PROJECT REPORT

AT

RAIL COACH FACTORY, KAPURTHALA

WITH EFFECT FROM 07-05-2012 TO 30-06-2012

SUBMITTED BY-

NAME BRANCH ROLL NO UNIV ROLL NO-

INDEX
S. NO
1. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 2.

TOPICS

PAGE NO.
1

REMARKS

ABOUT RCF

2-3

3.

TIG WELDING

4.

MIG WELDING

5.

SUBMERGED ARC WELDING

6.

GAS WELDING

7.

WELD DEFECTS

8-14

8.

TYPES OF ELECTRODES

15

9.

TECHNICAL TRAINING CENTRE

16

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
With profound respect and gratitude, I take the opportunity to convey my thanks to complete the training here. I do extend my heartfelt thanks to Mr. R. K. SHARMA head of TTC (Technical Training Center) and Mr. R.C. NASA head of Welding Workshop for providing me this opportunity to be a part of this esteemed organization. I am extremely grateful to all the technical staff of RAIL COACH FACTORY, Kapurthala for their co-operation and guidance that helped me a lot during the course of training. I have learnt a lot working under their guidance and I will always be indebted of them for this value addition in me.

ABOUT RCF
Established in 1986, RCF is a coach manufacturing unit of Indian Railways. RCF has already carved a niche in the industrial scenario of the country at large and Indian Railways, in particular. It has manufactured around 16000 passenger coaches of 51 different types including Self Propelled passenger vehicles which constitute over 35% of the total population of coaches on Indian Railways. RCF is equipped with a state-of-the-art CAD centre and CNC machines to undertake design and manufacture of Bogies, Shell (both with Stainless Steel and Corten Steel), FRP interiors as per customers requirement. The state -ofthe-art manufacturing facilities and processes have enabled RCF to achieve excellence in Design, Development, Manufacture, Installation and After-sales service of Railway coaches with a view to ensure enhanced satisfaction of the Rail customer. RCF has a strong tradition of innovating and developing new products and has a very wide manufacturing range of products which includes: 1st AC Sleeper Coach (BG) 2 Tier AC Sleeper Coach (BG, MG) 3 Tier AC Sleeper Coach (BG) AC Inspection Coach (BG) AC Chair Car, Executive Class & Economy Class (BG, MG) AC Buffet Car (BG) AC Power Car (BG) MG Diesel Electrical Multiple Units Main Line Electrical Multiple Units (BG) Non-AC Sleeper Class Day Coach (BG) Non-AC General Coach (BG/MG) Non-AC Luggage-cum-Brake Van (BG/MG) Refrigerated Parcel Van (BG) Non AC Inspection Coach (BG) High Capacity Parcel Van (BG) Accident Relief Train (BG) Post Office Coach (BG) Coaching Container Flats (BG) Double Decker Coach (BG) Non-AC Day Coach (BG)

Fig:- Rail Coach Factory, Kapurthala

TIG WELDING
In the TIG (tungsten inert gas) welding process, an essentially non-consumable tungsten electrode is used to provide an electric arc for welding. A sheath of inert gas surrounds the electrode, the arc, and the area to be welded. This gas shielding process prevents any oxidization of the weld and allows for the production of neat, clean welds. TIG welding differs from MIG (metal inert gas) welding in that the electrode is not consumed in the weld. In the MIG welding process the electrode is continuously melted and is added into the weld. In TIG welding, no metal is added unless a separate filler rod is used. TIG welding can be performed with a large variety of metals. The two most commonly TIG welded metals in the PRL are steel and aluminum. Steel is relatively easy to TIG weld and it is possible to produce very tight, neat welds. Aluminum takes a little more skill, and one should have at least a little bit of experience in welding steel before making the transition to aluminum. However, the basic technique is essentially the same and most people can make the jump to aluminum fairly easily. TIG welding is an extremely powerful tool. With a little practice, it is possible to make beautiful welds much more quickly and easily than with oxyacetylene welding. It also the only option currently available in the shop for welding aluminum. Put in a little time, and you will be rewarded in spades.

MIG WELDING
MIG welding is an abbreviation for Metal Inert Gas Welding. It is a process developed in the 1940s, and is considered semi-automated. This means that the welder still requires skill, but that the MIG welding machine will continuously keep filling the joint being welded. MIG welders consist of a handle with a trigger controlling a wire feed, feeding the wire from a spool to the weld joint. The wire is similar to an endless bicycle brake cable. The wire runs through the liner, which also has a gas feeding through the same cable to the point of arc, which protects the weld from the air. MIG welding is most commonly used in fabrication shops where production is high, and the possibility of wind blowing away your gas shielding is unlikely.

SUBMERGED ARC WELDING

Submerged arc welding (SAW) is a common arc welding process. Originally developed by the Linde - Union Carbide Company. It requires a noncontinuously fed consumable solid or tubular (flux cored) electrode. The molten weld and the arc zone are protected from atmospheric contamination by being submerged under a blanket of granular fusible flux consisting of lime, silica, manganese oxide, calcium fluoride, and other compounds. When molten, the flux becomes conductive, and provides a current path between the electrode and the work. This thick layer of flux completely covers the molten metal thus preventing spatter and sparks as well as suppressing the intense ultraviolet radiation and fumes that are a part of the shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) process.

GAS WELDING
Oxy-fuel welding (commonly called oxyacetylene welding, oxy welding, or gas welding in the U.S.) and oxy-fuel cutting are processes that use fuel gases and oxygen to weld and cut metals, respectively. French engineers Edmond Fouch and Charles Picard became the first to develop oxygen-acetylene welding in 1903.[1] Pure oxygen, instead of air (20% oxygen/80% nitrogen), is used to increase the flame temperature to allow localized melting of the workpiece material (e.g. steel) in a room environment. A common propane/air flame burns at about 3,630 F (2,000 C), a propane/oxygen flame burns at about 4,530 F (2,500 C), and an acetylene/oxygen flame burns at about 6,330 F (3,500 C). Oxy-fuel is one of the oldest welding processes. Still used in industry, in recent decades it has been less widely utilized in industrial applications as other specifically devised technologies have been adopted. It is still widely used for welding pipes and tubes, as well as repair work. It is also frequently well-suited, and favored, for fabricating some types of metal-based artwork.

WELD DEFECTS
TYPES OF DEFECTS:1.Cracks

Defects related to fracture. Arc strike cracking Arc strike cracking occurs when the arc is struck but the spot is not welded. This occurs because the spot is heated above the materials upper critical temperature and then essentially quenched. This forms martensite, which is brittle, and micro-cracks. Usually the arc is struck in the weld groove so this type of crack does not occur, but if the arc is struck outside of the weld groove then it must be welded over to prevent the cracking. If this is not an option then the arc spot can be postheated, i.e., the area is heated with an oxy-acetylene torch, and then allowed to cool slowly. Cold cracking Residual stresses can reduce the strength of the base material, and can lead to catastrophic failure through cold cracking, as in the case of several of the Liberty ships. Cold cracking is limited to steels, and is associated with the

formation of martensite as the weld cools. The cracking occurs in the heataffected zone of the base material. To reduce the amount of distortion and residual stresses, the amount of heat input should be limited, and the welding sequence used should not be from one end directly to the other, but rather in segments. Cold cracking only occurs when all the following preconditions are met:

susceptible microstructure (e.g. martensite) hydrogen present in the microstructure (hydrogen embrittlement) service temperature environment (normal atmospheric pressure): -100 to +100 F high restraint

Eliminating any one of these will eliminate this condition. Crater crack Crater cracks occur when a crater is not filled before the arc is broken. This causes the outer edges of the crater to cool more quickly than the crater, which creates sufficient stresses to form a crack. It may form a longitudinal or transverse crack or form multiple radial cracks. Fusion-line crack Creep crack growth and fracture toughness tests were performed using test material machined from a seam welded ASTM A-155-66 class 1 (2.25Cr-1Mo) steel steam pipe that had been in service for 15 years. The fracture morphology was examined using SEM fractography. Dimpled fracture was found to be characteristic of fracture toughness specimens. Creep crack growth generally followed the fusion line region and was characterized as dimpled fracture mixed with cavities. These fracture morphologies were similar to those of an actual steam pipe. It was concluded that creep crack growth behavior was the prime failure mechanism of seam-welded steam pipes.

Hat crack

Hat cracks get their name from the shape of the cross-section of the weld, because the weld flares out at the face of the weld. The crack starts at the fusion line and extends up through the weld. They are usually caused by too much voltage or not enough speed. Hot cracking Hot cracking, also known as solidification cracking, can occur with all metals, and happens in the fusion zone of a weld. To diminish the probability of this type of cracking, excess material restraint should be avoided, and a proper filler material should be utilized. Other causes include too high welding current, poor joint design that does not diffuse heat, impurities (such as sulfur and phosphorus), preheating, speed is too fast, and long arcs. Underbead crack An underbead crack, also known as a heat-affected zone (HAZ) crack, is a crack that forms a short distance away from the fusion line; it occurs in low alloy and high alloy steel. The exact causes of this type of crack are not completely understood, but it is known that dissolved hydrogen must be present. The other factor that affects this type of crack is internal stresses resulting from: unequal contraction between the base metal and the weld metal, restraint of the base metal, stresses from the formation of martensite, and stresses from the precipitation of hydrogen out of the metal. Longitudinal crack Longitudinal cracks run along the length of a weld bead. There are three types: check cracks, root cracks, and full centerline cracks. Check cracks are visible from the surface and extend partially into weld. They are usually caused by high shrinkage stresses, especially on final passes, or by a hot cracking mechanism. Root cracks start at the root and extent part way into the weld. They are the most

common type of longitudinal crack because of the small size of the first weld bead. If this type of crack is not addressed then it will usually propagate into subsequent weld passes, which is how full centerline cracks (a crack from the root to the surface) usually form. Reheat cracking Reheat cracking is a type of cracking that occurs in HSLA steels, particularly chromium, molybdenum and vanadium steels, during postheating. It is caused by the poor creep ductility of the heat affected zone. Any existing defects or notches aggravate crack formation. Things that help prevent reheat cracking include heat treating first with a low temperature soak and then with a rapid heating to high temperatures, grinding or peening the weld toes, and using a two layer welding technique to refine the HAZ grain structure. Root and toe cracks A root crack is the crack formed by the short bead at the root(of edge preparation) beginning of the welding, low current at the beginning and due to improper filler material used for welding.Major reason for happening of these types of cracks is hydrogen embrittlement. These types of defects can be eliminated using high current at the starting and proper filler material. Toe crack occurs due to moisture content present in the welded area,it as a part of the surface crack so can be easily detected. Preheating and proper joint formation is must for eliminating these types of defects.

2. Distortion
Welding methods that involve the melting of metal at the site of the joint necessarily are prone to shrinkage as the heated metal cools. Shrinkage then introduces residual stresses and distortion. Distortion can pose a major problem, since the final product is not the desired shape. To alleviate certain types of distortion the workpieces can be offset so that after welding the product is the correct shape. The following pictures describe various types of welding distortion.

Transverse shrinkage

Angular distortion

Longitudinal shrinkage

Fillet distortion

Neutral axis distortion

3.Gas inclusion
Gas inclusions is a wide variety of defects that includes porosity, blow holes, and pipes (or wormholes). The underlying cause for gas inclusions is the entrapment of gas within the solidified weld. Gas formation can be from any of the following causes: high sulphur content in the workpiece or electrode, excessive moisture from the electrode or workpiece, too short of an arc, or wrong welding current or polarity.

4.Inclusions
There are two types of inclusions: linear inclusions and isolated inclusions. Linear inclusions occur when there is slag or flux in the weld. Slag forms from the use of a flux, which is why this type of defect usually occurs in welding processes that use flux, such as shielded metal arc welding, flux-cored arc welding, and submerged arc welding, but it can also occur in gas metal arc welding. This defect usually occurs in welds that require multiple passes and there is poor overlap between the welds. The poor overlap does not allow the slag from the previous weld to melt out and rise to the top of the new weld bead. It can also occur if the previous weld left and undercut or an uneven surface profile. To prevent slag inclusions the slag should be cleaned from the weld bead between passes via grinding, wire brushing, or chipping. Isolated inclusions occur when rust or mill scale is present on the base metal.

5. Lack of fusion and incomplete penetration

Lack of fusion is the poor adhesion of the weld bead to the base metal; incomplete penetration is a weld bead that does not start at the root of the weld groove. Incomplete penetration forms channels and crevices in the root of the weld which can cause serious issues in pipes because corrosive substances can settle in these areas. These types of defects occur when the welding procedures are not adhered to; possible causes include the current setting, arc length, electrode angle, and electrode manipulation.

6. Lamellar tearing
Lamellar tearing is a type of welding defect that occurs in rolled steel plates. It has rarely been an issue since the 1970s because steel produced since then has less sulfur.

There is a combination of causes: non-metallic inclusions, too much hydrogen in the material, and shrinkage forces perpendicular to the face of the plates. The main factor among these reasons is the non-metal inclusions, of which the sulfur is the main problem. Lamellar tearing is no longer a problem anymore because sulfur levels are typical kept below 0.005%. Some things that are done to overcome lamellar tearing are: reducing amount of sulfur in the material or adding alloying elements that control the shape of sulfide inclusions, such as rare earth elements, zirconium, or calcium. A more drastic option is change the workpieces to castings or forgings because this type of defect does not occur in those workpieces.

TYPES OF ELECTRODES
In an electrochemical cell, there are two electrodes, positive and negative. Each electrode constitutes a half cell or a single electrode. Although a number of electrodes are possible but the more important of these electrodes are grouped into the following types:

(i) Metal-metal ion electrodes (ii) Metal-metal insoluble salt electrodes (iii) Metal-amalgam electrodes (iv) Gas-ion electrodes (v) Oxidation-reduction or redox electrodes

TECHNICAL TRAINING CENTRE