
not

that

that

p(C)

epimorphic

Set.

CH.

16, This

16.2

GEOMETRIC

MORPHISMS

481

brings
methods

the
can

theory
be

of

geometric
to

logical Deligne
called

applied
about

([SGA4],
coherent.
The fundamental

VI.9)
definition

give sufficiency
of these

morphisms proof
of

to

point
due

from
to

which Pierre that

are

of

theorem,
for
can

points
of

topoi
be

categories
concept
?

motivated

in

part
In of

by
a

the

topological
space

compactness.
if
every

topological
i.e.
every

I,

of such

subset
that

is
has

compact
a

open

cover

A,
a

the
the

Ac|J
that site
to

C,

finite
a

subcover,
member
V

i.e.
of
can

there

is

finite

subset
then

Co

such

compact,
modified
without
Exercise

by changing altering
24.
with
Let

topological Cov@(V)
associated
F
to

the

Ac(J Co. If (, Cov@) (Exercise of finite set

of
I sheaves. This

be

is

14.3.1)
open
covers

Coc
as

@V;

class

is the

seen

fol ows. condition

be
all

presheaf
open

on

that

fulfil s
of
an

sheaf
set

COM
V

respect
then

finite
COM called
of

covers

open
to

V.
covers

Show
of

that
V.

if

is
A

compact,
site

fulfil s be member

with

respect
if

all

open small

(<#,
and

Cov)
every

wil
is

category
coherent
site

finitary Covic)
is

is

is

finite,
to

for

all

finitely "^-objects
for
cannot
some

complete
.

topos
C.
The

category
of
to to

that
this that

equivalent
class
of

Sh(C)
of the

significance
here,
except
geometry
say

categories
many
of

conveyed
of

it
the

includes

sheaf

algebraic

which

theory

Grothendieck

finitary really categories topoi

be

is

addressed.
Deligne's Theorem.

Every
does
not

coherent
hold such

topos
for all

has

enough
topoi.
do
measure

points.
Several
exam-

This

theorem have due been

to

Grothendieck
that
out not

examples
One

given Deligne,
Wraith
space I

of

categories Corollary singletons sfi-,-,(Top(/)) topos

no

have
spaces, that

enough
for
a

points.
appears "Hausdorff"
in

constructed

of

[SGA4], topological
such
on

IV.7.4.

[75],
in

7.6,
are

shows
open of

which
all!

(e.g.
double

the

real

line

U.

is

space),
no

the

Boolean
at

negation
A Boolean

sheaves

has

points
is
now

(cf.
by
with
is
no
=

also
Barr

Johnstone

[77],
using
atomless

7.12(ii )).

apposite
which
Now

example
we an

wil
atom

given study.
a

[74],
a zero

particularly algebras,
an
a

in there

poset
y
atom

(minimum)
element

element

0 is less
than
every
set

element

0
a,

such then
x

that

non-zero

strictly
atomic

(i.e.

if

y=0
there

or

a).
a

poset
that

is
aCx.

if

for the

non-zero

element BA

is

an

such is

For
atoms

any

P,

the

complete

S?>(P)

of

all

subsets

of

atomic,

the

being

singletons

{p}

482

LOGICAL

GEOMETRY

16,

16.2

corresponding isomorphic isomorphism

is
Exercise y,

to
to

the

points
where
to

peP.
PB
B-element
each

Conversely
is the
set

any

atomic
of

complete
atoms

BA
in B. The

^(PB),

all

assigns
25. Show
that

b
element

the

set

{pePB:pCb}.

0 is
an

in

any

BA,

an

atom

if

for

any

aCy

or

aCy'.
26.
Let

Exercise

?
is
a

be

an

S-topos
the

in

which

Sub^(l)
show

is that
of show
p

Boolean the
preserves

algebra.
-LJ
Boolean
map

If

p:

Set

<
2 and

p*: Sub(l) complements, 1} is an

Now

induced
thus in

geometric by
preserves

morphism,
inverse
meets

image -

part
Hence

that

[~]{f.

p*(f)

atom

Sub(l).
a

?
Boolean
open may

let

of

be

complete

algebra
subsets be
of

that the
of

has

no

atoms
-

at

all

the

algebra
As
in Barr

"regular"
suggests,
to

real
as
a

line "set

Mendelson
without

(e.g. [70],
is in

5.48).
But fact

thought
or

points".

the
of the

Grothendieck

topos
itself. This
to to

Sh(B),
can

equivalently
seen

CB-Set,
the of the
1

Sub(l)
that

isomorphic

be

from

fact

in

elements and

lat er
each

correspond correspond
note

global subobjects
CB-Set,

elements
of

(Alternatively,
associate Exercise 26 that

that the

in

the with
does

terminal

subobject
topos

of

its
not

join
have

in

Sh(B)
Theorem,
topos,
it

subobject Exercise (cf. object Thus B.) any points.

all
set

is it

CB-Set, classifier, 14.7.46). and itself,

fol ows

by

Returning
that
if

to

Deligne's
coherent
:

it then

fol ows there <

is

from
a

that
P

we

have
a

said

?
is has

is

and is
In

surjective
a

geometric
topos,
theorem

morphism
sometimes
an

Sh(S?4P))-^
a

(since
to

called

"Boolean-valued

Sh@>(P)) point").
Grothendieck

Boolean form the

this

appropriate
Lawvere,
and

generalisation
proven
on

topoi
obtained

(first

conjectured abandoning the

Barr's

by atomicity
Theorem.

in

Barr

[74]),
BA's. then

by

abandon-

requirement

complete

If

g
and been
and

is
a

Grothendieck

topos,

there

is

complete
.
extensive
of it
to

Boolean This mathematical allow explanation of of this

of
a

algebra
section
statement

surjective
a

geometric
sketch

morphism
of
to

Sh(B)
what

has

theory,
of

has theorems

descriptive only
content

is and
Its

an

attempted
of

reproduce
and A Barr

enough
an

the

their

model-theoretic
may

(to

Deligne fol ow).

1 of

explanasource

deeper

understanding
ultimate

theory
course,

be

gained

from treatise

Chapter [SGA4].

[MR].

is,

the

monumental

CH.

16,

16.3

INTERNAL

LOGIC

483

16.3.
In
structures

Internal
this section and model consists show
we

logic
introduce how
to
use

the them

ideas
to

of
express

many-sorted
the internal

languages
structure

and of
a

category.
A

91

(A,. .)
of
a

for

an

elementary
that

language,
carries
elements certain
ceA.

as

described

in

11.2,
A,
relations

single
and

set

operations
The of

RgA",

correspondifnirgst-order that "range

language
over

has
A".
But

distinguished a single
it

g:An correspondvariables
to

set
common

{ub
are

v2,. .}
in
of dif erent

individual
i.e. is the
of

is

mathematics
sorts,

deal
come

with from
of
a

operations
dif erent
vector
an

whose

various
sets.

arguments
A

specified
space,

classic
a

(two-sorted)
set

example
"vectors",
"scalar fol ows. wil be is
now
a

notion

which
of the

involves
form
sort

of

set

"scalars",
of

and vectors".
The

operation
formalise
Let

SxV^Vof
of

multiplication
called
sorts. to
~,
a

We

this
if for be
a

situation

as

class,

whose

members
of the individual
a e

basic

alphabet
for

5^-sorted
and
of

elementary languages
the variables often

languages by retaining
single
for
v:

11.2

adapted
,
v,

an

symbols
variables

=>,

V, Vb
ve

alphabet 3,
whenever

%
set

),

(,
Va

replacing
such We

list each
a,

of

by
disjoint
sort

denumerable

,
"u
a

with
is that: collection such

Va
of

from

.
An

write

and SB
is

say

5^-sorted
and

language
individual relation

of

a", operation
a

when

Va.
relation
called write
and

and number
of
sorts.

symbols, A)
its
R:

constants,

each

symbol
and

R
a

has sequence
has

assigned

to

it
. .,

natural

n,

number

( B)

. .,

each

sequence

of places, On) to indicate symbol operation {ax,. ., +1)

individual
be
seen as

(
an

a^)
number
this

We

this;
g

assigned
indicate

of

sorts.

We

by
a

of places g: (au ,
indicated
constant

n,
. .,

) by
:

C) (this

each could

constant
a

is
case

assigned
of defined the of
sort sorts
are

sort

special
of

B)-an

individual

is
with

0-placed
Terms

operation
and

symbol).
formulae
of
sort

SB

are

inductively
sort

as

usual,
Thus

additional
and and
a

qualifications
constants
a

relating
are

to

of
a,

each if
. .,

term.

variables

terms

and

g:(ab
, then

. .,

+1,

tu
term

. .,

tn
sort
are

are

terms

of Atomic
the

respective
formulae

of

. .,

an+1.
terms

those

of form <2?-formulae
We
also

the

form

g(f1,. ., (t~u),
. .,

k)
where

is

and
atomic

of
then

same

sort,
tn:an.

and

of Other

the

R(tb
are

tn),
buut
two

where up
from

if
atomic

R:(ab
the sentences,

an)
ones

tx:
in
T

al5. .,

the and

standard

manner.

include

denoted

1,

in

any

language

SB.

484

LOGICAL

GEOMETRY

CH.

16,

16.3

If .2? is

~& is
a

an

elementary
21
each each
sort

topos,
with
domain

then

an

^-model .2?
such

for that

an

5^-sorted

language

function
for

if

U
an

A) B)
<g-arrow

aeif,

)
symbol -x2t(an)
R:

is

^-object;
. .,

for for

from
each

operation ^relation individual of

g:(ab
to

an)-^>

an+l

in

.2?,
a

2l(g)
subobject ),
an

is

an

2l(an+1);
. .,

C)
D) "global
We
for

symbol
constant

(au
c:

an) 2t(c)
to

in

an

2l(R)
arrow

is
1

of

for wil 5?.

each

a,

is indicate

i.e.
^-model

element"
use

).
notation

the

2l:i?

<

that

21

is

It

is

important
in that

to
we

realise
now

that

this

definition

of
to

model

departs including
no

from

that

of initial
1

11.4

allow other
us

be

any may of

^-object,
have
"free"

the
elements

object
d
at

0,
all. This

or

any takes

^-object
into the the of

that

global

domain

logic

(11.8),

but
we

instead
are

of

using
the

fol owing
the

objects approach
of "model"
rules

partial
of
of

elements,
Montreal
abstracts

and

existence

school
the

([MR],
classical
with

predicates, Chapter
Tarskian

2),
one,

in

which
while
If
v

notion
standard

directly
inference
of
a

the
=

undergo
distinct
also of This

restriction.

2l(v)
that

be

(ub.. , 2t(a1)xv

vm)

is

sequence

variables,
the then convention

vt:

a^,

we

let

-x2l(am).
sequence

We

adopt
variables
is
relevant

of
=

declaring
1 is the

if

is

the
the

empty

2I(v)
to

(n.b.,

product
sentences

of

empty

diagram).
sort

the

interpretation
to t

of
in
the

(see
If
t

below).
of
of
a,

is
that

term

and of

(ub.. ,
t
occur

um)
in
as

is list

appropriate
v,

sense

all

the

variables is
defined
v{, c,

the

then

an

^-arrow

2F(f):2l(v)-4>2l(a) A) If
B)
If

inductively
W{t) 2T(t)
is
is
the the

fol ows.
arrow

t t

is

the the

variable
constant

is

projection composite

2l(v)

{).

of

C)
define

If

is

g(ti ;. .,
to

2P(t) 2t(v)

be

the

tin), where composite

x

g:{ati,. .,
of

ain)-+

a,

then

we

inductively

1)

^) <2@,. .,
list
<p
v

^>
2
is

),
is appropriate interpreted in

where
If
<p

f
is

is
an

the

product i?-formula,
<p

arrow

and in
v,

the then

to

<p

that

all

free
as a

variables

of

appear

by

the

model

SI

CH.

16,

16.3

INTERNAL

LOGIC

485

subobject

SCv(<p)
so

of the

SC(v).

We

often

present
tends it
denotes The
to

this
be
a

subobject
with
whose

as

?I(v),
"?, only
as

that

even

though
determined

symbol strictly
up
to

"W(cp)" speaking
isomorphism. subobject

associated

an

SCv(<p) object
domain of

>>

of is

subobject,
definition

inductive
1

SCv(<p)
subobject
character

is

fol ows.

A)
whose

W(T)
character is

is

the

maximum is
true!:

:\)>\),
0^2t(v),

i.e. with
the

the

SC(v)
minimum
terms

Q.

SCV(_L)
false] B)

the

subobject
of
sort

:\)^-.
If
t

and

are

a,

W(t

u)

is

equaliser

of

C)

If

<p

is

R(ti ;. .,

f;j,

then

W(<p)

is

the

pullback

where

R:

<afi,. .,
connectives

^>
the

and
,

/
v,

is
~,

<8(,. .,
=>

are

D)
,
U,

The
-,

interpreted (cf.
an

as

the

operations
functors

in

Heyting
V,

E)

The

3f:
15.4.
v,
w

Sub(dom
If
<p
..

quantifiers f) > is 3w4>,

,vm,

algebra 3,

are

Sub*()) interpreted
with
all free

7.1, by
^-arrow
of

7.5).
the

Vf,
denned in
the

Sub(cod
or

/) Vwi((,
Then

associated
then

/,
appear
the

as

in list

variables

=(ub
we

w).

if

:\,

w)^SC(v)

is

evident

projec-

projection,

put

(cf.
Note the

the

beginning
that

of

15.4
the here.

for

motivation).
variable
in that that the
case,
sentences

if sequence

is

only
But

free

of

,
pr

we can

need be and

to

allow

that

be

empty
arrow

identified

with

the inter-

unique interpreted
Now

SC(w)
subobjects
cp

>

1,
of

so

3\\>
the of

Vw<^
empty)

are

as

1.
and the
v

if
that

is
all

any

i?-formula, only
'S-model free

is

(possibly
<p,
<p,
we

sequence
<p

consisting

of.

and
an

variables denoted

say

that is

is maximum

true

in

SC,

or

SC is

of

<p,

311=

if

3lv(<p)

the

486

LOGICAL

GEOMETRY

CH.

16,

16.3

subobject

is
We
a

of T
may

\)
tend
to

(i.e.
1=

if

W(<p)
if
the is
every

is

9()).
member "v" list
of of

of

is

class
true

of

formulae,
2L
the of
<p.

then

-model,

T,

is

in if

drop
if
the
v

symbol
the

from all
free

'"$!(<)"
variables
model for
the

intention

is

clear,
Exercise

and

especial y
1.

Develop denning
a

notion
of

Tarskian

set-theoretic and

lines satisfaction

11.2,
relation

many-sorted allowing

in
presence

Set

along
of

the

empty

sorts,

Show
set

that

in

these

terms

the

categorial

notion

W((p)

corresponds

to

the

Exercise

2
sort
a.

(Substitution).

Let
a

(t>b
same

. .,

t>m)
sort
as

be
t>;,

appropriate
and let
u

to

term

of

Let
to
arrow

be

term

of

the

be

appropriate product

the

term

t(vju).

Define

"

|;/|:)^)

sequence to be

the

(i)

Show

that

)
/\/

commutes.

(ii) (p(vi/u),

If

is

appropriate
that

to

<p,

vt

free

for

in

<p,

and

is

appropriate

to

show

2(<(;/))

is

the

pullback

of

SCv(<p)

along
3.
4.

\vju\.
if if

Exercise

\=< ^^

SCNcp

and
and hence

Exercise

<)^),

\=

if

<)

).

CH.

16,

16.3

INTERNAL

LOGIC

487

Exercise

5. 6.

<)==><).
~<)
existence
the
=

Exercise The

<
in

=>

).
'S of
of the

general
on

interpretation
certain of universal used Indeed

<)
categorial quantifiers
that

of

the

formula

<p

depends
in functors

possibility
the

performing
in

constructions

St.

For

instance,

interpretation
15.3
definition

requires
are

the

Vf,
On

whose the other

definition

properties
of

very

special
only
construct

topoi. to products operation

to

hand,
their
and
no

the

"i?-model" if
or

itself
SB
has

refers

and

subobjects.
relation

only
we can

one-placed
products
for

symbols,
in
any

symbols
^
v

constants,
to

i?-models

category
all for sequences the
case

^.
that

would
of
v

have

have

finite
a

\) (empty equalisers,
interpretations
maximum such

to

exist

for

variables,
is atomic Since could
has
a

including
empty
identities sequence.

terminal
If

object
<& would also with in
had have
a

product)
then

the

all in
a

equations,
^-model

i.e.

(t
is

u),
a

St.
we

Sub(d)
then terminal has all is it
that talk

always
about the

poset
truth

element

1d
But
if of that

(4.1),
a

and

of
a

equations.
for
any

category

object,
finite
limits

product
sum

pair
<& -models

objects,
we

then
assume

equalisers, (cf.

3.15).
we can

In
at

then,
construct

provided
general
for

<#

finitely
structure

complete,
needs

least
The

of
as

equational
to

question
various

what

logic. categorial
to

to

be

present

types
and

of Kock

^-formulae
and

be

interpretable
and is leads carried
work

is
to out

discussed notions

in
of

Reyes "Heyting"

[74],
and

[MR],
"logical"

Reyes
Similar

[77],

categories.

by

Volger

[75].
The
Let

language
<<? be
the
a

of

category

finitely
and
a

complete
canonical
of
sorts

category.
% -model
of

We

associate

with
*

many-sorted
i.e.
each

language A) % -object B) symbol, operation C)

is is
a

igg
collection
is each
a

%<$
is
the
class

:i?g

%
of

iSg
is

\%\
be
sorts.
a

S?^\ ^-objects,

of

sort;
-arrow

%
with

f:a^-b
sequence

declared

to

one-placed
These
or on are

operation
the

associated

(a,
there the
are

b)
no

of
constants

only
if
a

symbols
the

of

S?^,
is

and

relation

symbols;

model

SC^
is is
can
a

simply
a

identity
and

function if

|^|

sort,
as a

SC^(a)
^-arrow
if

/
Now
~

^-object, SC^(a)^-SC^(b). finitely complete

as

is
the

an

operation
truth of of

Ui?g. symbol,
certain

Thus

SC^(f)
equations

category,
characterise
the

(t

u)

in

%q>

be

used

to

structure

as

category.

488

LOGICAL

GEOMETRY

CH.

16,

16.3

To

see

this,

consider

the

question

as

to

whether

triangle

a^-^+

\f
of

^-arrows

commutes.

If for

is
term

variable

of

sort

a.

Then

2t^(g(t>))
is

is

just
the and

g,

and

correspondingly

the is

h(v),
if,
and

while

2l(/(g(u)))
SC^
only
as

/g.
of

Thus

equation
h.
Since

(f(g(t>))~fi(t>))
parallel
arrows are

interpreted equal

by

the

if,

their

equaliser equaliser

fg
is

iso,

we

get

and,

in

particular,

Exercise

7.

Let

/:a^abean
if

endo

^-arrow.

Show

that

if

v:.

a,

then

%it(f(v)~v)
and
so

1a,

SlK1a())Now if

each
to
same
as
a

SC:

iSg

is

an

-object 3l(/):

is

)
SC(a) exactly qualify
-equations,
that the
we
-

to

iSg -model <?-object

^-arrow

in

category

,
a,

then

tl
a

assigns
S-arrow Thus
. To and
as

(i.e.

)
the

each

(igg
of
these the above

i6g-sort) operation
as

and

symbol)
a

f:a-*b.
%:
^
arrows
>

type

function

is
preserve

functor

actually
commutative

functor,
Since

is required
two

to

identity
have been

triangles.
can

notions

expressed
exercises
the let

i?g
show

truth

in

repeat SC of
Given

arguments

and

in

3)

to

these
a

preservation

property.

equations triangle

exactly

captures
of

required

/,

g,

^-arrows,

id(/)
and

be

(/()),
h)
a

comtf,
(In
well-formed,
dif erent formula
each
case so

g,

be

(f(g())h()).
of the

is
to

variable
be

required
is
of
v. a

sort

to

make

the

formula
a

precise
each

id(f)
choice

formula We

schema,
wil
in

representing
gloss
over

for

future

this

point).

CH.

16,

16.3

INTERNAL

LOGIC

489

Theorem
a

1.

If
<

Q>
-*

is

functor f,
g

3)

finitely if,

and

complete, only
the

then

3)-model

SC:i?g
a,

if, for

all

^-objects
and

and

all

for ?6^ composable

are

is

pairs
in%.
This

of

^-arrows,

equations

idAa)

com(f,

g,/g)

true

result

displays properties (the

of the in
etc.

the

essential
reader of of
any
we us

idea familiar

of

the

logical
model Note
that

characterisation

of

categorial
it
as
a

with in

theory
the

wil
result

recognise
does
not

variant
on

the

"method this
wil functors
our

diagrams").
limits <#.

depend Continuing equalisers

hence the

existence

vein,
involve

develop
in
the
use
now a

logical
of

axioms existential
on
we

for

products,
and that the

This which
for

quantifiers,
wil
assume

subobject
in
needed

3f.
model
to

So,
exists

from is
takes

category
than

topos
g:

:>*

(although
a

this

is

stronger
arrow

is Recall

3^Sub(a)

exist).

that
so

3^-:

Sub(b)

to

the

image

of

/g,

3,(g)

3f(g)
5.2.1).
next

is
The

the

smallest

subobject
between

of 3

b
and

through
im
we

which
is
assume

/g
much that
to

factors the fore the

(Theorem
in canonical
the

interplay
of

very

series

exercises,
*

for in
be
a

which ~?.

SC

is

J?g -model
Exercise

S?^
8.
Let that

"?
a

topos

an
~

A)
hence

Show
that Show Hence
Let

2ICt>(t>
~v)
the show be that
two

^-object, t>))
if
the

and

v,

variables

of
>->

sort
a

a.

is

the

support
arrow

sup(a)
a
*

1 of

(12.1),
if
a
*

and
1

SCI=3t>(t>
that

unique
arrows

is
are

epic. equal SCI=(t)=w). 3t>(t>~t>)

B)
is monic.

projection
that the

axa^a

this

last

arrow

is
of the

monic
formulae

if

C)
(v~w).

term(a)
Show

conjunction
a

and

SCNerm(a)
The

if

is
be

terminal

object
as

formula
v

term(a)
of 9.
sort

may

regarded

expressing

"there

exist

unique
Exercise

a".

If

f:a^b
Show that

is

an.

arrow,

let

mon(f)

be

the

formula

(f(v)~

/(w)

=>

w).

>(/)

if

is

monic.

490

LOGICAL

GEOMETRY

CH.

16,

16.3

Exercise

10.
>

Given
a

f:a^b,
b
of

v:

a,

and

w:b,
show

show that

that

the

"graph"
>-

<1 a,f):a

/
is if

is

SC(/(u)~
the

w).
formula

Hence

im/:

f(a)

is

2I(ep(/)),

where

ep(f)

3ti(/()~w).

Thus

2tl=ep(/)
Thus
the
a

/ "/
is

is iso"

epic.
is "there
If i:
e

?
characterised
is
>>

condition
that consider

by
a a

the such

truth that

of

(/)
=

ep(f),
Next
a

formula
we

expresses

unique

f(v)
a

w".

equalisers.

equalises
the other

/,
hand, 10)

g: with

b,

then i is

i,
monic

as

subobject,
can

is
be

precisely
with

2l(/(u)=
im

g(u)).
i, and
hence

On

since

it
that

identified

(Exercise

2I(ep(i)),

so

Now

if

the

arrow

ft
h

in
L

f
g

is
the

monic

and

has
of

equaliser
if
of

fh /
g.

gh,
g,

then

Ji,
this

or

equivalently
that

im

h, is

subobject
itself
result.

of

and
converse

which
of

means

<U(ep(h))cSH(f(v)~g(v)).
holds,
to

Therefore,

the

last

inclusion
lead
the

is

an

equaliser
Exercise

/
11. of

and Given
the

These

observations and
formulae

fol owing

f,g:a^-b,
three

h:c>a,

let

equ(h,/,

g)

be

the

conjunction

mon(ft),

/(h(w))g(h(w)), g(v) f(v)

Then

=>

3w(h(w)
if

u).
ft
is
an

3lNequ(h,
For the of
arrow

/, g)
of

equaliser
and
g:
arrows,

of

/
>

and

g.

?
wil
when be the

case
a

product
product

and

products, b, with

given

f
g
as

:c^-a

b, then

and

projection

precisely

(/, g)

is

iso
the

(cf.

3.8),
formulae

i.e.
mon

monic and

and ep

epic.
applied

Ostensibly
to

then
the
arrow

we

could

express

this But it is

by

(/, g).

CH.

16,

16.3 that

INTERNAL

LOGIC

491

desirable After
arrow
on

we

have
but the

formula

that

explicitly
not

refers
to to
a

only

to

and

g.

all,

the

notation

"(f,
is

g)"
only
axb

does

refer
up

uniquely
and
pra

determined

(unlike
the

"/g")>
of
two

unique
and of

isomorphism
and of

depends
Thus and
g.
we

choice
the

product
properties

reduce
Exercise

desired
Let that

projections (/, g) to
above.

prb.

properties

12.

/, >(u)

g,

pra,

prb

be

as

A)

Show

<f, g>(w))
graph
where
v

=(/()
<1C,</,
:c,

/(w) g)):c^cx(axft)
z:b.
of
=>

g()g(w)).
of

B) C)

Show

that

the

</, g)

is

t>)~wg(t>)~z),
Let

w:a,

prod(/,
~

g)

be

the

conjunction
~

the
w

formulae

(f(u) f(w) 3l)(/(l))WAg(u)z).

Show
that

g(v)

g(w))

SC

l=prod(/,
9 and

g)

if

is

product
g

of

and

with

projections

/and
(cf. By
extend

Exercises

10 exercises
1 above the

above).
to
a

?
model
of of the
exactness

adapting
Theorem

these

form
of

:
of the

ieg

>

^,
as
a

we

can

to

characterise in

left

%,
type
and

functor equ, of of be

%
and

>

^,

in

terms

of

truth the

2C

the

formulae

term,

prod
of

determined

pairs
these the
context

objects particular
of with element is

in

by ^ (left
Our

terminal
exactness
use

limits).
continuous

of

objects, equalisers, being equivalent this characterisation logical

from
a

to

products preservation
wil
a
=

in with

morphisms
In
same

site
a

on

^
set

to

topos

'S
x

its ^-arrows maximum

canonical

pretopology.
the

the

lat er

case,

{fx:
im

X}
is

of the

codomain
of where

is in
is the

cover

of canonical

if model

Ux

fx

1C
v:

Sub^(c).

But

the

:<2^
the

"?,
for

im/x
ux:

2C(ep(fx)),
/x
and

ep(fx)
if
X
is

formula
we

3t>x(fx(ux)=t>)
can

dom

Moreover,

finite,

form

disjunction

V
xsX

ep(/x)
Since

as

an

J?g
that
for

-formula.

have
cover

\/
the

ep(fx))
canonical

U
site

im
on

interprets fx.

disjunction
Thus it and

as

union this
case

in

Sub(c),
that

we

fol ows

in

is

if,

only

if,

?l[l=cov(C),

where

cov(C)

492

LOGICAL

GEOMETRY

CH.

16,

16.3

is

the

formula

xsX

3ux(/x(ux)-u).
to

The

restriction

finite
we
are

is

of

course

because

formulae

in
sequences

the of
at

first-order

languages
and
we are

currently
from

using

are

finite
many up

symbols,
once

disbarred of

disjoining
this wil
case

infinitely
be of taken

formulae

(the theory
are

possibility
is

allowing
to

later).
in
of

So which formulae called

our

present
covers

appropriate
is
a

the

finitary
a

sites,
T
c

all

finite.

If of the

{%
canonical
of the

Cov)
site for
g,

finitary
ieg
consists

site,
of
of
a;

we

define
small

collection

theory
A) B) C) D) E)

language C, and
each

the

category

c.

Tc

is

the

idAa), com(/, term(a), equ(Ji, prod(/, a product cov(C), F)

that

^-object
for
each each each each

/g)
for

composable

pair

/,
%;

of

^-arrows;

terminal

object equaliser
h of
of

a a

in

/, g), g), diagram

for

for for

parallel
with dom

pair

/, /
=

of
g

^-arrows;
that
forms

in
each
cover

pair c;
small,
so

^-arrows
in
too

dom

C. is

Notice
Theorem

since
2.

H
is

is

Tctopos,
and
a

If

Grothendieck

finitary of
%
is
a

site,
continuous

then

an

H-model

morphism
In that

2C:ieg^^ %:C^Sif,
view
the of the

for
and Reduction of

the

canonical

language
if,

only
Theorem

SCNTcwe now

?
from reduces
of the

existence
of

geometric
of

existence

^-models
to

Tc-

In

16.2.2, morphisms particular,

models
of

see

Theorem
to

2 the

~?

Sh(C)
of
many

points
Tc-

form

Set^

Sh(C)
Theorem

correspond
is about

classical
the

Set-based

Since of

Deligne's
while
many
to
see

existence Theorem
one

sufficiently
about the

classical
Set-models

Completeness (a falsifying
how,
these
two

is
for results each
are

existence
we

non-theorem),
related. with the
gap

points, sufficiently begin

the

why,

and
The 1 and

basic wil
and and
cov

exacting
2 of

reader

be the that

dissatisfied

between

Theorems
for
were

this
equ,

section

given
lie behind
>

arguments
them.

and
The the than

exercises
lat er

id,
stated

com,

term,
terms

prod,
of

in
to

canonical

models ? the
of

.2^
in
other
was

^,

whereas

Theorems

refer

models made
about

i?g

>

S&g

categories
that the

<#.

The

only
exercises

comment

connection

arguments

and

given

CH.

16,

16.4

GEOMETRIC

LOGIC

493

for that between

to

%
a

could
model

be

canonical
the

"repeated" SC: i?g ^ languages,

entities
<p to

in
can

"?.
be

This

can

be
as

made
a

precise
function
translation
each
a

by
%:

regarded
sorts

observing 5&<>

>

J?g
5&<>
of

takings
in

and

operation
a

symbols

of

corresponding
^-formulae
g

iE-%.

This obtained

induces

(-)a
in
<p
as

.2^-formulae symbol
sort
a

<pa,
and

by
of each
to

replacing
sort

in in
D

<p

by
It

SC(g),
is translates
then

<pa.
in

regarding readily
under

variables
seen

operation being
with with
the

of

that

"axiom" axiom associated

associated

diagram image

()a
In
on.

the

diagram
=

) cov(SC(C)),
of
any

in
and

<.
so

other
It

words,
is
also
<p in

(tem^a)K1
straightforward
is
the
same as

term(9l(a)),
to

(cov(C))a
the

show

that

interpretation
its
translate

i?g
in
the

-formula

the

interpretaThat

interpretation of
have

<pa
Proposition

canonical

~& -model

%^:!?%^>'?.

is,

we

([MR]

3.5.1)

and

so

if
Now been suppose that D

is

one

of
cover

the

types

of

diagram
its
<pP

in

that

we

have P

considering by
forms the the

(finite
2C-truth

limit,
of
cov

characterised
of for

some

etc.), ieg
Then it
truth the

with
-formula

categorial (where
the
same

property
<pP

has

one

term,
in $ is this

prod,
characterised establishes

etc.).
by
the

fol ows in

that

property
view
of the

2l(D)
equation,

last
that

principle
P of D

21^ ([MR],
if

of

(<pP)a.
Metatheorem

In

3.5.2)

preserves

the

property

16.4.
A

Geometric
formula it
of

logic
wil contains
be

called
no

formulae,
class

positive-existential logical symbols

i?-formulae
is
one

if,
other than be

in

addition T,

to

atomic 3.
The

_L,
i?g.
<p

v,

all

positive-existential
L -formula any
<p
can

wil
the form

denoted
where

A and
sense

geomet-

geometric, or
i?g.
Since
=

coherent

of

<=>,

can

are

in
that be

be

identified
each

with

(T=><p),
existential

in

the formula

21(<p)
regarded
56--formula
T
of

SC(

T
as

=>

<p) (Ex. 16.3.5), being geometric. is geometric, as

formulae
of
a

positive
in
~<p

Also in

this
is
a

sense,

the
to

general
be

equivalent
theory.
to
our

negation (<p

of
=>

an

).
context,

set

geometric
concept

wil

called is

geometric

The

geometric

theory

central

present

as

494

LOGICAL

GEOMETRY

CH.

16,

16.4

all all

members

of
of

the

theory
type
have

of

finitary
"truth-value"
To

site

are

formulae

this
of

their

geometric. preserved
this,
an

Moreover, by f:<F^>~?
a

the

inverse
be
for
some
on a

image geometric language

collection
the is
so

parts
SB.
of

geometric
of

morphism
We define

morphisms. and topoi,

an

see

let

21:

SB
of and

*~?

5?-model
as

cF-model

/*2I
symbols,
for the each

!?,
relation i?-sort

which,
a,

function
of

the

sorts,
of the result that the

operation

symbols
the

??,

is

just
and

composite

/*

and of

21.

Thus

^-object ^-object
and is

/*2I(a)
),
functorial

/*BI(a)),
on.

applying
preserves

functor and is

/*
thereby

to

the

The
that

fact

/*
definition
For

products
of "model"

subobjects
satisfied.

ensures

Theorem

1.

A)

any

positive-existential

formula

<p,

B)

If

is

geometric,

then

211=0

implies

/*2ll=0.
then

C)

If f*

is

faithful,
if

for

geometric

0,

211=0
Proof.
cp.

/*2tl=0.
This is
proven

A)
The
essential and

(Outline).
point colimits,
in

by
an

induction

over

the

formation all
structure

of

is
and

that,
hence
a

being

exact

functor,
all
formula. that the

/*

preserves

finite

limits

preserves

categorial

involved
First

interpreting
all, preservation

positive-existential
of

of

monies

ensures

/*2T(<p)
of

is

subobject
makes
for

of

/*2I(v).
=

Functoriality

of for
v

/*
of
and

and

preservation
variables,
and

products
=

/*2t(v)
terms
t

/*Bt(v))
to

sequences is terminal
<p

f*W(t)
ensures

/*B)
the other
are

which
of

appropriate.
initial

Preservation
result

objects
while and
the
cases

that of Pullbacks
the

desired
atomic used
are

holds
use

when

is

or

_L,

formulae
the

equalisers,
case

products,
for
,

pullbacks.
and

in is

inductive
for for
v.

and

coproducts
of
of
<p

images (and

(Ex.

needed needed

Finally,
inductive

preservation
case

images
are

projection
and

16.1.8) arrows)
then in

the
0

3.

B)
),
=

If
so

is

<p=><k
there
But

where

and

in

i?g,

211=0,

21(<p)c
"?,
i.e.

that

is
then

an

arrow as

factoring
a

)
). Hence
If

/*
have

is

functor,

21(<p) f*(h)

through
factors
so

by faithful,

A),
or

we

/*21(<p)c/*2l(^),
conservative

) /*BI(cp)) that f&\=<p

then

through
=>

C)

/*

is

equivalently

(16.1),

/*

reflects

CH.

16,

16.4

GEOMETRIC

LOGIC

495

subobjects,
combination
Now if for

so

that,
with

by

A),
result

^<)^^)
then and
-

only
fol ows.

if

(<)^().

In

B),
a

the

?
^-model
that
is
some

other in T

is
any

coherent

topos,
p:

it

an

of

geometric
a

theory
of

T,
On

then the
=>

point
hand,
such
p

Set

?
then

fol ows
there
But

*
by

We

is

Set-model
formula Theorem

T.

if that

^
that

(geometric)
Deligne's
so

(<p
exists
In their
Theorem

)
a

(<)
geometric
set-theoretic

().
formulae

then,
in models.

there
=>

point
way,

of

< such
of

*(())*(()),
reduces
have

that
to

*?(<
the

)of

this truth

truth in
2.

question

standard

If
NT

is

an

!?-model

in

coherent

topos

~?, and

geometric

theory,

then
in

if

for
in

all Set.
choice

points

of

t,

NT

Exercise

1. from Theorem

By

appropriate
Theorem of
Barr also

of

??,%,

and

T,

deduce

Deligne's
?

Theorem
The

2.
the
to
us

on

existence
an

of

Boolean-valued metatheorem about that

points
mod-

for

Grothendieck models
from

topoi
of

leads

important
T

geometric
T

theories. classical for valid

to

Let

write notion
as

\-c6
is

to

mean

is
of

derivable

by

logic.

This

denned
is standard in
we

by
members
a

admit ing
T

proof
and of

sequences

that axioms effect

may

contain like
<pv~
<p.

"axioms" is

classically
Theorem

There
<p
true

completeness
Set-model
T

the But

that then from

are

\-c<p Barr's

if

every

(Henkin
Theorem

[49]).
3.

Theorem,
and
T

get
then

I/
every

and

geometric,
topos.
a

\-c6,

is

true

in

every

T-model
Proof. Barr's Let

in

Grothendieck
i?

:
< for
that

<? be exists

model
a

of

T,
B.
laws J

with

<

Grothendieck T

topos.
of
hold

By
form in
the

Theorem
-

there
some

surjective
BA
the
so
as

geometric
Then
of
as

/: Sh(B) 1B) implies

Boolean Theorem
Exercise

complete

/*2lNT.
Sh(B),
then and

But

classical

morphism is geometric, logic

Since

the Theorem

topos

\-,

fSlNfl.

/*

is

faithful,
?

1C)
2.
from Show

gives
that

SIN
the Theorem.

restriction

of

Theorem

to

coherent

topoi
?

fol ows

Deligne's

496

LOGICAL

GEOMETRY

CH.

16,

16.4

One

interpretation
inferrable

of

Theorem
classical

is is
new

that

for

anything
tuitionistic

by
and
are
so

logic

inferrable

geometric by
theorems
of
course

formulae,
the

weaker

in-

logic,
that

we

gain

no

principles
not

not

geometric).
T T-models that
to

But

the

intuitionistically importance
from

valid of the
to

geometric (note
result

by
that
cpv~
use

using
<p is

resides

in

its For Then

in

lifting
to

mathematical
suppose that consists

constructions
of the

Set
for
be groups,

non-Boolean

topoi.
of
a a

example,
show then

axioms

the

notion have

group.

in the that lat er

of
we

Grothendieck

provided
suffices
But

property
all

can

topoi expressed disposal theory.

to

certain
a

property,
formula in
of

by
i.e.
the all power

geometric
classical
of

0, it

show

standard
have
at
our

T-models

Set,

for

the

satisfy logic,
rings"

0.

and
is

the

An

given
Proof

techniques application by Wraith

theory
a

standard
of

group

this

method

the

"Galois

theory

local

[79].

By formulae,
of

sequent
and
are

we

mean

an

expression
formula.

=>

,
is

where

is

finite
all

set

of

{}
A

single positive-existential.

sequent
is the

geometric
if

if

members

sequent

is

not

formula,
same

since

not,
formula
we

but

{<
.

. .,

<pn},
.

for
a

then Thus
=>

=>
if

this
true

is

"virtually
formula

the

thing
in
a

as"

((PiA.
say
a

)=>
sequent
as

last
in
is be clear

is
A
set

true

model
wil
of

21,
be

wil

that

the

of

is

T the

of

sequents

called

theory,
and

just

set

formulae.
It
can

that

notions and
we

geometric
wil is
to

sequent
to

geometric
times. The

formula

interchanged,
sequents
axioms

tend

do
a

this

at

point
for

of

introducing expressing
geometric formulae. relation theoretic that
that

at

all of

provide
that

convenient
us we are

notation
to

and Given
a

rules

inference

enable

derive
to

geometdefine
this
on

theory
from
be
to

T,

and

sequent
denoted
0 form

0,
Tffrom T

going
aim
nature

the

depend
occur

is provable wil approach their on only in them), and

etc.

T",
obtain

0.

The

of
of the

proofsequents

by
on

operations
the of

syntactic
not
on

(i.e.
semantic

any

notions
A of and
v<pn.

"truth",
A

symbols "implibe

"implication",
In

the
or

rules

to <p

fol ow,
A while
=

the

union
=

sets

wil
the with is

writ en

, A,
conjunction
set,

is

if

{<p}.

{<pi,. .,
the

<},
disjunction
that
=>

then
<p1
v..

is stated

denotes If

conjuncthe
T
=>

!.

.<pn,

while

_L,

V /\

is with

is

empty

T,
our

so

identified
earlier.

or

simply

in

conformity

conventions

CH.

16,
We

16.4

GEOMETRIC

LOGIC

497

write
member

(
of obtained

. .,

vn)
is

to

indicate
vu
. .,

that
vn.

any

free
. .,

variable

occurring
denotes the for the
vt
set

in of

any

amongst

((

()
term

formulae
out

by
T of

uniformly
geometric

substituting
sequents,
T
"

the

through
of T

. Given
a

set

wil

denote

union

and

all

the

fol owing
Identity

Axioms

of

V v

=>

W
=>

V,

w,

<p

<p(v/w),
variables
out

where We

and
now

are

of

the

same

sort,
for

and

<p

is

atomic.

can

set

the

axiom

system

geometric
which
we

sequents
wil

deGL.

developed
Axiom

by

Makkai

and

Reyes

([MR],

5.2),

call

=>,

if

fer.

Rules
The rules

of

inference all
have

the

form

'

the

intended

meaning
6t
have

being
been

that
i.e.

the

sequent
the conclusion

is

derivable

if
a

all

of

the
of

sequents
the

derived,

is

consequence

premisses

6t.

498

LOGICAL

GEOMETRY

CH.

16,

16.4

and

all

free

variables

occurring

in

also

occur

free

in

the

conclusion.

vz'

,\/=>
A, <p(vlt),
A, A, 3w<p(v/w),

(R3i)

3wcp(v/w) <p(vlt)
=>

=>

<p^>

if

does

not

occur

free

in

the

conclusion.

provided
and Note for
some

that

all
vu

free
. .,

variables
vn,

in

the

premiss <p(vlt
on

occur

free

in

the

conclusion,
to

F(vu
JRT
in
as

. .,)=> depends
R
our

. .,)
the

belongs
theory
necessary
are

T T.

=.

that
on

the

last

rule

particular
now

The these

restriction rules
to

free

variables discussion of

Vi,
models

and in

JRT

for

be

truth-preserving,
the
that

may

involve
T
sequence

"empty"
system
for

objects
We say
we

(cf.
denote
a

Detachment
is

which

geometric simply
list
an

sequent

derivable
is in

by
sequents
or

f-

, if there

11.9). from a proof

such

in

the each

GL,
from
of the that model the list

T,
the

i.e. list
one

finite
is either the

of
axiom

ending
a

and of

that
members Theorem
are

member

consequence be

earlier

of

by
all

of
the

above

rules.

It the the
rules

can

shown of GL
preserve

of
any

axioms,
topos,
and
Theorem.

including
that

Axioms
of

(cf. [MR] Identity,

this

3.2.8),
true

in
Hence

any

in

property.

Soundness

If

TI-

, and

if

is

model

of

in

topos

<?, then
?

0.
The GL-derivable
converse

of from If the
3

Soundness

asserts

that is
a

if T
a

W-

(i.e.
some

if

is

not

T),
a

then
can

there
be the

-model

in
of
we

topos

that

falsifies
view of

such discussion

model
of
one

found

in

Grothendieck
Barr's have

topos,
the

then,
Theorem

in

logical
exist

significance
in Set. Indeed

(Theorem
Classical

above),
Completeness

must

Theorem

(cf.
that

[MR],
and

5.2.3(b)).

If

-,

then

there

is

Set-model

such

Slt=T

CH.

16, There

16.4

GEOMETRIC

LOGIC

499

is
as

systematic
Henkin it
as a

known

the in

introduced
described If then
<p

way

technique method, of proving

The
basic

for after the

proving
work

theorems of Leon for

of

this
of

kind.

It who

is

Henkin

[49],
the

completeness
idea
is
as

systems

type
We include
i.e.

11.3.
<p,
to

fol ows.
GL Axiom that desired
the

is

=>

then

since
the
a,,

T
to
a

set

,
X

the

implies
stil does

that
not

<. 31,

attempt
and which

expand
be

of
of

formulae

wil

ful

theory
,

T-model

wil

have

if is

._

^.
denned
of
a

Given
relation

X,
on

the
the
t~u

model
terms

through

specification
by

of

an

equivalence

given

sort

if

(t^u)eX.
classes

The

resulting
sort,
and

equivalence
relation
and

then

become
are

the

individuals

of

the

given

operation
if

symbols

interpreted

by

putting

)A. .,1) C,. .,in)=i

Note
that
we

if T is
a
we

since
can assume

set,
are

by

TU{0}
guarantees
indeed Now certain

ignoring dealing
of model
a

any
with
a

symbols
small
form
then
a

extraneous

to

language.
set,
it
so

This that

that

the

3i-individuals

given
in if
and
so

sort

31

is

Set-based. if
closure then

X
of
then

is

to

correspond

to

this

way,

must

satisfy
and

properties,
e

e.g.

A^X

X;
31
is

if tel s
to

X
work
of

\us

then

/\AeX X,
what
an

AqX;
on.

if Reflection

D=>i/ )?l=
on

the have.

desired
The

properties procedure
language,

exactly through
formula end

properties
enumeration of
whether
or

X
the
not

must

formulae
to to to

of
add do
Theorem

the

deciding
such
what
are a

each
the

in

turn

it this If

into
we

X,
discover
rules

in

way rules
turn

that

result
our

is
axiom
so

as

desired.

In
needs
the

trying

of
whole

inference

system
that

admit.

these

in then "valid"

truth-preserving,
the for

Soundness
and

is

fulfil ed,

systematic
"true"
The
or

technique
formulae
wil

procedure constructing
determined
a

becomes
an

viable,
axiomatisation

actually
of
the

gives
class

of
in for
us

by
and

given
of

notion
this A

of
Henkin

"model".

reader
any
note

find
text

construction
on

almost
to

standard
about

mathematical
here is that

proof logic.
it that is in T
be

type

significant
independent
for T

point

the from
model

method

entirely
order

of have
means

category
It fol ows

theory.
Classical
at

Completeness
all,
it is sufficient that

to

set-theoretic

consistent,

which

500

LOGICAL

GEOMETRY

CH.

16,

16.4

that of

-L.

But

since it is
of
a

our

proof
case

finite
subset

length,
T have
0

the T.

in
it

theory general
in suffices that

is

finitary,
if
that any

i.e.

proof
then
to

sequences

are

that order

T
for

f-

0,
T

To
be subset
a

for

some

finite
therefore consistent.
be

Consequently,

consistent,
of model
T
must

and

Set-model,
Soundness have the

each

finite

be

Since

implies
fol owing

theory
feature

having
of

consistent,

we

fundamental

finitary

logic.
so

Compactness does Proof We

show the
now

Theorem.

If

every

finite

subset

of

has

Set-model,

too

T. of

Deligne's
apply
Classical
the

Theorem

Completeness
topos
as

to

the

theory

of

finitary
For

site

we

to
use

that criterion Let

coherent stated

Sh(C)
16.2.5.
set

has

enough
with the

points.
same

this

Theorem
be
a

that
i.e.
not

.
by epimorphic
Now

{fx: Cov(c).
=

X}
16.3.2

of
construct

C-arrows
a

codomain
p
:

c,

such

We

need
a

to

continuous
the is the
constant

Theorem

Set-model
where

of

theory
language

morphism Tc,

Set,
is

such

that

p(C)
category

in
let

Set.

i?

i?cU{c},

5?c
individual
x

of
of
sort

the Let
sort

underlying
variable
Let of

C,
sort

and
c,

is for

new

be

and

each

let

vx

be

variable
let

of

dom

/x.

<px(v)
Put

be

the

2?-formula

3ux(/x(ux)=u),

and

()

be

3ux(/x(ux)~

c).

={~():}.
Then
We wil

is
show

geometric,
below that there then

and
that

is T is
a

set

in

view

of

the

smallness
therefore

of

the

site

C. that

is

consistent,
model
of
a

and
and
of

by
:

Classical
such

Completeness

set-theoretic T
c,

so

i?

>

Set
a

morphism
then

NT.

But

5IC
and the

is

model hence
constant

determines If
a

continuous
set

C-^Set,

point

Sh(C).
element
gx

A
?

is

the and

each each

3IC interprets i?c-operation-symbol

x

as

an

A,

(), interprets
But

fx

as

function

:2lc(dom/x)-^

A.

for

X,

which

means
=

that

!
is T is consistent.
is
not

gx,

Thus

it Hence
for

Ux
in is

bn

gx,
as

showing
desired.
to

that that
to

the each
show this

family
finite

tytc(C)
To

{gx:
of
T

x&X}
that

epimorphic
consistent,
consistent

prove

Set, enough
it is

show

subset

is

{~():

0}

any

finite

enough .

To
end,
let

CH.

16,
be and

16.4

GEOMETRIC

LOGIC

501

Ec
ism,
reflects

the
so

canonical

functor
serves so as

an

A6.3.2) xeX} xeX0} fx,

as
a

Sh(C). i?c-model
is maximum maximum
not

Then

covers,

that
is is
not

EC(C)
the
not
as

Ec Sh(C) epimorphic
in

is

continuous
of

morphMoreover

Tc.
in

Ec
Thus and hence
a

Sh(C).
as

U{imEc(/x): U{imEc(/x):
interprets

subobject
either.
But

of and

Ec(c),
Ec,

the the

model,

symbol,

arrow

Ec(fx),

so

EcW{<px(v):xeX0}.
As

Ec
Classical
that

Tc,
SI NT

it

fol ows

by

Soundness
it fol ows

that that

Tcthere

V Wx(v):
is
a

by
such

Completeness

model

Xo}. Sl:i?c-^Set

Hence

and

But element

this

means

that

\J{Im'u(fx):
that
to true.

0}), a^ImSl(/x),
51
if
to
0

so

that Then in

there

is

an

)
=

such
us

for
become

all
an

xeX0.
i?-model it
must,

defining
which

Sl(c)
members consistent This

allows of
as

extend
But

all
be

are

has

model

by

Soundness,
property
that
of such

desired.

finishes
is
not

the

proof
all P
sets

that

2lc
in
of

exists
If
we

and

has

the
P
are

required
to

Slc(C)
models
Theorem Theorem

epimorphic
for is
a

Set. C-arrows

define
that

be
not

the
covers,

set

16.2.5,
is

then and

by
?

sufficient

set

of

points

for

Sh(C),

Deligne's

proved.

Infinitary
In formulae

generalisation defining
restricted
case we

the

theory
us

Tc
to

we

noted

that and
to

the that

finiteness if
we

of

first-order
to treat

finitary
to

sites,
be able

wanted
of this. that for We

the
sets
to

general
of

would
is
no

have

form
to

formulae.
rules

There for has

there

technical formulae

obstacle
the many

disjunctions doing
variables the

infinite
add
any
set

the

inductive formulae

that

generating altogether
is
a

condition
free

in

of its

finitely
formula

occurring
semantics

members,

V
if is
we can

with

set-theoretic

(11.3,

11.4).

3H=Vn^l5
In
any any

. .,xm]
which

for
a

some

<,
lat ice

=<[
(which

. .,].
includes

topos Grothendieck

in

Sub(d)

always

complete

topos),

interpret

infinitary

disjunction

by

502

LOGICAL

GEOMETRY

CH.

16, formulae

16.4

We

denote from

by
??

.2*

the

class

(in
careful

fact

proper

class)
of

of

infinitary
sets

generated
Barwise

by
for
of

allowing
a

formation

of
members

for the

of of of

as

above
of

(cf.
those

[75],
i?geo
no

111.1
denotes

presentation
=>,
~.

syntax

infinitary
i.e.

formulae).
with
occurrence
can even

the
the be
a

positive-existential V, symbols
in
=>

-2*,
finite
as a

The

definition
sequences
to

derivability
length,
finite subforset

for since of

it

no

longer
members

given
of

terms

of wil rule

proof
continue have
R

though
and
so

sequent
of
we

have

involve

formulae,

can

themselves

infinitely
may

many

mulae,
many

an

instance
Thus
to

the
now

V2
that of

well
the

infinitely
T\contains
of the

when well
as

premisses. belongs
all
other

wil

stipulate
collection under the the
rules

relation
that inference
of

holds
T
as

the and is

smallest
closed

formulae
of

axioms

system
that
to

GL.
have the
one

In

these

words, properties.
in
terms

{:
(For
of such
a

T1 finite

0} finitary

is

intersection

all

collections is

given

proof
Theorem.

logic, sequences).
and
so

this contains

definition
For all
any

equivalent
-model that

T such

SI
T

in
I-

topos,
Hence

{:
we

}
retain any

we

is the

collection,
then

0.

Soundness

If

is

small
set

site,

by
for any
Theorem.

extending
cover

the

definition

of in

T
we

to

include
the

\J {3vx(fx(vx)~v): of theory
the the
way

xeX}
as a

{fx:
However

xeX}
we

C,

obtain
use

of

.^-formulae.
that
If d
cannot

cannot

now

Tc

in the

did

for

Deligne's
Set

Infinitary
ones

formulae
To
see an

do

not <p

enjoy
be

properties

in

finitary
where
is
a

do.
cl5. .

this,
list
all

let of
the for holds.

formula

\Z{v=cn:
constants.

new}, }

c0,
constant

is

infinite from
even

distinct

individual

distinct
a

cn's,
each

then
of
its be
sets

{<p}U{~(d~cn):
finite
subsets does.

have the

Set-model,
Theorem
no

though
fails

Thus the

Compactness
Theorem
if
we

infinitary
It
can

logic.
shown

Moreover,

Completeness
162)
to

longer
of has
a

([MR],
then
a

p.
countable with

that
set

admit
the
other

disjunctions
sequents
hand
but that
there

countable Set-model
exist

only,
consistent
sets

of GL.
that

geometric
On
are

if uncountable

it
all

is

respect
formulae

of
Scott

infinitary [65]
was can

consistent

have

no

Set-model

at

(cf.
It
Theorem

for
be

an

example).
Mansfield
if
we

shown

by
obtained
for

[72] replace
Boolean
as
a

an

Infinitary
set-theoretic
B.

Completeness
models
a

standard

by
interA

B-valued

models,
a

complete
. .,

algebras
function
This
of is

Such

model
where the

interprets
is the

formula
set

<p(vu
of

vn)
of
the

the

form
similar
at

A"-B,
to

individuals

model.

very

notion

of

model Makkai for

in

the and

topos

-Set
have

Reyes

many-sorted

geometric

(for adapted logic

fl

B)
Mansfield's without

outlined
existence

the

end
to

of
their

11.9.
axioms

approach

assumptions.

They

CH.

16,
that
a

16.4

GEOMETRIC

LOGIC

503

show and

for
that Tf-0

any

set

of
in the

geometric
Grothedieck

sequents
topos

there

is

complete
of
sheaves

BA
over

'

model

SlT

of

Sh(BT)

BT

such

if

2lTN0
below).
the

for
It

"suitable"
could
be

(see
that

held the

B-valued of "model". that is the

the
same

approach
But

recovers

generalising categorial
the but which

notion
one

from of

the model

logic
definition
that
the of

could

say

notion for
we

-model
to

all have

topoi
to

Completeness point is invariant, , including

allow

by
of view

of in that
=

~&

Set,
in

in

order model
now

obtain

lives sketch Theorem.

L

to

Completeness change
definition Given
a

the T. it
can

category
be i.e.
closed
terms

as

we

change

the

theory
how

Let
prove

us

the
subset

of

,
that

and

see

used
a

to

Barr's

geometric
i?gQ of do in all
is

theory
contains free T

T and

in is of and

set

<=.<?%,
subformulae,

let

be
and

any

of substitution
subclass there

under whose

(i)
variables

(ii)
in
L. A

for i?gQ
fact

variables

all
Since Let that
a

occur

satisfying
exist
we

(i)
small
=>

(ii)

is

called containfrom
L

fragment. containing T.
such Then

T
P be
W-
=>

is the
<p.

small,
collection
If
p
=

fragments
<p

of

sequents
in

of

formulae

(
P

=>

<p)
is and

P,

write

Fp

for

and

<pp

for

<p.

partial
Cq

ordering
if

on

given
cpp

by
=

^
we

cpq.

The the let

Boolean

P+
be

of

algebra hereditary
Then
is

want

is

obtained
of P
=

by
(P,
the which

subsets

applying C) (cf.
lat ice

double

negation
For

to

8.4).
of

each elements

S intersec-

eP+,
of and
is
a

S*
and

iiS.
in is

BT
a

is

{S*:
is the
L

eP+},
A
Boolean is

regular
(cf.

P+,
Sikorski

general

complete
i

in

complement

is is

set-theoretic Rasiowa and

intersection, LJ X
Grothendieck
For

(U

[63],
each

X)*, IV.6).
topos.

and Since

small,

BT

too,

Sl^By)

formula

<p e

L,

put

and

for

each

term

t
=

occurring
eP:
are

in
every

L,

put
of in P.
of
sort
t
occurs

P(t)
Then If relation

{p
the is

variable

free
=

in

P}.
equality

()

and
denotes
on

P(t)

hereditary
set

Let
a,

M
then

P@*.
a

()

of

L-terms

B^--valued

SlT(a)

given

by

504

LOGICAL

GEOMETRY

CH.

16,

16.5

This

makes

()
for
as
an

into

an

object
relation

in

the

topos
R:

BT-Set (au
-*
. .,

of

Revalued

sets

(11.9). Similarly,
is denned

n-placed
function

symbol
" "

given
by

of

L,

SlT(R)

that

SlT(ai)x

()

If
to
a

g:

(au
definition

. .,

On)
from

+1
arrows
x

is

an

the

of

and

n-placed products

function

^(^
, defines formulae
if

31(+1)

operation in BT-Set to B^

symbol,
of The

then

according
is is
to

11.9,
definition

SlT(g)

be

T(gXti,
This construction
of

)=.
a

.nlUnlgCtb. .,
T-model in

<)"!
BT-Set
such
that for any

sequent

in

L,

\=
([MR],
in and

Tf-0

4.1,
14.7
this With that
we

4.2,
know
us

5.1,
that
to

5.2).
there realise Theorem

But

from is
an as

the

work
in the site
is
a

of between

Denis

Higgs
B-Set
as

referred and desired.

to

equivalence
a

Sh(B),
to

allows

of

model

ShCB^-)
to

regard
T
such

to

the

Barr,
small

construction

is

applied

the the

case

is

the
that may

theory

Tc
choose

of

give
L

model

SlTc:
from
to

i?c-^

ShCBrJ
to

SlTcNTc.
i.e.

Then
our

9ITc
small

continuous of
every if

ShCByJ.We
cov(C),
C-arrows
in
with

fragment
for Then and is
a means

morphism Z?%?
set

include
=

formula
of

V{3ux(/x(ux)):xeX}
a

common
we

codomain.
have

{2lTc(/x):
Tcf-cov(C)
of that that

{/I:xeX] xeX}
by
the in

is

epimorphic
above

ShCBy^),
Since

2lTcNcov(C),
which

so

construction.
then in

Soundness
is

epimorphic morphism

ShCB,-

implies Sh(C). ) *

that

Ec:C-Sh(C) Ecl=cov(C),
Theorem determined

model fol ows is

Tc

Sh(C),
x

{Ec(/X):
the

X]

By

16.2.3, by

it

geometric

Sh(C)

surjective.

16.5.
To
was

Theories
derive associated association
a

as

sites
Theorem from

Deligne's
with
wil

Classical site
Given C.
To
a

Completeness,
make

each
be

finitary
reversed. wil
be

the that

converse

theory derivation,
of of

the

geometric
such

theory
models

finitary
T
*

formulae,
Grothendieck

site

CT
topos

canonical

constructed
to

in

correspond
functor

continuous

morphisms

CT
a

~&.

In

particular,

the

E^rCV

-Sh(CT)

becomes

T-model

CH.

16,

16.5

THEORIES

AS

SITES

505

in

Sh(Cr)

satisfying

1=<
Application Completeness
The
of for

if

T\-<p.
Theorem
to

Deligne's
T.
of

Sh(CV)
development

then

yields
of

Classical the "Lindenbaum and the

class

Com-

construction
notion the

CT
we

is
for

an

elegant

algebra"
present

outlined construction

prepositional
wil
work
from

logic
now

in within

6.5
the

8.3. iPg
of

To

of the

positive-existential geometric
Two T
on

finitary theory
56% -formulae if
for

iP-formulae,
and and

where
be

56

is

language
relative

T.
<p

wil
TI

called
<p.

provably
defines
of
are an

in

GL

T
which

<p

=>

the

=>

This

equivalent equivalence
denoted ordered

to

relation

i?g,

equivalence
equivalence
if T
these

class classes

<p

wil

be

[<p].
by

In

the

Lindenbaum

algebra,

partial y

putting

[<p]c|>]
but rather formulae variables".
in

I-<p

=>./*,

the
than

case

of

CT,
The

equivalence
on

classes

are

going
are

to

be
be classes

arrows,

(vu
same

. .,

sort

associates

formula,
every

objects, equivalence To define this relation, v' vm) and , v'm) (v'u as the v[. corresponding on wi t h v\ vt. Acting denoted or <p(v/v') simply
under

objects.

the relation consider

other

hand,
determined
two

to

of of
v
=

the

by

"changes
each
vt

variable-sequences
length,
denote with
the of

..

of Let
a

the formula

same

the

vv'
which The
for

function

which the
is An

<p(v),
is

v^V
obtained
in

<p(v'),
by
is

produces by replacing
v^V

free

occurrence

of

vt

in

<p

v[.
free

change
v{
<p to
~

acceptable
equivalence applying
wil be then then
The classes sequences
some

for

<p(v)
relation
is

if
then

each

vt

of variables (cf. <p

is
class
a

11.3).
the result

denoted

acceptable {<p}.
these T
I <p
=

given change
classes

by
of
are

putting
variables
the
to

if
<p.

of

The
of

{:
i.e. if

These

objects
know that

category
31 NT

~} ^T.
that
and

In

dealing
(p

with

objects,
=>

it and

is

useful

{<p}^[<p],
Soundness,

if

TI

to

=>

<p.

Hence,
are

by
the

<~,

<)

).
from
of formulae

^T-arrows

{<p(v)}
having
such
that

{iKw)}

provable
v'
for and

equivalence
w'
are

[a(v',W)]
of for from

a(v',w'),
vv'
the

where

disjoint
w-^w'
are

variables

acceptable fol owing

three

<p(v)

and
formulae

acceptable
derivable

iKw),
T:

geometric

(al)
(a2) (a3)

a(v

<p(
(

506

LOGICAL

GEOMETRY

CH.

16,

16.5

The

notation

being

used

here

has
.
.

3v<p
of
each

abbreviating
and
so on.

3ub.
Note
any
two

3um<p,
that

and

(vV)
there
are can
v

abbreviating infinitely
be
w

(ui553
many

v[)
variables

(;,
sort,

since
and
a

objects
in
can

{<p(v)}
such taken all

{i/f(w)}
that form

and

represented, are disjoint

This of
a

by
sequences,

suitable
so

changes
that
can arrows

of

variables,
be
to
assume

way

in the

the has

[a(v,
arrows

w)].
been done

kind

of

relet ering
and
we

be wil

extended
sometimes
that

objects
this

and

finite
in

diagram,
what

already
To

fol ows.
of

understand

the wil be motivates is the

definition

^
a

-arrow,

observe

in
to

Set-model

% ) interpretation the interpretation

later
on.

graph
much

of
of in

function
structure

from
of

<)
C6r.
we

).
make
use

This
of of

the
next

formalisation wil

given

the

exercise,

which

Exercise
a

1.

Let

2l:i?^<
such that

be

model formulae

in

topos,

and

let

<p(v),

iKw),

(v,

w)

be
a

formulae

the

(a 1) (a 2) (a3)
are

(v,

w)
=>

=>

<p
w

(v)
(v,

i/f(w),
w),

<p

(v)

a(v,
true

w)a(t,
31.
w,

w')=>w~w'
that
v

in
v,

Assume

and

are

disjoint,
with

so

that

if

is

the
and

sequence

then the
a

2l(z)
product subobject
of where

can arrow

be

identified
h
:

2l(v)x2l(w). "()
is h.
-

A)
so

Show determines
Use the

that

Slv(<p)
that

2l(z)
monic

is

monic,

of

2l(z).
to
>-^

B) 2(<)2(,/,) C)

Sl-truth

factoring
Let
g

(a 1) Slz(a)

show

there

W(a)

>-

Sl(z)

through

be

prk,

pr

is

the

projection.

Use

the

truth

of

(a2)
arrow

and

(a3)

to

deduce

that

is
that

iso

in

~&.

D)
jects

Using

g,

construct

an

<1,/c):Slv(<p)>-^Slv(<p)xSlw('/') of Sl(z).
E) "graph"
Hence is
show that

and

Slz(a)
a

fa :Slv(<p)^Slw(i/ ) ^Sl(z)
arrow

such
are

equal
>

as

subob-

there

is

unique

2lv(<p)

Sl^'Ci/')

whose

Slz(a)

>-^Sl(z).

CH.

16,
To

16.5

THEORIES

AS

SUES

507

specify

the
to

structure

of
and

as

category,

the

identity
The

arrow

on

is defined {<p(v)} [a(v,w)]:{<p(v)}-{iKw)}, [3w(a(v, w)a j3(w, mutually disjoint).

Exercise

be

[<p(v)a(vv')]:{<p(v)}-^{<p(v')}. [|3(w,z)]:{iKw)}-4x(z)}
that
v,

composite is given
chosen
to

of

by
be

z))]

(assuming

w,

and

have

been

2.
3.

Verify
Show
that

the

category
for any

axioms

for

cr.

Exercise

formula

<p,

[<p]

is

the

one

and

only

arrow

from
Exercise

{<p}

to

{T}.
4. Show the the 5. Show
that

{<p(v)}
to

and

{iKw)}
being

have

product

object

{<p(v)a
and

iKw)} siimlarly
Exercise

with for

projection projection
that
arrows

{<p(v')}

[<p(v)ai/ (w)a(v~v')],

to

have
Exercise

pullback
6.
Show

whose
that

domain

is

[_{( z)]:{<p;(Vi)}-^{A:(z)}, {Bz(a1(\1, z) a2(v2>

is monic if T
I-

for

1,2,

z))}. a(v,

[a(v,

w)]

w)a(v',

w)=>

vV.
From

Exercises and

and

4 has

it all

fol ows

that

<i?T

has

terminal

object
4,
is
,
we

and that

pullbacks,
v
=

therefore then

finite

limits.

Note,

by

Exercise the
write

if

(vu
the
formula

of

. .,vm), objects

{vv},

i.e.
v

{(^^.
sequence

.(
appropriate
have
a

~;)},
to

the

{vt <(~).
by
whenever

u;}.

is

product <pv
simply
it wil

for of
as

We

then This

subobject
may

{<pv}
be the denoted
arrow,

>{v=v}

{vv} {<*},
the
Exercise of
arrows arrow

given
and

[<pa(vV)].
it

subobject
without is
intended.

is

presented
that

naming

be

just
7.
Show
sort

mentioned
that
as
=

if

is

appropriate
t2,
then

to

the

same

fx

and

{(t1
w},
is

(t1 t2)v}
for

t2),
>*

and

is

variable
the

{v
1, 2.

v}

equalises

[(t;
8.

w)a(v
Show

v)]:{v=v}-^{w
{(<PiA<p2)v}
a

Exercise

that into of
the

{<Pi}f~l{<p5}set

To

make

^
is if TI-

site,
form

where

[o^]

finite {<px(vx)}-^{iKw)},

{[ax(vx,
is

w)]:
defined

xeX}
to

of be

arrows,

provably

epimorphic

(/)

-*

V {Sva(vx,

w):xe

X}.

508

LOGICAL

GEOMETRY

CH.

16,

16.5

In

particular,
The reader form hence 9.
a

if

is

the

empty
to

set,

this
that

means

that

l-(iKw)=> epimorphic
a

-L),

i.e.

Tl-~iKw).
may
a care

verify
on

the

finite

provably
us

families
and

pretopology
topos
that
v

<T,

and

this

gives

finitary

site

CT,

coherent

Sh(Ci-).
is

Exercise

Suppose
be

appropriate
Show
if
F:

to

(px\/(p2.

For

1, 2,

let

/:{<f>r}-4(<PiV<p2)v}
epimorphic.
where

[<PiA(vV)].
that

that

{fu
a

f2}
pretopology,

is

Hence
^ is
a

show

CV
with

its

is

continuous

provably morphism,
then

Gorthendieck
is

topos

canonical

H{(<PiV<p2)v})
Exercise
not

10.

Let in
v,

be and

appropriate
let
z

to

the
sequence that

formula
v,
w.

3w<p,
Let
is

with

variable
arrow

occurring
that if
F

be Show

the

g<p

be

the

[<pzA(v~v')]:{<pz}^>{Cw<p)v}.
hence
Exercise is
as

in

Exercise and

9,
z,

then
be

{g,, } F(g<p)
as

provably
is
an

epimorphic,

and in

epic
Exercise.

arrow

^. that

11.

Let

v,

w,

<p,

gv

in

the

last

Show

the

diagram
>

{z-z}

4
{Cw<p)v}>*{vv}
commutes,
F:
an

where
>

pr

is

the
as

evident in of

projection.
9,
then
of from this
F

Hence

show
this

that

if
to
=

Cr epi-monic

^ left

is

continuous,
factorisation
exactness
=

Exercise the deduce

takes

diagram

F-image

{<pz}
that

>-{z~z}^-{v

v}.
?

Using

the

of

F,

F({Cwpn)
These
morphism
structure to

3F(pr)(F{<p*}).
that if
F:

last from

exercises

indicate
a

CT
then
of formulae.

^
F

is

continuous
some

morphof
can use

CV
relevant
a

to

Grothendieck
to

topos

preserves

the
F
as

the

interpretation

Indeed
is the

we

define
If
is

T-model

2lF:iP-^<g,
i?-sort,
we
=

where

56

language
a,

of

T,

fol ows.
a an

choose

variable
v'
If
v
=

v:

and

put
variable
with
vt:

SlF(a)
of
Oj,

F([v^v}).
sort

Since
a,

{;;}
is

the is

definition

{/=*;'} unambiguous.

whenever

is
..

any

other

(
But
F

,vm),
preserves

then
so

SlF(v)
then

FCjui^u^xis

xF([vm
Hence

~vm}).
if

products,
is
an

SlF(v)

F({vv}).

g:(Ojl5. .,

a^-^-a

n-placed

CH.

16,

16.5

THEORIES

AS

SITES

509

operation

symbol,

we

can

put

SlF(g)=
where
we
v:

f
a,

(g),
v'
to
=

where

is

[g(vh,. .,

vin)=
an

v] :{V
constant

v'}^>
of
. .,

{v
sort

v},
a,

and

(vh,. .,
F([c==z;]:{t}-^
symbol,
we

v^).
put

If

is

individual

take

2lp(c)
relation that

be

{v 2IF(R)
Exercise

u}).
=

Finally,

if

R:

FdR^,. .,
12.

(a^, vtj}
that

a^)

is

an

>-^-{v'~v'}),
v

n-placed noting
to

preserves

monies.

Suppose

is

appropriate
of

the

term

t:

a,

and

let

w:

a.

Show

that

2{)

is

the

F-image

[(t==w)A(vv)]:{vv}-4w~w}.
Theorem 1.
to <p,

If

<p

is

in

if8,

then

for

any

sequence

(ua,. .,

vm)

appro-

appropriate

Proof.

By
If
<p

induction
is
But

on

the
is
=

formation
the is

of

<p.

A) F({v~v}).
holds

T,

2l?(<p)

maximum

subobject
F preserves

of

SlF(v),
hence the

i.e. result
But

of

{Tv}^>{v
case.

v}
is
the

iso,
minimum

and

iso's,
0

in

this
<p

B)
since

If

is

J_,
J_,

(()
the
of

TH1V=>

empty
F

set

is the

provably
empty
desired.

subobject epimorphic
set
covers

>-^-F({v=v}).
and
covers

{v}
in

in
But

CVcanonical

By

continuity
covers

then,
are

F({J_V})
and
so

^. Exercise

in is
initial

effectively
in

epimorphic,
as

by

16.2.16, C)
preserves in

F({J_V})
If
<p

<,

is

(t^Q,
the

then result

<)
fol ows
then with

equalises
by
v'
=

W&h)
Exercises

and 7 and

2l?(t2).
12.
is
a

Since

equalisers,
If of
<p

D) ^x

is the

R(ufl,. .,
form

ViJ,

(vh,. .,

v^),

there

pullback

<1

>

{vv}

i
But
F

I"
pullbacks,
and

preserves

the

F-image
of

of

the

bottom
arrow

arrow

is,

definition,
definition
of If
<p

SlF(R).
the

Hence lat er.

and

the the

F-image
result holds

the
for

top
cp

is
then

2<), 2lp(<p)

by by
is

E)

is

(<piA<p2),

and

<p2>

510

LOGICAL

GEOMETRY

CH.

16,

16.5

^).
{(<PiAcp2)v}

But
>

by

Exercise
>

there

is

pullback

in

cr, F) G)

and If
<p

preserves

pullbacks,
<p2,
use

and
9

so

SlJ(<p)
similar

is
manner

is

Exercise

in is Hence

to

the

previous
v,
w

case.

If

<p

is

3\\>,
is

then the

W^(<p)
projection.
left

3p(Sl|(i/ )),
if
p

where the Theorem

is holds

and

p:2lF(z)-^2lF(v) 31(<)
the

for
and

,
so

is

3p({<pz}).
conclusion 2.
T
I-

But

by
fol ows

exactness,

is

F(pr:{z=z}-^{v~v}),
11.

desired

by

Exercise

Corollary

For 0

any

geometric

ZE-formula

0,

implies
NT.

2lF

N 0.

In

particular,
Let
a

SlF
0
occurrence

Proof.
have

be

<p

=>

,
in and

and 0.

let Then

be if

the

sequence

of

all

variables

that

free
and

I-

0,
From

we

have
this it

fol ows

<=><

(by
that

the

Axiom

rules

R/\2

RT

of

GL).

readily

{v-v}

commutes

in

^r,
with

i.e.

{$>*}
the
as

{i/}.
of
the

Since Theorem

preserves
we

monies then have

GL

and

commuta?

commutative

triangles,
that

aid

21f(<p)
and

SIfC'A)
RT),
this

,
makes

so

.\=(^,
since
every

desired. 0eT T
of
true

Finally,

Thfl
member

whenever
of

(by

the

Axiom

in

SlF.
be

?
in the
to

Now

the

definition
continuous

SlF
denote

can

canonical
in become

morphism
we

ShtCy),
in
the

which

wil

ridiculous);
sense

cal

of
D
=

Moreover, 16.2.

applied CV * ECr: SlT (so the pretopology

if
x e

case

that
a

is of

the T
not

Sh(Cr)
that

the

yield subscripting CT xeX}:is

is

model wil
is

For

{[a, (\x,
a

defining w)]
that

precanoni-

provably compatible
with

epimorphic,

and

{[Cx(vx,

z)]:

X}

is

family

CH.

16,

16.5

THEORIES

AS

SITES

511

in

the

sense

denned
=

prior w)
and

to

Exercise

16.2.15,

then

[V
the

Cvx(ax(vx,
one

0x(vx,

z)):x?

X}]

proves

to

be

only

arrow

(<Px(vx)}

^y
"

{(
that
p.

factors

each

[|3X]
each functor
cover

through
in

the

245).
canonical

Thus
makes
us

CT
is
last

is

an

corresponding effectively
the
a

[ax]
epimorphic
Yoneda

(cf.

Johnstone

[77],
so

family, embedding,
of

that

the

E^
(isomorphic
the

thereby
allows

CT
sharpen
For

to

actually to) Corollary

which

ful in

subcategory
the
case

Sh(Ci-).

This

of

SlT.

Theorem

3. Thfl

geometric

if
N<p
we

2lTl=0.
where
a

Proof.

If

2lT
1,

=>,
have

<,^,

then

(<)^(),

so

that,

by

Theorem

factoring

({"})
in

Sh(Cr).
on

But

the

Yoneda
and
so

embedding
this
last

is

injective
pulls
back

on

objects,
to
a

and

bijective

hom-sets,

diagram

factoring

{<PV}

of

{<pv}
to

v-W

through <pv
that T

{i/}
and

in

^T.

Applying
the

acceptable
definition
of

i/

respectively,

relet erings composition

and then

in

implies

Iwe

<p(V)a(v'~v)
can

^3V'((V,
obtain
=>

V')

from

which T

<p(v)

().

512

LOGICAL

GEOMETRY

CH.

16,

16.5

At
Classical T in
(p

last

we

are

in

position
Theorem

to

show for

that

Completeness
=>

finitary
Theorem

,
model

where

<,

??s,
the coherent there

the
is But

last

Deligne's geometric implies

Theorem theories
that

implies
T.

the

For,

if

3lT(<p)

? 3lT(i/0
Theorem
such
to
a

the

3lT

in

topos
therefore

Sh(Cy)a as

By
p p

Deligne's

(and
that

Exercise

p*ClT(<p))
as

16.2.20), ? p*BlT(i/0).
which,
T there consists exists

then,

in

point 16.4,
has

rSet-^Sl^Cy) rise gives

model
that

p*SlT:ie^Set
Moreover,

by
of

Theorem

geometric
a

16.4.1A), formulae,
in

p*3lT(<p)?p*3lT(i/f).
16.4.1B)
implies
(<p
observe
of
=>

p*3lT
As

NT.

Thus

-model

Set

in

which

)
that

is

not

true.

?
a

final,
is
on

cautionary,
founded

note

on on

this

topic
structure

we

the hence

above ulticases

derivation

entirely
of

the relation T(-

CT,
that

and In

ultimately
one

the
most

can

properties quickly
of T
in in and
to
use

the
that

of
<p

T Classical

confirm then
this
case

by
prove
a

-derivability. observing

many

is

true

in But

all
of

Set
course

models if
we

want

appealing approach
that there

to to

Completeness. Completeness,
sequence for

it has
within

to

be the

shown

directly
system

each

is

proof

axiom

question.

Classifying
What is

topoi
the

relationship
of its
to
mean

between associated

finitary
site
of

geometric

theory
the
can

and notation from

the

theory
1
earlier :T ^
seen
*

<?"
work

finitary
1
is
a

CV?
T in

model
that
to

Introducing we ^",
in

say
a

our

(Theorem correspond
in this ~?

16.3.2)
precisely
Section

models

-^^
morphisms
that show
such

Grothendieck
>

topos
also

continuous

CT morphisms
the
converse

g. is

We determine

have i.e. 'S.

In

(Corollary
in

2)
wil
now

models
that
every
sense,

of

.
in T

We this
and

that
a

true,
*

T the

~& arises theories

way

from

unique
exactly
31 NT,
<p,
we

continuous the
same

CT
models

this Grothendieck Given

Jf^
such
that

have

in

topoi.
a

model

31:

i?
list
can

^
each

define
is
a

continuous

morphism

Fa:
where
so v

CT-^^.
is
we

For

<SPg -formula variables

it
as an

3l(v),
domain,

the

of

free

of

<p.

3l(cp) Identifying
we

subobject
with
=

of

that

regard
determines

^-object, "up
to
as

put
have

(strictly
that

speaking
if

this

Fa
and is
so,

isomorphism"
we
on

{<p} [a(v,

{},
Hence

then

[<p]
Fa
and is

Soundness.
If

[] unambiguously
=

31 NT,
denned

3l(<p) 3l(<p) F<%({(p}) Note only). 31(<) ) by

its
=

objects.
the is

formulae

w)]:{<p(v)}^>{iKw)} (al), (2),

(a3),

whose

^-arrow, T-derivability

then

geometric
implied by

for-

the

CH.

16,

16.5

THEORIES

AS

SITES

513

definition

of

unique fa. Again

is
left
to

^-arrow
a

'"%T-arrow", fa :()
Soundness reader
to
so

must

be
whose

true

in

31.
is
that

Exercise if identities

then

yields

a
=

*)
argument

graph
preserves

confirms
that

). [a]=

We

put
then

Fa([a])
fa
=

[|3]
and

/3.

It

the
and

verify
functor

Fa
from

commutative

triangles,
Exercise

is Given

^r
and
as

to

^.

13.

[a(y,
is where

imfa:fa(u((p))>>)
3\(\,
from the if

w)] equal,
the
lat er

fa
a

as

above,
of via

show

that

subobject
derives,

),
and

to

w))
fact

>>

that

(), Sll=3va(v, w)]:

=>

monic

(al)

RB2,

w) xeX}
then

=>.
is
in
a

Now

{[ax(vx,
iKw)

provably
the
x

epimorphic
T-model

family
we

in

CV,

with

[ax]:{<px(vx)}-^{iKw)},
311=

31

have

V {3vxax

(vx,

w):

X},

and

so

K*)
From the last

U {SlCvxax(vx,
it
then fol ows

w)):ieX}.
that

Exercise

so

that

{/j
Sl(T)
that

xeX}
is terminals.
1

is

canonical
and
we

cover

in

'S.

Thus in the

Fa

preserves

covers.

Since
preserves

(by
preserves

definition), Finally, pullbacks,

morphism.
to
construct

{}
leave
and

is

terminal
it
to

CT

(Exercise
once more

3),

Fa
to

reader

confirm

Fa
use

hence

complete

the

proof
above,
any

that

Fa
If

is
we

continuous
now

Fa
that is

a
=

model
=

SlFat
<).
***v),
If
g

:5B^>^
Indeed for
we

as

then iP-sort
with
a,

Theorem
if domain
v: a

implies

2lFa(<p)
F<%({v
arrow
^

F^({(p})
i.e.

then
of

SlFa(a)
the
is

v}),
on

is the
the
same same

which is
an

identify symbol,
so

the
and

identity

).
is the from is
are

operation
of

[a(v,

w)]
=

[g(v)~w],

then

graph subobject
model.
F
we

Sl(g),
of
that
up
to

that
as

Fa([a])
and
so

2lF(g)and

Similarly,
31
prove
to

3lFa(R)
be

3l(v)
F({(p})
isomorphism,
In this

is

Sl(g) 3l(R),

SlFa
the
Since

On

other
the functors
exact

hand,

starting
as a

find

2lF(<p)
we sense
we

FjtF({<p}).
find obtain that
an

2lF(<p),
F

object,

and

F<%F

only naturally

defined

isomorphic.
^-models
of

correspondence

between

and

continuous

morphisms
Let
us

CT
now

return

to

the

co-universal

property

of

the

canonical

514

LOGICAL

GEOMETRY

CH.

16,

16.5

morphism

Ec:

C*

Sh(C) Sh(C)

of

small

site

C,

as

expressed

by

the

diagram

-^*
p4

(cf.
morphism
that

Theorem

16.2.2).
on

The extends
to
a

defined
is

up

diagram along

tel s

us

that
continuous

every

continuous

unique diagram
T

natural

Ec isomorphism.

to

morphism
property

on

morphSh(C)
to

This

gives

rise

the

fol owing

of

T-models

-^*

or

Sh(CT)

jit
This natural

diagram

conveys

that
continuous

for

any

T-model

31
*

there

is

unique

(up

to

isomorphism)

F :Sh(CV)

<?, given

by

Sh(CT)

such This

that

the

<g-model

pf 3lT,
property
for
a

defined of fix

as

for

Theorem
is
meant

16.4.1,
by theory
the T.

is

31
notion To

itself.
of
a

characteristic

classifying
this consider

topos
concept
in

(possibly
we

3lT infinitary)
a

is

what

geometric
"base"
a

define

general

Grothendieck

topos

<,
3F
and that

and
an

pairs
31
is
a

C?,
of T

31)
(we
i.e.

consisting
call

of

Grothendieck
over

^-topos g).
model
as

^-model

31

T
T

-model
with

Then

we

say

(<[?],
universal

SlT)
among

classifying
such

-topos
pairs,
if
for

for
any ^ ^
it that
to

generic

3lT,
there

if is

it
a

is

morphism
that
every

/:
3l
=

5F
T

^[T
a

]
over

over

EF, pair unique

T-model
arises

31)
up
over

above,
natural

geometric
such that back functors
true

to

isomorphism
has the inverse the

/*3lT.
(unique)
are

Thus

generic

property
model

other
some

-model

by

pulling
Since
that

generic image

along
preserve

geometric
formulae,
those

morphism.
fol ows
are

in

3lT
T
If

geometric precisely

the in
all that

geometric
T-models
the

formulae
over

true

The

notation
for is

^[T]
generated
is
a

is

intended

convey
a

the

idea
of

classifying
to

^-topos
theory
Tc
in

small

by "adjoining then site,

generic
the

T-model

^".

models

(infinitary)

CH.

16,

16.5

THEORIES

AS

SITES

515

Grothendieck

topoi
the

correspond
the above three
a

to

by Tc-model,
so

first

of

geometric diagrams,
topos
can

morphisms Ec:
for thus express

into
*

Sh(C),
is
a

and

Sh(C)
Since

generic

making
are

Sh(C)
defined
over

topoi
Hence model In

all

classifying Set,
topos

Tc-

Grothendieck

we

Sh(C)
to

as

Set[Tc]a

each
of
a

Grothendieck

arises is

by

adjoining

Set

generic
then

geometric
direction,
of

theory.
if
T
' a

the

converse

construction

StT
the
be

from

classifying
extended

C^

making topoi
This
show

are

Sh(CT) precisely
can

classifying
the

S-topos
S-topoi
to

finitary Sh(CT) Set[T]

for

geometric provides
for
T.

theory,
a

the

generic
the

-model,
coherent theories.

Hence

finitary
geometric
a

geometric theory
deal
more

analysis
that other

any

Set[T]
things,
and

exists,
the have of this

but

this

Amongst

category
of
to

infinitary requires < has

the that reader the

T,
work.
to

to

great
be

to

"enlarged"
However
to

include
that is
a

coproducts
story and
The
that
we

"quotients
shall

equivalence
for is
of
a

relations".
pursue

leave

in
of

Chapters

of

[MR].
conclusion
work

concepts

"Grothendieck
are

topos"
This
most

and
has

"classifying particular
of
relevance

topos
in

geometric
Geometry,
topos,
"Etale" school

theory"
where

coextensive.
some

Algebraic
Grothendieck

of form
to

the the

important
focus the

categories
work
for

("Zariski"
of certain the

topos)
turn
out

which
be

the

classifying [MR],

topoi

naturally

occurring

algebraic

theories

(cf.

Chapter

9,

Wraith

[79]).

Forcing
Let

topologies
?? be Then numbers in
a

operation theory.
natural
T

language symbols,
it
can

that and
be

has

altogether
and that exists of this
not
a

finitely
let
any

many

sorts,
a

relation

and
??-

constants,
shown there

be

finite

geometric
topos

for

for

elementary
topos
to

with
of

object
The

<?-topoi. [77],
discuss
an

proof
We
of
way
to

classifying is given
which

<?[T]
it

models

Johnstone

6.56).
aspect
a

wil the

attempt
T-models.

by Tierney reproduce
uses

[76]
here,

(cf.
but

also wil

briefly
O
If

construction

topologies
topos
~?
that called
>>

j :O^then there
arrow some

in
I

an
>>

interesting
Diaconescu is

produce
of Johnstone in

subobject

an

elementary

work smallest
*

of

[75]
J
>>

(cf.
This

[77],
I

3.58)
that
arrow

shows
the

is

subobject

of J

containing
characteristic
is
any

such

characteristic is the
the

is
I.
we

topology.

m : a
>>

generated Xm'b>O,

by

b the

denote

topology

<?-monic, generated

and

Im

topology image
Then the

of

by

Im

by

]m.

516

LOGICAL

GEOMETRY

CH.

16,

16.5

inclusion

functor

shjm(~)c>
<g there
exists

<?

has
a

the

property
of

that
the

for

any

geometric

morphism

/:cF-h>

factorisation

form

if,

and In

only
iso. that notion

if,

/*(m)
the In view
m

is
of
to

iso this be

in

& universal iso.

to

(Tierney
functor

[76],
property,

p.

212;

Johnstone

[77],
makes calls

4.19).

particular

sheafification

SfAjm:

#*sfo,-m(#)
Tierney

if&ij ri)
topology
This

jm
mn:

the the
to

forces
can

be

extended

finitely
in
m

many

monies
all of

ml5. .,
. .,

topology
iso.
Now let

generated
%:5?-^>
is
true

by

in
be

7mi
an

U..

U7mn>>
i?-model

forces . Then
the

mn

be

geometric

i?-formula

(<p

=5

)()

if

the

monic

in

fol owing

pullback

is

iso

-I
<)
Thus if
m
x,. .,
>

I
>

)
monies forces
mu

m,

are

all

these that in

corresponding
. .,

to

the then in

members

of

T,
31
to

and
become

/T
factors

is

the
a

topology
T-model

mn

to

be

iso,

jT
9.

forces

shh(?).
^

For

any

geometric
is
to
a

morphism
of T

/:^->
lan-

,
languages.

f
This

through forcing Tierney appropriate

indexed construction
observes

shJT()
that

not

if

fu
special
any

model

is

models
D
even

of in
not
a a

first-order

force

any

finite
over
a

properly

base

"given configuration topos)

diagram (or
D
to

topos
or

<?,
colimit".

we

can

necessarily
limit

finite

if

in

become

Rings
We end

and this

fields

that

applies
notions. classical
a

chapter logical
algebra,
can

by
aspects
a

pointing
of

the

reader

in

the

direction
to
some

of

literature familiar

geometric
ring

morphisms
with

algebraic
In called
set

commutative
as a

unity
+,

ring) carrying

be
two

defined
commutative

structure

(R,
operations

0,

x,
+

(henceforth 1), consisting

and x, and

simply
of
two
a

binary

CH.

16,

16.5

THEORIES

AS

SITES

517

distinguished (i) (ii) (ii )

Standard

elements

and

1,
and

such

that

(R, (R,
x

+,
x,
x

0) 1)
+

is
is

a a
=

group;

monoid;

(y

z)

(x

y)

(x

x are

z),
of usual

for
course

all

x,

y,

R.

C,
a

with

+,
can

examples x, 0, 1 having
be

of

rings
their in
the of

the

number

systems
The

Z,
notion

Q,
for

U,
of +, This
an

arithmetical

ring
0,
A 1

expressed
a

first-order
is

language
a

meanings. having
x

symbols identity
any

x,

by
is

finite
a

set

equations.
group

ring
that under condition

requires
inverse
last

field 0^1
x.
can

i?-{0} (a geometric U(x) Writing

if be

under and that

with that

1.

condition),
to
mean

then three in

has

(
the

1),

Set

this

expressed

by

any

of

fol owing

classically

equivalent A) B)

assertions.

(x ~0c

0)vE7(x);
=

0)=>t7(x);

C)
These the conditions
are

not

generally

ring

axioms)
formula,

in

non-Boolean

equivalent topoi.
it
of
are

for

rings

Since
called of

A)
geometric
fractions"
Kock

is

(i.e. expressed

models

of

by

geometric C) define,
field"
Another

rings
the

satisfying
notions

fields.
and

B)
"residue

and

respectively, (Johnstone possible

"field

[77],
field

6.64).
axiom,
considered

by

[76],

is

D)
This

~((*=0))=>
in
turn

V
the

E/OO.
condition

implies
[7(x
+

geometric

E)
which
but

y)=>U(x)vE7(y),
notion the
of
a

defines
Kock
sense

the
proves

local
fact the

ring.
that

In the

significant
If

general, generic

E)
local

is

weaker

than is
of
a

D),
field
in

ring ring
Now

the axioms

of

D).
with

Ti

is

together
model
true

E),
in the

then

geometric by the

theory
generic
local for
are

consisting
is the those

the
meant

ring
the in

generic
formulae i.e. those

StTl
in Theorem all

local
from

deducible

classifying in rings Since, Tj.

S-topos S-topoi
as

T(.

geometric
true

precisely
proves,

3lTl,
the

Kock

StTi
metalogical

satisfies

D),

Soundness

then
is

yields
and

the

fol owing

principle:
\-<p.

If

geometric

Tb

D)h<p,

then

Tj

518

LOGICAL

GEOMETRY

CH.

16,

16.5

Thus

in

deriving
of

geometric

consequence

of

Tj

we

can

invoke

the
can

assistance

the this Further

stronger,
argument
results

non-geometric,
by along
axioms
any

condition axiom these

for

D).
is and
a

Indeed

D)
by
the

be

replaced
local
dozen Johnstone There

in

which

satisfied
detailed

generic
of
a

ring.
or

lines,
fields
and

analysis
are

so

possible
and in

local

rings,
the

given

by
of

[77i]
is
now

[77],
existence

6.5,
a

6.6.
vast

literature

about

representation
of

rings,
Pierce Liukkonen

and

other

algebraic
Dauns
and

structures,
Hofmann that
space I

by

global
Hofmann is
a

sections

sheaves Hofmann

(cf.
and

[67],
over
a

[68],
p:A^>I
such
that and
we

[72],
sheaf stalk

[74]).
topological
under sections

Suppose

(local

homeomorphis

ism)
own are

each

~{{1})
0;
and

right global

operations
of the

+i5

xi?
then

identities
can

lt.

sheaf,

define

sections

in its ring A /, g:7> /+ g, /xg by

a

If

putting

/()x.g@,
the sections and
g
are

ali
0

7.

/+g>
over

fxS,
whenever
the is
show space

and

and

having
then with these The
to

0(')
p

0;,
called

l(i)=li5
a

are

continuous

/
I.

continuous,
and
forms
a

is

sheaf
the
set

of

rings
of

In

this
of

situation,
p

definitions,
aim of

continuous
to

global
that of
concerns

sections
a

ring.
An those

representation
of result

theory global
direction

given
sheaf

ring
of

is which

sections

some

isomorphic rings.
are

the

ring

continuous
in this

regular

rings,

important satisfying

Regular regular
sheaf
in

rings
ring
which
to
can

include
be
each

fields

(let
as
a

be

the

-inverse

of This
of
are

x).
sections

But

represented
stalk
is

the

ring

of

continuous

every of

field!
in

(Pierce
which
that

[67],
properties they
theme "model whose
stalks
a

10).

phenomenon
fields
are

gives
to

rise hold
with for

"transfer

principles",
An

shown

regular

representation.
concerned
More
some

rings early
a we

by
paper

showing
on

preserved

by

the
con-

this called

is

transferring
can

property

Maclntyre completeness".
are

[73],
all

generally
theory
T

study
seek
to to

sheaves

Set-models
of
some

of other
of
a

T,
is

and

show
structure

that

Set-model
continuous

St
sections

theory
of
as

isomorphic
over some

the
I.

of
this of

sheaf

T
a

-models model in

space

In that

situation
sheaves which it in
over

'U
exhibits stalk

may

also Its
as a

be

regarded
as

the
may

topos
dif er

TopG)
from formula

I.

behaviour

Top(f)-model
particular,
any

Set-model.
be
true

In in the

geometric

true

each

wil

CH.

16,

16.5

THEORIES

AS

SITES

519

Top(I)-model
represented
of the of
p.

21

(Fourman
a

and
of

Scott
over

[79],
I,
the universe then

6.9).
R

Thus becomes
R

if

regular
a

ring

is

by

sheaf

fields
i.e.

TopG)-model
a

geometric
view
of

field
the

axioms,
mathematical in model
the

regular

ring

"is" Fourman who of

field

from and Scott

the

point [79],
This

Top(f)
of Louil is
to

(cf.

367).
theme is of Coste in from sections the

taken classical

up

thesis

[79],
categories and Bunge
to

adapted
sheaves.

some

of
papers

the
of

work

[79],
use

Bunge
of

and of
A

advances

properties
continuous
model

the
of

geometric theory
sheaves. is

theory [81] Reyes morphisms

the
survey

The

[81]
theory
classical

present
model-theoretic
of

major
the

transfer the
Werner

stalks of Burris

to
more

global
of

theory

in

sheaves

given

by

and

applications [79].

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[79],

CATALOGUE

OF

NOTATION

Relations
x

eA
e

\A

ge/ Eg
AcB

membership membership membership membership

set

6
of

subsets
to

of
A

103 307 in in

restricted
for

membership
set

for

subobjects set-objects

Set
%

316
327 8

inclusion inclusion
for less
than
or

/eg
res

subobject
inclusion
'is

76 relations
322
to'

equal
on

29

a=?b

alb
s=?t

ordering restriction-ordering compatibility

negative
continuum
c=?r

of

truth-values sheaves
of the

137,139
390

390
=?

-ordering
-ordering

429 431 435 29

72

r=?c,
r<s

positive ordering

=?

of

*R

IZ

partial-ordering
antireflexive
'close to'

CI-ordering
383 425

p<q
a
=

apartness
b
=

f
r-s

isomorphic isomorphic equivalent isomorphic equality equality

inverse
kernel

objects categories categories subobjects

of of

41

200 200 77

transitive

set-objects

325 326
45

set-objects
66,111

R'1

relation

Rf
F-\G
G\-F

diagonal
left

236

right

adjoint adjoint

439

439

Objects

(elements,

sets,
set

structured

sets,

algebras,

spaces)
7 7 147

{x:

cp(x)}

determined
of

by
sets

property

intersection

/fig

intersection

of

subobjects
531

532

CATALOGUE

OF

NOTATION

r(~)s

intersection
union union union
+ +

of of of of
sets

transitive

set-objects

325
7 147

AUB

/Ug
rUs

subobjects
tso's

325
54

A
a

disjoint
coproduct
set

union

54

-A

complement complement
set

7 147 7

"/ 0
0
V

subobject
empty
initial
class Russell of

object
all
set sets

43

9,11
9

dom/ Im/ cod/

domain

19,24

image
codomain

(range)
image
of
arrows

of

function

19
24

<g(a,
=

inverse

65 a->b

b) hom<j

set

32,196 20,46
65

(,)
product
fibred
set

AxB

A Am -B

product
of -sheaves
set

product-set
m-fold

399
52 47

product
of

axb
am P
at

product
m-fold

objects object

product
numbers

53 29 29 31 33

poset
natural

M
n

monoid finite terminal ordinal

object
lower

44

g.l.b.
ptlq

greatest

bound 276

49 49

l.u.b.

g.l.b. g.l.b.
least upper

bound

55,179
55

puq
U

l.u.b.
A

l.u.b.

276
390
class

VB [a]
BA
ba

join equivalence
set

61
A

of

functions
for

70
71

[A^B]

exponential exponential
powerset
power

fl

-sheaves

401 76 104

&(D) &(a)
Sub(d)

object
of

subobjects

77

CATALOGUE

OF

NOTATION

533

truth-values

object
of

/-sheaf topology
open left Boolean

truth-values
of open
set

81,277 369,380
96 368
102 134

0V
Lm
H

subsets

ideals

p+ a=>b

/H>g
S^T
~\a

-\S

algebra (BA) Heyting (HA) algebra HA of hereditary sets relative pseudo-complement of subobjects r.p.c. of hereditary r.p.c. pseudo-complement pseudo-complement
sentence

183
189

(r.p.c.)
sets

182

162

190,213
183
of

hereditary

set

190,213
130 130

i? M

let ers
sentences

propositional
modal

propositional
language
model in

sentences

382
234

first-order P-based
truth-set

189,
M
for

383 189

M(a)
%

classical

model

S?

235,305
246 256

g-model

Se^-model;

-Set

model
of of

284

%*

completion
model

-Set

model

404 327

^-set-objects
determined determined
a-sieve

sa

metasubset sub-sheaf

by by
set

property property

309 405 205 213

214

[p) sP
*

largest principal

hereditary entity
element of

snip)
null null
set

268

0A

398
elements

partial
of

268 elements 270 276 393 292

object

-set

partial
of fl

A*
sup

completion

-set

(a)

support
monad

h(p)
lim

383
362 363
of element

limit colimit

lim
a

restriction
extent

(section)

389
389

Ea

534

CATALOGUE

OF

NOTATION

Ff
Pf

stack sheaf

of

sections
germs

360 of
set

of

sections
of of
to to

362

Cx ck
Fa AF Fx
n X

Heyting-valued partial Heyting-valued

local sheaf fl sheaf sheaf
-set

continuous continuous

388 389 functions

-set

functions
set

sections

corresponding corresponding
of

complete
sheaf

391

392
392 400 406 406

continuous
truth-values
-set

partial

of of

X*

rigid simple
sheaf
natural

sheaf

Aa
JV

partial
numbers

elements

410
302
414

JV+
z

positive integers
rationals

integers object object

reals reals

object object

414
414 414

Rc Rd

Cauchy
Dedekind

414ff.

*R

object order-complete
Q,
R,
classical soberification

of

complex
reals

numbers

423

423,431
413

Z,

number

systems

436

Arrows

(functions,
function
arrow

functors)
17 24

f:A*B f:a-*b f-.A^B f:a

1-* 1

b
a a

partial partial
element

function
arrow

268

268
78

partial
inclusion
s

element
function of function
arrow

268
19

A<^>B h:r<-^

inclusion

relations

322 19 25

idA 1

g/
>- -

identity identity composition

monk

20,24
38

epic
inverse
dual
=

39
arrow

40
45

arrow
arrow
arrow

f:a
0

iso

40 0
-*

unique

44

CATALOGUE

OF

NOTATION

535

"a
Pa Pra

unique

arrow

>

44

prT </,g> /xg

--

set to projection to projection object am j-th projection arrow product of arrows product uniquely existing injection

46
47
^>

53 47

50
arrow

52

54
54 55

[/,g]
/+g /r

coproduct coproduct
natural evaluation
map

arrow

of
arrow on

arrows

62
70-1

evaluation
?a
g

(la
relation

106 104

membership
exponential
name

adjoint
of

71-2
78 79

71
Xa

/
function
arrow

characteristic

Xf
true

characteristic

(character)
80-1

81 81

subobject
true

classifier
of HA
=

71
truea

unit
=

Ta

true

true.
i^n

classifier

for of truth-value

(largest la j-sheaves
0
>

truth-value)
369,380

277 83 94

truth-value
character

false

117 117 277

false
least

~i

negation

truth-arrow

1
r\
\J

double

negation

=>

im/

/[g]
/2f

conjunction disjunction implication ordering image image

internal

127,139 184, 127,139 128,139 128,139

ft

379

on

139
112

of
under

/ /
images
determined
of functors
functor

320 320

{*:<p}

f*
<3>,<3>

subobject epic part

functor

by

"property"

107 112

/
195,197

195
195 195

powerset

-xa,

ax-

/-images identity product

functor functors

196,200

536

CATALOGUE

OF

NOTATION

Sub

(-,

a),'

?(a,

subobjects -) horn-functors
inverse

functor

197 functor
to

1 r f*
nf
L
~a

image

196,197 447,

454 447 449

right adjoint pulling-back

f'1
functor

functor
to

'composing-with-/'
right
inclusion

449

adjoint
into

/
%

450,

452
455 456
337

functor

r
t.F^C
twB
j

'image internally
natural

in

a'

functor

'composing-with-/'
transformation
map

199

twist

200 functions
arrows
on a an

VA,3A Va,3a Vf,3f

Vr,3r pT

quantifier quantifier quantifiers quantifiers

value Kronecker
of
term

set

for
an
a

object

240, 245,

242
457

along along
t

arrow

454
457

relation
of

delta
on a

(character

diagonal)

243, 243,

246
245

diagonal
rpm
*

245

i/m

+1

substitution

246
247 250

|_|m

l<Pli
a

Sm[i/tl {}b {a} 0a 0A {0a}

s

i/pc partial-arrow

substitution

classifier
arrow

269
269

singleton-forming singleton null partial

empty
null

ft -subset
element

282,388
271 283 283

section

singleton
of

restriction

O, -subset

283 100

Am

left-multiplication
zero

302
302 337
337

successor

e
p
-

addition
iterate

predecessor
subtraction strict

339,
order ordinal
sheaves stacks
on on
on

342

342
N

346 346 350

multiplication
finite
from
from
to

stacks
sheaves

361 364

to
a

topology topology

topos

378
371

St(f)

CATALOGUE

OF

NOTATION

537

local

operator
on on

371,379
374

Cov

Cov@ Covn
Icov

(F,
V
e

G,

pretopology pretopology pretopology pretopology by Cov adjunction

unit counit
of

& Q

375 391

on

StCe)

determined

377

439

adjunction of adjunction

440

440

Categories
Set
Finset
sets

23
sets sets

finite

23

Nonset
Mon

non-empty
monoids
groups

23 23 23

Grp Top
P
n

topological
skeletal
n

spaces

23

pre-order
as

(poset)

29,42
29
33

pre-order
ordinals

Finord
M

finite

one-object
M-sets

category

(monoid)

31-2
101

M-Set

M2 Set2
<ex2i Set^ -*
Set

canonical

counter-example
of
sets

122
34 34

pairs product
set-functions

category

34,
functions
over a a

219
34

^-arrows

IX
a

X-valued

36 36 36 45 84 378 90
of space
a

<$la <\
<gop %

%
Bn(i) Top(I) st(i) Sh(I) Sh(P)
(% Cov) St() Sh( Cov)

objects objects opposite elementary elementary

bundles
sheaves
stacks
over

under

category topos
site
of of
over

sets
a

germs

97 360 362

sheaves sheaves

sections

poset

366 375
375

site
stacks sheaves
over
over

a
a

category
site

376

(Grothendieck
/-sheaves

topos)
380

538

CATALOGUE

OF

NOTATION

double

negation
over

sheaves
a

381 391 198

Sh(/2)
Cat

sheaves

CHA
2>

small
functors

categories
%
sets
-

9* Set^ Set1"
Set"
eg

202 204

set-valued variable
sets

functors

215ff.
time

through
j?-model

219 265
311 277

canonical

2l-sets
/2-Set C/2-Set ft
endo's
-sets

complete

/2-sets

396
445

Truth

and

Validity
valuation

V(a)

classical
in inH in
\=a

130 135 185 %

141,

382 130 135 185 141

tautology
B-valid

BNa
HNa

% ?a

%^?a M\=pa
M\=a PNa

site-valid
true at
a

382

point

of

model

189,383
189
189

true

in

model

frame-valid

%\=cp[x] =[!.

satisfaction

1= I<plm

2ll=p<p[x 2ll=p<p

,. .,] L,. .,xn]

satisfaction satisfaction
true
true

by by
at
a

model-valuation
elements of

236 model

237,239
257
257

point
237,257

at

point
under

in
in

model

truth-values Set g in Set in

interpretation
240 246
model 243

truth-value
in

ing
in in
(p

247 /2-Set C/2-Set

in 404-6 284

true

topos-model

247

CATALOGUE

OF

NOTATION

539

[xyl
\x fx [LExJ
ss

yj s\
=

-equality equivalence
Q -subset
Ex
extent

O,

276
276

membership (degree descriptions

of

280

existence)

276,389
287-288

[lu<pl
\b \r

definite
ing
in
e

sheaves of
the

404

<

/(A)I s\, \

si,

etc.

membership ordering

subobject
continuum

401

424,

435

Systems,
PL

languages, language
classical
intuitionistic

axioms,
of

rules

propositional logic

logic
177,249

129
131

CL
IL

logic
of

LC

logic
modal

linear

frames
of

192,227-228
382 234 238 238 238 67

$
UI,
EG

logic
axioms
rules

sites

first-order

languages

00,C)
71,72
PBL fl
EM
-AXIOM

quantifier quantifier identity

Pullback

axioms
Lemma

subobject
Excluded

classification
Middle 161 290

81

ES
SS
NE

epics
supports
non-initial
MacLane's existence

split split implies

Axiom of

292

non-empty
of

292

AC

Choice
numbers

295,312

NNO
Ext

natural

object

302 307 308

311

Sep
Inf

Reg Rep
ATR

Extensionality Separation Infinity Regularity Replacement Transitivity

Transitive Partial
basic

312

312
314

APT

Representation Transitivity
classical
+

328 330

Zo
z ZF

set
+

theory
ATR
set
+

309 328

Zo

Reg

T A

Zermelo-Fraenkel

(=
NBG
Von

Zo + Inf + Reg Neumann-Bernays-Godel

theory Rep)
set

11,312
10

theory

540

CATALOGUE

OF

NOTATION

-,

Peano

Postulates

348-351 352
of
cut

P3B

F1,F2
COM

Freyd 'patching' (sections)

Dedekind

Postulates

compatible
axioms
for
cuts

elements

362, 415,423 427,430

376,
391

Sir) 0() Logical

v,
=>
II

order-axioms

symbols
,
-

'and',

'or',
and

'not'

126 128
if'
the
case

'implies'
'if
'It

is

only locally

274
that'

382

identity/equality equivalence
V 3
'for

232,274
274

all' exists' exists

231 231

'there
'there 't 'the

3!

exactly
v

one'

233

E(t)
lu

exists'

267

unique

such
term

that'

287,404
288 305 309 235 237

<p'(u)
e

function-value

membership
<p

ue{u:

class
open

abstract formula

<(;,. .,
coivlt)

vtj

substitution

INDEX

OF

DEFINITIONS

abstraction,
functional
action

25
-,

-sentence,
288

483 of

axiom

choice,
empty
-of
a

290-301,
307 311

312

-,117 monoid,
function,

100
101 274

extensionality, infinity,
null

-preserving
actual

set,

308
421

existence,
-on -on

addition
,

335 337
439

N,
-,

order-completeness, 308 pairs, partial transitivity, for patching

391

330 sheaves 308 312

312

(COM),

362,

376,

adjoint
left

powersets,
439 438. 439

right
-situation,

-,

adjunction,
co-unit
-

regularity, replacement, separation,

440 transitive

308

of

-,

representation,
314

328

in unit

posets,
of
-,

446
440

transitivity, unions,
axioms for

308

algebra
-of
Boolean

classes,
-, -, -, -,

125 134 178 178

183

CL,
continuous Dedekind

131,

237,

238

functions,
cuts,

427

Brouwerian
closure

415,

423,
382

427,

430

Heyting alphabet
for
for

PL, elementary
map,

129

languages,
420
132 29

234

and-Or

antecedent,

geometric 497 GL, identity, IL, 177, propositional quantifiers, set theory,

modality,
238

249

logic,
238 307ff.

131

antisymmetric,
apartness,
425

appropriate
-to
-

bar,

193

,
to

239,
484
24 34

484

Barr's Beth

t,

Theorem, model,

482,

495

arrow,
-

23,
category,
-in
name

-Set,
of
-,

277
78

bi-complete, biconditional, bijective, bivalent,

Boolean

193, 69,
274 39

388

466,

469

118 134

partial
strong
weak
-,

-,268
-,

395
395

-algebra,
-topos,
156

Associative

Law,
481

21,

24

bound

variable, -lat ice, separation,

-

235
133 309

atom,
atomic

bounded
234 541

-formula,

542

INDEX

OF

DEFINITIONS

Brouwerian

algebra,
89

178

codomain -for -for

arrow, 24 17

bundle,

function,
60 386
441

canonical

co-equaliser, cofinality,
487 191 191

--model,
-IL-model,

co-free,
coherent

topos,
114

481

-frame, -functor,
-

cokernel,
470
471

Collapsing
comma

Lemma,
category,
35

317
21

protopology,
386
closed

-site,
Cartesian
-

commutative

diagram,
of
space,

commutativity
category,
19 64
24
-,
as

addition,
481

338

72

compact

product,
square,
arrow
-

Compactness compatible,
compatible complement
concept,
232
-of
-

Theorem,
361, family,
lat ice

500,

502
391

376,
472

390,

category,
first-order

34 35
-, -,

element,
7 147

134

comma

-,

of of

set,

degenerate
discrete

72

subobject,
179

30
-

pseudo,

one-object opposite preorder product

skeletal

(monoid),
45
28

32

relative

pseudolat ice,
-,

-,181
134

-,
-, -, -,

complemented complete
bi-

34
42

69
-,

69
69

sub-, categories

32 200 200

-category,
-

Heyting
404
388ff
-,
-,

algebra,

276

equivalent
functor
-,

-,

202
-,

ismorphic Cauchy-reals,
chain,
72
of

model, --set, finitely

-

69
421

414,

418

order-

Completeness

Theorem

change character,
characteristic
-arrow,

variables,
81

505

Classical,
for for for

BA

and

498, B-validity,
185

512

136

CL,

132

81 79

-function,
choice

for 290 for

HA-validity, -validity,
poset

227,

265
191

function,
10

(frame)-validity,
238

class,

-abstracts,
proper
classical
-,

309rf
10

Godel's, Infinitary, completion

complex
component
199

502
of
an

/2-set,
423
a

393-397

numbers, (of

-logic,
-topos, Classical

131
118

natural

transformation),

Completeness
81

Theorem
514

498,

512

composition
-of arrows,
24

classifier,

classifying
closure

topos, 178
372

-of -of

functions, functors,

20 198
288

-algebra, operator, co-complete,

-

comprehension
-and

69

-for

descriptions, /2-sheaves,

405

INDEX

OF

DEFINITIONS

543

il

and 58

-,

107 of 126 139 127 126 132

-,

diagram,
6 commutative

58

Principle
cone,

-,21
-,
-,

empty
finite direct

59

conjunction, -truth-arrow,
-truth-function, connectives,
consequent,
conservative

69

image
poset,

part,
192 30

464

directed
discrete

-category,
461

functor,
12 231

-topology,

406
119 408 54

consistent,
constant,

disjoint
-arrows,

Constructivism,
continuous

173ff.
as

selection,
54

-sets,

-function

generalised
473

real

number,

427 98

-morphism, -section,

continuously
Continuum
contra

variable

real 381

number,

417

union, disjunction, -truth-arrow, -truth-function, disjunctive

-

126 139
128

topos,

171,
134 24

229

Hypothesis,
variant
196

distributive
domain -of arrow,

lat ice,

-functor, hom-functor,
-

197

-of

-powerset
copower,

functor,
413,
54

197

double

function, negation,
45

17

184,
46

379

469
55 443

coproduct,
-

duality, -Principle,

arrow,
as

54,

adjoint,
functor,
374
-,

-preserves covariant
cover,

pullback,
196

115

effectively
element
-

epimorphic,
of of
a an

472

set,

open

361
440

object,
-,
-,

78

co-unit, crible,
decidable

existing
368, ordering,
414ff.

274
398

208,

376
425

Dedekind-reals,
-

as

continuous

functions,
416,
419,
-,

416

-in
-in

/2-Set, C/2-Set,
equals
over

421
421

global partial elementary -language, -logic -site,

-topos,
empty

-,

268

231,
in 378
84

234 284

a-Set,

*R
denned

434 467 72

,
category,

-action,
423,
434

117 59
43

degenerate
De

Morgan's
Theorem,

law,

Deligne's proof
dense

481,
500

495,

512

-diagram, -function, section,

-

283
7

of,
monic,
379 of

-set,
non--,

372
endo

115
arrow,

j-, density

445

Q,

434 287 in 131

descriptions,
interpreted detachment,
-

sheaves,
297

404

Diaconescu's

Theorem,

436 enough points, 39 arrow, epic 290 split ing--, factorisation, epi-monic family, epimorphic

114
471

544

INDEX

OF

DEFINITIONS

effectively,

472

provably, equaliser,
monic
as

507 56
-,

lat ices, exponentiation,

-

187
70-1

as

adjunction,
211

444

109 326

extension,
extensional

equality,
-

274 of
as

set-objects,
local
-,

-object,
385
-

409
280
317

equality,
406 487
274

fl-subset,
169
-,

rigid equation, equivalence

-class,
-of

-relation,
-topos,
sub

410
-,

61

weakly
200
and

293,
-,

409

categories,
set-models

extensionality
topoi,
328ff
axiom
of

-of

307
8

-relation, logical-,

61-63
144

-principle,
--for 101 --for --for
arrows,

116

equivariant -topos,
evaluation
exact

function,
467
arrow,

"parts",
subobjects,

436 169
389

70,
461

71

extent,

284,
117

functor,
left,
461 461
of

false,
faithful

right, examples adjoint categories, elementary

functors,

functor,
90

460

fibre,
442ff

situations,
26-36

fibred

sites,
195ff

379

finitary finitary
finite

product, methods, 481 site,

69
33 52

65,
12

95

Heyting
limits,
monoid
natural

algebras,
59-60

179-183 101 199-200 179

actions, transformations,
64-68

-diagram, -ordinal, -products, finitely

first-order

complete
232

category,

69

pseudo-complements, pullbacks,
relative

-concept,
181

pseudo-complements,
375 85-103 139-140 219

sites,

fixed

-language, point,
sheaf,
topology, functor,
234

231,
123

234

topoi,
truth-arrows,
variable

flabby forcing
161
175

403 515f. 195 493 502

sets,

Excluded
-

and actual

Middle, Intuitionism,
-,

forgetful formula, geometric-,

existence 274 of local

-,

infinitary-,
open-, 275

235
-

degree -equals

existence,
267
-,

387 274

-predicate, potential
existential

(partial)
238

positive Foundations, topoi fragment, frame,

canonical
free

existential-,
13
-,

493,

502

as

332

503 189
-,

-generalisation, -quantifier,
--as

191

231
least

upper

bound,
444

278

-for
-

t,

237
267
an

exponential -adjoint,
-in

logic,

71-2,

-over

object,
235

441

relatively

pseudo-complemented

lat-

-variable,

INDEX

OF

DEFINITIONS

545

Freyd
function,
antitone

Postulates,

352ff
310
-,

Grothendieck

17,
-,

-topology,
-topos,
group,
-,

385

197
39

376,
41

469

bijective
characteristic evaluation

79

-,
-,

70

Henkin

method,

499 183
-,

identity
inclusion

19

-,19
-, -, -,

injective
monotone

37 195 39 288 461

-,

partial surjective
functional

268
-,

abstraction,
194

functor,
conservative-,
contravariant

196

covariant-,
exact-, 461 460

196

Heyting complete Heyting-valued complete rigid hereditary principal--, higher-order -language, -logic, homeomorphic, homeomorphism
local

algebra,
276

set,
-, -,

276

388 189 213 231

406 set,

286
41 97 196
-,

faithful-, forgetful-, -categories,

-,

195
202
-,

hom-functor,
contravariant 449 449

197

pulling-back representable-,
Yoneda
-,

homomorphism
monoid
-,

195

470

hom-set, 199,
202 of

196

functors

isomorphic
Fundamental

-,

identity
Topoi, 96,
451
-

Theorem

arrow,

25 19 25 22, monoid,
232

-function,
generates, generators,
286
475

-law,
-of
a

31

generic geometric -field,

model,
517
382

514

-symbol,
image
-of
an a
a

arrow,

11 19

Off.
320

-modality, -morphism, -morphism -theory, surjective

germ,
-

-of 464 -of

function, subobject,
-,

over

~&, 467
467

inverse

65

493
-

morphism,
set,
363 398 316

90 of
of
an
a

open

98,

383

implication, -truth-arrow, -truth-function, impredicative

inclusion
-

128,

162 139
128

definition,
19

175

section,

global
-element,

function,
of
-

relations,

322 76 237 50 311

43 442

-membership,
-section,
Godel's

of

subobjects,
of
a

98,

267

index

Completeness
-of
arrow,

Theorem,
457

238

graph
-of

infinitary infinity
axiom
of

formula, formulae,
-,

If.

function,
179

18,

20

inhabited,
initial
-

428

greatest

-element,
-

as

object, adjoint,
54

lower

bound,

49,

276

injection,

546

INDEX

OF

DEFINITIONS

injective
-

distributive
arrow,

-,

134
133

124 37 212

-as

category,

function,

-of

intension,
intersection
-

151 subobjects, pseudo-complemented relatively pseudo-complemented

least 147

-,

179
-,

182

of
of

sets,

subobjects,
175ff.

-element,
-upper

179

Intuitionism,
intuitionistic inverse

bound,
38

55,

179,

276

logic,
65
an

177,

249

left-cancellable,
left

exact,

461
102
100

-image,
-of

left 40 45
Lemma

ideal,

arrow,

left-multiplication,
464

-relation,
inverse

image
40
arrow,

part,
40
200

Mostowski's
Pullback
-,

Collapsing
67
250 259 470
384

-,317

invertible,
iso

isomorphic -categories,
-functors,

Substitution-, Truth-, Yoneda-,

202

199,
41
77

limit,

58

-objects, -subobjects, isomorphism

defined natural
-,

-point,
Lindenbaum
42
-,

Algebra
CL,
IL,
136

41,
up up of
an

for
47

to

for

185

199
to
-,

Lindenbaum's
42
337 local

Lemma,
of

191
387 387

unique
iterate

arrow,

-character

truth,
383

-equality,
/-dense, join
-in -in

97,

379

-existence
-

equals
373

existence,
97

homeomorphism,
98

posets, fl-sets,
379

133

-operator,

390

-section,
-set

/-sheaf,
Kan kernel

theory,
383,

316
384

-truth, extension,
465 111 66

locally
-constant

-pair,
-relation,

-equal, equal
-

97,

function, 363,

365,
385

407 385

Kripke
-for -for

semantics

-true, 187ff.
256ff.

equals 97, 99,

small,
466
131
-, -,

equal,
365,
372,

383

PL,

??,

locally logic semantics,

386
classical

Kripke-Joyal
Kronecker

-,

delata,

243,

251

intermediate intuitionistic
modal

228

177,
381 144

249

language
first-order
-,

-,

187,
174

231,
-,

234

higher-order
many-sorted-,
-for -for

231 483 382

logically Logicism,
lower
lower

equivalent,
bound, semilat ice,
49 49

modal

logic,

propositional
55
-,

logic,
133
-,

129

lat ice,
bounded

many-sorted
maximal 134

language,
element,
44 44

483

complemented

maximum,

INDEX

OF

DEFINITIONS

547

meet,

133 6 6
a

double

-,

184,

379 384

member,

membership,
-in -for
-

neighbourhood, non-empty
315,
327 of

topos,

327

non-zero

object, object,

115
115

set-objects,
of
subsets

A,
306

103

object
extensional initial natural
-, -,

-tree,

313
307

409 301ff. 270 162

metalanguage,
metaset, minimal

43
numbers
-,

element,
43

43

-of -of power

partial
truth-values,
-, -,

elements,
104

minimum,
modal

-logic,
-operator,
model
Beth
-,

187,
385

381

set

326
-, -,

sub-extensional terminal
44
set
-, -,

410

193,
-for
-,

388

transitive

321 306

classical

X,
404

235

zero

44

complete
--for
-for
set

object
484
one

language,

SB,
theory,
514

246,

305ff. 284

object
37 39

category

(monoid),

32

one-one,

generic-,
-in

onto,
open 256 487
-cover,

-Set,
,
ponens, 383
arrow,

P-based-,
-of
modus

189,
237,
132
38

361 235 96

-formula,
-set,
--as

monad,
monic

'part',
arrow,

435

opposite
-

dense,
--as

372

45
45

equaliser,
31,
100 31 100

109

category,
on

monoid, -action,
-

order-relation
-

N,

345
390

-identity, homomorphism,
Mostowski's

on

fl-sets,
the

195

-on

continuum,
421

424ff.
433
of

Collapsing
101 339 346
78

Lemma,

317

M-set, multiplication
-on
-

order-completeness, -of *R, order-completion

ordered

432,

Rd,

423,

43If .

<o,
on

pair,
33

18

N,
of
an

ordinal,
arrow,

name

natural

-isomorphism,
-

199 62 334 199 numbers

pairwise partial object

-arrow,

compatible,
of
-

362, elements,
268

376,
270

390,

391

map,

268 268
29

number, -transformation,
-

-element,

natural
as

free Sh

object, (I),
126
365 304

object, 445,

30

If .

446

-in -in

-function, -order, -section, -transitivity,

Partial

290,
330 Arrow

291

Top(J),

Classifier space,
435

Theorem,

269

negation,
-truth-arrow,

parts
139 127

of 193

path,
Peano

-truth-function,

Postulates,

347ff.,

424

548

INDEX

OF

DEFINITIONS

point,
-less,

435,
437

477

pushout,
monic
-

68
as

pullback,

355

points
have

enough-,

436,
42

478

quantifier
-axioms,
238
-, -,

poset,

29,

positive-existential,

493, existence,
274 104 76 308

502

existential universal

231 231 453ff

potential
power

objects,

quantifiers
-as
-

powerset,

adjoints,
arrows,
as

axiom, -functor, contravariant, precanonical predecessor

-

245

195 197

quotient
473,
510 range, 19

co-equaliser,

62

pretopology,
342 339 28 459f.

realisation,
real

235

arrow,

numbers,

413ff. 335ff.

-function, preorder,
preserves,

recursion

primitive
-on

-,

well-founded
-,

relations,
302

318-20

presheaf
-over
-

simple
a

category,
space, 374

375 359
473

recursive

arrow,

321

over

Reduction

pretopology, canonical-, precanonical-, primitive -Theorem, principal -crible, -hereditary product

fibred finite
m-fold
-

473,
recursion,
339 370 335ff.

510

regular Regularity reflects, reflexive,

relation

Theorem, HA-element, axiom,

45

475

381,
312

503

9f.

28, 18, 310,

61
322

equivalence
extensional
-,

-,61
317
-, -,

set,

213

inverse

45

kernel

66
-,

-,65
-, -,

membership
52 52 47 order well-founded
-,

6,
-,

103,
317-8

315,

327

345 181

arrow,
as

relative
442 34 47
-as

adjoint,
of

-category,
-

objects,
19,
sequence, 46

-set,

projection, proof
provably provably

46, epimorphic, equivalent, -,181

53

131 507 505 179

relatively lat ice, Replacement representable representation,

restriction,
-

pseudo-complement, 444 adjoint, pseudo-complemented

182

axiom, functor,
26 65
to

312 449

of

U,
p,
to

360
283

pseudo-complement,
relative

of
of

s a

to

p, 390

389 27 39

pseudo-complemented pullback,
-

lat ice,
63

179
Richard

-ordering,
Nixon,
461

as

fibred
64

-preserves

product, epics,
Lemma,
67

95 115

-square, Pullback

pulling-back adjoints

functor,
to
-,

449

449,

450,

452

right-cancellable, exact, right rigid -equality, --set, 516ff. ring

406
406

INDEX

OF

DEFINITIONS

549

rules

of

inference,
set,
9

131 9

simple
2--,

-,

406

Russell Russell's

411

Paradox,

satisfaction,
-in
-

236, -Set,
in

239

285
257 98 267

Setp,
94

section,
continuous

sheafification, 206 sieve, simple sheaf, 44 singleton, --subset, -forming

site,
375

465,
406

470

282,
arrow,

388

269
378

-,

global
local
-,

-,

98,
98
-,

elementary-, finitary-,
291

481
469

partial
-

290,

small-,
skeletal

of

an

epic,
362
-,

290 408 235

selection,

skeleton,
small

category, 201
466 466 469
435 483

42

disjoint
sentence, first-order

126
-,

locally-,
-class,

PL--,

130

-site,

separation
bounded
-,

sober,
309
11 sort, 308

-axion,

Soundness

Theorem 135 132

for

-principle,
sequent, 496

B-validity,
CL,
496

geometric-,
set,
6

^-validity,
GL,
498

186,
185
17

249

complete
empty
-,

--,
7
-, -,

388
source,

HA-validity, spatial
-,
436

hereditary
a276
-,

189

product
power Russell
-as
a

19,
76
9

46 stack 334 6

topos,

97

-,
-,

split ing
-over -over

epic,
a a

290

topos-object,
326 6
with

category,
space,
359

375

-membership,
-object, -theory, -varying
-vs.

stalk,
-as

90

colimit,
space,
of

363 90

time,
10 44

219
standard
state

class,
-,

model,

307

singleton
transitive

knowledge,
467
280

188

-,313

transitive
variable

-object, -,212
96,
97
-,

321

S-topos, strict,
strong

arrow,

395

sheaf,

subcategory,
403 ful
-,

32
33

flabby /--, --,

pre--, -of
-

379

sub-extensional 395

object,
76 81
as

410

subobject,
359,
375

-classifier,

continuous of germs
of

functions,
open

388,
sets,

392 369

free
of
8
-s,

object,
151

448-9

97,

lat ice

of

-of
-over

sections, truth-values,

362,
400 391

389

subset,
Substitution

Lemma,
342

250,

4!

subtraction,

550

INDEX

OF

DEFINITIONS

successor

-set,
-arrow,

313
321

302

-set-object,
301

-function,
sufficient,
sum

tree,
true,
54

313

477
of

80,
-in

81 139

objects,
291-2
124
39

truth-arrows,

support,

Setp,
Lemma,

221 127-8 259

surjective
-arrow,

truth-functions,
Truth
truth-values classical
-,

-function, symmetric,

61

126
-,

object
sheaf of

of
-,

162
400

target,

17 129

tautology,
terminal

object,
234
see

44

term,

union

Theorem,

disjoint
-

-,

54
7

Completeness
Diaconescu's Fundamental Partial Primitive Arrow Recursion unit

of
-of

sets, of

subobjects, adjunction,
,

147
440

Classifier

440 441 58
238

universal
-arrow,

Soundness

Validity
theory,

492,

496
499 493 420 406 universe

-construction, -instantiation,
-property,
58
231 of

consistent-, geometric-, topology,

discrete-,
double

-quantifier,
sets, upper
379 valid

333

bound,

55,

179

negation-,
515f.
515
a

forcing-, generated-,
-on

B--

135
135
-,

topos,
118 156

378

topos

bivalent-, Boolean-, classical-, classifying-,

coherent
-,

BA--, classically %--,

H--, P--, -^-formula,
229

130 249

141,
382 185 189

118 514
481

%--,

237

disjunctive-,
i-,

171,
467 84

Validity valuation,
value
variable

elementary-, extensional-, Grothendieck-,

S-,

Theorem, 135, assignment,

-,

224

141,
130

185,

189,

382

169

376,
467 97

469

bound

235 235

free
individual

-,

spatial-, well-pointed-,
-defined transitive

-,231,
set,
212
366 395
381

234

116
over

variable
-

&, 467
weak

as

sheaf,

-closure, -relation, -representative,

314

-arrow,

28,

61
328

-forcing, weakly

INDEX

OF

DEFINITIONS

551

-extensional

category,

293

Yoneda

-extensional
-

object,
poset, concept, relation,
116 192 62

409

linear

well-defined well-founded

-embedding, -functor, -Lemma,

318

471,
470 470

473,

511

317,

well-pointed,

ZF,

11,

312,

333