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CHAPTER SUMMARY

Section 1: Clues from the Past


WHAT HISTORIANS DO Historians want to find out how individuals lived. They also consider how groups of people have behaved. History is about both the recent and distant past. A primary source or a secondary source provides clues that answer questions about history. Primary sources include peace treaties, court documents, diaries, and letters. Textbooks and encyclopedias are secondary sources. The study of history can be difficult, like putting together a puzzle with many pieces missing. Historians want to find out how, when, where, and why individuals and groups behaved as they did. WHAT ARCHAEOLOGISTS DO Archaeology also yields information about the past. Archaeologists practice archaeology. They examine fossil remains, such as old bones and footprints in rock, to gain information about life in ancient times. Archaeologists look at artifacts made by humans to gather more information. Examples of artifacts are arrowheads, coins, and tools. The term material culture describes collections of related artifacts. The places where artifacts are located yield more information about how people used them. OTHER SOURCES OF CLUES Historians and archaeologists cooperate to learn about history. Written sources help archaeologists find sites where artifacts are located. Material culture helps historians understand what they read. Stories and legends sometimes aid historians and archaeologists in making discoveries. For example, you have probably heard or read stories about King Arthur. No such king lived during the Middle Ages. However, because of the legends surrounding King Arthur, historians have searched old documents for information about Englands past. These documents show that a warrior who lived in about the 500s AD might have inspired the legends. Clues that may lead to amazing finds are inspired by legends. Scholars are still searching in Mongolia for the tomb of conqueror Genghis Khan, basing their work on the legend of his burial. Even luck plays a part in historical and archaeological finds. At times people digging in fields have unearthed artifacts of historical and archaeological importance.

Section 2: Putting the Pieces Together


USING THE EVIDENCE Archaeologists, historians, and other experts question what happened in the past. They collect clues and study them to reveal information about past societies. Finding out about a society involves studying its social structure. Families play a key role in social structure. Literature and art often reveal a lot about family life in past societies. Politicians speeches tell us about the politics of the past. The speeches of Greek politicians show that the Greeks valued democracy and freedom. Clues also exist in artifacts. If Roman coins are found in China and Chinese coins in Rome, historians can figure out that the Romans

and Chinese had an economic connection. BELIEFS AND VALUES Many sources reveal a societys beliefs and values. The teachings of Confucius show the familys importance in Chinese society. Translating ancient languages is hard for historians. The best-known example of how this can work lies in the Rosetta Stone of Egypt. It contains the same message in Greek and in two kinds of Egyptian writing. Scholars could read Greek and that made translating the message possible. A societys art may reveal its religious beliefs. Egyptians placed valuable items such as furniture and jewelry in tombs. That evidence teaches that Egyptians believed in life after death. Architecture also suggests certain facts about a society. Greek statues of athletes suggest that the Greeks valued sports. At times archaeologists find items whose purpose is not obvious. Experts often disagree on the meaning of these objects. NEW DISCOVERIES What we think about history is always changing. New historical evidence can give us new information about when events occurred. Very old human bones discovered in Africa and the Americas tell us that human development may have happened much earlier than had been thought. New archaeological finds can revise our view of history. Scholars once believed that the Maya were peaceful, but recent findings of their writings show that Maya rulers often warred with their neighbors. NEW INTERPRETATIONS Historians change their views based on the time, place, and culture within which they live. We now see that women played key roles in U.S. history, but in the past their contributions drew little notice. An open, curious mind is necessary to help historians consider new evidence in evaluating the past.

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