September/October Vol. 29, No.

5 37
F E A T U R E A R T I C L E
Long-Distance DC Electrical
Power Transmission
Key words: HVDC, power transmission technology, long DC cable, overhead line, insulation, aging model,
threshold stress, space charge, resistivity, breakdown
0883-7554/12/$31/2013/IEEE
Rongsheng Liu
Senior Member IEEE,
ABB AB, Corporate Research,
721 78 Vsters, Sweden
Long-distance DC transmission sys-
tems are reviewed. Aging models
and the design of DC cables are dis-
cussed. Extruded and mass-impreg-
nated cables are environmentally
friendly and thus are alternatives to
overhead lines.
Introduction
Transmission and/or distribution systems are needed to trans-
port electrical power from its generation site to the user loca-
tions. This paper reviews major DC power transmission technol-
ogies, concentrating on systems that are capable of long-distance
transmission. Special attention is paid to lifetime models and the
safe use of DC insulation systems. A relationship between the
probability of failure and the volume of stressed insulation (the
volume effect) is discussed briefy.
Major DC Power Transmission Technologies
In 1906 two DC cables, each 4 km in length, were manufac-
tured by Cable de Lyon, the insulation consisting of cellulose
paper impregnated with resin-oil compound. They were installed
between the power station at Moutiers and the city of Lyon as
part of a 124-km mostly overhead line route. The system oper-
ated at DC voltages of 75 to 125 kV with transmission power
of up to 30 MW [1], [2]. It is believed that this was the frst truly
commercial use of HVDC cables. In 1954 another commercial
HVDC link was commissioned in Sweden, namely a submarine
mass-impregnated (MI) insulation cable system with a transmis-
sion length of 100 km, nominal DC voltage of 100 kV, and trans-
mission capacity of 20 MW [2], [3]. It was used to connect the
power systems on the Baltic island of Gotland with the Swedish
mainland, and after 16 years of service, it was upgraded to 150
kV.
The insulation of a DC cable may also consist of polymeric
material (extruded DC cable). Research and development of ex-
truded DC cables have been underway for more than 40 years,
and the worlds frst HVDC extruded cable system was com-
The eighth of a series of invited reviews
to be published during 2013 to mark
the 50th anniversary of DEIS.
mercially established in Gotland in 1999 [4]. Its nominal DC
voltage was 80 kV, its capacity 50 MW (bipolar cables), and its
length 72 km.
HVDC power transmission systems may consist of overhead
DC line, oil-flled (OF) DC cable, MI DC cable, extruded DC
cable, gas-insulated DC line and superconducting cable sys-
tems. Overhead line is today the most economical system for
power transmission over long distance [5][12]. China created
a record in transmitting 7,200 MW of DC power over 2,090 km
at 800 kV. Another system, scheduled to be completed in 2014
[13], will transmit 8,000 MW of DC power over 1,670 km at
800 kV. Using two bipolar lines on a single tower, or one bipo-
lar line on each of several parallel towers, it should be possible
to transmit up to 18 GW [14], [15]. An ultra-high-voltage DC
system operating at 1,100 kV is under development [16].
Oil-flled cables have long been used for power transmission
over distances of 100 km or less [17], [18]. They can work up
38 IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine
to 90C with a design DC stress up to 40 kV/mm. Direct-cur-
rent 600-kV high-pressure, oil-flled or self-contained, fuid-
flled cables, with oil-impregnated cellulose paper insulation,
have been investigated in the laboratory for more than 30 years
[19][23]. Ultra-high-voltage DC systems based on OF cables
(up to 1,400 kV and 3,000 MW per pole) have been studied
[24], [25]. In principle, OF cables have the advantage of con-
ductor cooling; forced cooling of the conductor can triple the
transmission capacity of an OF cable. The power-carrying ca-
pacity can be as much as 10 GW at DC voltage 600 kV [20],
[23]. A polypropylene-laminated-paper insulation system has
been used in OF cables for many years, and a polypropylene-
laminated-paper submarine cable system was installed in Japan
in June 2000. This system has a targeted transmission capacity
of 2,800 MW, rating voltage of 500 kV, and route length of
48.9 km [26][28].
Mass-impregnated cables have also been used for many
years; because of their solid insulation system (mass-im-
pregnated, non-draining paper) they are still favored today for
long-distance submarine and land DC power transmission. In
principle the circuit length is unlimited. The maximum DC op-
erating temperature is approximately 55C but is expected to
increase with the introduction of new lapped insulation and MI
compounds. The currently commissioned capacity has reached
1,000 MW at 500 kV [3], [17], [18], [29][34] and is expected
to increase in the near future [33][41].
Extruded DC cables are relatively new developments. They
are free from oil and grease, but a degassing process is needed
for DC cables using cross-linked polyethylene insulation [42].
Direct-current voltages up to 320 kV and power ratings up to
1 GW [43][47] are practicable. A 500 kV, 3,000 MW (bipolar
single circuit) extruded DC cable system was developed in the
laboratory in Japan in 2002 [48][50]. Intensive studies of space
charge accumulation, resistivity, aging, and reliability of DC in-
sulation systems have been carried out [51][71].
Gas-insulated DC cable or gas-insulated line systems are
insulated with compressed gas, the conductor structures being
supported by spacers. In such systems the diameter of the con-
ductor can be large, and thus increased current (>4,000 A) and
voltage (up to 800 kV) ratings are possible. However, for long-
distance (>1,000 km) power transmission, this technology is still
in the development phase [18], [72][84].
Superconducting cables date back to the 1960s; high-temper-
ature superconducting cables are a more recent development.
However, they are also still in the development phase. They may
offer power capacities in the range 5 to 10 GW, but distance
remains a challenge because of system reliability concerns [18],
[85][102]. It was suggested in one study that superconducting
cables may have lower power losses than any other technology
for transmission over 1,500 km, with a power capacity of 5 GW
and DC voltages of 200 kV [86].
Given the above overview, it appears that long-distance, high-
capacity power transmission will still be dominated by over-
head-line systems in the predictable future, whereas extruded
DC cables and MI DC cables will continue to be preferred for
submarine applications (Table 1).
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September/October Vol. 29, No. 5 39
Environmentally Friendly Power
Transmission Over Long Distances
In relation to long-distance HVDC power transmission, the
likely alternatives to overhead lines are MI cables (Figure 1)
and extruded cables (Figure 2). These two cable systems are
preferred for submarine power transmission over distances
greater than 100 km (Figure 3). For overland applications, they
are usually installed underground (contrasting with overhead
lines). Both systems are designed to be corona-discharge free,
in principle, and thus are environmentally friendly (no interfer-
ence with adjacent communication systems and no additional
greenhouse gas generation). Potential exists for both systems to
reach the operating voltages and power ratings of overhead lines
in the future (Figure 4).
With the introduction of HVDC stations using voltage source
converters or line-commutated converters, as shown in Figures
5 and 6, respectively, electrical power can be converted from AC
to DC (rectifcation) and then converted back to AC (inversion).
In this way it can be transmitted over long distances at different
power levels. Voltage source converters are relatively new, based
on insulated gate bipolar transistors. The system uses high-fre-
quency (up to 2,000 Hz) pulse-width modulation, and thus the
use of small flters and independent control of active and reac-
tive power are possible. The line-commutated converter is based
on thyristors and operates at 50/60 Hz. A single voltage-source-
converter station today can handle power levels in the range 50
to 1,100 MW; the corresponding level for a conventional HVDC
station is 8,000 MW.
Insulation Systems for Long-Distance
Power Transmission
The main insulation systems used for MI cables are based
on oil, or compound gel-impregnated Kraft-paper, or polymer
laminated Kraft-paper (Figure 7), whereas for extruded cables
they are mainly extruded polymers, e.g., cross-linked HVDC
polymer, cross-linked polyethylene, or high-density polyethyl-
ene (Figure 8).
Figure 1. An MI (mass-impregnated) DC cable for submarine
application.
Figure 2. Extruded DC cables for submarine and land applica-
tions.
Figure 3. Power transmission capacity over long distance using
DC overhead line, mass-impregnated (MI) cable and extruded
cable (bipolar, present capacity with proven technology).
40 IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine
The steady-state electrical feld distribution in AC cable insu-
lation is mainly governed by the relative permittivity of the insu-
lation material. In DC cable insulation the insulation resistivity
and accumulated space charge dominate the feld distribution.
However, during transients, e.g., load-on or load-off, lightning
impulses and switching impulses, the admittance of the insu-
lation, the wave impedance of the cable, i.e., the ratio of the
transverse components of the electrical and magnetic felds, and
more generally Maxwells equations must be taken into consid-
eration.
Aging Models
The reliability of an insulation system is affected by aging
under multiple stresses, e.g., electrical, thermal and mechanical,
and space charge accumulation [103][110]. The fundamental
relationship between the aging of an insulation system and the
aging parameters is given by the Arrhenius equation [111], and
variations such as Montsinger and Dakins thermal aging model
[111][113], the inverse power law (electrical aging) [114]
[116], Eyrings multiple stress aging model [104], [107], [117],
and the Weibull distribution [104], [118], [119]. Specifcally, we
have
Figure 4. Expected increase of voltage and power ratings for
mass-impregnated (MI) cable and extruded cable compared
with overhead line (bipolar, present voltage level with proven
technology).
Figure 5. A simplifed diagram of a voltage source converter
(VSC).
Figure 6. A simplifed diagram for conventional HVDC station
(monopolar transmission with earth return).
Figure 7. A lapped Kraft-paper insulation system for mass-im-
pregnated (MI) cables.
September/October Vol. 29, No. 5 41
(a) the Arrhenius equation

K A
G
RT
= exp

,

(1)
where K is the aging rate, A is a pre-exponential or rate
factor, G is the activation energy of the aging process,
R is the gas constant, and T is the absolute temperature;
(b) Dakins model (thermal aging)
log = A* + 0.434G/RT, (2)
where is the service lifetime of the insulation and A*
is a constant;
(c) inverse power law (electrical aging)
E
n
t = constant, (3)
where E is the applied electrical stress, n is an aging
exponent, and t is the time to breakdown;
(d) Eyrings model (multiple stress aging, combining ther-
mal stress with either mechanical or electrical stress)

L
kT
h
L
G
kT
cE
kT
=
0
exp exp ,

(4)
where L is the aging rate, h is Plancks constant, k is
Boltzmanns constant, T is the absolute temperature,
G is the Gibbs free energy, E is the electrical stress,
and L
0
and c are constants; and
(e) Occhini [118] and Densley et al. [104] considered the
parameters of the Weibull distribution, i.e., the scale,
shape, and location (threshold stress value) of the elec-
trical feld, and the variation of failure probability with
time.
Occhini [118] and Densley et al. [104] took into account the
so-called breakdown volume effect, namely that the larger the
stressed insulation volume, the lower the applied feld strength at
which breakdown occurs. The breakdown volume effect is con-
sistent with the weakest link theory, i.e., the larger the stressed
volume, the greater the probability that it will include the weak-
est link in the total insulation volume [120][122]. We have

p E t
E E
E
t
t
l D D
l
( , )
exp
=

\
)

\
)

( )
1
2 2

s s
c
00 0
2
0
2
D D
( )

l
l
l
l
l
l
'
!
1
1
1
1
+
1
1
1
1
'
!
1
1
1
1
+
1
1
1
1
c
,
(5)
where p is the probability of failure under an electrical feld E
at time t; E

is a threshold stress value below which breakdown

will probably not occur; E
s
and t
s
are the scale parameters for the
electrical feld and the time; and are the shape parameters for
the electrical feld and the time; l, D
c
, and D are the length, the
conductor screen outer diameter, and the insulation screen inner
diameter of the cable; and l
0
, D
c0
, and D
0
are the corresponding
initial values, respectively.
The inverse power law is often used to predict the service
lifetime of a cable following accelerated aging. It follows from
(3) that if a cable is to have a service lifetime of at least 50 years
at a working stress of 20 kV/mm, then, assuming n = 9, it should
not breakdown under an accelerated aging feld of 40 kV/mm for
at least 36 days. Similarly, if the same cable is to have a service
lifetime of at least 50 years at a working stress of 25 kV/mm, it
should not breakdown under an accelerated aging feld of 40 kV/
mm for at least 266 days. In practice the situation is more com-
plicated. Usually the volume effect will dominate the service
lifetime of a long cable installation (over 100 km for instance).
The volume effect is incorporated in (5), where the probability
Figure 8. Extruded cables with cross-linked HVDC polymer as insulation: (a) an example of sub-
marine cable with copper conductor area of 1,000 mm
2
and (b) an example of submarine cable with
copper conductor area of 1,650 mm
2
.
42 IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine
of failure will increase with increasing
l D D
c
( ),
2 2

which is di-
rectly proportional to the stressed volume of the insulation. On
the other hand, it is believed that the threshold stress value E

is
dependent on the material feature of the insulation. For a given
insulation system, a typical E

value might exist, below which

electrical breakdown will probably not take place.
Space Charge Effects
and Space Charge Measurement
Accumulation of space charge in the insulation of a DC cable
can cause degradation of the insulation and thus aging of the
cable [110], [120], [123]. The measurement of space charge
distribution in the insulation of a coaxial cable, using the pres-
sure wave propagation method, was frst reported in 1989 [124]
and again in 1991 [125]; corresponding measurements using
the pulsed electro-acoustic (PEA) method were frst reported
in the early 1990s [126][135]. The measurement frequency
bandwidth of the PEA method was signifcantly increased fol-
lowing the replacement of lead zirconate titanate transducers by
polyvinylidene fuoride transducers [136], [137], and it became
possible to measure space charge distributions suffciently accu-
rately without resorting to deconvolution procedures. Deconvo-
lution was introduced for signal calibration in cylindrical cable
geometry [133], and a fat electrode system was used (in the
PEA method) for the measurement of space charge in the insu-
lation of coaxial cables with insulation thickness up to 20 mm
[132], [134], [135], [138]. Figure 9 shows the use of the PEA
method for space charge measurements in a cable with cylindri-
cal geometry.
Cable aging due to space charge accumulation increases with
increasing applied electrical feld strength. It was found [66]
that, at low DC feld (18 kV/mm), the space charge profle dis-
tribution and density within the insulation (extruded polymer) of
a model cable aged in tap water varied little over a three-year pe-
riod with the feld applied (Figure 10). Initially, limited hetero-
charge build-up was observed in the vicinity of the insulation
screen/insulation interface, which caused a 40% increase in the
electrical feld strength at the interface. The increase was stable
throughout the three-year period, although slight redistribution
of space charge near the interface was observed. The cable did
not break down during the three-year period.
Conclusions
At present, overhead lines, MI cables, and extruded polymer-
ic cables are commonly used for long-distance HVDC power
transmission. They are more suitable than OF cables, supercon-
ducting cables, and gas-insulated DC lines. For submarine ap-
plications, MI and extruded polymeric cables are favored. For
bipolar applications, MI cables can handle up to 2 GW at operat-
ing voltages of at least 500 kV. The corresponding fgures for
extruded cables are 1 GW and 320 kV.
For overland applications, overhead lines are preferred for
high-capacity power transmission over long distances. However,
environmental considerations could reverse this preference in
favor of MI and extruded polymeric cables. A hybrid DC trans-
mission system could contain all three.
Cellulose-based (paper) DC insulation systems have per-
formed satisfactorily for more than 100 years. Extruded DC
insulation systems are more recent and offer oil-free and thus
easy manufacture. However, attention must be paid to prob-
lems associated with resistivity, space charge, and long-term
reliability, especially at higher operating voltages. For a given
insulation system, a threshold value of DC electrical stress may
exist below which DC electrical stress would probably have lit-
tle infuence on the aging process.
Acknowledgment
The author thanks Claire Pitois, Marc Jeroense, Hossein
Ghorbani, Per Skytt, Dong Wu, Christer Trnkvist, and Carl-
Olof Olsson for their valuable discussions.
Figure 9. Principle of the pulsed electro-acoustic (PEA) method
for the measurement of space charge in cylindrical geometry. a
and b are respectively the inner and outer radii of the insula-
tion; (r) is the volume space charge density at radius r; and
s, l, and c are respectively the thickness of the outer semicon-
ductive layer, the distance between the outer semiconductive
layer and the piezo device (a polyvinylidene fuoride flm), and
the position of the piezo device. R and C are respectively the
resistance and capacitance of the PEA measurement system, V
is the voltage of the DC source, and v
p
(t) is the time-dependent
voltage output of the pulse generator. v
s
(t) is the output voltage
from the piezo device, from which the space charge distribution
is deduced [129].
September/October Vol. 29, No. 5 43
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Rongsheng Liu received the PhD degree
in 1988 from the Department of Electrical
Engineering at Xian Jiaotong University
in China and did postdoctoral work at the
Electronic Measurement Laboratory of the
Musashi Institute of Technology in Tokyo
between July 1990 and June 1992. He then
joined ABB Corporate Research in Swe-
den and has since been working at ABB
in the feld of power technology. His research interests include
dielectrics and electrical insulation, especially related to power
transformers and power cables. He holds more than 20 patents
and has been an author or coauthor of 123 technical publications
and reports. He is a winner of 3 technical awards and is a Senior
Member of the IEEE.