ANIMAL ORGANIZATION GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ANIMALS multicellular with well-developed tissues usually motile; heterotrophic by ingestion classified based

sed on the type of symmetry, number of tissue layers, and presence of segmentations

MAIN ANIMAL DIVISIONS As to the presence of backbone Invertebrates Vertebrates

TYPES OF ANIMAL TISSUE Epithelial Tissue (Epithelium) covering of external surface on the lining of internal surface forms continuous layer of compactly arranged cells

Connective Tissue binds structures together; connects many body parts provides support and protection

Muscle Tissue for contraction to produce movement cell (muscle fiber) is enclosed by sarcolemma and contains sarcoplasm where the contractile elements (myofibrils) are located

ANIMAL TISSUES Types as to Structure and Function smooth involuntary muscle tissue

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striated voluntary muscle tissue striated involuntary muscle tissue

Nervous Tissue for reception of stimuli and transmission of impulses, which consists of: Neuroglia supporting cells for the nourishment, protection, and insulation of the neurons undergo cell division, thus, may cause brain tumor NEURONS made up of cell body (perikaryon) and one or more protoplasmic processes (axon and dendrites)

INTEGUMENT FUNCTIONS: covering and protection secretions of substances excretion of metabolic wastes sensation respiration regulation of temperature storage of reserved food nourishment for the young locomotion

THE SKIN considered as the true integument covering the surface of the body largest organ of the vertebrate body, 15 to 16% of the total body weight in adult human

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Layers of the Skin Epidermis made up of stratified squamous layer of epithelial tissues 10 to 30 cells thick, about as thick as this page.

Dermis made up of fibrous connective tissue containing collagen and elastic fibers 15 to 40 times thicker than the epidermis provides structural support for all the epidermis and as matrix for any nerve endings, muscles, and specialized cells in the skin

SKELETON Functions: 1. Support the body 2. Attachment of muscles 3. Protection of internal organs 4. Act as levers for movement 5. Production of blood cells 6. Gives stability and shape to the body Distribution of Bones in Human Adult There are a total of 206 bones in an adult human. Infants have more bones than adults due to the numerous joints distributed as follows: skull ( cranium + face ) Ears hyoid vertebral column = 22 ( 8 + 14 ) =6 =1 = 26

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sternum ribs

=1 = 24

pectoral girdle and forelimbs = 64 pelvic girdle and hindlimbs = 62

Common Disorders of the Skeletal System Osteoporosis bone condition characterized by a decrease in mass, resulting in bones that are more porous and more easily fractured than the normal bones. Scoliosis also known as curvature of the spine; a progressive lateral curvature of backbone.

DIGESTION Functions: 1. Ingestion of food 2. Breaking down of complex substance (food) into simple forms (nutrients) 3. Absorption of digested food 4. Egestion or excretion of undigested food COMMON DIGESTIVE DISEASES AND DISORDERS Peptic ulcers are ulcers of the stomach (gastric) or small intestine (duodenal) Appendicitis referes to the acute inflammation of the vermiform appendix. Diarrhea refers to a frequent passage of abnormally loose, water stool. Constipation refers to the difficulty in eliminating bowel movements from the body.

CIRCULATION Functions:
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1. transports the oxygen and carbon dioxide, soluble food materials, organic wastes, and hormones 2. regulation of the pH of tissue 3. protection of the body against invading microbes 4. regulation of body temperature in warm-blooded animals The Blood a specialized connective tissue the main transporting medium of the body 8% of total body weight (4 to 6 liters in average adult) considered to be the essence of life

COMPOSITION OF BLOOD Plasma fluid portion of the blood

Formed Elements include the cells (erythrocytes and leukocytes) and cell fragments (thrombocytes)

Erythrocytes red blood corpuscles (RBC) small, biconcave disks with polysaccharides on the outer membrane

Leukocytes white blood cells (WBC) less than 1% of the cells in human blood

THROMBOCYTES called as platelets in humans involved in blood clotting or coagulation

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ABO BLOOD CLASSIFICATION The most common blood grouping is the ABO classification. based on the types of protein present in the blood cells (antigen A and antigen B) and in the plasma (anti-a and anti-b) agglutination clumping of blood cells; each blood type contains the following: CIRCULATION Blood type A contains antigen A and anti-b Blood type B contains antigen B and anti-a Blood type AB contains antigen A and B and no antibodies Blood type O contains anti-a anti-b and no antigen Blood transfusion relationship Blood type A can donate to A and AB and can receive from A and O Blood type B can donate to B and AB and can receive from B and O Blood type AB can donate to AB and can receive from A,B,AB and O, thus called universal recipient. Blood type O can donate to A,B, AB and O and received from O, thus called universal donor

THE HEART the main pumping organ of the body highly muscular organ located in the mid-ventral region of the thoracic cavity Enclosed by a tough connective tissue the pericardium

CHAMBERS OF THE HEART 1. Atria or Auricles have thin walls, receive blood from the veins and pump it into the ventricle
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2. Ventricles with much thicker walls, pump the blood out of the heart to all parts of the body Common Blood-Related Disorders Hypertension or High Blood Pressure medical condition in which constricted arterial blood vessels increase the resistance to blood flow. Thrombosis formulation of blood clot, or thrombus, inside a blood vessel. Leukemia any of several types of cancers that affect blood cells. Arteriosclerosis a group of disorders of the arteries.

RESPIRATION Functions: 1. exchange of gases 2. oxidation of food molecule in order to produce energy in the form of ATP Types of Respiration: Direct Respiration exchange of gases between the cells of an organism and the environment Essential gasses are oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Indirect Respiration Exchange of gases through specialized organs and involves two phases external (between blood and environment) and internal (between blood and body cells)

RESPIRATORY ORGANS Direct Surfaces (skin and pharyngeal regions) Some amphibians and fishes, like mudhoppers and eels, use their skin; salamanders use their pharyngeal regions. Gills Most aquatic animals use external and internal gill filaments. Lungs for terrestial animals

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Common Diseases Associated with Respiratory System Common colds -acute infectious disease of the upper respiratory tract; caused by more than 100 kinds of viruses. Asthma - disorder of the respiratory system in which the passages that enable air to pass in and out of the lungs periodically narrow, causing coughing and difficulty in breathing. Bronchitis - acute or chronic inflammation of any part of the bronchi and bronchial tubes Pneumonia A term applied to any of about 50 distinct inflammatory to diseases of the lungs characterized by the build up of fluid in the lungs. Tuberculosis a chronic or acute bacterial infection that primarily attacks the lungs but which may also affect the kidneys, bones, lymph nodes and brain.

EXCRETION Functions: 1.Collection and elimination of metabolic waste products 2.Maintain homeostasis Metabolic Wastes: heat carbon dioxide from respiration water derived from the oxidation of carbohydrates and fats bile salts and pigments from the destruction of RBC mineral salt from the breakdown of water worn out tissue from excess dietary intake urea from protein metabolism

HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM located in the lower abdomen Excretory structures include the kidney, urinary bladder, ureter, and urethra. The main waste collected is called urine. Other organs for excretion include the liver, lungs and skin.

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COMMON KIDNEY DISORDERS Acute renal failure - which occurs suddenly, may be caused by bacterial infection, injury, shock, congestive heart failure, drug poisoning or severe bleeding following surgery Chronic renal failure - is a progressive deterioration of kidney function over a long period of time. Urinal calculi - commonly known as kidney stone, result from the gradual buildup of crystallized salts minerals in the urine.

CONTROL CENTER Functions: Coordination and integration of many activities of the body through the conduction of impulses from the receptors to the effectors.

Organization of the Nervous System Origin develops from an embryonic dorsal hollow nerve cord.

Composition brain, spinal cord, nerve cells, neuroglial cells consists of vast increase in the number of neurons compared to invertebrates

Division
Central Nervous System includes the brain and spinal cord Peripheral Nervous System includes all the nerve cells outside the CNS, both the

cranial nerves and the nerves NEURONS Nerve Cells

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for reception of stimuli and transmission of reactions responsible for the integration of impulses composition of the brain

COMMON DISEASES ASSOCIATED WITH NERVOUS SYSTEM Epilepsy Multiple Sclerosis ( MS ) Meningitis Mental illness Stroke

DUCTLESS GLANDS Functions coordinate, together with the nervous system, the activities of the body involve in the synthesis and secretion of hormones

Hormonal function includes: control of energy production and utilization control of the composition of extracellular water and electrolytes maintenance of normal growth and development

MAJOR ENDOCRINE GLANDS IN HUMAN SEXUAL REPRODUCTION involves two parents: male and female Each parent is provided with a reproductive organ (gonad) for the production of reproductive cells (gametes) For the male, gonads are paired testes that produce the sperm cell. For the female, gonads are paired ovaries that produce egg cell.

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COMMON SEXUAL DISEASES AND DYSFUNCTION Erectile dysfunction (impotence) refers to the inability of a man to have or maintain an erection. Female orgasmic dysfunction (anorgasmia or inhibited female) refers to the inability of a woman to have an orgasm. Vaginismus refers to a spastic contraction of the outer third of the vagina, a condition that can close the entrance of the vagina, preventing intercourse. Breast cancer - malignant tumor in the glandular tissue of the breast. Such tumors are called carcinoma. Infertility - inability to conceive or carry a child to term. Sterility - permanent inability to produce offspring. Gonorrhea - caused by the bacteria Neisseria gonorrhea; infects the membranes lining certain genital organs. Syphilis - a potential life threatening STD; is caused by the bacteria Treponema pallidum. Genital Herpes is caused by infection with the herpes simplex virus (HSV) AIDS - the result of infection with the human immunodeficiency virus. Trichomoniasis - caused by infection with the protozoan, trichomonas vaginalis causes vaginitis, inflammation of the vagina causing burning, itching and discomfort.

MENDELIAN GENETICS Definition of Terms

Genetics the study of heredity and variation. Heredity the transmission of traits from one generation to another, from parents to

offspring; the protoplasmic continuity between parents and offspring.

Variation any difference existing between individuals of the same species. Chromosome rod shape body in the nucleus of eukaryotes and prokaryotes that

contains the hereditary units or genes, seen particularly during cell division.
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Gene the unit of heredity occupying a particular location on the chromosome and

passed on to offspring.
Locus the location of a gene on a chromosome. Diploid the 2N number of chromosomes; half the diploid number; the number

characteristics of gametes that contain only one set chromosome.

F1 generation first filial generation; the first generation offspring of a genetic cross that

has at least two generations.

F2 generation second filial generation; the second generation offspring of a genetic

cross.
Homozygous a pair of similar or like genes for any one character. Heterozygous a pair of contrasting traits of two kinds of genes. Genotype the particular genes of an individual that determine a specific trait. Phenotype the outward appearance of an organism, caused by genetic and

environmental influences.
Allele a pair of similar or contrasting characters; one or two or more alternative states of

a gene.
Dominant Allele hereditary factor that expresses itself when the genotype is

heterozygous.
Recessive Allele hereditary factor that expresses itself only when the genotype is

homozygous.
Hybrid the offspring of two parents that differ in one or more heritable character. Homologous chromosomes a pair of chromosomes that have the same shape and

contain genes for the same traits.

Mutation a sudden change in the genetic make up; an abrupt and heritable modification

of a character.

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