Mail Armour:

Interlinked metal rings. The common misnomer Chainmail is often used. The vandyked lower edge is more typically of Saxon England.

Sources: Mail armour has been used in war across northern Europe since Rome until WWI (to protect tank gunner's faces). There are broadly similar examples from Scandinavia before and after the Viking period, half a dozen or so fragments including from Birka in Sweden (some may have been neck rather than body protection), a certain amount of documentary evidence and depictions, and finds from cultures with whom the Vikings had contact. The most complete Viking find is Gjemundbu (Norway), left.

All European (rather than Oriental) mail was based on a pattern in which each ring (red) had 4 others (green) passing through it. Rows ran horizontally across the body, but usually vertically down the arms. There was a certain amount of tailoring whereby rows could be increased or decreased, slack taken up in the armpits, collar overlaps constructed, etc. The illustration to the right is from Reenactment.

Iron or steel rings could be butted, riveted, forge welded or stamped out of a sheet in one piece (although these last 2 methods could only be used for alternating rows). Viking mail probably consisted of a single garment (separate sleeves, hose, mittens and coif generally came later, likewise reinforcements) reaching to somewhere between the hip and knee, and growing longer in the course of the Viking period. Sleeves may have reached to the elbow or wrist, also likely to have grown longer. Hoods were probably a late development; the Bayeaux Tapestry shows Norman hauberks with what could well be some type of extension to cover the face. Internal diameter of the links ranges from an unusual 5 mm to a more typical 89 mm. Effectiveness: Mostly from first hand experimentation: Mail resists a cut well, although good steel could penetrate inferior iron. Fairly dense mail can spread a shock to some extent. A particularly slender arrowhead, from short range and striking perpendicularly, will penetrate with ease, but a broadhead, at long range and glancing will not. There is a good chance that anything in between these extremes would penetrate to some extent, perhaps sticking a centimetre or so inside the armour. A powerful blow from an axe might incapacitate someone without actually penetrating the armour. A sharp spear or javelin can easily pass through several layers of mail. How to Make the Armour: Mail can be made from scratch, bought as loose rings or as complete garments (usually assembled in the Far East). 1 - Materials: Avoid mild steel wire as it is too soft. Spring steel is to be preferred. Galvanised and stainless steel looks inauthentic (but see 14). Wire diameter should be in the order of 1 - 1 mm (~ 24 - 16 gauge). 2 - Winding: Make a helical spring shape by winding the wire onto a core of appropriate diameter. The most straightforward method is to mount an electric drill onto a bench

with a metal rod in its chuck. A hole or slot grips the end of the wire. Be careful. 3 - Cutting: It is definitely worth making some sort of arrangement to hold each coil in a vice for cutting (see below). One can cut along the coil using a fine saw, or use wire cutters. See which gives a better finish.

4 - Flattening the ends (only for riveting): Hammer the ends of each link flat in the same plane as the link itself. 5 - Punching holes (only for riveting): Punch a hole in the centre of each of the flattened ends. Use of a minidrill might be an alternative. 6 - Forge welding (only for fanatics): Half the links need to be forge welded closed. Smiths did this! Spot welding, brazing or soldering could be an unhistorical alternative. 7 - Opening the links: Using 2 pairs of pliers, twist each ring to open it up enough to allow other rings to be interlinked. 8 - Overlapping the ends: It is a good idea to squeeze each link with a pair of pliers so that the ends just overlap (unless they are to be riveted, in which case the rivet holes must match up). Rings that overlap slightly from the manufacturerr are prefered. Gaps have a way of lining up, and badly butted mail has a way of shedding links. 9 - Cleaning: Any sharp burrs can be removed using abrasive paper, a fine file or by polishing in a drum if you have access (see 13). 10 - Assembly: If possible, it is easier to assemble pairs, groups of 5, chains or small patches of mail together, rather than just assembling the entire garment. This can almost cut the time in half, so it is definitely worth experimenting. Diagram of a simple shirt: Horizontal rows are indicated by double headed arrows. The body and especially the sleeves should be baggy. Mail does not give. These sleeves taper slightly, and there are triangular inserts at the armpit. These are not neccessary, but help for particularly heavy mail and long sleeves. The body is gathered at the waist and split at front and back. An alternative is a row of triangular saw teeth at the lower edge. The neck is tight and split at the front. Alternatives include to overlap 2 flaps at the front, split at the back, leave a larger neck hole, etc.

11 - Closing the links (butted rings): Twist each link together using 2 pairs of pliers. If they overlap slightly they should click into place. 12 - Riveting: Thread a tiny rivet (or bit of wire) into each hole and hammer. Use soft iron or copper alloy. 13 - Polishing: Riveted mail (especially) can benefit from a tour in a drum polisher to remove any sharp edges. 14 - Rust prevention: Iron used by Vikings was purer and less prone to corrosion than modern mild steel. They may have dipped some armour in Tin (a technique definitely used for other fittings) or precious metal (Silver rubs off really fast and stains clothing black). Oil blacking mail might be possible but scarcely satisfactory. Oil hardening might well have been used historically. Vikings probably used oil or terpentine and wax. Reenactors can choose from a wide variety of modern oils and water repellents. 15 - Leather edging: This is pleasant around the neck, but makes cleaning armour difficult. Some lines on the Bayeux Tapestry could represent edging or lining, but this evidence is neither particularly convincing, nor strictly Viking.
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