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Outlines
3.1 Amplitude Modulation 3.2 Virtues, Limitations, and Modifications of Amplitude Modulation 3.3 Double Sideband-Suppressed Carrier Modulation 3.4 Costas Receiver 3.5 Quadrature-Carrier Multiplexing 3.6 Single-Sideband Modulation 3.7 Vestigial Sideband Modulation
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Outlines
3.8 Baseband Representation of Modulated Waves and Band-Pass Filters 3.9 Theme Examples 3.10 Summary and Discussion
Introduction
Reasonable antenna size: For effective radiation of power over a radio link, the antenna size must be on the order of the wavelength of the signal to be radiated. Example: Audio signal frequencies are so low (0-3.5 KHz),wavelengths are so large that impracticably large antennas will be required for radiation. = C/f, where C = 3*10^8 and f is the frequency For Audio signals: = (3*10^8)/(3KHz)= 100km Mount Everest = 9km and airplane height = <20km
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Introduction
Reasonable antenna size Accordingly, shifting the spectrum to a higher frequency (a smaller wavelength) by modulation solves the problem
Introduction
Recall the frequency-shift property:
This property states that multiplication of a signal by a factor e^(j2fct) shifts the spectrum of that signal by f = fc
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Introduction
Frequency-shifting (frequency translation) in practice is achieved by multiplying g(t) by a sinusoidal:
Introduction
Frequency-shifting (frequency translation) in practice is achieved by multiplying g(t) by a sinusoidal:
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Introduction
Another practical example for using frequency shifting:
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)-brief: If several signals, each occupying the same frequency band, are transmitted simultaneously over the same transmission medium, they will all interfere; it will be difficult to separate or retrieve them at a receiver. For example, if all radio stations decide to broadcast audio signals simultaneously, the receiver will not be able to separate them
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Introduction
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) - brief : One solution is to use modulation (frequency shifting) whereby each radio station is assigned a distinct carrier frequency. Each station transmits a modulated signal, thus shifting the signal spectrum to its allocated band, which is not occupied by any other station. A radio receiver can pick up any station by tuning to the band of the desired station.
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Introduction
The term baseband is used to designate the band of frequencies of the signal delivered by the source Example: In telephony, the baseband is the audio band (band of voice signals) of 0 to 3.5 kHz Communication that uses techniques to shift the frequency spectrum of a signal is known as carrier communication
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Modulation
Modulation: the process by which some characteristic of a carrier wave is varied in accordance with an Information-Bearing Signal (IBS) Carrier: is needed to facilitate the transportation of the modulated signal across a band-pass channel from the transmitter to the receiver
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Modulation
A sinusoidal carrier signal A cos(2fct+) has three basic parameters: Amplitude, frequency, and phase. Varying these parameters in proportion to the baseband signal (IBS) results in, amplitude modulation (AM),
frequency modulation (FM), and phase modulation (PM), respectively. Collectively, these techniques are called continuous-wave modulation
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Amplitude Modulation
AM modulation family
Amplitude modulation (AM), known also as DSB-LC Double sideband-suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) Single sideband (SSB) Vestigial sideband (VSB)
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Amplitude Modulation
Lesson 1 : Fourier analysis provides a powerful mathematical tool for developing mathematical as well as physical insight into the spectral characterization of linear modulation strategies Lesson 2 : The implementation of analog communication is significantly simplified by using AM, at the expense of transmitted power and channel bandwidth
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Amplitude Modulation
Lesson 3 : The utilization of transmitted power and channel bandwidth is improved through well-defined modifications of an amplitude-modulated waves spectral content at the expense of increased system complexity.
There is no free lunch in designing a communication system: for every gain that is made, there is a price to be paid.
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Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude modulation (AM) is formally defined as a process in which the amplitude of the carrier wave c(t) is varied about a mean value, linearly with the message signal m(t) (modulating wave) A sinusoidal carrier wave
c(t ) = Ac cos(2f c t ) (3.1)
An amplitude-modulated wave
s (t ) = Ac [1 + ka m(t )] cos(2f c t ) (3.2)
Where ka a constant called the amplitude sensitivity of the modulator responsible for the generation of the modulated signal
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Amplitude Modulation
Typically, the carrier amplitude Ac and the message signal m(t) are measured in volts, in which case the amplitude sensitivity ka is measured in volts^-1
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Amplitude Modulation
Theory
A sinusoidal carrier wave
c(t ) = Ac cos(2f c t ) (3.1)
An amplitude-modulated wave
s (t ) = Ac [1 + k a m(t )] cos(2f c t ) (3.2)
The envelope of s(t) has essentially the same shape as the message signal m(t) provided that two conditions are satisfied :
1. The amplitude of kam(t) is always less than unity
k a m(t ) < 1, for all t
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(3.3)
Amplitude Modulation
2. The carrier frequency fc is much greater than the
Envelope detector: A device whose output traces the envelope of the AM wave acting as the input signal
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Amplitude Modulation
carrier phase reversals whenever the factor 1+Ka m(t) crosses zero (envelope distortion)
Over modulated 21
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Amplitude Modulation
The Fourier transform or spectrum of the AM wave s(t)
Where
m(t ) exp( j 2f c t ) M ( f f c )
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Amplitude Modulation
From the spectrum of the following Fig. 3.2
Amplitude Modulation
From the spectrum of Fig. 3.2(b)
1. As a result of the modulation process, the spectrum of the
message signal m(t) for negative frequencies extending from W to 0 becomes completely visible for positive frequencies, provided that the carrier frequency satisfies the condition fc>W
2. For positive frequencies, the portion of the spectrum of an
AM wave lying above the carrier frequency fc is referred to as the upper sideband, whereas the symmetric portion below fc is referred to as the lower sideband.
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Amplitude Modulation
3. For positive frequencies, the highest frequency
component of the AM wave equals fc+W, and the lowest frequency component equals fc-W.
4. The difference between these two frequencies defines
the transmission bandwidth BT of the AM wave, which is exactly twice the message m(t) bandwidth W
BT = ( fc + W ) ( fc W ) = 2W (3 .6 )
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Amplitude Modulation
Example Single-Tone Modulation Consider a modulating wave m(t) that consists of a single tone or frequency component; that is, where Am is the amplitude of the sinusoidal modulating wave and fm is its frequency (see Fig. 3.3(a))
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Amplitude Modulation
Example-cont Single-Tone Modulation The sinusoidal carrier wave has amplitude Ac and frequency fc (see Fig. 3.3(b)).
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Where
= Ka Am
Amplitude Modulation
The dimensionless constant is called the modulation factor, or the percentage modulation when it is expressed numerically as a percentage To avoid envelope distortion due to over modulation, the modulation factor must be kept below unity, as explained previously
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Amplitude Modulation
Figure 3.3(c) shows a sketch of s(t) for less than unity.
Let Amax and Amin denote the maximum and minimum values of the envelope of the modulated wave, respectively. Then Rearranging this equation, we may express the modulation factor as
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Amplitude Modulation
Expressing the product of the two cosines in Eq. (3.7) as the sum of two sinusoidal waves, one having frequency fc+fm and the other having fc-fm frequency we get
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Amplitude Modulation
In practice, the AM wave s(t) is a voltage or current wave. In either case, the average power delivered to a 1ohm resistor by s(t) is comprised of three components:
Amplitude Modulation
For a load resistor R != 1 ohm, the upper side-frequency power, and lower side-frequency power are merely scaled by the factor 1/R or R, depending on whether the modulated wave is a voltage or a current, respectively
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Amplitude Modulation
The ratio of the total sideband power to the total power in the modulated wave is equal to /(2+ ) For = 1, 100% modulation is usedthe total power in the two side frequencies of the resulting AM wave is only one-third of the total power in the modulated wave
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frequency is large compared to the message bandwidth fc >> W 2. The percentage modulation in the AM wave is less than 100 percent ( <1)
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So that the capacitor C charges rapidly and thereby follows the applied voltage up to the positive peak when the diodes is conducting
1 fc
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AM wave input
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The modulated wave consists only of the upper sideband or the lower sideband SSB used to translate the spectrum of the modulating signal to a new location in the frequency domain.
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One sideband is passed almost completely and just a trace, of the other sideband is retained. The required channel bandwidth is slightly in excess of the message bandwidth by an amount equal to the width of the vestigial sideband. VSB is well suited for the transmission of wideband signals such as television signals that contain significant components at extremely low frequencies
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Unlike amplitude modulation, DSB-SC modulation is reduced to zero whenever the message signal m(t) is switched off
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Which means that simple demodulation using an envelope detection is not a viable option for DSB-SC modulation
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Its only advantage is saving transmitted power, which is important enough when the available transmitted power is at a premium
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Which are the images of the first two side-frequencies with respect to the origin, in reverse order
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v(t ) = Ac' cos(2f c t + ) s (t ) = Ac Ac' cos(2f c t ) cos(2f c t + ) m(t ) = 1 1 Ac Ac' cos(4f c t + ) m(t ) + Ac Ac' cos( )m(t ) (3.10) 2 2
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v 0 (t ) =
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Solution: One method of satisfying this requirement is to use the Costas receiver
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phase as the carrier wave Ac cos(2fc t) used to generate the incoming DSB-SC wave
a) b)
The I-channel output contains the desired demodulated signal m(t) The Q-channel output is zero due to the quadrature null effect of the Q-channel
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discriminator (which consists of a multiplier followed by a time-averaging unit): a) A dc control signal proportional to the phase drift is generated b) With negative feedback acting around the Costas receiver, the control signal tends to automatically correct for the local phase error in the voltagecontrolled oscillator
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The multiplexed signal s(t) occupies a channel bandwidth of 2Wcentered on the carrier frequency fc Where W is the message bandwidth, assumed to be common to both m1(t) and m2(t)
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Solution:
To maintain this synchronization, we may use a Costas receiver 2) Another commonly used method is to send a pilot signal outside the passband of the modulated signal
1)
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Hilbert Transform
Hilbert Transform - I The Hilbert Transform on a signal changes its phase by 90 The Hilbert transform of a signal g(t) is represented as ^g(t)
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Hilbert Transform
Hilbert Transform - II If we observe the previous equations, it is evident that Hilbert transform is nothing but the convolution of g(t) with 1/t
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Hilbert Transform
Hilbert Transform - III The Fourier Transform of ^g(t) is computed from signum function sgn(t) where
Hilbert Transform
Hilbert Transform Properties 1. g(t) and ^g(t) have the same magnitude spectrum 2. If ^g(t) is HT of g(t) then HT of ^g(t) is -g(t) 3. g(t) and ^g(t) are orthogonal over the entire interval - to +
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Hilbert Transform
Complex representation of signals - I If g(t) is a real valued signal, then its complex representation g+(t) is given by
Where
Hilbert Transform
Complex representation of signals - II g+(t) is called pre-envelope and exists only for positive frequencies For negative frequencies g-(t) is defined as follows:
Therefore,
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Hilbert Transform
Essentially the pre-envelope of a signal enables the suppression of one of the sidebands in signal transmission Therefore, the pre-envelope is used in the generation of the SSB-signal
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So,
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which is characterized by two side-frequencies, one at fc+fm and the other at fc-fm
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The cosine term in Eq. (3.14) includes the sum of two angles (2fct and 2fmt), and Therefore, expanding the cosine term in Eq. (3.14) using a well-known trigonometric identity, we have
cos[ + ] = cos[ ] cos[ ] sin[ ] sin[ ]
SUSSB (t ) =
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DSB-SC modulated wave of Eq. (3.13), then we would have a lower SSB modulated wave defined by
S LSSB (t ) = 1 1 Ac Am cos(2f c t ) cos(2f m t ) + Ac Am sin(2f c t ) sin( 2f m t ) (3.16) 2 2
S SSB (t ) =
(3.15 and 3.16) and thereby define a sinusoidal SSB modulated wave as follows:
where the plus sign applies to lower SSB and the minus sign applies to upper SSB
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a cos(2f t )
n n n
(3.18)
1 Ac cos(2f c t ) 2
(3.19)
Using Eqs. (3.19) and (3.20), we may reformulate the SSB modulated wave of Eq. (3.17)
S SSB (t ) = Ac A m(t ) cos(2f c t ) m c m(t ) sin(2f c t ) (3.21) 2 2
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Under appropriate conditions, the Fourier series representation of a periodic signal converges to the Fourier transform of a nonperiodic signal; see Appendix 2 for details
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The signal m (t) is the Hilbert transform of the signal m(t). Basically, a Hilbert transformer is a system whose transfer function is defined by
H ( f ) = j sgn( f ) (3.22)
where sgn(f) is the signum function; for the definition of the signum function see Section 2.4.
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(a) Spectrum of a message signal with energy gap centered around zero frequency. Corresponding spectra of SSB-modulated waves using (b) upper sideband, and (c) lower sideband. In parts (b) and (c), the spectra are only shown for positive frequencies
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This separation is equal to 2fa, where fa is the lowest frequency component of the message signal
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Note: The plus sign at the summing junction pertains to transmission of the lower sideband and the minus sign pertains to transmission of the upper sideband.
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The role of the quadrature path embodying the wideband phase shifter is merely to interfere with the inphase path so as to eliminate power in one of the two sidebands, depending on whether upper SSB or lower SSB is the requirement
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The demodulation of DSB-SC is complicated by the suppression of the carrier in the transmitted signal
To make up for the absence of the carrier in the received signal, the receiver resorts to the use of coherent detection, which requires synchronization
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S (t ) =
v(t ) =
Ac A'c A A' m(t ) cos (2f ct ) m c c m(t ) sin(2f ct ) cos(2f ct ) 2 2 A A' A A' A A' v(t ) = c c m(t ) + c c m(t ) cos(4f ct ) m c c m(t ) sin(4f ct ) 4 2 4
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Implementation of AM Modulators
Since the process of modulation involves the generation of new frequency components, modulators are generally characterized as nonlinear and, or, time-variant systems Power-Law Modulation Using a nonlinear device such as a P-N diode which has a voltage-current characteristic as shown
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Implementation of AM Modulators
Power-Law Modulation Suppose that the voltage input to such a device is the sum of the message signal m(t) and the carrier Ac cos(2fct)
The nonlinearity will generate a product of the message m(t) with the carrier, plus additional terms
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Implementation of AM Modulators
Power-Law Modulation
The desired modulated signal can be filtered out by passing the output of the nonlinear device through a bandpass filter
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Implementation of AM Modulators
Power-Law Modulation Suppose that the nonlinear device has an inputoutput (square-law) characteristic of the form
where vi(t) is the input signal, v0(t) is the output signal, and the parameters (a1, a2) are constants.
Implementation of AM Modulators
Power-Law Modulation
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Implementation of AM Modulators
Power-Law Modulation
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The desired signal a2Akm(t) comes from the term a2x(t), from which the name square-law detector came After a low pass filter there is an additional signal a2Akm(t), which causes distortion
Signal Multiplexing
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Signal Multiplexing
If we have two or more message signals to transmit simultaneously over the communications channel, it is possible to have
Each message signal modulate a carrier of a different frequency, The minimum separation between two adjacent carriers is either 2W (for DSB AM) or W (for SSB AM), where W is the bandwidth of each of the message signals
Accordingly, signals occupy separate frequency bands of the channel, do not interfere with one another in transmission over the channel
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Signal Multiplexing
Multiplexing, the process of combining a number of separate message signals into a composite signal for transmission over a common channel Two commonly used methods for signal multiplexing:
Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) 2. Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM)
1.
TDM is usually used in the transmission of digital information and will be described later FDM may be used with either analog or digital signal transmission
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use of DSB-SC
However, DSB-SC requires a transmission bandwidth equal to twice the message bandwidth, which violates the bandwidth conservation requirement
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Typically,
fv = 25% of W SSB (W) < VSB (BT) < DSB (2W)
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For VSB modulation, the bandpass filter is referred to as a sideband shaping filter The spectrum shaping is defined by the transfer function of the filter, which is denoted by H(f)
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Where fc is the carrier frequency H(f + fc) is the positive-frequency part of the band-pass transfer function H(f), shifted to the left by fc H(f - fc) is the negative frequency part of H(f) shifted to the right by fc
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odd symmetry about the carrier frequency fc To explain this property, we first express H(f) as the difference between two frequency-shifted functions as follows
H ( f ) = u ( f f c ) H v ( f f c ), for f c f v < f < f c + W
1, for f > 0 u( f ) = (3.28) 0, for f < 0
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(3.27 )
H v ( f ) = H v ( f ) (3.29)
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(a )Fig: Amplitude response of sideband-shaping filter; only the positive frequency portion is shown, the dashed part of the amplitude response is arbitrary
Hv(f) satisfies the property of odd symmetry about zero frequency, as shown by
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condition of Eq. (3.26) only for the frequency interval -Wf W The practical implication of this second property is that, for the case of VSB depicted in Fig. (a), the transfer function of the sideband shaping filter can have an arbitrary specification for ||> fc +W , it is for this reason that the part of the spectrum lying above fc +W is shown as dashed
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where the first term on the right-hand side is the inphase component of s(t) and the second term is the quadrature component.
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And shifting it to the left by yields substituting Eqs. (3.34) and (3.35) into
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Recall from Eq., that the sinusoidal VSB modulated signal is defined by Multiplying s(t) by in accordance with perfect coherent detection yields the product signal
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The envelope of
is therefore
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Chapter 3-8: Baseband Representation of Modulated Waves and Band-Pass Filters The
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