The One-Particle Relativistic Distribution Function

January 24, 2011 15:2 9in x 6in Introduction to Relativistic Statistical Mechanics . . .
b1039-ch01 FA
Chapter 1
The One-Particle Relativistic
Distribution Function
The rst works began, as could be expected, with those notions derived from
kinetic theory, such as the distribution function, the MaxwellBoltzmann
distribution function, and the kinetic equations it is supposed to obey.
Accordingly, the same path is followed in this rst chapter. The rst use of
the covariant one-particle distribution function seems to have been made by
A.G. Walker (1934), D. van Dantzig (1939), S. Titeica (1956) and J.L. Synge
(1957). The approach presented here is due to Yu. L. Klimontovich (1960)
and R. Hakim (1967) [see also N.G. van Kampen (1969)].
In this chapter, we shall briey show how the one-particle distribution
function can be dened in a simple way and on what phase space. The
equilibrium distribution function the relativistic MaxwellBoltzmann
distribution, hereafter called the J uttnerSynge function is then briey
derived and its main properties given.
1.1. The One-Particle Relativistic Distribution Function
Rather than elaborating on the transformation laws of the distribution
function, on the phase space element, etc., it is much simpler to start
from the main physical observables i.e. the four-current and the energy
momentum tensor to build the denition of the covariant distribution
function.
Let us rst consider a classical, i.e. nonquantum, relativistic particle.
The numerical four-current it denes in spacetime is provided by the so-
called Feynman four-current:
J
(x) =
_
ds
(4)
[x x(s)]
d
ds
x
(s), (1.1)
1

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January 24, 2011 15:2 9in x 6in Introduction to Relativistic Statistical Mechanics . . . b1039-ch01 FA
2 Introduction to Relativistic Statistical Mechanics: Classical and Quantum
where x is the spacetime point and s is an arbitrary parameter generally
taken to be the proper time along the spacetime trajectory over which
the integral is extended. It can immediately be veried that n(x, t), its
spacetime density, is given by
n(x, t) =
(3)
[x x
i
(t)], (1.2)
and that the usual three-current is still
j(x, t) =
(3)
[x x
i
(t)]v
i
(t). (1.3)
Similarly, the energymomentum tensor of the particle is given by
T
(x) =
_
ds
(4)
[x x(s)]p
(s)
d
ds
x
i
(s). (1.4)
For a system of N particles, the four-current and the energymomentum
tensor of the particles are then provided by
J
(x) =
i=N
i=1
_
ds
(4)
[x x
i
(s)]
d
ds
x
i
(s), (1.5)
T
(x) =
i=N
i=1
_
ds
(4)
[x x
i
(s)]p
i
(s)
d
ds
x
i
(s), (1.6)
which can be rewritten as
J
(x) =
_
d
4
u
_
ds
i=N
i=1
(4)
[p p
i
(s)]
(4)
[x x
i
(s)]u
i
(s)
=
_
d
4
u
_
ds
i=N
i=1
(4)
[p p
i
(s)]
(4)
[x x
i
(s)]u
i
(s) (1.7)
=
_
d
4
u
p
m
_
ds
i=N
i=1
(4)
[p p
i
(s)]
(4)
[x x
i
(s)]
_
d
4
p
p
m
R(x, p) (1.8)
for the four-current, where the properties of the function are used, and as
T
=
_
d
4
p
p
m
R(x, p) (1.9)
for the energymomentum tensor. u
is the four-velocity of the particles,

generally a function of x and p. In these last two equations we have used

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The One-Particle Relativistic Distribution Function 3
the denition
R(x, p)
_
ds
i=N
i=1
(4)
[p p
i
(s)]
(4)
[x x
i
(s)]. (1.10)
R(x, p) depends on the initial data chosen for the trajectories of the rela-
tivistic particles and thus is a random function in the context of a statistical
ensemble where these data are known only in a statistical manner.
The covariant distribution function f(x, p) is thus dened as
f(x, p) R(x, p)), (1.11)
where the average value ) is taken over the initial data, whatever they
might be,
13
so that, by construction, it allows the calculation of any kind
of average values of observable quantities whatsoever.
Therefore, it appears that the one-particle relativistic phase space, or
space, is formally the eight-dimensional space subtended by (x, p). As a
matter of fact, the momentum p is generally constrained by a mass shell
condition of the type p
2
= m
2
or by any other, such as
[p eA(x)]
2
= m
2
, (1.12)
when one is dealing with a charged system embedded in an electromagnetic
four-potential A
.
Let A
...
...
(x, p) be a tensor observable connected to the particles; its space
time density is given by
A
...
...
(x) =
_
d
4
p
p
m
A
...
...
(x, p)f(x, p), (1.13)
where the global quantity of A
...
...
(x, p) in the system is given by
A
...
...
=
_
_
d
d
4
p
p
m
A
...
...
(x, p)f(x, p), (1.14)
where is an arbitrary spacelike three-surface, i.e. A
...
...
is the ux of the
four-current A
...
...
(x) through . In general, the average value of A depends
on ; the only case where it is independent of is the one where
A
...
...
(x) = 0. (1.15)
13
In the classical relativistic context of the so-called action-at-a-distance formalism of
interacting particles, the initial value problem is not yet solved and the initial data
necessary for determining completely the future of the system might consist of the initial
positions and velocities of the particles and some part of the trajectories in the past.

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As an example, the entropy of the system is given by
S =
_
(x), (1.16)
where S
(x) is the entropy four-current

S
(x) = k
B
_
d
4
p
p
m
f(x, p) log f(x, p), (1.17)
while the entropy invariant density is simply u S, where u
is the average
four-vector that denes the rest frame of the gas.
From what has been discussed above, the normalization of the covariant
distribution function reads
_
_
d
d
4
p
p
m
f(x, p)
_
(x) (1.18)
= N
when there are N particles in the system.
14
In other words, the ux of
the four-current through an arbitrary spacelike three-surface denes the
normalization of the distribution function: there are as many intersections
of world lines with as particles in the system. In the above equation d
is the dierential form

d
=
1
3!
dx
dx
dx
, (1.19)
the surface element on . Note that, owing to the mass shell condition
p
2
= m
2
, the integration element d
4
p in space actually reduces to a
three-dimensional one,
15
d
4
p m
d
3
p
p
0
, (1.20)
where the factor m has been added so that the integration element has
the dimension of a mass cube, as usual. Also of use is the variable v =
p/m, whose integration element is just d
3
v/v
0
. Finally, it appears that the
integration extends over a six-dimensional space,
(x)p
2
= m
2
, (1.21)
as in the Newtonian case. Whether this last six-dimensional phase space or
the covariant eight-dimensional one is called phase space is only a matter
of denition.
14
Instead of N, the normalization is often chosen to be 1, in order for f to be a proba-
bility.
15
The use of d
4
p is generally more convenient; however, it can be a source of confusion
if one is not cautious enough [see e.g. B. Kursunoglu (1967)].

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For an innite system, the normalization of f(x, p) occurs via the four-
current or the local n(x) density
n
eq
(x) = [J
(x) J
(x)]
1/2
, (1.22)
i.e. via its denition or, equivalently, as
n
eq
(x) =
_
d
4
pu
(x)
p
m
f(x, p), (1.23)
with u
(x) J
(x)/n
eq
(x) the average four-velocity of the system.
1.1.1. The phase space volume element
When one considers the six-dimensional phase space , its invariant
volume element is given by
d(x, p) = d
(x) d
(p), (1.24)
where
d
(p) =
1
3!
dp
dp
dp
(1.25)
is the dierential form element of the three-surface. The above element
of integration on phase space is, of course, written in an obvious system of
coordinates adapted to its structure as a product of two three-surfaces. Let
us briey calculate d
(p) restricted to the hyperboloid p

2
= m
2
, and let
us choose the coordinate system of p
i
i=1,2,3
so that p
0
=
_
p
2
+m
2
. For
instance, the zeroth component of d
0
immediately yields
d
0
= dp
1
dp
2
dp
3
= p
0
d
3
p
p
0
(1.26)
and, nally, one recovers
d
= p
d
3
p
p
0
. (1.27)
The volume element is sometimes taken to be truly d
4
p and the constraint
p
2
= m
2
occurs either explicitly,
d
4
p2(p
0
)(p
2
m
2
)f(p), (1.28)
or implicitly in the distribution function. In any case, care must always be
taken when dealing with either the integration element or the distribution
function: is the mass shell restriction included in the former or the latter?
Or is it explicit?

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1.2. The J uttnerSynge Equilibrium Distribution
The relativistic MaxwellBoltzmann distribution function, hereafter called
the J uttnerSynge distribution, was rst derived by F. J uttner in 1911 and
studied in detail by J.L. Synge (1957). It can be derived in numerous pos-
sible ways: by noting that the Boltzmann factor exp(E) can be obtained
from thermodynamic considerations, independently of relativity theory, and
hence it is sucient to replace E by its relativistic expression and to nor-
malize the result; by maximizing the entropy of the system while taking
account of the constraints provided by the average energy and the number
of particles within the system; by solving the covariant Boltzmann equation
[W. Israel (1963)]; by using a covariant formulation for the passage of a
microcanonical ensemble to a canonical one [R. Hakim (1973)], as rst
shown by A.I. Khinchin (1956) in the nonrelativistic domain; etc.
First, the J uttnerSynge distribution is briey derived by maximizing
the free energy of the system,
F = U TS, (1.29)
while the number (N) of particles is kept conserved; equivalently, the same
can be done for densities
F = s u
,
(1.30)
(k
B
T)
1
,
or
F = 0, N = 0. (1.31)
Therefore, one has to maximize the free energy
_
_
(F) =
_
d
3
p
p
0
(p u)
2
(p u) log f
eq
(p)f
eq
(p) = 0,
n
eq
=
_
d
3
p
p
0
(p u)f
eq
(p) = 0,
(1.32)
while N is conserved.
Introducing a Lagrange multiplier for the constraint on N, one has
_
d
3
p
p
0
(p u)
2
k
B
(p u) log f
eq
(p) +(p u)f
eq
(p) = 0, (1.33)
(where k
B
is the Boltzmann constant) from which one is immediately led
to the following form for the equilibrium distribution function,
f
eq
(p) = Aexp(u
) (1.34)

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(with p
0

_
p
2
+m
2
), where A is directly connected to the Lagrange
multiplier; it is determined by the normalization condition. One gets suc-
cessively
J
n
eq
u
=
_
p
2
m
2
= 0
p
0
> 0
m
d
3
p
p
0
_
p
m
_
Aexp(u
)
= A

(u
)
_
p
2
m
2
= 0
p
0
> 0
m
d
3
p
p
0
exp(u
), (1.35)
where the generating function [see J.L. Synge (1957)] A(m), for the
moments of f
eq
(p), is dened by
(m) =
_
p
2
m
2
= 0
p
0
> 0
m
d
3
p
p
0
exp(u
), (1.36)
and is explicitly given by
(m) = 4m
3
_
p
2
m
2
= 0
p
0
> 0
dsh
2
exp(mch), (1.37)
where use has been made of the relativistic polar coordinates
_
_
p
1
= mshsin cos ,
p
2
= mshsin cos ,
p
3
= mshcos ,
p
0
= mch.
(1.38)
Finally, (m) turns out to be
(m) = 4m
K
1
(m)
, (1.39)
where the Kelvin functions
16
K
n
() are dened by
K
n
() =
_
2
_
n
_
1
2
_
_
n +
1
2
_
_

0
dexp(ch) sinh
2n
=
(2)
n
n!
(2n)!
_

0
dexp(ch) sinh
2n
(1.40)
=
_

0
dexp(ch) cosh(n).
16
See Abramovitz and Stegun, Handbook of Mathematical Functions (Dover, New York,
1965).

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From the generating equation (m), and the recurrence relations obeyed
by K
n
and their derivatives (see App. A), one obtains
A =
n
eq
4m
2
K
2
(m)
, (1.41)
which is connected to the chemical potential through
A =
n
eq
4m
2
K
2
(m)
= exp(); (1.42)
this property can be seen by calculating the various terms of the thermo-
dynamic relation
17
s =
n
eq
T
+k
B
n
eq
, (1.43)
where k
B
is the usual Boltzmann constant.
For the energymomentum tensor, one obtains
T
= A

2
(m)
=
_
n
eq
m
K
3
(m)
K
2
(m)
+
n
eq
_
u
n
eq
. (1.44)
An alternative form of T
can be obtained with the recursion relations

obeyed by the Kelvin functions (see App. A) and reads
T
=
_
mn
eq
K
1
(m)
K
2
(m)
+
4n
eq
_
u
n
eq
. (1.45)
The Lagrange multiplier is determined from the equation of state of the
relativistic gas. A comparison of the energymomentum tensor, which has
the so-called perfect uid form
18
T
= ( +P)u
(1.46)
(see Chap. 2) nally yields P = n
eq
, which is nothing but the perfect
gas equation of state and hence this terminates the identication of with
1/k
B
T(k
B
is the usual Boltzmann constant). In this last equation is the
(invariant) energy density of the system and P is its pressure.
17
See the details in S.R. de Groot, W.A. van Leeuwen and Ch. G. van Weert (1980).
18
This means that the energymomentum tensor does not contain any dissipation term
which would introduce gradients of some macroscopic quantities, such as the average
four-velocity or the temperature.

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s

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o
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o
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l
d
s
c
i
e
n
t
i
f
i
c
.
c
o
m
b
y

N
A
N
Y
A
N
G

T
E
C
H
N
O
L
O
G
I
C
A
L

U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y

o
n

0
9
/
2
2
/
1
3
.

F
o
r

p
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
1.2.1. Thermodynamics of the J uttnerSynge gas
19
The covariant form of the rst law of thermodynamics reads
= S
+J
, (1.47)
which can be rewritten, after multiplying by u
, as
d = ds +dn
eq
(1.48)
or, through multiplying by an arbitrary volume V ,
dU = dS +dN. (1.49)
The identication of T
with its perfect uid form, or a direct calculation,

provides
= mn
eq
K
1
(m)
K
2
(m)
+
3n
eq
= n
eq
m
K
3
(m)
K
2
(m)
(energy density), (1.50)
h = +P = n
eq
m
K
3
(m)
K
2
(m)
+
n
eq
(density of enthalpy per particle).

(1.51)
Their rst relativistic corrections are given by the asymptotic forms of the
Kelvin functions (see App. A), namely
_
_
= n
eq
_
m+
3
2
k
B
T +
15
8
(k
B
T)
2
m
+
_
,
h = n
eq
_
m+
5
2
k
B
T +
15
8
(k
B
T)
2
m
+
_
.
(1.52)
As expected, these expressions contain the rest energy of a generic particle.
The limit m 1 of the J uttnerSynge function can easily be shown to be
the ordinary MaxwellBoltzmann distribution [J.L. Synge (1957)] with the
help of the asymptotic formula given in App. A.
K
n
() =
_

2
_
1/2
exp()
_
1 +
4n
2
1
1!8
+
(4n
2
1
2
)(4n
2
3
2
)
2!(8)
2
+
_
.
(1.53)
19
See J.L. Synge (1957), W. Israel (1976, 1981), or S.R. de Groot, W.A. van Leeuwen
and Ch.G. van Weert (1980).

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t
a
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i
s
t
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a
l

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e
c
h
a
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c
s

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d
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d

f
r
o
m

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.
w
o
r
l
d
s
c
i
e
n
t
i
f
i
c
.
c
o
m
b
y

N
A
N
Y
A
N
G

T
E
C
H
N
O
L
O
G
I
C
A
L

U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y

o
n

0
9
/
2
2
/
1
3
.

F
o
r

p
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
In such a case, of course, the rest mass contribution is eliminated ipso
facto. From these two quantities, and h, one obtains the heat capacity at
constant volume and pressure through
_
_
C
V
=
2
k
1
B
_

n
eq
_
V
,
C
P
=
2
k
1
B
_
h
n
eq
_
P
,
(1.54)
which provides the adiabatic index C
P
/C
V
of the J uttnerSynge gas
through
1
= (m)
2
+ 5h (h)
2
. (1.55)
From the above expansions of and h, the relativistic corrections to the
adiabatic index are obtained as
=
5
3

5
3
1
+ . (1.56)
The adiabatic index plays an important role in problems of stability con-
cerning various types of stars.
1.2.2. Thermal velocity
In nonrelativistic physics, the average thermal velocity of a generic particle
of an ordinary Maxwellian gas is given by
v
th
=
_
3
k
B
T
m
, (1.57)
and, as a matter of fact, it is often used in the relativistic context. However,
J.L. Synge (1957) considers the most probable speed of a relativistic ideal
gas, which appears to be a solution to the equation
9v
6
+ [(m)
2
+ 3]v
4
8v
2
+ 4 = 0; (1.58)
when m is close to zero, the equilibrium distribution possesses a sharp
maximum so that the most probable speed is close to the thermal velocity.
In this case, J.L. Synge gives
v
2
1
(m)
2
25
, (1.59)
which shows that the relativistic thermal velocity is quite dierent from
the Newtonian one. It might seem that it would be sucient to take the

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i
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a
l

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e
c
h
a
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s

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n
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a
d
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d

f
r
o
m

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.
w
o
r
l
d
s
c
i
e
n
t
i
f
i
c
.
c
o
m
b
y

N
A
N
Y
A
N
G

T
E
C
H
N
O
L
O
G
I
C
A
L

U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y

o
n

0
9
/
2
2
/
1
3
.

F
o
r

p
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
Fig. 1.1 The relativistic thermal velocity compared to the classical one. (Calculation
by Dr. L. Mornas.)
relativistic average value of v
2
to obtain a coherent denition for the thermal
velocity, i.e.
v
2
th
=
m
K
2
(m)
_
dexp(mcosh)
sinh
4
cosh
. (1.60)
However, such a denition does not involve the usual energy content
included in the classical denition; this occurs because of the dierent rela-
tionship between energy and velocity.
In order to obtain a thermal velocity with the same energy content as in
the nonrelativistic case, the following equality is considered as a denition
of v
th
:
m
_
1 v
2
th
def
E), (1.61)
or
v
2
th
=
E)
2
m
2
E)
2
(1.62)
(see Fig. 1.1).
The expression for E) can be obtained from the energymomentum
tensor, or from via
E) = n
1
eq
, (1.63)

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c

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t
a
t
i
s
t
i
c
a
l

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e
c
h
a
n
i
c
s

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o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

f
r
o
m

w
w
w
.
w
o
r
l
d
s
c
i
e
n
t
i
f
i
c
.
c
o
m
b
y

N
A
N
Y
A
N
G

T
E
C
H
N
O
L
O
G
I
C
A
L

U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y

o
n

0
9
/
2
2
/
1
3
.

F
o
r

p
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
and one obtains (see also J.L. Synge (1957))
E) = m
_
K
1
(m)
K
2
(m)
+
3
m
_
(1.64)
so that
v
2
th
= 1
_
K
1
(m)
K
2
(m)
+
3
m
_
2
. (1.65)
For large values of m (low temperature case) one recovers the classical
value, while for small m (ultrarelativistic case) one obtains
v
2
1
1
9
(m)
2
, (1.66)
which is, as expected, of the same order of magnitude as J.L. Synges most
probable speed.
1.2.3. Moments of the J uttnerSynge function
When one is dealing with dissipative phenomena, a hierarchy of moments
can be obtained from a relativistic kinetic equation (see Chap. 2) and their
explicit form generally depends on the rst moments of the equilibrium dis-
tribution [see e.g. S.S. Moiseev (1960), for the case of rareed gases]. The
various moments of the J uttnerSynge distribution are obtained, as men-
tioned above, from the function (m) and are particularly useful in some
approximation schemes employed in obtaining solutions to the relativistic
Boltzmann equation or to other kinetic equations. Accordingly, the rst few
moments are explicitly given here.
They are given by
M
0
=
_
d
3
p
p
0
f
eq
(p) = 4mA
K
1
(m)
, (1.67)
M
1
=
_
d
3
p
p
0
p
f
eq
(p) = 4m
2
A
K
2
(m)
, (1.68)
M
2
=
_
d
3
p
p
0
p
f
eq
(p)
=
4m
3
A
_
K
3
(m)u
1
m
K
2
(m)
_
, (1.69)

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s

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w
o
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l
d
s
c
i
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n
t
i
f
i
c
.
c
o
m
b
y

N
A
N
Y
A
N
G

T
E
C
H
N
O
L
O
G
I
C
A
L

U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y

o
n

0
9
/
2
2
/
1
3
.

F
o
r

p
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
M
3
=
_
d
3
p
p
0
p
f
eq
(p)
=
4m
4
A
_
K
4
(m)u
K
3
(m)
m
u
(
)
_
, (1.70)
M
4
=
_
d
3
p
p
0
p
f
eq
(p)
=
4m
5
A
_
K
5
(m)u
K
4
(m)
m
u
(
u
)
+
K
3
(m)
(m)
2

(
)
_
, (1.71)
M
5
=
_
d
3
p
p
0
p
f
eq
(p)
=
4m
6
A
_
K
6
(m)u
K
5
(m)
m
u
(
u
)
+
K
4
(m)
(m)
2
u
(
)
_
. (1.72)
In these expressions use has been made of the conventional symmetrization
notations on the indices.
1.2.4. Orthogonal polynomials
When one is dealing with o-equilibrium processes, the distribution
function has to be approximated in some way. For instance, in the non-
relativistic case, the distribution function is often expanded and next
truncated at some order as
f = f
eq
n=0
a
n
H
n
, (1.73)
where f
eq
is the usual MaxwellBoltzmann distribution and H
n
are the
orthogonal polynomials associated with the weight dened by this function,
i.e. Hermites polynomials.
It would therefore appear to be desirable to nd the family of those
polynomials that are orthogonal with respect to the weight dened by the
J uttnerSynge function. Remember that this function is dened on the
mass hyperboloid p
2
= m
2
.

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t
a
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h
a
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s

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a
d
e
d

f
r
o
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w
o
r
l
d
s
c
i
e
n
t
i
f
i
c
.
c
o
m
b
y

N
A
N
Y
A
N
G

T
E
C
H
N
O
L
O
G
I
C
A
L

U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y

o
n

0
9
/
2
2
/
1
3
.

F
o
r

p
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
The rst polynomials to be used in the solution of the relativistic
Boltzmann equation were actually neither polynomials nor even orthogonal
[N.A. Chernikov (1963, 1964)]. D.C. Kelly (1968, 1969) and Ch. Marle
(1969) studied the rst orthogonal polynomials from a mathematical point
of view and constructed them with the well-known Schmidt orthogonal-
ization procedure. However, these were not very easy to express explicitly
except, of course, the rst few ones, which are given below. Their general
form was improved by J. Stewart (1971) and J.L. Anderson (1974), and
nally given more specic forms by J.C. Lucquiaud (1986) on the basis
of group-theoretical arguments. Finally, an improved version is presented
in the book by S.R. de Groot, W.A. van Leeuwen and Ch. G. van Weert
(1980). Here the rst few orthogonal polynomials are dened and given
and, as a matter of fact, they are those which are actually used in practice.
A general distribution function
20
f is expanded as
f(p) = f
eq
(p)
n=0
a
(n)
1
2
...
n
H
2
...
n
n
(p), (1.74)
where H
n
are mutually orthogonal:
1
n
eq
_
d
3
p
p
0
f
eq
(p)H
2
...
n
n
(p)H
2
...
(p) = 0, (1.75)
with n ,= .
Ch. Marle (1969) proved the following properties for H
n
:
(i) These polynomials are symmetric in the indices
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
; they
obey the following relations:
(ii)
2
H
2
...
n
n
(p) = 0 for p 2.
(iii) They form a complete system for those functions g(p) such that
g(p) exp
_
1
2
u p
_
is square-integrable.
He gave the rst few polynomials as
H
0
= 1, H
1
(p) = p
K
2
(m)
K
1
(m)
u
, (1.76)
H
2
(p) = p
1
(p) C
, (1.77)
20
We have omitted the x dependence of f and possibly of the local distribution f
eq
.

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a
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e
c
h
a
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s

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a
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f
r
o
m

w
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w
.
w
o
r
l
d
s
c
i
e
n
t
i
f
i
c
.
c
o
m
b
y

N
A
N
Y
A
N
G

T
E
C
H
N
O
L
O
G
I
C
A
L

U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y

o
n

0
9
/
2
2
/
1
3
.

F
o
r

p
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
with
C
=
K
3
(m)
K
1
(m)
u
K
2
(m)
mK
1
(m)
, (1.78)
C
=
(m)
2
K
1
(m)
[
+Y (m)u
__
K
4
(m)
m

K
2
(m)K
3
(m)
mK
1
(m)
_
u
_
K
3
(m)
(m)
2

[K
2
(m)]
2
(m)
2
K
1
(m)
_
K
3
(m)
(m)
2
(
)
_
, (1.79)
where the function Y (m) is dened by
[1 +Y (m)]
1
= 1 +m
_
K
2
(m)
K
1
(m)

K
3
(m)
K
2
(m)
_
. (1.80)
1.2.5. Zero mass particles
Let us start from the energymomentum tensor of an ideal gas composed
of zero mass particles:
T
=
_
mn
eq
K
1
(m)
K
2
(m)
+
4n
eq
_
u
n
eq
, (1.81)
and let m tends to zero. Using the properties of Kelvins functions for small
arguments (see App. A), one obtains
lim
m0
T
= 0, (1.82)
as one could have expected for photons for instance, and which indicates
the usual equation of state for massless particles, i.e.
P =
1
3
, (1.83)
so that the sound velocity
21
for such a gas is c/
3.
Similarly, when one starts from the expression of the four-current and
let m tend to zero, the normalization coecient of the J uttnerSynge
function is found to be
A =
n
3
8m
2
, (1.84)
21
See Chap. 2.

I
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o
d
u
c
t
i
o
n

t
o

R
e
l
a
t
i
v
i
s
t
i
c

S
t
a
t
i
s
t
i
c
a
l

M
e
c
h
a
n
i
c
s

D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

f
r
o
m

w
w
w
.
w
o
r
l
d
s
c
i
e
n
t
i
f
i
c
.
c
o
m
b
y

N
A
N
Y
A
N
G

T
E
C
H
N
O
L
O
G
I
C
A
L

U
N
I
V
E
R
S
I
T
Y

o
n

0
9
/
2
2
/
1
3
.

F
o
r

p
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
i.e. m tends to zero and n to innity so that A remains nite; while the
integration element becomes
d
3
p
p
0
d
3
p
[p[
. (1.85)
Finally, all that is needed for the description of classical zero mass particles
in thermal equilibrium is available. As an example, Stefans law is derived
as follows. The energy density of such a gas is given by
= u
=
_
d
3
p
p
(p u)
2
Aexp(p u)
(1.86)
4
= T
4
,
where the proportionality to T
4
appears after the elementary change
p p.
1.3. From the Microcanonical Distribution
to the J uttnerSynge One
22
Now the J uttnerSynge function will be derived from the free micro-
canonical distribution. Why from the free one and not from interaction?
There are several reasons. The rst one is that it is not derived in the
nonrelativistic case, except for weak interactions. Next, in the relativistic
case, the question of interaction is completely dierent from the nonrela-
tivistic and certainly much more complex. Finally, the noninteracting case
is suciently instructive as such.
The relativistic form of the microcanonical model for N free particles
endowed with a total energymomentum P
is
f
(N)
micro
(P
, p
i
)
= const
_
P
i=N
i=1
p
i
_
2m
i
(p
0
i
)(p
i
p
i
m
2
i
), (1.87)
where (p
0
) is the Heaviside step function and where the normalization
constant depends (i) on the number of particles, (ii) on the total energy
momentum P
of the gas and (iii) on the spatial volume occupied. Note that
the relativistic microcanonical model has the same content as the classical
one: the particles lie on the total energy and momentum of the whole system
22
It might be useful to read Chap. 5 rst.

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o
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y

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A
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Y
A
N
G

T
E
C
H
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O
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O
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I
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A
L

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o
r

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e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
of particles, which obeys P P = M
2
. Also, note that f
(N)
micro
(P
, p
i
) is
normalized through
_
i=N
i=1
d
4
p
i
p
i
m
i
f
(N)
micro
(P
, p
i
) J
2
...
N
= N
_
N
V
_
2N
P
1
P
2
P
N
M
N
. (1.88)
However, instead of employing f
(N)
micro
(P
, p
i
), we shall use a probability,
more adapted to the use of the central limit theorem;
23
it is, therefore, a
true density of probability in energymomentum space.
Let us, however, mention that the central limit theorem, in its simplest
form, is:
Central limit theorem. Let X
i
i=1,2,...,N
be random independent vari-
ables of densities f(x
i
)
i=1,2,...,N
. Then the law of
X =
X
1
+X
2
+ +X
N
N
is that of a Gaussian:
f
(x) =
1
2
exp
_
1
2
x
2
_
+O
_
1
N
_
.
This theorem is valid for conditions that are valid in most ordinary cases and
has a number of important applications. Among the assumptions necessary
for the central limit theorem, one nds:
existence of the rst two moments of the distribution function;
existence of the characteristic function (i.e. Fourier existence) of the dis-
tribution function;
and for many other cases denite complex data f
(N)
micro
(P
, p
i
) reads
f
(N)
micro
(x[P
, p
i
) = f
(N)
micro
(P
, p
i
)
i=N
i=1
P p
i
Mm
i
. (1.89)
However, rather than employing f
(N)
micro
(P
, p
i
), we shall use a probability,
more adapted to the use of the central limit theorem;
24
it is thus a true
density of probability in energymomentum space.
23
A.I. Khinchin, Mathematical Foundation of Information Theory (Dover, New York,
1957).
24
A.I. Khinchin, loc. cit.

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y

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A
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Y
A
N
G

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E
C
H
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O
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O
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I
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A
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r

p
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
It follows that the one-particle distribution function is
f(x[p) =
_
i=N
i=1
d
4
p
i
(p
i
)f
(N)
micro
(x
[P
, p
i
), (1.90)
where we have made clear in the notation that the local distribution is also
a conditional one. A simple calculation provides
f(x[p) =

N1
(
_
[P
]
2
)
N
(M)
P
Mm
, (1.91)
where
N
(M) =
_

_
P
i=N
i=1
p
i
_
i=B
i=1
2m
i
(p
0
i
)(p
2
i
m
2
i
)
P
p
i
Mm
i
d
4
p
i
. (1.92)
An expression similar to
N
(M) has been evaluated by F. Lur cat and
P. Mazur (1964) employing the central limit theorem, which we shall use
now. Note also that their expression diers from ours by the absence of the
term
i=N
i=1
P
p
i
Mm
i
. (1.93)
We now apply the central limit theorem to
P
=
p
1
+ p
2
+ +p
N
N
; (1.94)
the probability density is
g
N
(, P) =
1
N
()
N
(P) exp( P) (1.95)
and, as a result, tends toward a Gaussian distribution:
g
N
(, P) =
1
(2)
2
1
(DetB
N
)
1/2
exp
_
1
2
(PA
N
)
N
(PA
N
)
_
+O
_
1
N
_
,
(1.96)
where A is the average value of P and B
N
is its dispersion matrix. The
calculation of these rst two moments is easy, since they are the rst two

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A
N
Y
A
N
G

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o
r

p
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
derivatives of log
N
(). One nds that
A
N
=
log
N
()
, (1.97)
B
N
() =

2
log
N
()
2
u
+
1
log
N
()
(u), (1.98)
where u
is a unit four-vector to be derived elsewhere but which is also

parallel to
. In our case, it turns out that, the generating function is
N
()
def
_
d
4
P
N
(P) exp(
)
=
_
1
Mm
_
N
_
2
+
3
___

0
d
4
P
4m
2
K
1
(P)
_
N
, (1.99)
with
2
=
.
However, the important point for the derivation of the J uttnerSynge
distribution is the form of
N
(M) and, more particularly, the fact that
N
(M) exp(M). (1.100)
Inserting now this form into the expression for f(x[p), we nd that
f(x[p) = L(, M) exp
_
M + [M
2
+m
2
2P
]
1/2
_
P p
Mm
(1.101)
and, since N 1, M m, we have
f(x[p) = L(, M)
P p
Mm
exp
_
M
_
. (1.102)
This last form is precisely the J uttnerSynge function, except that L(, M)
has to be determined: actually it could be determined by looking at the limit
N 1 and M m; in fact, it can be determined simply by a normalization
condition although it is actually furnished by the limiting form of
N
(M).
Note that P
/M is precisely u
.
Finally, the actual form of the J uttnerSynge function has been estab-
lished but it could be derived more rigorously; this involves, however, quite
lengthy calculations.
1.4. Equilibrium Fluctuations
In this section the four-current equilibrium uctuations are calculated:
_
J
(x, x
) = J
(x)J
(x
))
(J
micro
(x) J
(x)))(J
micro
(x
) J
(x
)))).
(1.103)

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A
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G

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F
o
r

p
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
They are required in the use of the uctuationdissipation theorem in order
to obtain, for instance, the modes of oscillation of a plasma.
25
Other kinds of
uctuations, like those of the energymomentum tensor, can be calculated
in a similar manner.
The starting point is the (random) four-current J
(x) of free particles:

their trajectories are straight lines. The microscopic four-current then reads
J
micro
(x) =
i
_
+
ds
i
p
(4)
_
x x
i
_
p
i
m
i
_
s
i
_
(1.104)
between collisions, and its equilibrium average value is, of course, J
(x)) =
nu
. In this last equation x

i
and p
i
/m
i
are the initial four-positions and
four-velocities of the particles of the system. With the denition of rela-
tivistic average values
A
...
...
=
_
_
d
d
4
p
p
m
A
...
...
(x, p)f(x, p), (1.105)
we get
J
(x, x
) =
i
_
+
ds
i
ds
i
_
_
d
d
4
p
p
m
f
eq
(p)
p
i
p
(4)
_
x x
i
_
p
i
m
i
_
s
i
_
(4)
_
x
x
i
_
p
i
m
i
_
s
i
_
(1.106)
or
J
(x, x
) =
i
_
+
ds
i
ds
i
_
_
d
d
4
p
p
m
f
eq
(p)
p
i
p
(4)
_
xx
_
p
i
m
i
_
(s
i
s
i
)
_
(4)
_
x
x
i
_
p
i
m
i
_
s
i
_
,
(1.107)
and with extensive use of the properties of the function and of the conse-
quent relation
d
dx
= d
4
x (1.108)
and from the fact that
dx
i
ds
i
=
p
i
m
, (1.109)
we nd that
J
(x x
) =
_
d
_
p
2
= m
2
p
0
> 0
d
4
p
p
m
2
f
eq
(p)((x x
) u). (1.110)
25
See e.g. A.G. Sitenko, Electromagnetic Fluctuations in Plasmas (Wiley, New York,
1959); for the relativistic calculation see R. Hakim (1974).

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o
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l
d
s
c
i
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n
t
i
f
i
c
.
c
o
m
b
y

N
A
N
Y
A
N
G

T
E
C
H
N
O
L
O
G
I
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A
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o
r

p
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
The integrations are easily performed and we obtain
J
(X) =
mn
eq
4K
2
(m)
X
(X X)
5/2
exp
_
m
u X
(X X)
1/2
_
, (1.111)
where we have set X x x
, in agreement with the expression given by

A.G. Sitenko (1959) for the numerical density uctuations. Obviously, this
expression makes sense only when the separation X is timelike. However,
it should be noted that, in general, for an arbitrary physical quantity, the
situation is not necessarily of this type: a given phenomenon in the past
can inuence two events separated by a spacelike distance.
1.5. One-Particle Liouville Theorem
A kinetic equation is often needed in order to obtain the distribution
function f(x, p). The general scheme for a kinetic equation is constituted
by three elements. First, the Liouville equation gives the general ow of
the particles in phase space. It is then coupled to a second element, the
collision term, which renders possible deviations from this general ow.
Finally, collective eects, which aect both the ow in phase space and the
collision term, must be taken into account. Several examples will be given
in subsequent chapters.
Before studying the kinetic equations, we rst indicate briey how the
one-particle Liouville theorem occurs in space. Since the number of par-
ticles in the system is assumed to be conserved,
26
the eight-current in
space is necessarily conserved and its continuity equation then reads
_
dx
d
f(x, p)
_
+

p
_
dp
d
f(x, p)
_
= 0, (1.112)
where is the proper time; or, equivalently, after it is noted that the
velocity in this space is given by
u
dx
d
(4-velocity),
F
(x, p) =
dp
d
(4-force),
(1.113)
it reads
_
u
+

p
(F
(x, p))
_
f(x, p) = 0. (1.114)
26
See e.g. Ch. Marle (1969) for the case of decaying or mutually transforming particles.

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o
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d
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c
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t
i
f
i
c
.
c
o
m
b
y

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A
N
Y
A
N
G

T
E
C
H
N
O
L
O
G
I
C
A
L

U
N
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E
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I
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.

F
o
r

p
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
This is not the Liouville equation , which is
d
d
f(x, p)
_
u
+F
(x, p)

p
_
f(x, p) = 0. (1.115)
The Liouville equation is obeyed only by those four-forces that satisfy the
condition
(F
(x, p)) = 0. (1.116)

For instance, this is the case of a system composed of charged particles sub-
mitted to an external electromagnetic eld F
where F
= (e/m)p
:
indeed, one has
(F
(x, p)) =
e
m
F
(x)
= 0. (1.117)
Note that when this condition is not satised, the (one-particle) Liouville
theorem is no longer valid but should be considered as it is.
1.5.1. Relativistic Liouville equation from the Hamiltonian
equations of motion
When the dynamical equations can be cast into a Hamiltonian form,
_
_
dx
d
=
H(x, p)
p
,
dp
d
=
H(x, p)
x
,
(1.118)
the relativistic Liouville equation is recovered as usual and reads
27
H(x, p)
p
f(x, p)
H(x, p)
x
f(x, p)
p
H, f = 0, (1.119)
where H, f is the relativistic Poisson bracket. An example of such a
Hamiltonian system is that of the charged particle embedded in an electro-
magnetic four-potential A
(x), for which one has

H(x, p) =
[p eA(x)]
2
2m
. (1.120)
It should be emphasized that although the equations of motion can be
formally recovered, this Hamiltonian is purely technical and has not the
27
G. Kalman, Phys. Rev. 123, 384 (1961); G. Schay Jr., Nuovo Cimento. Suppl. 26, 291
(1962).

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s

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o
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n
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o
a
d
e
d

f
r
o
m

w
w
w
.
w
o
r
l
d
s
c
i
e
n
t
i
f
i
c
.
c
o
m
b
y

N
A
N
Y
A
N
G

T
E
C
H
N
O
L
O
G
I
C
A
L

U
N
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F
o
r

p
e
r
s
o
n
a
l

u
s
e

o
n
l
y
.
meaning of an energy; remember, for instance, that actually one also has
to impose the constraint
[p eA(x)]
2
= m
2
, (1.121)
and not too much importance should be attached to this pseudo-
Hamiltonian character. Here we have to insist that, in a covariant context,
there is no Hamiltonian with the meaning of an energy; for instance, in the
case of a free particle, a formal Hamiltonian is
H =
p
2
m
2
2m
, (1.122)
which cannot in any way lead to an energy.
In the example considered, and when the four-potential is invariant
along timelike lines parallel to a four-vector u
, one has
A
(x +u) = A
(x) (for all ) (1.123)

so that it depends on x through the combination
(u)x
. A rst
integral of the motion is
u [p eA(x)], (1.124)
which is the energy in the rest frame of the system, so that the equilibrium
distribution is
f
eq
(p) = Aexp[u p]; (1.125)
in other words, the equilibrium distribution function of free charged par-
ticles embedded in an electromagnetic eld is identical to the J uttnerSynge
function except that the proper numerical density is changed as
28
n
eq
n
eq
exp[
eA
(x)], (1.126)
since
p
= m
dx
d
+eA
(x); (1.127)
otherwise, the equilibrium distribution function would not obey the Liou-
ville equation . Then n, the invariant density, reduces to
n
eq
exp[eV (x)], (1.128)
in the local rest frame where u
= (1, 0); this is the usual relation.

28
See an equivalent derivation in S.R. de Groot, W.A. van Leeuwen and Ch. G. van
Weert (1980).

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.
w
o
r
l
d
s
c
i
e
n
t
i
f
i
c
.
c
o
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b
y

N
A
N
Y
A
N
G

T
E
C
H
N
O
L
O
G
I
C
A
L

U
N
I
V
E
R
S
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1.5.2. Conditions for the J uttnerSynge functions
to be an equilibrium
The necessary condition for a distribution function to represent an equi-
librium is, of course, that the equilibrium distribution be a solution to the
Liouville equation . Therefore, let us see what conditions the local J uttner
Synge function should obey; by local it is meant that the macroscopic
variables of this function do depend on x. Also, we assume that there is no
external force present.
To this end, let us introduce this function into the Liouville equation,
and let us rst write the J uttnerSynge distribution as
f
eq
(p) = A(x) exp(
(x)p
). (1.129)
It turns out that we should have the equation
p f
eq
(p) = 0
= [p A exp(
) Aexp(
)p
]. (1.130)
In other words, this implies that (i)
A = 0 and (ii) that the coecient of

p
is zero whatever the coecient. Explicitly, one should have
= 0, (1.131)
or, in arbitrary coordinates or in the case of gravitation (see Chap. 4),
= 0. (1.132)
Such an equation for
is said to be a Killing equation. It shows that the

local distribution function cannot be arbitrary. We see this in the case of
the relativistic rotating gas. Note that when the particles are massless the
Liouville equation is obeyed by a less stringent equation,
= (x)
, (1.133)
or, in arbitrary coordinates,
= (x)
. (1.134)
In such a case the vector
is said to be conformal Killing.

1.6. The Relativistic Rotating Gas
As is well known, rigid rotation of a physical system is not possible in
a relativistic context since it would imply velocities higher than that of

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light. However, dierential rotation is still possible with a vanishing rotation
velocity at the light cylinder, that is, the cylinder where the velocity is the
one of light. Therefore, a local thermal equilibrium for a relativistic gas in
rotation can be found, and it will now be investigated.
The projection of the kinetic momentum over the axis n i.e. n L
is an additive rst integral of the motion and thus must be integrated in
the equilibrium distribution function. Let L
be the tensor
L
= p
, (1.135)
and let n
be a unitary spacelike four-vector orthogonal to the average local

four-velocity u
of the gas:
n n = 1, n u = 0, u u = 1. (1.136)
The tensor
L
spat
=
(u)
(u)L
(1.137)
reduces to the usual kinetic momentum in the local frame u
= (1, 0). The

scalar
= u
(1.138)
reduces to n L in the local frame of the gas and is an additive constant of
the motion of a generic particle. Consequently, the equilibrium distribution
function, which is a linear function of the additive rst integrals of the
motion, reads
f
eq
(p) =

Aexp(
+), (1.139)
where is an appropriate Lagrange multiplier. Let now be the constant
and uniform angular velocity of the gas: the Lagrange multiplier can be
expressed in terms of and the equilibrium distribution can be rewritten as
f
eq
(p) =

Aexp(
+)
=

Aexp(
[x
])
=

Aexp(
[p
(x
)]), (1.140)
where

A is the normalization constant, to be calculated from the equi-
librium four-current. This distribution function must be normalizable and,
accordingly, the following constraint must be satised:
_
[p
(x
)] > 0,
for all ps
(1.141)

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which, in the rest frame of the system, reduces to
2
r
2
< 1. (1.142)
This means that the velocity of a rotating piece of gas should not exceed
the light velocity. f
eq
(p) must also obey the one-particle Liouville equation
and, introduced in the latter, it yields a constraint involving the numerical
invariant density, the four-velocity and the rotation velocity. Note that the
rotating J uttner function can be rewritten as
f
eq
(p) =

Aexp(
[p
(x
)])
=

Aexp(B
), (1.143)
with
B
2n
), (1.144)
so that, in order for f
eq
to obey the relativistic Liouville equation , the
four-vector B
must be a Killing vector (or conformal Killing when the

particles are massless)
= 0, (1.145)
which imposes an r-dependent temperature [N.A. Chernikov (1964)]:
T(r) =
T(0)
(1
2
r
2
)
1/2
. (1.146)
It should be noted that in practice, i.e. in astrophysical situations, we do
not have to face objects with a rigid rotation, but rather the rotating gas
is in a dierential rotation where not only is the temperature r-dependent
but also the rotation velocity itself. In such a case, we have to deal with a
local equilibrium and not with a global one as studied above.

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The One-Particle Relativistic Distribution Function

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The One-Particle Relativistic Distribution Function

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January 24, 2011 15:2 9in x 6in Introduction to Relativistic Statistical Mechanics . . .

is the four-velocity of the particles,

(x) is the entropy four-current

is the dierential form

(p) restricted to the hyperboloid p

can be obtained with the recursion relations

with its perfect uid form, or a direct calculation,

(density of enthalpy per particle).

is a unit four-vector to be derived elsewhere but which is also

. In our case, it turns out that, the generating function is

(x) of free particles:

. In this last equation x

, in agreement with the expression given by

(x, p)) = 0. (1.116)

(x), for which one has

(x) (for all ) (1.123)

= (1, 0); this is the usual relation.

A = 0 and (ii) that the coecient of

is zero whatever the coecient. Explicitly, one should have

is said to be a Killing equation. It shows that the

is said to be conformal Killing.

be a unitary spacelike four-vector orthogonal to the average local

= (1, 0). The

must be a Killing vector (or conformal Killing when the

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