Rock Mechanics Basics

Rock Mechanics Basics
by
Wolfgang A. Lenhardt
wolfgang.lenhardt@zamg.ac.at Department of Geophysics Central Institute for Meteorology and Geodynamics Hohe Warte 38 A-1190 Vienna Austria Phone: +43 1 36 026 ext. 2501 Telefax: Telefax: +43 1 368 6621 www.zamg.ac.at
Lenhardt Rock Mechanics/ Basics
Content
Terminology Stress & Strain Mohr Circle State of Stress Stress Concentrations Strain Energy Density Closure Discontinuities Excess Shear Stress
Terminology
Uniaxial Compressive Strength UCS stress at failure [MPa]
Youngs Modulus E - modulus of elasticity [GPa]
normal stress
slope = E
normal strain
Shear Modulus G - modulus of rigidity [GPa]
shear stress
slope = G
shear strain
Lenhardt Rock Mechanics/ Basics 3
Terminology - contd
Poissons Ratio - Ratio of radial/axial deformation [1]
=-x/z
Cohesion So - Intrinsic shear strength [MPa] Adhesion To Tensile strength [MPa]

slope = So
shear stress
Coefficient of Friction Tangent of angle between shear and normal stress [1]
To
normal stress
Stress and Strain

Force Stress = Force / Area Area lo Radial strain = r = (do- d1)/do do Axial strain = a = (lo- l1)/lo <0 in compression ! >0
Poissons ratio = - r / a l1 Youngs modulus E = a / a

Typical values of Witwatersrand quartzite 0.22 E 72 GPa
d1
Note: Poissons ratio and the Youngs modulus are material-dependent and may vary in different directions. Special cases of : 0.25 ... purely elastic, 0.5 ... liquid (incompressible)
Mohrs Circle
The Mohr-Circle diagram connects the state of deformation and the currently applied stress regime in a graphical way. Let us consider a cube, which is exposed to external forces per area or stresses. Within this cube we would like to determine these stresses. For reasons of simplicity, lets assume, that the largest stress is acting vertical, and the smallest stress is acting horizontal: Definition: These major two stresses are called the 1. Major principal stress, and 2. Minor principal stress The stress, which acts orthogonal to these stresses, is named intermediate stress. In these three distinct directions, only normal stresses are acting. No shear stresses are present. Why? Each stress-system can be represented by three principal (normal) stresses and their directions only! We will see now, how this works.
Mohrs Circle Derivation contd

Lets consider a pressure p acting at an arbitrary angle on an inclined plane in respect to a Cartesian co-ordinate system.
The force-equilibrium
Consider a stress px in x-direction due to a stress acting at an angle to the inclined surface A: px = x . cos + yx . sin
7
requires, the following:

Mohrs Circle Derivation contd
Now, these components can be separated into a normal and a shear stress acting on the plane:
Since the forces exerted on a square must be in equilibrium, we set:
is the angle between the normal stress on a plane and the major principal stress. Rotation of the arbitrary chosen coordinate system by would eliminate the shear stresses. The angle , at which shear stresses vanish, is given by:
xy
yx
Mohrs Circle Stresses

The derived relation between shear- and normal stresses can be expressed graphically by a circle the Mohr Circle, which can be completely described by the principal stresses.
Mohrs Circle Strains
Note: Only half of the shear strains are plotted in the diagram, for the other half is consumed by rotation.
10
Mohrs Circle Summary
Stress acting normal to the plane
Shear stress acting in direction of the plane
11
Mohrs Circle Summary contd
Stress
2 General case: 3 normal stresses (x ,y ,z) (xx ,yy ,zz) 3 shear stresses (xy ,yz ,zx) (xy ,yz ,zx) Transformed: 3 principal stresses (1... 3) 3 principal directions (1... 3) 2 or strains ...
or or
Strain
12
Mohrs Circle Examples

1 = 200 MPa 2 = 0 MPa 3 = 0 MPa
1 = 400 MPa 2 = 50 MPa 3 = 0 MPa
1 = 350 MPa 2 = 10 MPa 3 = 10 MPa
13
Mohrs Circle Examples

1 = 50 MPa 2 = 5 MPa 3 = -10 MPa
1 = 2 = 3 =
0 MPa 0 MPa 0 MPa
1 = 50 MPa 2 = 50 MPa 3 = 50 MPa
14
Mohrs Circle Exercise 1 1 = 210 MPa
Task: Determine the stresses normal and shear stresses acting on the inclined plane!
= 60
2 =
10 MPa
Hint: 1. Determine 2. Plot principal stresses on x-axis 3. Draw Mohrs Circle 4. Introduce in Mohrs Circle 5. Calculate the average principal stress 6. Calculate the maximum shear stress 7. Determine normal and shear stress Solution: Normal stress =average stress + cos(2)*maximum shear stress Shear stress = sin(2)*maximum shear stress
15
Mohrs Circle Exercise 1 Solution

shear stress
Solution: = = 60 (just in this case, for the angle was given from 2, which is the same as the angle between the plane normal and the maximum principal stress!)
=? max 2 = 120 2 = 10 MPa
average = (1 + 2) / 2 = 110 MPa max = (1 - 2) / 2 = 100 MPa
=?
normal stress 1 = 210 MPa

Result:
= average + cos(2) * max = 60 MPa = sin(2) * max = 86.6 MPa shear stress
16
Mohrs Circle Exercise 2
y = 100 MPa
Task: Determine the magnitude and orientation of the principal stresses!
yx = 25 MPa x =
50 MPa
Hint: 1. Plot normal stresses on x-axis 2. Determine average normal stress 3. Plot shear stress on y-axis 4. Draw Mohrs Circle 5. Determine 6. Calculate principal stresses
Solution: Orientation = = arctan (yx/(y- average))/2 Determine average normal stress Determine maximum shear stress 1 = average stress + max 2 = average stress - max
Note sign convention!
Mohrs Circle Exercise 2 Solution

shear stress
Solution: xy = - yx = - 25 MPa average = (x + y) / 2 = 75 MPa max = Result: = 35.35 MPa
yx 2 ? x 2 normal stress y 1 ?
= (arctan(yx/(y- average)))/2 = 22.5 1 = average + max = 110.4 MPa 2 = average - max = 39.6 MPa
xy
= 22.5
110.4 MPa
1 =
shear stress
39.6 MPa
2 =
3-D Mohr Space
From: Jaeger & Cook (1978). In Pollard, D.D. & Fletcher, R.C. 2005. Fundamentals of Structural Geology. Cambridge. Lenhardt Rock Mechanics/ Basics 19
Failure Criteria
MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS shear stress Failure shear stress COULOMB-NAVIER
Failure
= So + n . tan
No failure
max = So normal stress
No failure normal stress
shear stress Failure
HOEK-BROWN
1 = 3(m. UCS. 3 + UCS s)

m, s... describe the integrity of the rock mass (Hoek & Brown parameters), s = integrity (0-1 = degree of fracturing), m = type of rock
20
Failure Criteria contd

major stress
COULOMB-NAVIER shear stress
Failure
Failure No failure

Compressive Strength UCS
Intrinsic Strength
So minor stress
Tensile Strength To
21
Failure Criteria contd

The following relations between the different parameters are useful:
22
Pre- and Post Failure Behaviour
23
Pre- and Post Failure Behaviour contd

Whether the rock behaves brittle or ductile depends mainly on the confining stress.
Yielding (resisting constant stress)

re St ss
g in n i nf Co
Not yielding (loosing load carrying capacity)
After: Wawersik, W.R. & Fairhurst C.A, 1970: A study of brittle rock fracture in laboratory compression experiments. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 7, 561 675.
24
Pre- and Post Failure Behaviour contd

If the confining stress is low such as in slim pillars shear failure is likely to take place, especially when transgressive fractures (due to blasting or geology) are present.
25
Strain Rate
Materials do respond different to high and low strain rates: UCS... E... Td... Uniaxial compressive strength Youngs modulus Duration of test
From: Chong & Boresi, 1990: Strain rate properties of New Albany Reference shale. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr., Vol. 27, No.3, 199 - 205.
26
State of Stress
surface
k > 1 (shallow)
k=
depth k < 1 (deep)
horizont al st ress v ert ical st ress
27
State of Stress contd

k = 0.5 (pxx + pyy) / pzz
From: Brady, B.H.G. & Brown, E.T., 1985. Rock Mechanics for Underground Mining, George Allen & Unwin Publishers.
Terminology: VIRGIN STRESS INDUCED STRESS FIELD STRESS Original stress prior to mining Additional change in stress due to mining VIRGIN + INDUCED STRESS = actual stress acting around the excavation
28
State of Stress 2D Plane Stress

An example of a plane stress regime is the surface of an underground excavation. Perpendicular to the free surface at the stope face, no stress is acting only strain. The basic equations for calculating the principal strains and stresses during the linear-elastic state of deformation are given here:
An example of a plane strain condition is a section through a tunnel. In direction of the axis of a tunnel only the stress remains, - the strain equals zero. The equivalent formulas can be derived from the 3D state of stress.
29
State of Stress 3D
The general case in three dimensions for a linear-elastic state of deformation is given by:
30
Stress Concentrations
Stress concentrations do occur around all excavations. The actual field stress depends on:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Depth Shape of excavation Mining layout Support Rock characteristics
The rock mass has a very low tensile strength. Whether an excavation is subjected to tensile stresses depends on its shape (e.g. height to width ratio) and the ratio of the horizontal to the vertical stress (k - ratio).
31
Stress Concentrations in a Tunnel Exercise
32
Stress Concentrations in a Tunnel contd
Tensile stresses may easily develop in the crown of a haulage (rockfall !) if the k-ratio is low and/or the height/width ratio is small
After: Brady, B.H.G. & Brown, E.T., 1985. Rock Mechanics for Underground Mining, George Allen & Unwin Publishers. Lenhardt Rock Mechanics/ Basics 33
Stress Concentrations contd
High stresses such as inside or below a pillar may lead to disking of borehole-samples. The example shown, was taken from a pillar 3000 m below surface, intersecting the reef (pebbles). The disk at the right end originated from the edge of the pillar.
34
Stress Shadow
stope
The presence of nearby mining openings affect the field stresses and thus the intensity and orientation of induced fractures in e.g. tunnels.
From: An Industry Guide to Methods of Ameliorating the Hazards of ROCKFALL and ROCKBURSTS, Chamber of Mines of South Africa, 1988.
35
Mining Conditions
Conditions in deep mines differ from shallow mines in many ways.
36
Mining Conditions contd
37
Strain Energy Density

Strain energy density represents the energy stored in the rock per volume:
/2 = W i... i... principal stress principal strain
i i
W=
i= 1
The total stored strain energy U in the rock mass with volume V is therefore U=W*V The major principal stress dominates the stored strain energy density once the k-ratio is less than 0.5 (error < 10 %, exact if k = 0): Example: Uniaxial Compressive Test (k-ratio = 0)
220 MPa at failure Strain Energy Density: E = 72 GPa (Youngs modulus)
38
Strain Energy - Exercise

Calculate the strain energy density as function of depth, while considering Poissons ratio, the kratio and the material properties.
39
Strain Energy Exercise contd
40
Closure
Closure is the amount by which the original stoping width is reduced.
Closure =
Elastic deformation
convergence
Inelastic deformation
Principle of beam
Examples:
Bed separation Opening of joints Swelling Slip along plane
Inelastic deformation exceeds by far elastic deformation!
41
Closure contd
Deformation of the rock mass around deep stopes.
From: Jager, A.J. & Ryder, J.A. 1999. A Handbook for Rock Engineering Practice for tabular hard rock mines. The Safety in Mines Research Advisory Committee (SIMRAC), Johannesburg, South Africa. Lenhardt Rock Mechanics/ Basics 42
Closure contd
Direction advance Old mine workings
of
Stope face
vance Face ad
Inelastic deformation manifests itself in faceparallel fracturing of the footwall.

Closure contd
Timber support in an old stope, at which total closure took place.

Rock Mass
The description of discontinuities is a matter of scale!
45
Types of Fractures
Triaxial compression Shear
(offset between surfaces)
Special case
Cross Shear
Uniaxial compression
Longitudinal during compression effects)

(irregular surface)
splitting perfect (no end-
Uniaxial tension
Extension
(no shear-offset between surfaces)
Special cases
Intrusion, Uplift
46
Rock Quality
Barton, N. 2007. Rock quality, seismic velocity, attenuation and anisotropy. Taylor & Francis/Balkema, The Netherlands, 729 pp. Lenhardt Rock Mechanics/ Basics 47
Discontinuities
Rock characteristics depend on the number of discontinuities existing inside of the rock mass. A very small sample (laboratory test) usually contains no discontinuities. A large rock sample may contain numerous discontinuities, however.
FRACTURE JOINT FAULT DYKE SILL BEDDING PLANE SHEAR ZONE
plane which separates the rock material break of geological origin, no shear displacement visible fracture with identifiable shear displacement long narrow vertical intrusion near horizontal intrusion separates sedimentary rocks into beds or strata bonds of material in the order of metres in which local shear displacement took place
48
Discontinuities contd
Shear fracture
Joints & plumoses
49
Dyke
Dyke-contact
50
Fault
Movement along a dykecontact, as seen through the shot (gunned) concrete

51
Dyke Contact contd
Dyke
Quartzite
After: Cook, N.G.W. et al. 1966. 52
Types of Faults
Normal fault Reverse or thrust fault
There are Normal, Reverse/thrust and Strike-slip faults Sometimes, their effects daylight on surface.
Strike-slip fault
Types of Faults
Three types of faults can be distinguished:
Normal fault
Reverse or thrust fault
Strike-slip fault
54
Characteristics of Faults
Coefficients of sliding-friction differ significantly (based on faults at shallow depth, < 1000 m below surface):
98 per cent confidence limits Coefficient of friction from regression line Combined data Normal faulting Thrust faulting Strike-slip faulting 0.522 0.625 0.427 0.220 Correlation coefficient 0.786 0.848 0.790 0.383 Upper (per cent) 0.577 (+10.5) 0.746 (+19.6) 0.476 (+11.4) 0.235 (+6.9) Lower (per cent) 0.471 (-9.6) 0.521 (-16.6) 0.381 (-10.9) 0.202 (-8.0)
From: Jaeger, J.,C. & Cook, N.G.W. 1979. Fundamentals of Rock Mechanics, 3rd edition, Chapman and Hall, London, pages 377-379 and 425 427.
Under mining conditions faults may slip reverse to their geological sense of displacement!
class AAA AA A B C D Fault activity Extremely high Very high High Moderate Low Extremely low Slip rate (cm/year) > 10 1 10 0.1 1 0.01 0.1 0.001 0.01 < 0.001
From: Bonilla M. G. 1982. Evaluation of potential surface faulting and other tectonic deformation. 8Th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Vol.1, 65. Note: No distinction is made here for aseismic slip (creep). Lenhardt Rock Mechanics/ Basics 55
Tectonic Uplift
Post-glacial rebound leads to a dome-shaped uplift of the crust, along with an alteration of the prevailing stress-regime in the dome and the surrounding forebuldge.
From: Muir Wood, R. 1995. Deglaciation seismotectonics: A principal influence on intraplate seismogenesis at high latitudes? In Proc. of 2nd France-United States Workshop Earthquake Hazard Assessment in Intraplate Regions (G. Mohammadioun, ed.), Quest Editions, Press Acamedique, 85 103. Lenhardt Rock Mechanics/ Basics 56
Excess Shear Stress - ESS

ESS =
shear stress
Stress prior to slip
ESS
So
slope = Stress after slip normal stress
All parameters in this Mohr-diagram refer to conditions along a geological feature and not to solid (undisturbed) rock.
For details see: Ryder, J.A. 1988. Excess shear stress in the assessment of geologically hazardous situations. J.S.Afr.Inst.Min.Metall., Vol.88, pages 27-39. Lenhardt Rock Mechanics/ Basics 57
Excess Shear Stress contd
ESS-lobes above and below a stope

58
Blasting contd
1 - major principal stress
drill hole
3 minor principal stress
Blasting induced fractures are orientated perpendicular to the minor principal stress and the borehole-axis, or follow the stratification of the rock mass.
59
Tectonic versus Induced/Trigggered Events
Tectonic Virgin stresses Short term stress changes Depth Mechanism Max. magnitude Rupture length High Low < 3 km Shear Slip 9.4 1.400 km
Induced /Triggered Low High > 3 km Fracture and Shear Slip 6.5 (?) Few kms
60
Summary
Terminology Stress & Strain Mohr Circle State of Stress Stress Concentrations Strain Energy Density Closure Discontinuities Excess Shear Stress
61

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Lenhardt Rock Mechanics/ Basics

Lenhardt Rock Mechanics/ Basics

Uniaxial Compressive Strength UCS stress at failure [MPa]

Youngs Modulus E - modulus of elasticity [GPa]

Shear Modulus G - modulus of rigidity [GPa]

Poissons Ratio - Ratio of radial/axial deformation [1]

Cohesion So - Intrinsic shear strength [MPa] Adhesion To Tensile strength [MPa]

Lenhardt Rock Mechanics/ Basics

Stress and Strain

Poissons ratio = - r / a l1 Youngs modulus E = a / a

Lenhardt Rock Mechanics/ Basics

Mohrs Circle Derivation contd

requires, the following:

Mohrs Circle Derivation contd

Since the forces exerted on a square must be in equilibrium, we set:

Mohrs Circle Stresses

Lenhardt Rock Mechanics/ Basics

Mohrs Circle Strains

Lenhardt Rock Mechanics/ Basics

Mohrs Circle Summary

Stress acting normal to the plane

Shear stress acting in direction of the plane

Lenhardt Rock Mechanics/ Basics

Mohrs Circle Summary contd

Lenhardt Rock Mechanics/ Basics

Mohrs Circle Examples

1 = 400 MPa 2 = 50 MPa 3 = 0 MPa

1 = 350 MPa 2 = 10 MPa 3 = 10 MPa

Lenhardt Rock Mechanics/ Basics

Mohrs Circle Examples

0 MPa 0 MPa 0 MPa

1 = 50 MPa 2 = 50 MPa 3 = 50 MPa

Lenhardt Rock Mechanics/ Basics

Mohrs Circle Exercise 1 1 = 210 MPa

Lenhardt Rock Mechanics/ Basics

Mohrs Circle Exercise 1 Solution

=? max 2 = 120 2 = 10 MPa

average = (1 + 2) / 2 = 110 MPa max = (1 - 2) / 2 = 100 MPa

normal stress 1 = 210 MPa

Lenhardt Rock Mechanics/ Basics

Mohrs Circle Exercise 2

Task: Determine the magnitude and orientation of the principal stresses!

Mohrs Circle Exercise 2 Solution

3-D Mohr Space

max = So normal stress

No failure normal stress

shear stress Failure

No failure normal stress

1 = 3(m. UCS. 3 + UCS s)

Lenhardt Rock Mechanics/ Basics

Failure Criteria contd

COULOMB-NAVIER shear stress

No failure normal stress

Lenhardt Rock Mechanics/ Basics

Failure Criteria contd

Lenhardt Rock Mechanics/ Basics

Pre- and Post Failure Behaviour

Lenhardt Rock Mechanics/ Basics

Pre- and Post Failure Behaviour contd

Yielding (resisting constant stress)

Not yielding (loosing load carrying capacity)

Lenhardt Rock Mechanics/ Basics

Pre- and Post Failure Behaviour contd