"Whilst in this country ...

"
Supplementing Soldiers’ Rations with Regional Foods
(Sullivan's Expedition, 1779, and the Carolina Campaigns, 1781-1782)

John U. Rees

(Food History News, vol. VIII, no. 3, Winter 1996)

Occasionally the peculiar conditions of a campaign, combined with necessity, resulted in

uncommon foodstuffs being procured, sometimes to the benefit of the troops, occasionally to their
detriment. Two theaters of the War for Independence in particular serve to show the extremes
experienced by Continental soldiers. In what may have been the most diverse campaign of the
conflict as regards provisions, General John Sullivan's 1779 expedition against the Indians is an
interesting sidelight, though admittedly hardly typical, especially considering that it was one of the
few instances in which Continental troops were able to live off captured foodstuffs in enemy
territory. The late-war campaigns in the Carolinas introduced a few unusual alternatives to the
common ration and demonstrated the effect that poor provisions could have on an army. All these
operations saw the procurement of locally-raised foods not normally eaten in large quantities by the
soldiers.

American rifle-armed soldier. A small corps of riflemen formed part of Maj. Gen. John Sullivan’s
expedition against the Iroquois in 1779. (Illustration by George C. Woodbridge.
 Campaign Against the Iroquois, 1779. During the late spring of 1779 two forces of Continental
troops, with a combined strength of about 3,000 men, were formed for a punitive expedition against
the Iroquois tribes allied with the British. The northern column under Brigadier General James
Clinton set off from the Mohawk Valley, New York, in mid-June, while the main column
commanded by Major General John Sullivan did not leave the Wyoming Valley in Pennsylvania
until 31 July. They rendezvoused at Tioga (present-day Athens, Pennsylvania) on 19 August,
intending to move on into New York to destroy the Indian's towns and attempt to bring them to
battle. They marched from Tioga on 26 August, leaving behind a detachment of two hundred and
fifty men and number of women and children in a fortification commanded by Colonel Israel
Shreve.1
Colonel Shreve had his share of problems and pleasures at this post, called Fort Sullivan. After
experiencing some food shortages following General Sullivan's departure, Shreve was able to write
on 7 September that "One pleasing Circumstance to us is, Last Evening 240 head of fine fat Cattle
Arived At this post, - with 313 Barrels flower, Rum, Whiskey, Dried Clams, Butter, soap &
Candles, Now I hope to make those about me happy, after being Reduced to ten Ounces of flower
pr Day and no Rum - And Obliged to Work Exceeding hard, in Cuting Large trees, Collecting them
for stockades, and siting them up ..."2
In the meantime, soldiers advancing under General Sullivan found large amounts of food to
supplement their scanty provisions. On 11 July the ration had been set at "1 1/4 pound of soft bread
or flour or 1 pound of hard bread per day 1 1/4 [pound] of fresh or salt beef or 1 pound of dried
beef or pork per day [and] 16 pound of hard soap for 100 men per week." Shortly thereafter orders
came that "The Commissary is ... to issue no more fresh meat, but salt & dried beef." By early
August the food situation had deteriorated still further. "The troops immediately to draw two days
provisions at the rate of one pound of flour and one and a quarter pounds of beef per ration ... The
General ... assures that the rations shall be augmented when the situation and circumstances will
enable him to do so ..."3
In order to extend supplies of flour and beef the commanding general decided to feed the troops
from the gardens found in the Indian towns. Having left Tioga on 26 August, the next day at
Chemung the officers discovered that "the Troops will have such a quantity of Corn and Beans at
this place as will be amply sufficient for a days provision ..." Three days later an officer wrote that
General Sullivan asked the soldiers "whether they will, whilst in this country, which abounds with
corn and vegetables of every kind, be content to draw one half of flour, one half of meat and salt a
day ... He does not mean to continue this through the campaign, but only wishes it to be adopted in
those places where vegetables may supply the place of that part of the common ration of meat and
flour ..."4
This decision to exploit "the fruits of the savages" was the result of pragmatism (the crops were to
be destroyed anyway) as well as the general attitude towards Indian tribes allied with the British.
The adherents of Congress tended to adopt this same posture towards Loyalists, and sometimes
friendly Indians (depending upon the vagaries of region and circumstances), an attitude tempered by
the fact that Loyalists were not of another race.
In journals they kept during the expedition the men repeatedly mentioned the foods eaten.
Lieutenant William Barton noted on 27 August, "... halted with the army ... near some large fields of
corn ... and many smaller ones ... with beans, squashes, potatoes, &c., on which our soldiers feasted
sumptuously, it being a good substitute for bread, which was a scarce article with us." This same
day a Pennsylvania officer noted he "had an agreeable repast of corn, potatoes, beans, cucumbers,
watermelons, squashes, and other vegetables, which were in great plenty," while Major Jeremiah
Fogg observed, "Beans and squashes were in abundance, and a greater quantity of which was never
eaten in twenty four hours by the same number of men." On 28 August, Major Fogg wrote, "This
day the army was allowed no flour on account of the great quantity of corn, beans, &c." Also on the
28th, another soldier recounted: "This morning we had a dainty repast on the fruits of the savages ...
sitting at a dish of tea, toast, corn, squash, smoked tongue, &c."5
It was particularly fortunate for the men that these foodstuffs were available. One soldier wrote
on 14 September: "Much of our flower is carried in bags [by pack horses] & often falling off, and
striking against trees, sometimes falling into mud, & sometimes into ye water ... [this army] has
undertaken ... this tedious march on the bare allowance of 1/2 lb. Flower & 1/2 lb. Beef a day and 5
gils of salt to 100 lb. of Beef [and] without any spirit ..."6
One can imagine how absurd the soldiers appeared during an advance upon Seneca Castle on 7
September: "... the whole party ... had armed themselves with almost every species of the vegetable
creation, each man with three pompions on his bayonet and staggering under the weight of a bosom
filled with corn and beans, when in accents more sonorous than those of an injured husband,
[General Sullivan] broke out 'You d[amn]d unmilitary set of rascals! ... are you going to storm a
town with pompions!' ... In an instant the whole band was disrobed of their vegetable accoutrements
and armour, and pompions, squashes, melons and mandrakes rolled down the hill like hail-stones in
a tempest."7
The route of Sullivan’s army during the punitive expedition against the Iroquois tribes and
their settlements. This shows the army’s movements from their base of operations at the
Tioga peninsula (present-day Athens, Pennsylvania), where a temporary defensive work
called Fort Sullivan was built, through the New York Finger Lakes region. “Map of Gen.
Sullivan's march from Easton to the Senaca & Cayuga countries,” 1779, “Shows only route,
with dates of encampments, ending at "Chenessee," Library of Congress Geography and
Map Division Washington, D.C., Digital Id, http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.gmd/g3791s.ar106400
For information on the Tioga camp and Fort Sullivan see:
“`The end of the war will be the commencement of our felicity.’: Insights on Two Campaigns,
Col. Israel Shreve (1779) and Lt. Col. Francis Barber (1781),”
http://revwar75.com/library/rees/pdfs/Shreve.pdf
The Carolina Campaigns of 1780-1782 had their own peculiar provisioning problems. During the
first four years of the war the British concentrated their main effort in the northern states. Beginning
in 1779 they shifted the focus of conflict to the south, beginning with the capture of the large coastal
cities. The loss of these centers of supply forced American commanders to rely on various scattered
and unreliable sources, or to send supply wagons hundreds of miles over poor roads to the nearest
large American-held depot, neither a satisfactory alternative. A series of disastrous defeats only
made a bad situation worse, leaving Continental forces in the deep south to suffer more problems
with victualling than their counterparts in the north.8
On the whole food supply was relatively stable in the region during 1779 and early 1780. When
the British captured a large force of Continentals under General Benjamin Lincoln at Charleston,
South Carolina, on 12 May 1780, affairs for the southern army took a turn for the worse. Not only
did the Americans lose a large number of troops, they also lost their major supply center making
much more difficult all efforts to recoup the situation. Almost immediately the high command
consolidated their remaining forces and General George Washington dispatched reinforcements
from the northern army.9
Several vignettes attest to the difficulties of the army. About the 1st of July, just after the fall of
Charleston, a force of Continental troops under Baron Johann de Kalb "marched from Hillsborough
[North Carolina] about the first of July, without an ounce of provisions being laid up at any one
point, often fasting for several days together, and subsisting frequently upon green apples and
peaches ... we thought ourselves feasted, when by violence we seized a little fresh beef and cut and
threshed out a little wheat; yet under all these difficulties, we had to go forward."10
Prospects for a better supply of food did not improve with the appointment of General Horatio
Gates as new overall commander in the south. Desperate to retrieve the appalling military situation,
Gates decided to advance towards the British army through a region "by nature barren, abounding
with sandy plains, and very thinly inhabited." Colonel Otho Holland Williams described the
situation in late July and early August 1780: "The distresses of the soldiery daily increased - they
were told that the banks of the Pee Dee River were extremely fertile - and so they were; but the
preceding crop of corn (the principal article of produce) was exhausted, and the new grain, although
luxuriant and fine, was unfit for use. Many of the soldiery, urged by necessity, plucked the green
ears and boiled them with the lean beef, which was collected in the woods, [and] made themselves a
repast, not unpalatable to be sure, but which was attended with painful effects. Green peaches also
were substituted for bread and had similar consequences ... It occurred to some that the hair powder
which remained in their bags would thicken soup, and it was actually applied." Hair powder was
edible, though probably unappetizing if carried for a long time. In December 1778 orders for the 1st
Pennsylvania Regiment noted that "The Quartermaster will draw flour for the men to Clean their
Jacoots & Breches and to Powder their hair." In August 1782 Washington gave instructions that "At
general Inspection & reviews, two pounds of flour, and one half pound of render'd tallow per
hundred men, may be drawn ... for dressing the hair ..."11
Just prior to attacking the British at Camden, South Carolina, Gates ordered his men to cook and
eat their rations. "The troops ... had frequently felt the bad consequences of eating bad provisions;
but at this time, a hasty meal of quick baked bread and fresh beef, with a desert of molasses, mixed
with mush or dumplings, operated so cathartically as to disorder very many of the men, who were
breaking the ranks all night and were certainly much debilitated ..." In addition to defective tactical
disposition, poor diet is cited by historians as a contributing factor in the American defeat at
Camden on 16 August 1780.12
 Even after the appointment of General Nathanael Greene to replace Horatio Gates (Greene had
done excellent service as Quartermaster General of Washington's army for two and a half years)
provisioning the troops was perilously uncertain at times. In 1781, after the siege of British-held
Ninety-Six, South Carolina, the troops were chronically short of provisions. "Never did we suffer so
severely as during the few days' halt here [Orangeburg]. Rice furnished our substitute for bread,
which though tolerably relished by those familiarized with it ... was very disagreeable to the
Marylanders and Virginians, who had grown up in the use of corn or wheat bread; ... the few
meagre cattle brought to camp as beef would not afford more than two ounces per man. Frogs
abounded ... and on them chiefly did the light troops subsist ... Even alligator was used by a few;
and very probably, had the army been much longer detained upon that ground, might have rivalled
the frog in the estimation of our epicures."13

Soldiers of Maj. Gen. Nathanael Greene’s army, detached under Brig. Gen. Daniel
Morgan, in camp at the Cowpens, South Carolina.
 In October 1781, after the Siege of Yorktown, Virginia, the Pennsylvania regiments were sent to
South Carolina, where the British still held the port of Charleston. Lieutenant John Bell Tilden's
journal details the food they consumed: "January 4. [1782] - Arrive at headquarters Round O
[Savannah, South Carolina] at noon ... Five hundred and nine miles since we left Richmond,"
Virginia. "January 9. - Make an addition to our hut; very bad off for want of furniture. Obliged to
eat rice; have a pretty good dish of Coffee for supper." "January 13. - Move up two miles from ye
[Stono] river, lay in ye woods all day and eat potatoes. Our boys [servants] not coming down with
our bedclothes, we pass the night horridly, it dropping a little rain and very cold." "January 14. -
Our boys bring down something to eat and we remain on our ground 'till sunset when we march to
Stono ferry, 2 miles, and lay in the woods without any covering ..." "January 17. - March ... to
Drayton's Cow Pens ... ye mess [i.e., the officers who ate together] take possession of ye dwelling
house and live pretty tolerably." "January 19. - Awakened this morning by a great noise which
proved to be a number of negroes belonging to the farm preparing rice. Dressed my self and went to
the barn, where I saw a sight entirely new to me; thirty negroes male and female naked, some
shelling the rice, others pounding and cleaning it." "February 9. - March at daylight, 12 miles
through mud and water up to our knees, and return a different road, equally as bad, to the ground we
left this morning. Draw a piece of beef and some rice; broiled my meat on a stick and with difficulty
boiled the rice."14
Rice posed a problem for northern troops. Lieutenant William McDowell of Pennsylvania wrote
on 8 January 1782, "Now our living was entirely on poor beef and rice." On the 11th another
lieutenant, William Feltman, noted, "This day we were under the disagreeable necessity of drawing
all rice instead of Indian Meal, and it is a very poor substitute for bread ... The Carolinians say they
are fonder of rice bread than they are of the best wheat." (Feltman confessed that "it is a mystery to
see how to make it into bread.") On the same day Lieutenant McDowell dined at "the Governor's
table" where he ate "bread made of rice, which was the first I ever eat, it was made thin like
buckwheat cakes, some in round balls and fry'd in a pan with some fat."15
Soldiers probably considered rice more suitable for impoverished whites and slaves, and the food
could not have gained in their estimation, as when Lieutenant Feltman wrote on 31 December 1781,
"Yesterday evening we drew rice for forage for our horses." (Luigi Castiglioni, who travelled
through the United States from 1785 to 1787, corroborated soldier's descriptions of rice and its use
in Georgia and the Carolinas. "Ordinarily, edible rice is given no other preparation except to boil it
in water and take it this way to the table, where it is mixed with fresh butter. In the country it is used
boiled in this manner at lunch and dinner. However, certain thin cakes are also made of it, which are
served in the morning with tea or coffee, and it is also prepared in many other ways. The cracked
rice serves as food for the negroes ... inasmuch as there is a shortage of fodder for horses in this
region, they are given rice straw instead of hay and rice itself with the husks still on instead of
oats.")16
In the spring of 1782, the food's unsuitability played a small part in a mutiny. Some members of
Greene's army, feeling that the government reneged on the conditions upon which they had enlisted,
including sufficient and edible rations, wore placards in camp asking, "Can soldiers do their duty if
clad in rags and fed on rice?" Continental troops were a long-suffering lot, but there were some
things they would not tolerate.17

(My thanks to Charles L. LeCount for providing information on the Carolina campaigns and
southern rice culture.)
Small sheet–iron mess kettle, turned bowl, and rations of beef, rice, dried peas, and
chocolate. Also pictured are a camp hatchet and soldier’s brimmed wool hat.
 Camp kettles boiling over a fire.
(Anonymous, with apologies to the photographers)
 “Victuals Well Dressed” by Pamela Patrick White. Used with permission.
©2000 Pamela Patrick. http://www.ppatrickwhite.com/

Endnotes

1. Mark M. Boatner, Encyclopedia of the American Revolution (New York, N.Y., 1966), pp. 1072-
1076. Map of the Indian villages in Ohio, Pennsylvania and New York, 1760-1794, Lester J.
Cappon, ed., Atlas of Early American History - The Revolutionary Era 1760-1790 (Princeton, N.J.,
1976), p. 21 (henceforth cited as Cappon, Atlas of Early American History). John U. Rees, "'... the
multitude of women': An Examination of the Numbers of Camp Followers with the Continental
Army", The Brigade Dispatch, (Three parts) XXIII, 4 (Autumn 1992); XXIV, 1 (Winter 1993);
XXIV, 2 (Spring 1993); XXIII, 4, p. 3 (henceforth cited as Rees, "... the multitude of women").
2. Israel Shreve to his wife, 7 September 1779, Israel Shreve Papers, Buxton Collection, Prescott
Memorial Library, Louisiana Tech University.
3. General orders, 11 July, 25 July, 10 August 1779, Order Book of Lt. Col. Francis Barber, 26 May
1779 to 6 September 1779, Louise Welles Murray, ed., Notes from Craft Collection in Tioga Point
Museum on the Sullivan Expedition of 1779, (Athens, Pa., 1929), pp. 31, 45, 63.
4. General orders, 27 August 1779, Orderly book of Col. Oliver Spencer's Regt., 27 July 1779 - 28
September 1779, Early American Orderly Books, 1748-1817, Collections of the New York
Historical Society, microfilm edition (Woodbridge, N.J., 1977), reel 9, item 93, p. 114, 120-123
(henceforth cited as Early American Orderly Books). Journal of Lt. Col. Adam Hubley, Journals of
the Military Expedition of Major General John Sullivan Against the Six Nations of Indians in 1779
(Glendale, N.Y., 1970), pp. 156-157 (henceforth cited as Journals of Sullivan's Campaign). For a
discussion of the soldiers' and settlers' animosity towards Native Americans and Loyalists see,
Gregory T. Knouff, "'An Arduous Service': The Pennsylvania Backcountry Soldiers' Revolution",
Pennsylvania History, Vol. 61, No. 1 (January 1994), pp. 55, 56-69.
5. Journal of Lieut. William Barton, New Jersey Regt., and Journal of Lt. Col. Adam Hubley, 11th
Pennsylvania Regt., Journals of Sullivan's Campaign, pp. 7, 154. Journal of Major Jeremiah Fogg,
Poor's New Hampshire Regt. ibid., p. 94.
6. Journal of Dr. Jabez Campfield, ibid., p. 60.
7. Journal of Major Jeremiah Fogg, ibid., p. 97.
8. Christopher Ward, The War of the Revolution (New York, N.Y., 1952), pp. 695-736.
9. Ibid., pp. 695-736.
10. Dan L. Morrill, Southern Campaigns of the American Revolution (Baltimore, Md., 1993), p. 86
(henceforth cited as Morrill, Southern Campaigns).
11. Ibid., p. 88. Regimental orders, 8 December 1778, The Orderly Book of the First Pennsylvania
Regiment. Col. James Chambers. July 26, 1778 - December 6, 1778, John B. Linn and William H.
Egle, eds., Pennsylvania Archives, 2nd Series, vol. XI (Harrisburg, Pa., 1880), p. 389. General
orders, 12 August 1782, Orderly Book of Lt. Col. Ebenezer Stout's 2nd Massachusetts Regiment, 7
August - 29 August 1782, Early American Orderly Books, reel 16, item 161.
12. Morrill, Southern Campaigns, p. 92.
13. Mark M. Boatner III, Encyclopedia of the American Revolution (New York, N.Y., 1966) p. 455.
John S. Pancake, This Destructive War: The British Campaign in the Carolinas 1780-1782
(University, Al., 1985), p. 215.
14. "Extracts From the Journal of Lieutenant John Bell Tilden, Second Pennsylvania Line, 1781-
1782.", Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography. vol. 19 (1895), pp. 218-221. Map of the
Lower South, 1775, Cappon, Atlas of Early American History, p. 6.
15. "Journal of Lieut. William McDowell of the First Penn'a. Regiment, in the Southern Campaign.
1781-1782", John Blair Linn and William H. Egle, Pennsylvania in the War of the Revolution,
Battalions and Line 1775-1783, vol. II (Harrisburg, Pa., 1880), p. 311. Lieutenant William
Feltman's account, "Diary of the Pennsylvania Line. May 26, 1781 - April 25, 1782", ibid., p. 713.
16. Feltman's account, "Diary of the Pennsylvania Line", ibid., p. 710. Antonio Pace, ed. and trans.,
Luigi Castiglioni's Viaggio: Travels in the United States of North America 1785-87 (Syracuse,
N.Y., 1983), pp. 169-170.
17. Charles Patrick Neimeyer, America Goes to War: A Social History of the Continental Army
(New York and London, 1996), p. 154.
For more on Revolutionary soldiers’ food see:

"`To the hungry soul every bitter thing is sweet.’: Soldiers' Food and Cooking in the War
for Independence”
"The manner of messing and living together": Continental Army Mess Groups
“Who shall have this?”: Food Distribution
"A hard game ...": Continental Army Cooks
“On with Kittle, to make some hasty Pudding …”: How a "Continental Devil" Broke His Fast
1. The Army Ration and Cooking Methods.
2. Eating Utensils.
3. The Morning Meal.
4. Other Likely Breakfast Fare.
Addenda
“The men were very industrious, in baking, all the forepart of the evening.”: Soldiers’ Ingenuity,
Regimental Bakers, and the Issue of Raw Flour
“The Commissary [is] desired … to furnish biscuit and salt provisions …”:
Hard Bread in the War for Independence.
"The victuals became putrid by sweat & heat ...": Some Peripheral Aspects of Feeding an Army
1. The Ways Soldiers Carried Food
2. The Burden of Rations, 1762-1783
3. Carrying Drink and Procuring Water
4. Equipment Shortages
5. Spoilage of Issued Meats
"We had our cooking utensils ... to carry in our hands.": Continental Army Cooking and Eating Gear,
and Camp Kitchens, 1775-1782
Endnotes:
#50. Compendium of Ration Allotments, 1754-1782
Continental Army rations (summary)
British Army rations (summary)
Caloric Requirements and Intake
#73. Miscellaneous returns of cooking gear and eating utensils, 1778-1781
(Appended) List of author’s articles on food in the armies of the American Revolution
http://www.scribd.com/doc/129368664/To-the-hungry-soul-every-bitter-thing-is-sweet-Soldiers-Food-
and-Cooking-in-the-War-for-Independence

“`Six of our regt lived together …’: Mess Groups, Carrying Food … (and a Little Bit of Tongue) in the
Armies of the Revolution”
Mess Groups
Food Distribution
Carrying Food
The Burden of Rations
And … Tongue
http://revwar75.com/library/rees/pdfs/tongue.pdf

"`A disgusting incumbrance to the troops': More on Kettle Bags and Carts in the Continental Army,
1781," The Brigade Dispatch, vol. XXVIII, no. 3 (Autumn 1998), 12-13.
http://revwar75.com/library/rees/encumberance.htm

“`Properly fixed upon the Men’: Linen Bags for Camp Kettles,” The Brigade Dispatch, vol. XXVII, no. 3
(Autumn 1997), 2-5. http://revwar75.com/library/rees/kettlebags.htm
 “The common necessaries of life …” A Revolutionary Soldier’s Wooden Bowl,” including, “’Left sick
on the Road’: An Attempt to Identify the Soldier Left at the Paxson Home, ‘Rolling Green,’ June 1778.”)
http://www.scribd.com/doc/123562525/%E2%80%9CThe-common-necessaries-of-life-
%E2%80%A6%E2%80%9D-A-Revolutionary-Soldier%E2%80%99s-Wooden-Bowl

“`A capital dish …’: Revolutionary Soldiers and Chocolate,” Brigade Dispatch, vol. XXXVIII, no. 3
(Autumn 2008), 2-17.
http://www.scribd.com/doc/131353233/%E2%80%9CA-capital-dish-%E2%80%A6-
Revolutionary-Soldiers-and-Chocolate

"’Give us day by day our daily bread.’: Continental Army Bread, Ovens, and Bakers”
http://www.scribd.com/doc/125174710/Give-us-day-by-day-our-daily-bread-Continental-Army-
Bread-Ovens-and-Bakers
Compiled and updated for:
“’Their best wheaten bread, pies, and puddings…,’: An Historic Baking Symposium,”
Fort Lee Historic Park, N.J., 28 August 2010 (Hosted by Deborah's Pantry)
Contents
“Waste and bad management …” : Regulating Baking
"Hard enough to break the teeth of a rat.": Biscuit in the Armies of the Revolution
“A bake–house was built in eleven days …”: Contemporary Baking Operations and Army Masonry Ovens
“Seeing that the Ovens may be done right …”: Bake Oven Designs
“The mask is being raised!!”: Early–War Iron Ovens, and a Yorktown Campaign Bakery
“Hands are most wanted to bake bread for the Soldiers …": The Superintendent's Bakers
"The essential service he rendered to the army ...": Christopher Ludwick, Superintendent of Bakers
Addendum: Hard Biscuit Recipes

"`As many fireplaces as you have tents ...': Earthen Camp Kitchens”:
Contents
Part I. "Cooking Excavations": Their History and Use by Soldiers in North America
A. Advantages.
B. Digging a Field Kitchen.
Part II. Complete 1762 Kitchen Description and Winter Covering for Field Kitchens
Part III. Matt and I Dig a Kitchen.
Sequenced photos of kitchen construction, June 1997, Bordentown, New Jersey.
Part IV. Original Earthen Kitchens Examined by Archaeologists.
A. The Laughanstown, Ireland Earthen Kitchen.
B. The Gloucester Point (VIMS) Kitchen, 1781.
C. Hessian Kitchens, Winchester, England, 1756.
Appendices:
1. Encampment Plans (with an emphasis on kitchen placement): Continental Army, Hessian, and British
2. British Image of Cooking Excavations (Redcoat Images No. 2,000)
3. Newspaper Article on the Discovery of the Gloucester Point Kitchen
4. Miscellaneous Images of Earthen Camp Kitchens and Soldiers Cooking
https://www.scribd.com/document/229610630/As-many-fireplaces-as-you-have-tents-Earthen-Camp-
Kitchens
(Video of Old Barracks kitchen, courtesy of David Niescior, https://vimeo.com/151154631 )