CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

The terms eye movement measurement, eye tracking, and oculogragphy refer to measurement of the orientation and motion of the eye, either with respect to the head, or with respect to the visual environment. This may include not only rotations of the eye that cause changes in gaze direction, but also rotations of the eyeball about the line of sight, called ocular torsion. Eye movement measurement devices have long been used for research in reading, various aspects of visual perception and cognition, neurology, instrument panel layout, and advertising. Technological advances, especially in the areas of digital processing and solidstate sensor technology, have made eye tracking possible under progressively less and less restrictive conditions. In recent years, uses have expanded to include computer application usability research, communication devices for the disabled, sports and gait research, Lasik surgery instrumentation, etc., The human eye is a complex anatomical device that remarkably demonstrates the architectural wonders of the human body. Like a camera, the eye is able to refract light and produce a focused image that can stimulate neural responses and enable the ability to see. We will use our understanding of refraction and image formation to understand the means by which the human eye produces images of distant and nearby objects. Additionally, we will investigate some of the common vision problems which plague humans and the customary solutions to those problems. The human eye is controlled by three pairs of antagonistic muscles, which are responsible for its movements. In several disorders the eye movements are affected, and it results in distorted and sluggish movements. In various neurological disorders, Ophthalmology problems, and certain other physiological conditions, the eye moments gets

affected. In order to diagnose these problems, it is required to study the eye ball movements. The eye ball movement is of many types, and four basic eyeball moments can be considered to diagnose these problems. As the eye moment is a voluntary control mechanism, it is customary to provide a stimulus for stimulating that sort of moment in the eye ball moment. Thus, it is required to consider a particular type of eye moment by providing a stimulus and studying the eye moments with respect to the stimulus and to study the responses. The response characteristics can be used to identify the disorders. In the present project Saccadic moments are considered for the study. The saccadic moments are the fast eyeball moments, which normally occur while reading a book. While reading, the eye jumps from one line to the other, at the end of each line. This sudden jump is referred as saccadic moment. In order to provide that moment a saccadic stimulator is required. In the present project a saccadic stimulator is to be designed and developed, along with EOG amplifier to record the response. Both these waveforms are analyzed by another microcontroller based device to identify the parameters related to the eye ball moment, such as latency, settling time, eye ball velocity and acceleration. The following chapters deal with these in the detailed manner.

CHAPTER RECORDING OF EYE BALL MOVEMENTS 4.1. Introduction: The following are descriptions of the more common technologies used to record the eye movements of both controls and patients. Emphasis in this chapter will be on the abilities of different types of systems and the calibration requirements to provide accurate eye-movement data in the basic and clinical research settings. 4.2. Electro oculography. 4.2.1. Theory of Operation. Electrooculography (EOG) is the only eye-movement recording method that relies on a bio-potential, in this case, the field potential generated between the inner retina and the pigment epithelium. This signal may approach 0.5 mV or more in amplitude. If two electrodes are placed on either side of, and two more above and below, the orbit (along with a reference electrode on the forehead or ear), then as the eye rotates in the orbit, a voltage proportional to the eye movement may be recorded, because one electrode becomes more positive and the other more negative with respect to the reference electrode. The technique is one of the oldest and most widespread and has been the standard for assessment of eye movements related to vestibular function. When the term ENG is seen, it is generally EOG that is used. 4.2.2. Characteristics. EOG has the considerable advantage that it requires only high impedance, low noise instrumentation amplifier for its recording and that the voltage is linearly proportional to eye movement over most of its range. Such amplifiers are relatively inexpensive in comparison with many other eye-tracking technologies. As the electrodes are placed on the skin adjacent to the eye, no contact occurs with the eye itself and no obstruction of any part

of the visual field exists. It also is unaffected by head motion, because the electrodes move with the head. 4.2.3. Applications In theory, the EOG can be used anywhere eye movements are to be recorded. However, as the following section will show, it has a number of inherent limitations that practically eliminate it from many applications. Its widest use remains in the assessment of vestibular function and for the recording of caloric nystagmus and the vestibulo-ocular reflex. It is unsuited for use in environments with changing levels of illumination, as normal physiological processes will change the resting potential of the EOG and thus alter its relationship with amplitude of eye movement. EOG can be used in the assessment of saccades and smooth pursuit, but the low-pass filtering generally required will lead to artificially lowered saccade peak velocities. EOG has occasionally been used in scan path studies, but its instability and fluctuating gain make it undesirable for this application, because if scenes differing in mean luminance are presented, the EOG will gradually change amplitude. 4.2.4. Limitations Although conceptually simple and easy to implement, EOG has many shortcomings. One is that because the electrodes are placed on the surface of the facial skin, the EOG is not the only signal they detect. If the patient is nervous or clenches his or her teeth, the resulting electro-myographic (EMG) activity in the facial muscles will be recorded as well, with the result that the signal actually recorded is the sum of the desired EOG and the unwanted EMG. As the spectra of the two signals overlap, no amount of filtering can completely separate them. Another significant problem with EOG is the fact that, like many bio-potential recordings, it is prone to drift. Some of this drift may reflect electrochemical changes at the electrode, causing a shift in baseline, which was particularly a problem when polarizable electrodes were used in the early days of the technique. Even non-polarizable electrodes

such as the commonly used Ag-AgCl button electro electrodes may still yield a varying baseline when first applied. Furthermore, the potential also shifts with changes in illumination. Indeed, assessment of this response to light is itself a clinical tool. This baseline variability can lead to the temptation to use an ac-coupled amplifier in the recording of the EOG, which has frequently been done, particularly in the ENG literature. Although not a problem if the only data required is nystagmus frequency, significant distortion occurs when ac-coupling is used to record saccades. The apparent drift back toward the center closely resembles a saccade whose tonic innervational component is inadequate. Noise and drift limit the resolution of EOG to eye movements of no less than 1; this threshold may be even higher in a nervous patient or an elderly patient with slack, dry skin. An additional limitation undercuts the EOGs otherwise significant advantage in being able to record vertical eye movements, which are the overshooting seen on vertical saccades. It has long been suggested that the lids, moving somewhat independently of the globe, act as electrodes on the surface of the globe, conducting current in parallel to the other current path between globe and electrodes. Another more practical drawback to the use of EOG, when used for recording the movements of both eyes horizontally and vertically is that a total of nine electrodes are required (see Fig. 1). Each must be individually adhered to the patient and must be carefully aligned if spurious crosstalk between horizontal and vertical motion is to be avoided. Even if only horizontal motion is to be recorded, five accurately placed electrodes are still needed. A common but unfortunate clinical shortcut has been to use only two or three electrodes at either outer canthus of the eye and one for reference. This shortcut effectively records a cyclopean eye by summing the potentials obtained from each eye. Although eye movements other than vergence are conjugate in normal individuals, it is not generally normal individuals who are seen for clinical evaluation. Figure 2 illustrates how an overshooting and an undershooting eye movement may be combined to give the appearance of a perfect saccade. For this reason, both ac-coupling and bi-temporal electrode placement should be avoided when anything other than the crudest information about eye movement is desired.

Figure 1. EOG electrodes arranged to record the horizontal and vertical eye movements of both eyes. Reference electrode is in the center of the forehead.

Fifure.2. Schematic illustrating the EOG method of measuring eye movement.

Figure 3. False saccadic trajectory from bitemporal EOG electrodes resulting from the summation of the individual Saccadic trajectories shown below.

Figure.4. Schematic illustrating the various features of the eye often used by optical eye movement measurement techniques.

4.3. Infrared Reflectance

4.3.1. Theory of Operation Although photographic recording of eye movements dates back to 1901, such methods remained cumbersome to use, especially when they required frame-by-frame analysis of the location of some marker on the eye. Optical levers, where a beam of light was reflected from a mirror attached by a stalk to a scleral contact lens, offered the opportunity for precise registration of eye position, but occluded the view of the eye being recorded. As might be imagined, they were also unpleasant to wear. An alternative recording method that also makes use of reflected light relies on the differential reflectivity of the iris and sclera of the eye to track the limbusthe boundary between these structures. Although the number of emitters and detectors vary between designs, they share the same fundamental principle; that is, the eye is illuminated by chopped, low intensity infrared light (to eliminate the effects of variable ambient lighting). Photo-detectors are aimed at the limbus on either side of the iris. As the eye moves, the amount of light reflected back onto some detectors increases and onto others decreases. The difference between the two signals provides the output signal. As would be expected, these signals are analog systems, so that the output of the photo-detectors is electronically converted into a voltage that corresponds to eye position. Figure 4 shows an IR system mounted on an earth-fixed frame spectacle frame. Figure 5 shows an IR system mounted in goggles on a child.

Figure 4. IR system to measure the horizontal eye movements of both eyes shown mounted on an earth-fixed frame and spectacle frame.

Figure 5. IR system to measure the horizontal and vertical eye movements of both eyes shown mounted in goggles for a human subject.

Figure.5. Schematic showing simple reflectivity pattern tracker for horizontal measurement.

As the signal is not a bio-potential, it is free of the instability found in the EOG; it is also immune to interference from muscle artifact and changes in electrode potentials. Unlike some earlier photographic methods, the device does not occlude the eyes, as the sensors and emitters are positioned above or below the eye. The field of view is somewhat obstructed by the emitter/detector, in contrast to EOG. Resolution is of the order of minutes of arc. Assuming that nothing disturbs the sensors, a shaken head or a rubbed eye, for example, stability is excellent. Thus, the question of using ac-coupling, as in many electronystagmographic applications of the EOG, never occurs. System bandwidth is generally on the order of 100 Hz, which is sufficient to capture fine details of saccades. The linear range of these systems generally is between +/- 15 and 20 in the horizontal plane and half this amount or less in the vertical plane (which requires vertical orientation of the detectors or summation of the signals from horizontally-oriented detectors).

4.3.2. Applications IR limbus trackers are probably second only to EOG in their range of applications. Their ability to resolve fine detail with low noise makes them excellent for conditions where subtle features of the eye movement are important; examples include analyses of saccadic trajectories or analysis of small corrective saccades within a nystagmus waveform. An important advantage over EOG is that if eye velocity is to be calculated, the resulting signal is far less noisy than the derivative of an EOG recording, especially where broadband EMG noise has contaminated the signal developing from the eye. These systems are well suited to studies of any sort of eye movement that falls within their linear operating range in the horizontal plane. As they are generally head-mounted, they will tolerate modest head movement, but if the stimuli are fixed in the environment, such movement will certainly cause a loss of baseline and may move the tracker outside its linear range, which makes head stabilization highly desirable, especially when stimuli are presented at gaze angles where subjects would normally make both a head movement and an eye movement to acquire the target. Finally, IR systems are noninvasive, a major advantage for many patients and for children.

4.3.3. Limitations One of the biggest shortcomings of these systems is their poor performance for vertical eye movement, their near-uselessness for oblique eye movements, and their complete lack of value for torsional eye movements. Although the limbus is clearly visible over a wide range of eye positions in the horizontal plane, the eyelids obscure its top and bottom margins. Although a degree of vertical tracking can be obtained by virtue of the differential reflectivity of the iris and pupil, the range over which this is possible is limited, again in part because of occlusion of the lids. Oblique movement suffers from inherent crosstalk because, as eye position changes in one plane, the sensitivity to motion in the other plane will vary, which is a hindrance to using these systems for studies of reading, scan path analysis, or other applications where 2D eye movements are important. The use of the systems in rotational testing is also limited by the range of allowable gaze angles and by the possible slippage of the head mounting on the head if accelerations are sufficiently high. Their suitability for small children also varies; some of the systems do not fit small heads well, although if precise calibration is not important, one can generally record patients as young as 3 years. These systems are not generally appropriate for use with infants. The one exception is for diagnosing nystagmus from its waveform by simply holding the sensors in front of the eyes, which can be done for even the smallest infants (e.g., a premature infant still in an incubator). 4.4. Scleral Search Coil 4.4.1. Theory of Operation Robinson developed the Scleral Search Coil technique in 1963. It relies on the principle that a coil of wire in an alternating magnetic field induces a voltage proportional to the area of the coil, the number of turns, and the number of field lines. This latter measure will vary with the sine of the angle the coil makes with the magnetic field. In the basic configuration, two orthogonal pairs of field coils are used, each modulated by phase locked square wave sources either operating in quadrature (i.e., one signal 90 phase-

shifted relative to the other) or at a different frequency (e.g., 50 and 75 kHz). An annular contact lens with a very fine coil of wire is placed on the eye, so that it surrounds the cornea (or in animals, is surgically implanted under the conjunctiva). Figure 6 shows an annular search-coil contact lens on the eye of a subject. Components of the induced voltage generated by the horizontal and vertical signals can be

Figure 5. An annular search-coil contact lens used to measure the horizontal and vertical eye movements of a human subject. The fine wire from the imbedded coil exits at the nasal canthus.

Figure.6. Schematic showing the configuration of the second coil in a dual induction coil system.

separated via phase-sensitive detectors. Note that this method of recording horizontal and vertical components of eye movement eliminates the crosstalk present in 2D recordings made by limbus trackers. With an appropriately wound coil added to the lens, torsional eye movements may also be recorded. This technique is the only one able to record torsion with high bandwidth.

4.4.2. Characteristics This technology serves as the gold standard for eye-movement recording. Resolution is in seconds of arc and the linear range +/- 20, with linearization possible outside this range, because the nonlinearity follows the sine function. The signals are extremely stable, because their source is determined by the geometry of coil and magnetic field alone. In the usual configuration, the maximum angle that can be measured is 90. Although the eyes cannot rotate this far in the head, if the head is also allowed to turn (and its position recorded by a head coil), a net change of eye position > 90 is possible. A solution to this problem was developed whereby all the field coils were oriented vertically, generating a magnetic field whose vector rotates around 360. Now, the phase of the field coil varies linearly over 360 of rotation, which is most often used for horizontal eye movements, with vertical and torsional eye movements recorded using the original design.

Figure.6 Schematic illustrating the scleral search coil method of measuring eye movement.

4.4.3. Applications As the search-coil system provides such high quality data, it can be used in nearly any application where stability, bandwidth, and resolution are paramount and free motion by the subject is not essential. However, recent evidence suggests that the coils themselves may alter the eye movements being measured. Nonetheless, the low noise level and ability to independently record horizontal, vertical, and torsional movements at high bandwidth and high resolution still make this the gold standard of eye-movement recording techniques. 4.4.4. Limitations As a result of their size, search-coil systems are clearly not suited for ambulatory studies or those carried out in other real-world settings such as a vehicle. The system also cannot be adapted to use in fMRI scanners, unlike IR limbus trackers or video-based systems. Search coils are invasive, making them unsuitable for some adult patients and for most children. A small risk of corneal abrasion exists when the coil is removed, but this risk is generally minor. Use of the coil in infants or small children would be undesirable, because they could not be instructed not to rub their eyes while the coil was in place. Another practical issue associated with the technology is the cost of the coils, which have a single supplier, have a limited lifetime, and are relatively expensive (> US$100 each). As recommended duration of testing with the coils is 30 minutes or less, long duration studies are also precluded. 4.5 Digital Video 4.5.1. Theory of Operation Although electronic systems that locate and store the location of the center of the pupil in a video image of the eye were developed in the 1960s, often in combination with pupil diameter measurement, video-based eye trackers became a major force in eye tracking technology when digital rather than analog image analysis was implemented. If the camera is rigidly fixed to the head, then simply tracking this centroid is sufficient to identify the location of the eye in its orbit. However, if there is even slight translational

movement of the camera with respect to the eye, a large error is introduced: 1 mm of translation equals 10 of angular rotation in the image. For this reason, video systems also track the specular reflection of a light source in the image in addition to the pupil centroid. As this first Purkinje image does not change with rotation but does change with translation, whereas the pupil center changes with eye rotation as well as translation, their relative positions can be used to compensate for errors induced by relative motion occurring between the head and camera. Figure 6 shows a digital video system in use on a human subject.

Figure 6. A high-speed digital video system to measure the horizontal and vertical eye movements of both eyes for a human subject. 4.5.2. Characteristics Assuming that the axes of the head and camera are aligned, then video-based systems are capable of recording both horizontal and vertical eye movements over a relatively wide range (often +/- 30 horizontally, somewhat less vertically). Resolution is better than EOG but generally somewhat less than for IR or search-coil systems, often in

the range of 0.58. As analog video systems use a raster scan to represent an image, spatial resolution is limited by the nature of the video system used (e.g., PAL or NTSC). Bandwidth is limited by the frame rate of the video system. If conventional analog video is used, then frame rates are 50 Hz for PAL and 60 Hz for NTSC. These rates impose a maximum bandwidth of 25 and 30 Hz, respectively. Although adequate for examination of slow eye movements, these frame rates are inadequate for assessment of saccades; indeed, very small saccades could be completed within the inter-frame interval. Systems using digital video are free from the constraints imposed by broadcast TV standards and can make use of higher frame rate camerasseveral now operate at 250 or 500 Hz. Generally, a frame rate versus resolution trade-off exists higher frame rates imply lower image resolution. However, continued improvement in digital video technology and ever faster and cheaper computers continue to improve performance. Although older video tracking systems often required a good deal of tweaking of brightness and contrast settings in an effort to obtain a reliable image of the pupil, many recent systems have more streamlined set-up protocols. In the past, some systems internally monitored fixation on calibration targets and rejected data that were unstable, thereby making the systems unsuitable for use with patients with nystagmus. However, default calibration settings generally permit data to be taken and the nystagmus records can then be retrospectively calibrated.

Figure.6. Schematic showing the basic functional architecture of most Video based eye tracking systems.

4.5.3. Applications In principle, digital video is the most flexible of all eye-movement recording technologies. Some systems use cameras mounted on the head, using either helmets or some other relatively stable mounting system. Other systems use remote cameras, often mounted adjacent to or within a computer stimulus display. Systems used in vehicles may use either remote cameras or helmet-mount cameras. In addition to conventional clinical eye-movement testing, video systems, especially remote camera models are increasingly being used in commercial applications such as advertising studies and usability analyses of websites. For such applications, the unobtrusiveness of the technology and the need to only monitor fixations rather than to study saccade dynamics makes even relatively low-framerate video ideal. Such systems are also excellent for use with infants and small children, who may be induced to look at some attractive display on a screen but who generally, respond poorly to head-mounted apparatus. Remote systems that track more than one first Purkinje image can cope with a wider range of head movements, making the systems even less restrictive for the subjects. Some video systems can also analyze torsional eye movements by identifying some feature on the iris and then tracking changes in its orientation from frame to frame. High-speed (500 Hz) digital video systems are seeing increased use in basic and clinical laboratories, challenging magnetic search coils as the method of choice. 4.5.4. Limitations The problems associated with calibrating patients whose eyes are never still have already been discussed. As noted before, the other serious limitations of some of these systems are their somewhat limited spatial resolution and bandwidth. Both parameters can be optimized, but doing so leads to marked increases in price. However, unlike other eyetracking technologies, the limiting factors for high-speed, digital video eye-movement recording systems are the cameras and computing power. As the enormous general consumer market rather than the quite small eye-movement recording market drives improvements in both technologies, improvements can be anticipated to occur much faster than they would otherwise. Even within the eye-tracking field, the development of

commercial uses for the technology will facilitate its advance faster than the smaller and less prosperous academic research community.

Figure.9. Monocular fixation recalibration and post calibration (horizontal) records for the right and left eyes.

Out of all these methods, the EOG system is the simplest and most consistent. The EOG system uses only electrodes, which are placed on the either side of the eyeball and the amplifier records the electrical signal. As there are no coils placed on the eye ball, it is a very safe method and is also very economical. Because of the above method reasons, the EOG system is used in our project. The EOG Amplifier is designed and developed.

CHAPTER 5 HARD WARE DESIGN

Electrodes: The purpose of the recording electrodes is to detect the voltage changes generated by eye movements and present them to the recording system. The type of electrodes used almost universally for this purpose consists of an Ag/Agcl pellet mounted in a plastic cup that holds it away from the skin. The space between the pellet and the skin is filled with electrolytic paste and the electrode is attached to the skin by a doughnut-shaped ring cut from the adhesive coated plastic tape. A flexible lead wire connects it to the recording system. This type of electrode is widely used because it does not polarize as readily as other metal electrodes do. The Ag/Agcl electrode displays the highest stability and lowest impedance of any readily available and is therefore desirable for eye movement recording. Moreover the design of this electrode is relatively insensitive to movement because the electrode electrolyte interference is located a short distance away from the skin and is somewhat protected from mechanical displacement. The electrolyte used under the electrolyte is designed to overcome the electrical impedance of the dry epidermis. Block diagram of EOG signal acquisition system

The generation of the Electro OculoGram (EOG) signal can be understood by envisaging dipoles located in the eyes with the cornea having relatively positive potential with respect to the retina. This EOG signal is picked up by a bi-channel signal acquisition system consisting of the Horizontal (H) and vertical (V) channels. The placement of electrodes is shown in Figure. The acquisition system employs Ag-AgCI surface electrodes for signal pickup which requires application of sufficient electrolyte gel to reduce the skin impedance. The EOG signal has a frequency range between DC and 38Hz and amplitude between 10mV to 100mV. The EOG signal amplitude is merely dependent upon the position of the eyeballs relative to the conductive environment of the skull. The EOG signal, like the other bio-signals is corrupted by environmental interferences and biological artifacts. Therefore the primary design considerations that have been kept in mind during the design of the EOG bio-potential amplifier are proper amplification, sufficient bandwidth, high input impedance, low noise, stability against temperature and voltage fluctuations, elimination of DC drifts and power-line interference. The first stage of any EOG bio-potential amplifier is the instrumentation amplifier which provides the initial amplification while reducing the effect of signals such as powerline inference and skin muscle artifacts owing to its high common mode rejection ratio (CMRR). Two instrumentation amplifiers are employed for this purpose, one for each of the two channels. Since the EOG signal content varies between DC and 38Hz, a band pass filter is used after the signal pickup stage, with cutoff frequencies of 0.16Hz and 40Hz. The acquired EOG signal after conditioning is interfaced to a computer. Designing of Instrumentation Amplifier An instrumentation amplifier is a type of differential amplifier that has been outfitted with input buffers, which eliminate the need for input impedance matching and thus, make the amplifier particularly suitable for use in measurement and test equipment. Additional characteristics include very low DC offset, low drift, low noise, very high openloop gain, very high common-mode rejection ratio, and very high input impedances. Instrumentation amplifiers are used where great accuracy and stability of the circuit both short and long-term are required. Although the instrumentation amplifier is usually shown

schematically identical to a standard op-amp, the electronic instrumentation amplifier is almost always internally composed of 3 op-amps as shown in Figure. The most commonly used instrumentation amplifier circuit is shown in this Figure. The gain of the circuit is Vout/V2-V1=(1+(2R1/Rgain)(R3/R2)) The ideal common-mode gain of an instrumentation amplifier is zero. In the circuit shown, common-mode gain is caused by mismatches in the values of the equally numbered resisters and by the non-zero common mode gains of the two input op-amps. Obtaining very closely matched resistors is a significant difficulty in fabricating these circuits, as is optimizing the common mode performance of the input op-amps.

Properties: 1) high common mode rejection ratio 2) low offset voltage and offset voltage drift 3) low input bias and input offset currents 4) well-matched and high value input impedances 5) low noise 6) low non-linearity 7) simple gain selection and 8) adequate bandwidth. Applications: 1) data acquisition from low output transducers

2) medical instrumentation 3) current/voltage monitoring 4) audio applications involving weak audio signals or noisy environments 5)high-speed signal conditioning for video data acquisition and imaging and 6) high frequency signal amplification in cable RF systems. EOG Instrumentation Amplifier It is the first stage of the circuit. The first part of the circuit is instrumentation amplifier then isolation amplifier which provide isolation between input and other parts of the circuit. It has high input impedance so that entire voltage received drops into the circuit. First stage Gain=1+[50Kohm/Rg] It has gain of 10 where Rg1=5Kohm Second stage Gain=1+[50Kohm/Rg] It has gain of 100 where Rg2=0.5Kohm

Designing of Isolation Amplifier

The ISO122 is a precision isolation amplifier incorporating a novel duty cycle modulation-demodulation technique. The signal is transmitted digitally across a 2pF differential capacitive barrier. With digital modulation the barrier characteristics do not affect signal integrity, resulting in excellent reliability and good high frequency transient immunity across the barrier. Both barrier capacitors are imbedded in the plastic body of the package. The ISO122 is easy to use. No external components are required for operation. The key specifications are 0.020% max. Nonlinearity, 50KHz signal bandwidth, and 200uV/0C VOS drift. A power supply range +-4.5V to +-18V and quiescent currents of +-

5mA on VSI and +-5.5mA on VS2 make these amplifiers ideal for a wide range of applications. The ISO122 is available in 16-pin plastic DIP and 28-lead plastic surface mount packages. Features 1)100% tested for high voltage breakdown; 2) Rated 1500Vrms 3) High IMR:140db at 60Hz 4) Bipolar operation V0=+-10V 5) 16-pin plastic dip and 28 lead SOIC 6) EASE OF USE: Fixed unity gain configuration 7) 0.020%max nonlinearity 8) +-4.5V to +-18V supply range.

Applications 1) Industrial process control: Transducer Isolator, Isolator for Thermo-couples, RTDs, Pressure Bridges, and Flow Meters, 4mA to 20mA Loop Isolation. 2) Ground loop elimination 3) Motor and SCR control 4) Power monitoring 5) PC-based data acquisition 6) Test equipment DC-DC Converter DC to DC converter is a circuit which converts a source of direct current (DC) from one voltage level to another. It is a useful device in the field of medical electronics as it gives another solution to the problem of achieving adequate low frequency response while avoiding the drift problem inherent in direct coupled amplifiers. This type of amplifier makes use of a chopping device, which converts a slowly varying direct current to an alternating from with amplitude proportional to the input direct current and with phase

dependent on the polarity o the original signal. The alternating voltage is then amplified by a conventional AC amplifier whose output is rectified to get an amplified direct current. It is an excellent device for signals of narrow bandwidth and reduces the drift problem.

Designing of second order low pass filter

The circuit shown is known as using gain voltage controlled voltage source (VCVS) circuit, which is also referred to as the sallen and key filter. The cutoff frequency of the low pass filter is given by Fc=1/ [2 (R1R2C1C2)1/2] In order for this filter to pass a second order Butterworth or normally flat pass band response with a roll off of-12dB per octave (-40dB/decade), one approach is to make both resistors equal in which case C2 must be equal to twice C1. This is accomplished easily by placing two capacitors, each equal to C1, in parallel for C2. For fc=0.16Hz,

i.e, R1=R2=10K, C2=100F, C1=220F (2*C2) To remove the DC component but preserve the DC signal, a second order low pass filter with a 1s time constant is used. The filtered signal is subtracted from the amplified signal of the first stage. Designing of 4th order low pass filter This is obtained by cascading two 2nd order low pass filter sections. The cutoff frequency of this 4th order is calculated by the same formula used for 2 nd order filter. But, the difference here is that the response decreases at-80dB/decade instated of 40dB/decade from the cutoff frequency, so that it reaches ideal response.

For fc=38Hz, i.e, R1=R2=R3=R4=2.7K,C2=C4=1F, C1=C3=2.2F (2*C2) The final stage of the analogue circuit is a 4 th order low pass filter with a cutoff frequency of 38Hz. The filter is designed to reduce power line noise contamination.

MICRO CONTROLLER: Introduction: Micro controllers these days are silent workers in many apparatus, ranging from the washing machine to the video recorder. Nearly all of these controllers are mask

programmed and therefore are of very little use for applications that require the programs to be changed during the course of execution. Even if the programs could be altered, the information necessary to do so an instruction set, an assembler language and description for the basic hardware is either very difficult to obtain or are in adequate when it came to the issue of accessibility. A marked exception to the above category is the Atmel 89C2051 micro controller belonging to the Atmel family. This micro controller has features that seem to make it more accessible than any other single chip micro controller with a reasonable price tag. The 89C51, an 8 bit single chip micro controller has got a powerful CPU optimized for control applications, 64K program memory address space, 64K data memory address space, 128 bytes of on chip RAM (read/write memory), for 8 bit bi-directional parallel ports one full duplex serial ports two 16 bit timers/counters and an extensive interrupt structure. The 89C51 is a second-generation 8-bit single chip micro- controller. The 89C2051 provides a significantly more powerful architecture, a more powerful instruction set and a full serial port. The 89C51 is a complete micro controller. There are 20 pins needed by the two 8 bit bi-directional ports. Pins provide power, allow you to connect a crystal clock and provide a few timing and control signals. The architecture includes the ALU, the accumulator, the stack pointer; a block of registers and a general purpose register-the B register. All these devices are connected to the 89C51 internal 8-bit data bus. Each I/O port is also connected to the 8-bit internal data bus through a series of registers. These registers hold data during I/O transfers and control the I/O ports. The architectural block diagram also shows the 89C51 ROM and RAM.

Comparison of microprocessor and micro controller : The difference between Microprocessor and Micro controller is Microprocessor can only process with the data, Micro controller can control external device. That is if you want switch ON or OFF a device, you need peripheral ICs to do this work with Micro controller you can directly control the device. Like Microprocessor, Micro controller is available with different features. It is available with inbuilt memory, I/O lines, timer and ADC. The micro controller, which we are going to use, is 89C51 it is manufactured by ATMEL, MC, and USA. This is advanced version of 8031. This Micro controller have inbuilt 4K bytes of flash ROM, 256 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines (4 bit ports) and 6 vectored interrupts.

Flash ROM: Flash ROM can be well explained with a block diagram as shown in the following figure. 4-kilo byte ROM is available in the Micro controller. It can be erased and reprogrammed. If the available memory is not enough for your program, you can interface the external ROM with this IC, it has 16 address lines, so maximum of (2^16) i.e. 64 bytes of ROM, can be interfaced with this Micro controller. Both internal and external ROM cannot be used simultaneously.

0FFF Internal ROM 0000

External ROM 0000

For external accessing of ROM, A pin is provided in Micro controller itself is i.e. pin no.31 EA should be high to use internal ROM, low to use external ROM. RAM: Internal 256 bytes of RAM are available for user. These 256 bytes of RAM can be used along with the external RAM. Externally you can connect 64-kilo bytes of RAM with micro controller. In internal RAM first 128 bytes of RAM is available for user and the remaining 128 bytes are used as special function registers (SFR). These SFRs are used as control registers for timer, serial port etc.

Advantages of Micro controllers: 1. If a system is developed with a microprocessor, the designer has to go of the PCB will be large enough to hold all the required peripherals. 2. But the micro controller has got all these peripheral facilities on a single chip so development of a similar system with a micro controller reduces PCB size and cost of the design. 3. One of the major difference between a micro controller and a microprocessor is that a controller often deals with bits, not bytes as in the real world application, for example switch contacts can only be open or close, indicators should be lit or dark and motors can be either turned on or off and so forth. 4. The Micro controller has two 16 bit timers / counters built within it, which makes it more suitable to this application since we need to produce some accurate timer delays. It is even more advantageous that the timers also act as interrupts. for

external memory such as RAM, ROM or EPROM and peripherals and hence the size

Hardware description: Introduction to 8051 Microcontroller: The first task faced when learning to use a new computer is to become familiar with the capability of the machine. The features of the computer best learned by studying the internal hardware design, also called the architecture of the device, to determine the type, number, and size of the registers and other circuitry. The hardware is manipulated by an accompanying set of program instructions, or software. One familiar with hardware and software, the system designer can then apply the microcontroller to the problems at hand. In this project we make use of microcontroller. The 8051 microcontroller generic part number actually includes a whole family of microcontrollers that have numbers ranging from 8031 to 8751.The block diagram of the 8051 shows all of the features unique to microcontrollers:

Internal ROM and RAM I/O ports with programmable pins Timers and counters Serial data communication\

The block diagram also shows the usual CPU components program counter, ALU, working registers, and the clock circuits. The 8051 architecture consists of these specific features: 8 bit CPU with registers A and B 16 bit PC &data pointer (DPTR) 8 bit program status word (PSW) 8 bit stack pointer(SP) Internal ROM or EPROM (8751)of 0(8031)to 4k(8051) Internal RAM of 128 bytes. 4 register banks , each containing 8 registers 80 bits of general purpose data memory 32 input/output pins arranged as four 8 bit ports:P0-P3 two 16 bit timer/counters:T0-T1 Two external and three internal interrupt sources Oscillator and clock circuits

A pin out of the 8051 packaged in a 40 pin DIP is shown below.

A pin out of the 8051 packaged in a 40 pin DIP is shown below.

VCC: Supply voltage. GND: Ground. Port 0: Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bi-directional I/O port. As an output port, each pin can sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as highimpedance inputs. Port 0 can also be configured to be the multiplexed low-order, address/data bus during accesses to external program and data memory. In this mode, P0 has internal pull-ups. Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming and outputs the code bytes during program verification. External pull-ups are required during program verification Port 1 Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 1 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. In addition, P1.0 and P1.1 can be configured to be the timer/counter 2 external count input (P1.0/T2) and the timer/counter 2 trigger input (P1.1/T2EX), respectively, as shown in the following table. Port Pin Alternate Functions P1.0 T2 (external count input to Timer/Counter 2), clock-out P1.1 T2EX (Timer/Counter 2 capture/reload trigger and direction control) Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes during Flash programming and program verification. Port 2: Port 2 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 2 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches from external program memory and during accesses to external data memory that use 16-bit addresses (MOVX @ DPTR). In this application,

Port 2 uses strong internal pull-ups when emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that use 8-bit addresses (MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special Function Register. Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits and some control signals during Flash programming and verification. Port 3: Port 3 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 3 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the pull-ups. Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features of the AT89C51, as shown in the following table. Port Pin Alternate Functions P3.0 RXD (serial input port) P3.1 TXD (serial output port) P3.2 INT0 (external interrupt 0) P3.3 INT1 (external interrupt 1) P3.4 T0 (timer 0 external input) P3.5 T1 (timer 1 external input) P3.6 WR (external data memory write strobe) P3.7 RD (external data memory read strobe) Port 3 also receives some control signals for Flash programming and programming verification. RST: Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running resets the device. ALE/PROG: Address Latch Enable is an output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during accesses to external memory. This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during Flash programming. In normal operation, ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator frequency and may be used for external timing or clocking purposes. Note, however, that one ALE pulse is skipped during each access to external data memory. If desired, ALE operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. With the bit set, ALE is active only during a MOVX or MOVC instruction. Otherwise, the pin is weakly pulled

high. Setting the ALE-disable bit has no effect if the microcrontroller is in external execution mode. PSEN: Program Store Enable is the read strobe to external program memory. When the AT89C52 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated twice each machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external data memory. EA/VPP: External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH. Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset. EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions. This pin also receives the 12volt programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming when 12-volt programming is selected. XTAL1: Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit. XTAL2: Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier. CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR: DESCRIPTION: If a piezoelectric crystal, usually quartz, has electrodes plated on opposite faces and if a potential is applied between these electrodes, forces will be exerted on the bound charges within the crystal. If this device is properly mounted deformations takes place within the crystal, and electromechanical system is formed which will vibrate when properly excited. The resonant frequency and the Q depend upon the crystal dimensions, how the surfaces are oriented with respect to its axes and how the device is mounted. Frequency ranging from few kilohertz to a few megahertz, and Qs in the range from several thousand to several hundred thousand, are commercially available. These extraordinarily high values of Q and the fact that the characteristics of quartz are extremely stable with respect to time and temperature account for the exceptional frequency stability of oscillators incorporating crystals.

Figure1:SYMBOL

Figure2: CHARACTERISTICS

It covers every significant performance characteristics of crystals such as resonance frequency, resonance mode, load capacitance, series resistance, holder capacitance, motional inductance and capacitance, and drive level. Quartz crystals are available in a myriad of shapes and sizes, and can range widely in performance specifications. These specifications include resonance frequency, resonance mode, load capacitance, series resistance, holder capacitance, motional inductance and

capacitance, and drive level. Understanding these parameters and how they relate to the crystal's performance will allow you to successfully specify crystals for your circuit application. A quartz crystal can be modeled as a series LRC circuit in parallel with a shunt capacitor.Crystals below 30MHz are often specified at the fundamental frequency, but above 30MHz they are typically specified as 3rd, 5th, or even 7th overtone (overtones occur only at odd multiples). It's important to know whether the oscillator is operating in fundamental or overtone mode. An overtone is similar in concept to a harmonic, with the exception that crystal oscillation overtones are not exact integer multiples of the fundamental. Selection of overtone is based upon using the lowest possible overtone that will result in a crystal fundamental frequency below 30MHz. The vendor calibrates a 3rd overtone crystal at the 3rd overtone, not the fundamental. For example, most crystal vendors will automatically give you a 3rd overtone 50MHz crystal if you don't specify fundamental mode or an overtone mode. If you plug a 50MHz 3rd overtone crystal into an oscillator that expects a fundamental-mode crystal, you are likely to have an oscillator running at 50/3 or 16.666MHz! If you don't know the frequency mode of your crystal, contact the designer or the manufacturer of the oscillator circuit. The majority of clock sources for microcontrollers can be grouped into two types: those based on mechanical resonant devices, such as crystals and ceramic resonators, and those based on electrical phase-shift circuits such as RC (resistor, capacitor) oscillators. Silicon oscillators are typically a fully integrated version of the RC oscillator with the added benefits of current sources, matched resistors and capacitors, and temperaturecompensation circuits for increased stability. Two examples of clock sources are illustrated in Figure 1. Figure 1a shows a Pierce oscillator configuration suitable for use with mechanical resonant devices like crystals and ceramic resonators, while Figure 1b shows a simple RC feedback oscillator.

Power Consumption: Power consumption is another important consideration of oscillator selection. The power consumption of discrete component crystal-oscillator circuits is primarily determined by the feedback-amplifier supply current and by the in-circuit capacitance values used. The power consumption of amplifiers fabricated in CMOS is largely proportional to the operating frequency and can be expressed as a power-dissipation capacitance value. The power-dissipation capacitance value of an HC04 inverter gate used as an inverting amplifier, for example, is typically 90pF. For operation at 4MHz from a 5V supply, this equates to a supply current of 1.8mA. The discrete component crystal oscillator circuit will typically include an additional load capacitance value of 20pF, and the total supply current becomes 2.2mA. Ceramic resonator circuits typically specify larger load capacitance values than crystal circuits, and draw still more current than the crystal circuit using the same amplifier. By comparison, crystal oscillator modules typically draw between 10mA and 60mA of supply current because of the temperature compensation and control functions included. The supply current for silicon oscillators depends on type and function, and can range from a few micro-amps for low-frequency (fixed) devices to tens of milli-amps for programmable-frequency parts. A low-power silicon oscillator, such as the MAX7375, draws less than 2mA when operating at 4MHz. Summary: The optimal clock source for a particular microcontroller application is determined by a combination of factors including accuracy, cost, power consumption, and environmental requirements. The following table summarizes the common oscillator circuit types discussed here, together with their strengths and weaknesses. 89C51 BLOCK DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION:

A map of the on-chip memory area called the Special Function Register (SFR) space is shown in Table 1. Note that not all of the addresses are occupied, and unoccupied addresses may not be implemented on the chip. Read accesses to these addresses will in general return random data, and write accesses will have an indeterminate effect. User software should not write 1s to these unlisted locations, since they may be used in future products to invoke new features. In that case, the reset or inactive values of the new bits will always be 0. Timer 2 Registers Control and status bits are contained in registers T2CON (shown in Table 2) and T2MOD (shown in Table 4) for Timer 2. The register pair (RCAP2H, RCAP2L) are the capture/Reload registers for Timer 2 in 16-bit capture mode or 16-bit auto-reload mode. Interrupt Registers the individual interrupt enable bits are in the IE register. Two priorities can be set for each of the six-interrupt sources in the IP register.

Data Memory: The AT89C52 implements 256 bytes of on-chip RAM. The upper 128 bytes occupy a parallel address space to the Special Function Registers. That means the upper 128 bytes have the same addresses as the SFR space but are physically separate from SFR space. When an instruction accesses an internal location above address 7FH, the address mode used in the instruction specifies whether the CPU accesses the upper 128 bytes of RAM or the SFR space. Instructions that use direct addressing access SFR space. For example, the following direct addressing instruction accesses the SFR at location 0A0H (which is P2). MOV 0A0H, #data

Instructions that use indirect addressing access the upper 128 bytes of RAM. For example, the following indirect addressing instruction, where R0 contains 0A0H, accesses the data byte at address 0A0H, rather than P2 (whose address is 0A0H). MOV @R0, #data Note that stack operations are examples of indirect addressing, so the upper 128 bytes of data RAM are available as stack space. Timer 0 and 1 Timer 0 and Timer 1 in the AT89C52 operate the same way as Timer 0 and Timer 1 in the AT89C51. Timer 2 Timer 2 is a 16-bit Timer/Counter that can operate as either a timer or an event counter. The type of operation is selected by bit C/T2 in the SFR T2CON (shown in Table 2). Timer 2 has three operating modes: capture, auto-reload (up or down counting), and baud rate generator. The modes are selected by bits in T2CON, as shown in Table 3. Timer 2 consists of two 8-bit registers, TH2 and TL2. In the Timer function, the TL2 register is incremented every machine cycle. Since a machine cycle consists of 12 oscillator periods, the count rate is 1/12 of the oscillator frequency. In the Counter function, the register is incremented in response to a 1-to-0 transition at its corresponding external input pin, T2. In this function, the external input is sampled during S5P2 of every machine cycle. When the samples show a high in one cycle and a low in the next cycle, the count is incremented. The new count value appears in the register during S3P1 of the cycle following the one in which the transition was detected. Since two machine cycles (24 oscillator periods) are required to recognize a 1-to-0 transition, the maximum count rate is 1/24 of the oscillator frequency. To ensure that a given level is sampled at least once before it changes, the level should be held for at least one full machine cycle.

Capture Mode In the capture mode, two options are selected by bit EXEN2 in T2CON. If EXEN2 = 0, Timer 2 is a 16-bit timer or counter which upon overflow sets bit TF2 in T2CON. This bit can then be used to generate an interrupt. If EXEN2 = 1, Timer 2 performs the same operation, but a 1- to-0 transition at external input T2EX also causes the current value in TH2 and TL2 to be captured into RCAP2H and RCAP2L, respectively. In addition, the transition at T2EX Causes bit EXF2 in T2CON to be set. The EXF2 bit, like TF2, can generate an interrupt. The capture mode is illustrated in Figure 1.

Auto-reload (Up or Down Counter) Timer 2 can be programmed to count up or down when configured in its 16-bit auto-reload mode. This feature is invoked by the DCEN (Down Counter Enable) bit located in the SFR T2MOD (see Table 4). Upon reset, the DCEN bit is set to 0 so that timer 2 will default to count up. When DCEN is set, Timer 2 can count up or down, depending on the value of the T2EX pin. Figure 2 shows Timer 2 automatically counting up when DCEN = 0. In this mode, two options are selected by bit EXEN2 in T2CON. If EXEN2 = 0, Timer 2 counts up to 0FFFFH and then sets the TF2 bit upon overflow. The overflow also causes the timer registers to be reloaded with the 16-bit value in RCAP2H and RCAP2L. The values in Timer in Capture ModeRCAP2H and RCAP2L are preset by software. If EXEN2 = 1, a 16-bit reload can be triggered either by an overflow or by a 1-to-0 transition at external input T2EX. This transition also sets the EXF2 bit. Both the TF2 and EXF2 bits can generate an interrupt if enabled. Setting the DCEN bit enables Timer 2 to count up or down, as shown in Figure 3. In this mode, the T2EX pin controls the direction of the count. Logic 1 at T2EX makes Timer 2 count up. The timer will overflow at 0FFFFH and set the TF2 bit. This overflow also causes the 16-bit value in RCAP2H and RCAP2L to be reloaded into the timer registers, TH2 and TL2, respectively. Logic 0 at T2EX makes Timer 2 count down. The timer underflows when TH2 and TL2 equal the values stored in RCAP2H and RCAP2L. The underflow sets the TF2 bit and causes 0FFFFH to be reloaded into the timer registers. The EXF2 bit toggles whenever Timer 2 overflows or underflows and can be used as a 17th bit of resolution. In this operating mode, EXF2 does not flag an interrupt.

Baud Rate Generator:

Timer 2 is selected as the baud rate generator by setting TCLK and/or RCLK in T2CON (Table 2). Note that the baud rates for transmit and receive can be different if Timer 2 is used for the receiver or transmitter and Timer 1 is used for the other function. Setting RCLK and/or TCLK puts Timer 2 into its baud rate generator mode, as shown in Figure 4. The baud rate generator mode is similar to the auto-reload mode, in that a rollover in TH2 causes the Timer 2 registers to be reloaded with the 16-bit value in registers RCAP2H and RCAP2L, which are preset by software. The baud rates in Modes 1 and 3 are determined by Timer 2s overflow rate according to the following equation.

The Timer can be configured for either timer or counter operation. In most applications, it is configured for timer operation (CP/T2 = 0). The timer operation is different for Timer 2 when it is used as a baud rate generator. Normally, as a timer, it increments every machine cycle (at 1/12 the oscillator frequency). As a baud rate generator, however, it increments every state time (at 1/2 the oscillator frequency). The baud rate formula is given below.

Where (RCAP2H, RCAP2L) is the content of RCAP2H and RCAP2L taken as a 16-bit unsigned integer. Timer 2 as a baud rate generator is shown in Figure 4. This figure is valid only if RCLK or TCLK = 1 in T2CON. Note that a rollover in TH2 does not set TF2 and will not generate an interrupt. Note too, that if EXEN2 is set, a 1-to-0 transition in T2EX will set EXF2 but will not cause a reload from (RCAP2H, RCAP2L) to (TH2, TL2). Thus when Timer 2 is in use as a baud rate generator, T2EX can be used as an extra external interrupt. Note that when Timer 2 is running (TR2 = 1) as a timer in the baud rate generator mode, TH2 or TL2 should not be read from or written to. Under these conditions, the Timer is incremented every state time, and the results of a read or write may not be accurate. The RCAP2 registers may be read but should not be written to, because a write might overlap a reload and cause write and/or reload errors. The timer should be turned off (clear TR2) before accessing the Timer 2 or RCAP2 registers.

Programmable Clock Out A 50% duty cycle clock can be programmed to come out on P1.0, as shown in Figure 5. This pin, besides being a regular I/O pin, has two alternate functions. It can be programmed to input the external clock for Timer/Counter 2 or to output a 50% duty cycle clock ranging from 61 Hz to 4 MHz at a 16 MHz operating frequency. To configure the Timer/Counter 2 as a clock generator, bit C/T2 (T2CON.1) must be cleared and bit T2OE (T2MOD.1) must

be set. Bit TR2 (T2CON.2) starts and stops the timer. The clock-out frequency depends on the oscillator frequency and the reload value of Timer 2 captures registers (RCAP2H, RCAP2L), as shown in the following equation.

In the clock-out mode, Timer 2 rollovers will not generate an interrupt. This behavior is similar to when Timer 2 is used as a baud-rate generator. It is possible to use Timer 2 as a baud-rate generator and a clock generator simultaneously. Note, however, that the baudrate and clock-out frequencies cannot be determined independently from one another since they both use RCAP2H and RCAP2L. UART The UART in the AT89C52 operates the same way as the UART in the AT89C51. Interrupts The AT89C52 has a total of six interrupt vectors: two external interrupts (INT0 and INT1), three timer interrupts (Timers 0, 1, and 2), and the serial port interrupt. These interrupts are all shown in Figure 6. Each of these interrupt sources can be individually enabled or disabled by setting or clearing a bit in Special Function Register IE. IE also contains a global disable bit, EA, which disables all interrupts at once. Note that Table shows that bit position IE.6 is unimplemented. In the AT89C51, bit position IE.5 is also unimplemented. User software should not write 1s to these bit positions, since they may be used in future AT89 products. Timer 2 interrupt is generated by the logical OR of bits TF2 and EXF2 in register T2CON. Neither of these flags is cleared by hardware when the service routine is vectored to. In fact, the service routine may have to determine whether it was TF2 or EXF2 that generated the interrupt, and that bit will have to be cleared in software. The Timer 0 and Timer 1 flags, TF0 and TF1, are set at S5P2 of the cycle in which the timers overflow. The values are then polled by the circuitry in the next cycle. However, the Timer 2 flag, TF2, is set at S2P2 and is polled in the same cycle in which the timer overflows.

Oscillator Characteristics XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an inverting amplifier that can be configured for use as an on-chip oscillator, as shown in Figure 7. Either a quartz crystal or ceramic resonator may be used. To drive the device from an external clock source, XTAL2 should be left unconnected while XTAL1 is driven, as shown in Figure 8. There are no requirements on the duty cycle of the external clock signal, since the input to the internal clocking circuitry is through a divide-by-two flip-flop, but minimum and maximum voltage high and low time specifications must be observed.

Programming the Flash The AT89C52 is normally shipped with the on-chip Flash memory array in the erased state (that is, contents = FFH) and ready to be programmed. The programming interface accepts either a high-voltage (12-volt) or a low-voltage (VCC) program enable signal. The Lowvoltage programming mode provides a convenient way to program the AT89C52 inside the users system, while the high-voltage programming mode is compatible with conventional third party Flash or EPROM programmers. The AT89C52 is shipped with either the highvoltage or low-voltage programming mode enabled. The respective topside marking and device signature codes are listed in the following table.

The AT89C52 code memory array is programmed byte-by byte in either programming mode. To program any nonblank byte in the on-chip Flash Memory, the entire memory must be erased using the Chip Erase Mode. Programming Algorithm Before programming the AT89C52, the address, data and control signals should be set up according to the Flash programming mode table and Figure 9 and Figure 10. To program the AT89C52, take the Following steps. 1. Input the desired memory location on the address lines. 2. Input the appropriate data byte on the data lines. 3. Activate the correct combination of control signals. 4. Raise EA/VPP to 12V for the high-voltage programming mode. 5. Pulse ALE/PROG once to program a byte in the Flash array or the lock bits. The byte-write cycle is self-timed and typically takes no more than 1.5 ms. Repeat steps 1 through 5, changing the address and data for the entire array or until the end of the object file is reached. Data Polling The AT89C52 features Data Polling to indicate the end of a write cycle. During a write cycle, an attempted read of the last byte written will result in the complement of the written data on PO.7. Once the write cycle has been completed, true data is valid on all outputs, and the next cycle may begin. Data Polling may begin any time after a write cycle has been initiated.

Ready/Busy The progress of byte programming can also be monitored by the RDY/BSY output signal. P3.4 is pulled low after ALE goes high during programming to indicate BUSY. P3.4 is pulled high again when programming is done to indicate READY.

Program Verify If lock bits LB1 and LB2 have not been programmed, the programmed code data can be read back via the address and data lines for verification. The lock bits cannot be verified directly. Verification of the lock bits is achieved by observing that their features are enabled.

Program Verify If lock bits LB1 and LB2 have not been programmed, the programmed code data can be read back via the address and data lines for verification. The lock bits cannot be verified directly. Verification of the lock bits is achieved by observing that their features are enabled.

Chip Erase The entire Flash array is erased electrically by using the proper combination of control signals and by holding ALE/PROG low for 10 ms. The code array is written with all 1s. The chip erase operation must be executed before the code memory can be reprogrammed. Reading the Signature Bytes The signature bytes are read by the same procedure as a normal verification of locations 030H, 031H, and 032H, except that P3.6 and P3.7 must be pulled to logic low. The values returned are as follows. T (030H) = 1EH indicates manufactured by Atmel (031H) = 52H indicates 89C52 (032H) = FFH indicates 12V programming (032H) = 05H indicates 5V programming Programming Interface All major programming vendors offer worldwide support for the Atmel microcontroller series. Please contact your local programming vendor for the appropriate software revision every code byte in the Flash array can be written, and the entire array can be erased, by using the appropriate combination of control signals. The write operation cycle is self timed and once initiated, will automatically time itself to completion.

Design of Instrument power supply:

With any micro controller based equipment, power supply is an essential item, which takes the input AC(230v,50Hz) and converts the same into DC voltages of specified values, required by the other circuits of the equipment, such as micro controller, sensor amplifier,

opto-coupler etc. Sometimes only a single power supply of value +5v is sufficient. But in some cases both positive and negative voltages of specified values are to be derived, because of the circuit involved; where as in other cases, different values of the voltages may be required. This is entirely dependent on the other circuits of the system.

In the proposed power factor correction circuit, Atmel 89C52 micro controller is used and the associated digital circuits require a 5v regulated power supply for its operation. But in order to provide power supply to the comparators, it is required to provide isolation between the micro controller and the comparator circuit. To achieve this second power supply, which is completely isolated from the 5v supply is provided. The circuit diagram of the desired power supply is as shown in fig.4.1

In the circuit, a step down transformer of rating 230v primary with the isolated secondary is used. One secondary winding provides an 8v ac output, with a current capacity of 500mA, and the other winding provides 15:0:15v(i.e. center tapped secondary) with a current capacity of 500mA.

The secondary winding-1, voltage is rectified by using a bridge rectifier. This is followed by a capacitor filter to remove the ripple. The secondary winding-2, voltages are rectified , by using two center tapped full wave rectifiers, one providing positive voltage and the other providing the negative voltage. The positive and negative voltages are again filtered by using two capacitor filters as shown in fig.4.1

In these instrument power supplies, the filter sections can be either or L sections, but these sections are not normally needed in low power, low voltage applications and only a single capacitor is sufficient. The internal impedance of the secondary winding is sufficient to limit the current during the initial surge. The capacitor value should be of very high

value for low ripple. Thus, a capacitor of 1000 f with a working voltage of 18v is sufficient, but with a factor of safety the working voltage is considered as 35v.

The filtered DC output from secondary winding-1, without any load has a value of 10v to 12v with normal input supply of 230v AC. The input voltage may fluctuate over a wide range practically. To accommodate these ranges a higher initial output, which is more than 12v is considered. The regulator itself requires 2v higher than its regulated output, i.e., 7v is needed for getting 5v. In order to accommodate the voltage fluctuations on the lower side of 230v, another 5v additional voltage is considered.

This voltage is fed to a three pin regulator 7805, which basically provides an output of 5v irrespective of its input supply, provided the input is greater than 7v. But, at the maximum input voltage, it should not exceed 32v, and as it is, it never happens, unless the input supply voltage is greater than 400v, and is of rare nature. The output of this regulator is connected with a small capacitor of 0.1f (between output and ground). This capacitor improves the noise immunity. This output drives the micro controller.

The filtered DC output from secondary winding-2, is also connected to a three pin positive regulator, 7812 to obtain +12v and a three pin negative regulator 7912, to obtain 12v. These supplies are used to power the IGBT/power MOSFET gate drive circuits. The three pin regulators are very handy and are widely used by industry in order to get regulated dc power supplies. These regulators are having built in features such as over voltage, over current limitations and also thermal shut down. Thus, because of these protection mechanisms these devices provide all the options required for an ideal regulator. This is the basic power supply module, which is designed and used with the circuit.

CHAPTER 6 SOFT WARE DESIGN Any micro controller based equipment needs associated software to be dumped into the micro controller for executing the work, it has been designed for. In the present project, two micro controllers were used for two different purposes. Both the programs are different and the flow charts for both the systems were given in the figure 6.1 and 6.2. The corresponding program written in Embedded C is provided in Annexure. The flow chart explanation is provided here. The saccadic stimulator is basically designed to provide a regular saccadic stream. It can also be programmed to provide irregular saccades, either in time or direction irregularity. But in the present system, I designed for regular saccade only. In regular saccades, each LED glows for a predefined time of 1sec. After 1sec, the present LED goes off and other LED glows, which makes a predefined angle, and it can be any angle between 50 to 300 in terms of 50 steps. As and when power is applied, the micro controller gets RESET and runs the program from starting. The micro controller initializes all the ports, and timer is also initialized in such a way to get a desired time delay of 1sec. Initially 0 0 LED is lit and the program waits for 1sec. After 1sec is completed, the program makes 0 0 LED off and left 50 LED ON. Now the program waits for 1sec and on completion of 1sec the left 5 0 LED is turned off and again the central 00 LED is made on. Now, again the program waits for another 1sec and on completion the 00 LED is made off and the Right 50 LED is made on. This LED is also kept on for 1sec, on completion, this LED is turned off and the 0 0 LED is again made on. This forms a complete cycle and takes 4sec to complete one cycle. It is always necessary to take several readings to avoid the problems related to external factors. In the present case, as the test is a regular saccadic test, the person can predict and move his/her eyes before hand in anticipation. To avoid such readings, the cycle is repeated for 10 times. The best results can be manually selected. The program on completion of each cycle, increments the cycle counter and counter is checked for ten counts. On completion of 10 counts, the program comes out of the

present loop and goes for the next cycle. In this case it is 100 LED. Again the counter is initialized for 0 and the cycle repeats. But, this time with 0 0; left 100; 00; Right 100 and 00. This cycle is repeated for ten times. These two steps take total of 80secs. During this entire 80sec period, the subject has to observe continuously the glowing LED, without moving his head and only moving eyes towards the glowing LED. If the next step is repeated immediately, it becomes very tedious for the patients especially, and they may become fatigue. To avoid this, after completion of two steps, all the LEDs are put off, and the program waits for a button to be pressed. During this period, the subject can close his eyes and take rest. After the subject feels comfortable, the button can be pressed to precede further that is with 15 0 and 200 steps subsequently with 250 and 300. As the LEDs were glowing, at the same time information is also passed to the DAC to provide on analog output to the processing circuit so that the processing circuit knows which LED is glowing when the central 00 LED is glowing. The DAC provides 2.5V at the output for the processing circuit. For left 5 0 LED, the DAC provides 2.9V and similarly for right 50 LED, the DAC provides 2.1V output. The output voltage from DAC for each LED is indicated in the table. S.No 00 50 100 150 200 250 300 Left 2.5V 2.9V 3.3V 3.7V 4.1V 4.5V 4.9V Right 2.5V 2.1V 1.7V 1.3V 0.9V 0.5V 0.1V

This way the stimulator provides an output voltage in a regular manner as the LEDs were glowing, and this forms the reference waveform for measuring the parameters. The second part of the project is to measure the saccadic parameters from the stimulating and response waveforms, and this is done by the second micro controller. The second micro controller receives two analog signals one from the stimulation and the other once from the response that is EOG amplifier. Both these signals are analog signals. This micro controller also on application of power gets reset and the ports are initialized and LCD is also initialized. The timer is initialized to provide interrupt for every

2msec. On receiving this interrupt the program takes a sample from one of the ADC channels. Initially the program, takes the samples from channel-0 that is the stimulating signal. The program checks for a transition. This is done by considering the previous sample. The present to previous sample difference is more than a predefined value, it is considered as a transition. Once the transition is identified, the program takes the second channel that is corresponding to the response section. The program now opens a counter and takes the samples at regular intervals of 2msec. Now also the program checks for the deviations from the previous value. If the difference is more, the program stops, otherwise the counter is incremented and the present value is stored as previous value and the next sample is considered. This process goes until the transition is identified. Once the transitions identified, the program comes out of the loop, and the counter value is stored. The counter value represent the latency period. Next, the program has to check for settling time and also the peek velocity. In order to obtain these two things, it is required to store the sampled value until the stable values are obtained, which is the steady state condition. The steady state condition is also checked by considering the difference between previous value and present value, and difference is less than a specified value. During this period also a counter is incremented with each new sample, until the steady state is obtained. The counter value indicates the response time. The stored sampled values are again considered and the differences between the successive values are taken. This difference indicates the differentiation. On differentiation of the EOG signal, we get velocity curve. The Maximum is picked up and this is the peak velocity. On obtaining all these three values, they are displayed on the LCD, and the program jumps back for considering the next transition. This way the program continuously monitors the transitions in the stimulus waveform and on detecting observes the response until the response is stabilized. From these values, the parameters were obtained and are displayed. The corresponding programs are provided in the annexure. CHAPTER 7

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS Initially the total project is divided in to 3 parts. They are: i) ii) iii) Stimulator development EOG Amplifier development and Response measurement device

In the first stage stimulator was developed and the wave forms were checked on the CRO and checked for timing accuracies and also the amplitude variations with each step size of the LED glowing. The LEDs were also checked, for whether they are glowing in the required order or not. After conforming that the stimulator is working satisfactorily, the second step has been considered. In the second phase, the EOG Amplifier is designed and developed. The EOG Amplifier is checked for the output on CRO, by placing the Electrodes on the subject at the referred points in the literature. This part has been tested by a Neuro-physician from NIMS, and after taking conformation from the Physician, I moved on to the 3 rd step. The EOG Amplifier is checked for movement and for very accurate measurements for diagnostic applications it needs to be calibrated. In the 3rd step the response system is designed and developed. The third stage micro controller receives the analog information from both the stages, as an analog signal. These analog signals are processed by this section and the results were obtained. After careful evaluation of the obtained results with standard equipment, the results were certified as satisfactory by the NIMS Physician. After conforming that all the sections are satisfactorily working, the results were obtained from three normal subjects and the results were analyzed manually. After the final confirmation from the physician, the equipment was used for recording data. The data was obtained from 10 normal subjects and 10 subjects suffering from Wilsons disease. The Wilsons disease is a disease caused by the deposition of heavy metals in the brain, which leads to sluggish movements. The results were tabulated NORMAL GROUP S.No Latency Settling time Peak velocity

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Mean WILSONS GROUP S.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Mean

20msec 40msec 30msec 60msec 30msec 36msec 48msec 56msec 60msec 25msec 40.5

45msec 80msec 80msec 90msec 70msec 80msec 90msec 98msec 100msec 50msec 78.3

2000/sec 1800/sec 1900/sec 1600/sec 1700/sec 1850/sec 1900/sec 1700/sec 1500/sec 1900/sec 17.85

Latency 140msec 180msec 150msec 160msec 180msec 170msec 175msec 150msec 180msec 170msec 16.55

Settling time 120msec 140msec 130msec 130msec 130msec 150msec 160msec 140msec 120msec 130msec 13.5

Peak velocity 1000/sec 600/sec 900/sec 850/sec 900/sec 700/sec 800/sec 850/sec 700/sec 750/sec 80.5

From the means it is apparent that one can use these parameters to distinguish a given subject as normal or a patient. This technique can also be used to check whether the disease is subsiding or not, with the given medication. This is possible as the parameters are quantified. This technique is a better technique, instead of using an ambiguous check done by the physicians earlier. Though, the instrument is working satisfactorily it is a primitive one and in the present project, there are several things for improvement. The ADC used is a 10 bit ADC, instead a 12 bit or higher bit ADC can be used, which can improve the performance of the system. The EOG amplifier output still had noise, and better noise removal techniques can be adopted. Instead of using hardware filters, the digital filters can be used, which can improve the performance greatly.

Even the parameter extraction is also done by using the basic algorithms. Instead DSP based techniques can be adopted, which can improve the accuracy of the system greatly. The other parameters can also be included in the analysis part, and they can also be studied. Once all these modifications are done, the equipments becomes a standalone system, and can be used either for diagnostic or prognostic applications.