Orienteering

CUON SCOUT GROUP
GREENVIEW SECONDARY SCHOOL

15 PASIR RIS STREET 21
SINGAPORE 518969

WEBSITE: http://cuonet.cjb.net
Table of Contents
1.0 Map Reading................................................................................................................. 3
1.1 Identify Map colors................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Identify Map Symbols............................................................................................... 4
1.3 Identify Marginal Information .................................................................................. 8
1.4 Identify Terrain Features........................................................................................... 9
1.4.1 Major.................................................................................................................. 9
1.4.2 Minor.................................................................................................................. 9
1.4.3 Supplementary ................................................................................................... 9
1.5 Identify Contours .................................................................................................... 20
1.6 Reading a Map ........................................................................................................ 25
1.6.1 Six Digit Map Grid Reference (MGR) ............................................................ 27
1.6.2 Eight Digit Map Grid Reference (MGR) ......................................................... 29
1.7 Using a map to determine your own position ......................................................... 30
1.7.1 Visual orientation of a map.............................................................................. 30
2.0 Using a Compass......................................................................................................... 32

2.1 Parts of a compass................................................................................................... 32
2.2 North: True, Grid, and Magnetic ............................................................................ 33
2.2.1 True North........................................................................................................ 33
2.2.2 Grid north......................................................................................................... 33
2.2.3 Magnetic north ................................................................................................. 34
2.3 Set a Map using Compass ....................................................................................... 36
2.4 Back Bearing........................................................................................................... 37
2.5 Determining your position on a map using a compass ........................................... 41
2.5.1 Resection.......................................................................................................... 41
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2.5.2 Intersection....................................................................................................... 47
2.6 Exploration with bearings ....................................................................................... 48
2.6.1 Line of Sight .................................................................................................... 48
2.6.2 Aiming Off....................................................................................................... 48
2.6.3 Baselines .......................................................................................................... 49
2.6.4 Walking around obstacles ................................................................................ 50
3.0 Glossary ...................................................................................................................... 51
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1.0 Map Reading
1.1 Identify Map colors

Black - Indicates cultural (man-made) features such as buildings and roads,
surveyed spot elevations, and all labels
Red-Brown - Combined to identify cultural features, all relief features, non-

surveyed spot elevations, and elevation, such as contour lines on red-light
readable maps
Blue - Identifies water features such as lakes, swamps, rivers, and drainage.
Green - Identifies vegetation such as woods, orchards, and vineyards
Brown - Identifies all relief features and elevation, such as contours on older
edition maps, and cultivated land on red-light readable maps
Red - Classifies cultural features, such as populated areas, main roads, and
boundaries, on older maps
Other - Occasionally other colors may be used to show special information.

These are indicated in the marginal information as a rule
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1.2 Identify Map Symbols
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1.3 Identify Marginal Information

• Geographic area and scale - top left
• Name of map sheet - top center
• Map edition, map series, and map sheet number - top right
• Legend - bottom left
• Bar scale, contour interval, grid reference box, and declination diagram -
bottom center
• Elevation guide, adjoining map sheet diagram, and boundaries box - bottom
right
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1.4 Identify Terrain Features
1.4.1 Major
• Hill
• Ridge
• Valley
• Saddle
• Depression
1.4.2 Minor
• Draw
• Spur
1.4.3 Supplementary
• Cliff
• Cut
• Fill
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1.5 Identify Contours
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Difference between gradual slope and cliff, notice the spacing between the
contour lines.
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1.6 Reading a Map

On the Singapore topographical map is a series of superimposed blue lines
forming squares measuring 1000 metres on each side. The vertical lines are
numbered from left to the right and the horizontal lines are numbered from
bottom to top.
The vertical lines are called EASTINGS because they run to the east, and the
horizontal lines are called NORTHINGS, because they run to the North.
Note: In every map reference, the EASTING is given first.
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1.6.1 Six Digit Map Grid Reference (MGR)
1. The first three digits is the easting and the last three digits is the
northing.
Note: A four digit MGR typically refers to a particular square.
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1.6.2 Eight Digit Map Grid Reference (MGR)
1. The first four digits is the easting and the last four digits is the
northing.
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1.7 Using a map to determine your own position

Before you can determine your own position on the ground using a map, you need
to orient (or set) the map. This simply means that you need to hold the map in
such a way that the true north arrow of the map points to true north (or north on
the map points to north in the actual countryside). The features depicted on the
map and the same features on the ground will then lie in the same orientation
relative to you. A map can be oriented visually or with a compass.
1.7.1 Visual orientation of a map

1. Observe at least two outstanding terrain features, such as two hills,
which should have an angle of at least 60° between them
(alternatively, the features can lie behind each other in a straight line,
relative to you).
2. Locate these terrain features on the map.
3. Turn the map until the map features and the terrain features are aligned
in the same direction relative to you — north on the map will now be
approximately aligned with true north.
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2.0 Using a Compass

2.1 Parts of a compass
The magnetic needle is divided into two halves, red and white. With the red halve
pointing to the magnetic north.
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2.2 North: True, Grid, and Magnetic
2.2.1 True North

True North is determined by sun readings and from the stars and is the
point we would call the North Pole or very top of the earth where all the
lines of longitude converge.
2.2.2 Grid north

North found on your topographic map. Map makers create a grid
system around every country called the National Grid. Each box on this
grid has a letter. It is this letter which we use to identify by means of a grid
reference our position on the grid. These grid lines are shown on our map
and are numbered thus allowing a grid reference to be created. As the
position of these grid lines are only slightly out of line with true north we
use them as our method of setting our compasses.
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2.2.3 Magnetic north

This is the north that is indicated on our compass. Magnetic north is the
location of a part of the earth which is magnetic and attracts the needle of
the compass. This north is located approximately north of Canada. (8
degrees west of grid north)
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2.3 Set a Map using Compass
Compass Magnetic North
Map Magnetic North
Turn the map until the map magnetic north arrow points in the same direction as
the compass magnetic north, parallel to each other.
Note: If the compass magnetic needle, orienting and travelling arrow points
exactly north, you can use the orienting lines on both the housing and the base
plate to help set the map.
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2.4 Back Bearing

A back bearing is the bearing in the opposite direction to your objective.
To calculate a back bearing

1. Take a map bearing or a bearing to a landmark, using a compass.
2. If the bearing is less than 180°, odd 180°.
3. If the bearing is more than 180°, subtract 180°.
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Conclusion:
To find the direct opposite side of the circle, the solution is to halve it.
Bearing 60° Back bearing = 240° (60° + 180°)
Bearing 295° Back bearing = 115° (295° - 180°)
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2.5 Determining your position on a map using a compass
2.5.1 Resection
Resection is a method for locating your position on a map with precision
by using a compass. It can only be used when at least two terrain features
can be observed which can also be identified on the map.
To find your position on the map, using resection:

1. Orient the map using the compass.
2. Identify two or three known distant locations on the ground and
mark them on the map.
3. Measure the bearing to the known positions from your location
using a compass.
4. Measure the back bearings of the known positions. Draw a line
for the back bearing on the map from the known position back
toward your unknown position.
5. The lines will intersect close to your position.
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Step 1:
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Step 2:
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Step 3:
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Step 4:
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Step 5:
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2.5.2 Intersection
1. Orient the map using the compass.

2. Locate and mark your position on the map,
3. Measure the bearing to the known feature.
4. Draw a line on the map from your position on this grid azimuth.
5. Move to a second known point and repeat steps 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.
6. The location of the unknown position is where the lines cross on the
map. Determine the grid coordinates to the desired accuracy.
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2.6 Exploration with bearings
2.6.1 Line of Sight

Walk to an obvious landmark – a tree or boulder that is directly on the
bearing. Then take another bearing on the next obvious landmark and walk
to that. Keep it up until you reach your destination. By going to
intermediate landmarks, you minimize the chances of veering off your
bearing.
2.6.2 Aiming Off
It is almost impossible to walk a perfect bearing. In most cases your error

can be anywhere from 3 – 5°. This is known as lateral drift. Being off just
a few degrees can make a major difference after several miles. Therefore,
rather than head straight for your target, it is best to deliberately aim to
one side of your target (left or right). Then you will know whether to turn
right or left and walk to the target.
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2.6.3 Baselines
Baselines are helpful because they provide a large target to aim for. A
baseline is a reference line that lies across your course. It can be a trail,
cliff face, road, stream, or other feature. You can combine a baseline with
aiming off to help navigate. Find a baseline near your destination, and then
aim off of it. When you hit the baseline, you now know which direction to
turn to walk along the baseline to reach your destination.
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2.6.4 Walking around obstacles
When you reach an obstacle, the best method for maintaining your course
is to hike a rectangle around the object.
• Set a new bearing 90 degrees from your original heading and pace
until you have cleared the obstacle along that axis.
For example, if you original bearing was 30 degrees, hike a new
bearing of 120 degrees.
• Go back onto your original bearing, parallel to you original course
until you clear the obstacle.
• Set a bearing 90 degrees back to your original bearing (in this case
300 degrees) and walk the same number of paces.
• Now turn back to your original bearing. You will be along your
original line of travel.
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3.0 Glossary
Bearing
The angle between true North and the direction of your travel.
Chart
A marine map, similar to a topographical map, but showing details of the water, depths,
hazards and navigational aids. As a rule, charts show only very few features of land other
than the coastline and land based navigational aids.
Compass
A magnetic, mechanical or electronic device for determining the direction to magnetic
North.
Compass Rose
A circle, divided into 360 degrees showing the points of the compass, such as East,
North, Southwest, etc.
Contour Line
A curved line on a topographical map outlining places with the same elevation. It is used
to indicate steepness of the terrain.
Coordinates
A system by which you can determine your position. Most widely used systems are
Latitude/Longitude (Lat/Lon) and Universal Traverse Mercator (UTM). There are also
several other grids used, mostly by the military.
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Course
Intended direction of your travel.
Destination
The place where you are going.
Deviation
The change in the compass reading caused by the magnetic influence of the iron, steel or
electronics aboard a boat and its equipment
Global Positioning Satellite (GPS)

As system of 24 satellites orbiting the Earth and transmitting positioning information to
receivers on the ground.
GPS Receiver
An electronic device that automatically calculates your position from signals received
from the Global Positioning Satellite system.
Heading
Actual direction of travel.
Knot
Measure of speed expressed in nautical mile per hour. 1 knot = 1.85 km/h
Latitude
Measurement of your position expressed in degrees of an angle from the Equator. It is
measured 0 to 90° North or South
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Longitude
Measurement of your position expressed in degrees of an angle from the Universal
(Greenwich) Meridian and is measured in 0-180° East or West
Mile
Approximately 1.68 km
Nautical Mile
Approximately 1.852 km
Grid North
Though North is generally shown on maps at the top, the map may not be oriented
exactly to True North. The term Grid North refers to the North shown on the map’s grid.
If there is a difference between the Grid North and True North it is shown on the map
Magnetic North
A place in the Northwest Territories which is the centre of the Earth’s natural magnetism.
Every compass points to the Magnetic North pole, not to the true North pole.
True North
The actual (geographical) North Pole.
Originating Point
Place from which you started your trip.
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Scale
A measure by which you can determine distances from the map or chart. On a map in the
scale of 1:50,000, 1 cm on the map will correspond with 50,000 cm (or 500m) in the
terrain depicted on the map. On a map with 1:125,000 scale, 1 cm corresponds to 125,000
cm (2,500m or 2.5 km) in reality.
Topographical Map
An accurate land map showing great details and features of the land.
Triangulation
A method of determining your position by extending azimuths from your position to at
least 2 known features or points on the map.
Variation
Difference in direction between True North as determined by the Earth’s axis of rotation
and the Magnetic North determined by the Earth’s magnetism.
Way Point
A control point between from where you started and where you are going (final
destination). Waypoints are used to plot a course which takes turns and to check that you
are on the right course.
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CUON SCOUT GROUP

2.0 Using a Compass......................................................................................................... 32

3.0 Glossary ...................................................................................................................... 51

1.0 Map Reading

1.1 Identify Map colors

Red-Brown - Combined to identify cultural features, all relief features, non-

Green - Identifies vegetation such as woods, orchards, and vineyards

Other - Occasionally other colors may be used to show special information.

1.2 Identify Map Symbols

1.3 Identify Marginal Information

1.4 Identify Terrain Features

1.5 Identify Contours

1.6 Reading a Map

Note: In every map reference, the EASTING is given first.

1.6.1 Six Digit Map Grid Reference (MGR)

1.6.2 Eight Digit Map Grid Reference (MGR)

1.7 Using a map to determine your own position

1.7.1 Visual orientation of a map

2.0 Using a Compass

2.2 North: True, Grid, and Magnetic

2.2.1 True North

2.2.2 Grid north

2.2.3 Magnetic north

2.3 Set a Map using Compass

Compass Magnetic North

Map Magnetic North

2.4 Back Bearing

To calculate a back bearing

2.5 Determining your position on a map using a compass

To find your position on the map, using resection:

1. Orient the map using the compass.

2.6 Exploration with bearings

2.6.1 Line of Sight

2.6.2 Aiming Off

It is almost impossible to walk a perfect bearing. In most cases your error

2.6.4 Walking around obstacles

Global Positioning Satellite (GPS)

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