The 14th Formation Evaluation Symposium of Japan, September 29-30, 2008

Poroperm controlling factors in Khuff strata, South Pars gas field, offshore Iran

B. Esrafili-Dizaji1, H. Rahimpour-Bonab1, V. Tavakoli1

1.
Department of Geology, College of Science, University of Tehran, Iran
(behroozesrafily@gmail.com)

This paper was selected for presentation by the JFES program committee
following the review of abstract submitted by author(s).

ABSTRACT
The South Pars Field, discovered in 1990, is part of
world's largest single gas accumulation that located in
Persian Gulf. Facies analysis in the Permotriassic
reservoir of this field shows that its depositional setting
was located along inner part of a homoclinal ramp or
epiric carbonate system and extended from a peritidal
setting to a shallow subtidal zone, passing over a high
energy shoal and offshoal facies.
Petrographycal and geochemical (stable isotopes of bulk
samples) evidences all indicate that these facies were
mainly exposed to a shallow diagenesis and minor
subsequent burial. Hypersaline and meteoric diagenetic
realms were two well identified zones in the reservoir
intervals.
Detailed investigation along with correlation of
poroperm values with textures and facies, lithology and
mineralogy, pore types and relative frequency (pore
facies analysis), volume of cements, frequency of
stylolite and fractures showed that six key factors are
generally controlling distribution of porosity and
permeability in these reservoirs: 1) the reservoir
production potential depends originally upon the
cumulative thickness of grain dominated textures and
facies. 2) Early dolomitization (Sabkha and Reflux
model) has minor effects on the precursor limestone Fig. 1. Map showing the location of South Pars fields
poroperm values, but dolomite neomorphism has and studied wells in the Persian Gulf, offshore Iran.
improved the porosity-permeability relationship. 3)
Anhydrite and calcite cementations decrease poroperm
values. 4) Dissolution along with leaching of the The Khuff Formation in the Middle East is one of the
metastable grains and cements has created the main most important and prolific reservoir units. This
reservoir quality zones. More than 60 percent of pores carbonate-evaporite succession is hosting numerous gas
have been created by dissolution. 5) Compaction and fields (Khuff reservoirs) in the Persian Gulf basin
specially stylolite generation had important effects on the (Alsharhan and Nairn, 1997; Bordenave, 2008).
reservoir quality decrease. 6) Fracturing has increased In addition, it hosts the world’s largest gas reserve in the
the poroperm values but are not well-extended. Finally North Dome/South Pars fields (discovered 1971 and
distal diagenetic facies of reservoir rock has 9% porosity 1990, respectively) which extends over the Iranian and
and 26 md permeability in average. Qatari offshore (Ehrenberg et al, 2007) (Fig. 1).
The main goal of this study is to characterize and
INTRODUCTION illustrate depositional and diagenetic controls over
In recent years, many challenges exist in characterizing, reservoir quality. The description and quantification of
quantifying, and predicting carbonate reservoir quality. It reservoir heterogeneities require integration of
is widely accepted that carbonate reservoirs may be depositional, diagenetic and petrophysical data at various
inherently heterogeneous in nature at a variety of scales scales.
(e.g. Nurmi et al., 1990; Mazzullo and Chilingarian,
1992; Russell et al., 2002; Smith et al., 2003).

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The 14th Formation Evaluation Symposium of Japan, September 29-30, 2008
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
1. TECTONIC FRAMEWORK
During most of the geologic time Persian Gulf basin
were separated by a positive paleostructure, Qatar Arch,
into two troughs at the east-southeast (Rub-Al-Khali in
the United Arabian Emirates, U.A.E.) and the
west-northwest (central part of the Persian Gulf basin)(-
Alsharhan and Nairn, 1997; Konert et al., 2001; Ziegler,
2001; Konyakhov and Maleki, 2006).
This Arch is a north-northeast trending positive tectonic
feature, extending into the Persian Gulf and effectively
dividing it into two basins. In fact, this major tectonic
element of the Arabian plate tectonic setting is a regional
gentle and broad anticline (Fig. 2), that extending from
the Arabian Peninsula. It had a fundamental influence on
the tectonic patterns and sedimentation history of the
Gulf (Alsharhan and Nairn, 1997; Konert et al., 2001;
Ziegler, 2001; Konyakhov and Maleki, 2006). North
Field and South Pars are located on the north-northeast
plunge of this Arch (Figs. 1, 2).
Fig. 2. Cross section of sedimentary covers from the
Central Arabian Arch to the Persian Gulf region.
(Compiled after Konert et al., 2001).
Thinning of the Permian sediment indicates the existence
of a syn-depositional structural high in SE of the Zagros,
a trending block-faulted horst within the basement,
known as the Qatar Arch. The post-Paleozoic tectonic
activity revived this structural high, as witnessed by
some erosion of the Triassic units (Szabo and Kheradpir,
1978; Saint-Marc, 1978; Murris, 1980; Kashfi, 1992).
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The Qatar-South Pars Arch was a positive structure
during the Paleozoic and gradually subsided during
Jurassic times (Saint-Marc, 1987).
It has been active periodically throughout the Mesozoic
and Cenozoic time, including the late Tertiary when
sediments currently exposed on the Arch were deposited
(Konert et al., 2001; Ziegler, 2001; Alsharhan and Nairn,
1997; Konyakhov and Maleki, 2006).
2. STRATIGRAPHIC SETTING
Stratigraphic successions that formed important
hydrocarbon systems in the subsurface of the Qatar Arch,
are well-documented and cropped out in the fold belts in
the east and north of the Arabian Plate in the Oman and
Zagros Mountains (Sharland et al. 2001; Ziegler, 2001;
Alsharhan and Nairn, 1997; Alavi, 2004).
In Permo-Triassic two megasequences III and IV
(include Faragan, Dalan, Kangan and Dashtak
Formations) are deposited in the newly opened ocean
(Neotethys). Dalan and Kangan Formations in the Zagros
area, the lateral equivalent of the well-known Khuff
strata, are extended in large parts of the Arabian plate
(Fig. 3). Today, these sequences are hosting huge gas
reserves in both North Field and South Pars in the
Persian Gulf basin (Ehrenberg et al, 2007).
These reservoir rocks are conformably overlain by the
rusty-brown or varicolored Aghar Shales in the base of
the Dashtak Formation that act as seal in the Qatar Arch
huge petroleum system (Alsharhan and Nairn, 1997;
Sharland, 2001; Aali et al., 2006; Bordenave, 2008).
Fig. 3. Generalized stratigraphy of the South Pars Field
showing formation lithology, Erosional surface detected
from seismic survey; Four rock group in this area are
recognized according Alavi (2004) (No to scale).
 The 14th Formation Evaluation Symposium of Japan, September 29-30, 2008
DATA BASE AND METHODS
This paper is mainly based on the examinations of
subsurface data across the Iranian domain of the world’s
largest single gas accumulation, South Pars field. The
main approach in this study is to examine poroperm
controlling factors in the South Pars reservoir units in
both large and fine scales.
In the large-scale, on the base of cores, thin sections,
geochemical data (G18OPDB and G13CPDB), logs, core plugs
and petrophysical analyses, rocks of the Upper Khuff
were analyzed to reveal poroperm controlling factors.
These factors are, in turn, controlled by combination of
primary depositional textures and secondary diagenetic
features.
On the microscopic scale, image analysis software is
used for Digital Point Counting (DPC) to determine the
relative proportions of different pore types in 68 thin
sectioned samples. From each thin section some 6 to 10
photos are taken for this method. Under the pore facies
scheme, these data are compared and calibrated by core
poroperm values.
FACIES ANALYSIS AND SEDIMENTARY
ENVIRONMENT
Combined core examinations and detailed thin section
studies are used for facies analysis. Accordingly, 14
major facies were recognized in the Upper Khuff
reservoir in the field. They are grouped as five facies
assemblages deposited in supratidal, intertidal, lagoon,
shoal and off-shoal environments (Fig. 4).
The lateral distribution along the carbonate system is
reconstructed, extending from a peritidal setting to a
shallow subtidal zone passing over a high energy shoal
facies (Fig. 4). Upwards, with transitional boundary, a
consistent gradational change from shallow to deep water
facies is seen that contain thick sections of shallow water
facies.
The temporal distribution of these facies associations
reflects an ideal shallowing upward sequence. These
facies are genetically related and indicate gentle
depositional gradient and morphology during deposition.
Thus, they represent shallow part of a homoclinal
carbonate ramp (Fig. 4). This interpretation is based on
the characteristics of the constituting facies, lateral and
vertical relations between sedimentary facies, the
presence of thick succession of shallow deposits (high
relative proportion of peritidal and lagoon vs. open
marine facies), absence of reef and mass flow deposits
(re-sedimented deposits) associated with a shelf break
(margin) and low diversity in facies type (Ahr, 1973 &
1998; Read, 1985; Burchette and Wright 1992; Wright
and Burchette, 1998).
Development of this ramp system is favored with
prevalence of suitable paleotectonic and paleogeographic
conditions and absent of worldwide reef building
organisms in the Late Permian-Early Triassic (Burchette
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and Wright, 1992; Wright and Burchette, 1996).
Fig. 4. Generalized depositional model for the Khuff
strata in the field scale.
DEPOSITIONAL CONTROLS ON RESERVOIR
PROPERTIES
Considering relationships between depositional textures
and reservoir properties could provide information
regarding paleoenvironmental controls.
Correlation of depositional textures and poroperm data
provides two important results:
1) A close correlation is found between grain-dominated
facies (such as grainstone, grain-dominated packstone
and mud-dominated packstone) and their cumulative
thickness, with poroperm data. In fact, as shown in figure
5, production potential in this field is a function of
depositional environment energy and relative proportions
of grain to mud.
2) In muddy intervals of reservoir successions in this
field, positive correlation between grain-dominated
intervals and their cumulative thickness with productive
zones are commonly well-preserved in both limestone
and dolomite. The grain types and fabrics of each facies
are interpreted to reflect a specific depositional
environment and energy range. Energy conditions during
deposition played a major role in determining primary
porosity by controlling grain types, sizes, and sorting.
Besides, grain-dominated units are susceptible to
secondary porosity development and increase in
reservoir qualities, due to dissolution of unstable grains
(ooids and bioclasts) and persistence of low Mg-calcite
matrix.
Considering the results of this investigation, it could be
expected that grain-dominated apart from their
diagenetic history, should have high reservoir qualities as
they have formed the main reservoir intervals. In other
words, mud-dominated facies acted as seals while
grain-dominated facies shows reservoir characters. In
addition, there is a positive correlation between reservoir
quality and other textural parameters.
Scatter plots of core analysis data versus depositional
facies association suggest that subtidal facies (open
lagoon, shoal and offshoal facies) have the highest
reservoir quality, always higher than production cutoff
(K>5% and K>0.1 md) (Fig. 6). Supratidal and intertidal
facies show variable permeability and lower porosities
values than subtidal facies. In some intervals, intertidal
facies are replaced by fabric-preserving, fine crystalline
The 14th Formation Evaluation Symposium of Japan, September 29-30, 2008
Fig. 5. Positive correlation between grain-dominate
intervals and its cumulative thickness with productive
zones apart from their lithology.
dolomite (anhedral crystals). Main porosity types are
fenestral, intercrystalline and fractures. Few samples
show high permeability values (coarse crystalline,
dolomitic facies of supratidal and intertidal that
fractured).
In most cases, range of poroperm values coincide with
environmental energy gradient and increase from land to
high-energy shoal setting and decrease in offshoal facies.
However, differences do arise which are because of the
diagenetic overprints (Cantrell and Hagerty, 2003; Kostic
and Aigner 2004).
Depositional textures and facies are important in
determining reservoir rocks (both limestone and
dolomite) porosity and permeability in the subsurface.
Although subjected to a complicated history of
diagenetic modification, reservoir quality in the South
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Fig. 6. Poroperm values of each facies association
indicating effects of the environmental energy on the
distribution of reservoir properties.
Pars Field is closely linked to the depositional facies
(Figs. 5 and 6).
DIAGENETIC HISTORY AND POROSITY
EVOLUTION
The reservoir has been subjected to the complex
diagenetic events that could be ascribed to two
diagenetic regimes (Fig. 7): (1) early diagenesis (before
the onset of pressure-solution) and (2) late diagenesis
(during and after the pressure-solution).
Most of the reservoir creating diagenesis occurred in
shallow-burial (meteoric realm). Major portion of
porosity in the reservoir is secondary in origin, formed
during diagenesis and ranges from 0 to 36%.
Detailed petrographic examinations denote selective
diagenesis in the reservoir. Evidences for dissolution of
aragonite and preservation of low Mg-calcitic matrix
suggest evolution of secondary porosity in these
carbonates. Although dolomitization, dolomite
neomorphism and fracturing have had minor effects on
the porosity generation, but in some cases, they have
exerted major control on the permeability values.
Considering reservoir quality, burial diagenesis had
mainly lowest effects on the reservoir quality.
Its effects include physical compaction, anhydrite
precipitation (remobilized cements) and carbonate
cementation (apart from minor porosity generation
through dolomite neomorphism,stylolitization and
fracturing). Hypersaline and meteoric diagenetic realms
were two well identified zones in the reservoir intervals.
 The 14th Formation Evaluation Symposium of Japan, September 29-30, 2008

dolomitization. But in general, permeability values of

Fig. 7. Diagenetic sequences and porosity evolution in
the Upper Khuff carbonates in South Pars field. Based on
petrographic examinations, evolution of porosity is
mainly related to the diagenetic processes.
dolomite units are better than the limestone intervals.
Effects of dolomitization in connecting pore spaces are
revealed in figure 21.
Dolostones with light stable oxygen isotopic
compositions (G18OPDB <0 ‰) and coarse crystalline
texture (neomorphic dolomites) have higher permeability
values than both limestones and other dolomites. In
general, dolomite neomorphism associated with crystal
size increasing has good effects on the reservoir quality
of dolostones. Although, dolomitization and dolomite
neomorphism had improving effects on the permeability
of dolostone units, but, apparently it is mostly controlled
by precursor sediments fabrics and the original porosity
(Fig. 12). As seen in figure 12, poroperm values of
reservoir rocks are affected mainly by grain/mud ratio
(energy of environment). In some cases, impacts of
dolomitization on muddy intervals were positive and
have increased poroperm values that addressed by Lucia
(2004) previously. Therefore, it could be deduced that
dolomitization has insignificant effect on the porosity
generation but it has improved permeability of
dolostones.

DIAGENETIC CONTROLS ON RESERVOIR

QUALITY
1. MENERALOGY AND LITHOLOGY

Calcite, dolomite and anhydrite are three common

mineralogy of the reservoir observed in stained thin
sections.
Facies selective diagenesis in hypersaline conditions
leads to dolomite formation and anhydrite mineralogy in
peritidal and restricted marine facies and settings.
Association of these two mineralogies is related to the
sea water evaporation which is addressed in many case
studies (e.g. Qing et al., 2001; Melim and Scholle, 2002).
Correlation of reservoir rocks mineralogy with poroperm
data indicated that there is close relationship between
mineralogy/lithology and reservoir quality (Fig. 9). In
fact, stratigraphic positions of pay intervals are defined
by rock composition (Fig. 9), i.e., reservoir intervals
have positive correlation and association with limestone
and dolomitic limestone intervals. In other words,
anydritic dolomite, dolomite and anhydrite units are
mostly associated with nonpay (tight) intervals.

2. DOLOMITIZATION AND DOLOMITE

NEOMORPHISM
Figure 8 displays relation between stable isotopic
compositions (G18OPDB) of bulk rock samples vs.
poroperm values in the Upper Khuff unit. As seen, there
is almost positive correlation between low oxygen
isotope values and porosity. Also, limestone intervals are
porous than the dolomite units (Fig. 8). In other words,
porosity is decreasing with increase in degree of
Fig. 8. Plot of poroperm vs. stable isotope composition
(G18O) in the Upper Khuff member, South Pars field. In
general, G18O values decrease (decreasing dolomitization
degree) with increasing porosity. There is complexity
about permeability and G18O values.

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The 14th Formation Evaluation Symposium of Japan, September 29-30, 2008

Fig. 9. Relationship between lithology/mineralogy and poroperm data. Generaly, limestone lithologies mostly
associated with high porosity intervals but low porosity units coincide with dolomite and anhydrite intervals.

3. DISSOLUTION Near-surface leaching processes (tied to meteoric

Petrographic observations showed that dissolution is the
most important factor in porosity creation in the South
Pars field. Sedimentary particles remained mostly
unaffected by dolomitization (limestone facies) and were
subjected to dissolution to variable degrees. These
particles originally were composed of ooids and bioclasts,
as is suggested by the size and shape of the remaining
dissolution molds. Considerable porosity (more than
80%) in the reservoir rocks was produced during
dissolution of aragonitic components. Fabric-selective
early dissolution of unstable grains is created moldic
pores, which are the dominant pore types in this field. In
some cases, dissolution of anhydrite cements created
pseudo-intercrystalline pores, which are the dominant
pore types.
cementation) are mostly associated with limestone
intervals, because early dolomitized sediments are more
stable than the limestone in meteoric conditions (Moore,
2001). As result of this, effects of this differential
dissolution in dolomitic units are only local.
Therefore, original mineralogy is highly affected degree
of dissolution and spatial distribution of the reservoir
zones. Secondary dissolution porosity and also
permeability were closely related to depositional facies.
The close association between meteoric dissolution and
open marine facies are predominant feature in reservoir
rock.
In pore scale studies, 68 samples are selected from
reservoir intervals that have commercial poroperm
values (K>5% and K>0.1 md) (fig. 7). Digital point
counting of these samples indicated eight basic pore

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 The 14th Formation Evaluation Symposium of Japan, September 29-30, 2008
types (Fig. 10). Relative proportions of these pore types
for each sample is plotted on this triangle and the
poroperm relationships of samples are compared with
Lucia’s petrophysical classes (Lucia, 1999) (Fig. 10).
Studies are showed more than 60 percent of pores have
been created by dissolution.
Fig. 10. Pore facies analysis (according to Ahr and
Hommel, 1999) and its poroperm values in lucia's
petrophysical classification (Lucia, 1999). Most of pores
have diagenetic (dissolution) origin.
4. CEMENTATION
Two major types of cements that occurred in porous
facies of reservoir rocks are anhydrite and calcite
cements.
Both cement types (degree of cementation) show an
inverse relationship with porosity and permeability. Early
cementation processes is higher than late cementation
phase, volumetrically. A direct relationship exists
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between the original depositional environment and the
early diagenetic processes that formed most of the
pore-plugging cements (selective cementation).
Anhydrite cements are mostly associated with dolomite
intervals (supratidal, intertidal and lagoon facies), instead,
calcite cements are associated with limestone intervals
that include open marine facies.
Visual estimations indicate that the most prevalent type
of cements in reservoir intervals is anhydrite. Cements
(particularly anhydrite) commonly have negative effect
on poroperm values.
For examination of anhydrite pluging effect, a function
“Anhydrite index” was constructed to represent the
decreasing of poroperm values with increasing of
anhydrite plugging index (AI = 100 × anhydrite/total
carbonate) (fig. 11).
In many cases, pore spaces are completely occluded by
cementation. Although negative effects of cementation
on reservoir quality is dominant in reservoir rocks but in
some cases this process (especially calcite cement) have
positive influence on preservation of porosity. In
well-cemented shoal facies, marine calcite spars hindered
post-compaction effects and decrease of porosity.
Cementation is the dominant mechanism of porosity loss
in the studied reservoir rock.
The precipitation of the main porosity occluding cements
(calcite, anhydrite) occurred early in the diagenetic
history (based on visual evaluation).
Fig. 11. Crossplot of poroperm data and “Anhydrite
index” function. There are a good overall inverse
correlation between poroperm values and anhydrite
plugging index (AI = 100 × anhydrite/total carbonate).
5. COMPACTION
Compaction has affected reservoir rocks in this field
from deposition through deep burial. Most depositional
The 14th Formation Evaluation Symposium of Japan, September 29-30, 2008
Fig. 12. Relationship between poroperm data and
frequency of stylolite in the South Pars field at the
reservoir scale. As seen in this log, stylolite present in
both reservoir and nonreservoir intervals, but frequency
of these features increase in nonreservoir units. In other
word, distance of stylolite in reservoir units are more
than nonreservoir intervals
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fabrics show little evidence of compaction prior to
dolomitization, suggesting dolomitization process prior
to compaction. It seems that mechanical and chemical
compaction during burial has reduced porosity in the
reservoir rocks.
As a result of increasing compaction (extensive chemical
compaction), solution seams and stylolites are developed.
Stylolites truncate dolomite and anhydrite crystals, but
dolomite and anhydrite were not observed overgrowing
stylolites..
In general, both negative and positive aspects vs.
poroprm data are recognized in literatures (Longman,
1982; Scoffin, 1987; Tucker and Wright, 1990). Core
observations and thin section analysis indicate that
stylolite present in both reservoir and nonreservoir
intervals, but frequency of these features increase in
nonreservoir units. In other word, distance of stylolites in
reservoir units is more than nonreservoir intervals (Fig.
12).
Quantitative data shows that 3% of pore types in the
reservoir rock are stylolitic. The latter pores are
connected other pores and have positive effects on
reservoir quality. Apparently negative aspects of this
diagenetic process are predominant in the South Pars
field, as frequently reported from other hydrocarbon
fields. Results of this study are supported by Ehrenberg
(2006) findings in the South Pars field.
6. FEACTURING
Fractures and microfractures have local importance in
reservoir rock and in many cases these are filled by
anhydrite, calcite and saddle dolomite cements
(Mineralized or closed fractures). Open fracture system
connects otherwise unconnected porosity. Natural
fractures are separated from drilling or
laboratory-derived fractures during systematic fracture
analysis. Their features can be visually identified at the
all scales on core samples or borehole electrical images.
In general, visual evaluation of fracture-connected
porous core samples showed that they have high
permeability values. In this regard, fractures density in
the reservoir rock is important.
Precise role of fractures in the reservoir quality is not yet
understood and is not well studied. However, reservoir
quality may be enhanced in certain intervals of a field by
natural fracturing because fracture porosity is an
important contributor to permeability in many carbonate
reservoirs (Lucia, 1999).
7. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Depositional-diagenetic reservoir heterogeneities in the
Upper Khuff strata in the South Pars field have different
origin, in variety of scales.
Several factors controlled large-scale heterogeneity of
porosity distribution in the Upper Khuff carbonate
platform that discussed here. Original depositional
texture, mineralogy and lithology, dolomitization and
 The 14th Formation Evaluation Symposium of Japan, September 29-30, 2008
dolomite neomorphism, cementation, dissolution,
compaction and fracturing are main in this regard.
In general, at the large-scale, the reservoir quality is
inherited from paleoplatform and its stratigraphic
evolution. In this scale, all diagenetic processes such as
followed depositional patterns thus have stratified
distributions. Therefore, stratigraphic position and its
continuity in both lateral and vertical scales are mainly
determined by depositional processes.
In other word, reservoir potential that is controlled by
depositional factors and paleoenvironmental conditions
exerted main effects on the reservoir quality.
Changes of the depositional environment with time and
space lead to the isolation of pay zones between tight
lithologies. Presence of anhydrite and anhydritic
dolomudstones near the third-order sequence boundary
turnaround is very effective in this regard.
In terms of origin, core observation, thin section analysis
and quantitative digital point counting showed that
reservoir quality is primarily the result of shallow
diagenesis. As result of this, small scale reservoir
heterogeneity in the reservoir rocks is a function of
intensity of facies-selective diagenesis. In fact, degree of
diagenetic gradient dictates degree of connectivity of
pore systems in porous intervals.
In conclusion, porosity and reservoir qualities were
controlled by primary depositional facies (geometry and
grain composition of high-energy shoals; anhydrite and
micritic interformational seals) and facies-selective
diagenesis (freshwater dissolution of ooids, porosity
destruction processes).
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The 14th Formation Evaluation Symposium of Japan, September 29-30, 2008

Heterogeneities in carbonate reservoirs: detection and Behrooz Esrafili-Dizaji

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