Math 1 Geometry

Math 1 Geometry

Introduction
The development of geometry is due mainly to the Greeks and particularly to Euclid who in 300 BC undertook the monumental task of assembling the vast results in geometry (Babylonian, Egyptian and Greek) into a coherent and orderly collection. This involved determining appropriate assumptions (axioms), arranging propositions into a logical sequence, creating new proofs when necessary or modifying existing proofs. For more than 2000 years, his work embodied in 13 books called Elements was the bible for mathematicians and the basis for what is now referred to as Euclidean geometry.

Math 1 Geometry

The First Five Axioms of Euclidean Geometry

1 2 3 4 5

Two distinct points determine exactly one line. A line can be extended indenitely in both directions. A circle may be drawn with any given center and radius. All right angles are equal. If a line m intersects two lines p and q such that the sum of the interior angles on the same side of m is less than two right angles, then the lines p and q intersect on the side of m on which the sum of the of the interior angles is less than two right angles.

Math 1 Geometry

The Parallel Postulate (Playfairs Version)

Through a given point P, not on a given line l, only one line may be drawn parallel to l. Negations of the above statement:
1

Through a given point P, not on a given line l, more than one line may be drawn parallel to l. Through a given point P, not on a given line l, no line may be drawn parallel to l.

The rst negation gave rise to what is now known as hyperbolic geometry, while the second one gave rise to elliptic geometry.

Math 1 Geometry

Hyperbolic Geometry: The Disc Model

Denition 1 A hyperbolic point is a point inside a xed circle C .
2

A hyperbolic line is a diameter of the circle C or an arc of a circle orthogonal to C. The hyperbolic plane is the interior of the circle C.

Math 1 Geometry

Elliptic Geometry:The Spherical Model

Denition 1 An elliptic point is a point on the sphere.
2 3

An elliptic line is a great circle of the sphere. The elliptic plane is the surface of the sphere.

Math 1 Geometry

Examples of Colorings on the Hyperbolic Plane

Math 1 Geometry

Back to Euclidean Geometry:Triangles

1

The sum of any two sides of a triangle is always greater than the third side. A triangle with two equal sides is an isosceles triangle. A triangle with three equal sides is an equilateral triangle. A triangle with three sides of different lengths is a scalene triangle. A right triangle has one right angle. Two triangles with corresponding angles which are congruent are called similar triangles. The corresponding sides of similar triangles are proportional.

2 3 4

5 6

Math 1 Geometry

Projective Geometry

During the Renaissance period (15th and 16th century), the new intellectual spirit depicting more emphasis on observation, experimentation, and independent reasoning, produced noticeable changes in the eld of art. Painters sought to break away from the simple two-dimensional pattern of of Medieval European artists realism and life into their works. They tried to depict three-dimensional scenes on a two-dimensional canvas by applying the mathematical principles of perspectivity. This led to the development of projective geometry in the 17th century.

Math 1 Geometry

Geometric Transformations
Denition 1 A central perspectivity (or perspectivity) is a transformation of a geometric gure S to a gure S so that each pair of corresponding points is collinear with a point O called the center of perspectivity (O does not lie in S nor S ).
2

A projective transformation is the product of a nite number of perspectivities. Moving a gure in the plane towards a given direction through a given distance is translation. Rotating a gure about a given point through a given angle is rotation. Flipping a gure with respect to a line so as to effect a mirror image is reection.

Math 1 Geometry

Math 1 Geometry

Math 1 Geometry

Projective Geometry as a Mathematical System

A product of the Renaissance, an astronomer named John Kepler (1571-1630) made an important contribution to geometry. He suggested that new points be added to the Euclidean plane which he called points at innity, also known as ideal points. He stipulated that all perpendiculars to a given line meet at a point at innity. He implied that all pairs of lines on the plane, including pairs of parallel lines, intersect. According to him, the ideal points are points of intersection of parallel lines.
1 2

Every Euclidean line contains exactly one ideal point. Two Euclidean lines in the same direction intersect at exactly one ideal point. All ideal points of a plane constitute the ideal line of the plane.

The extended plane resulting from adjoining ideal points and the ideal line to the Euclidean plane is called the real projective plane.
Math 1 Geometry

The Basis of Projective Geometry

1 2 3 4

There exists at least one line. On each line, there exist at least three points. Two distinct lines intersect at exactly one point. Through two distinct points exactly one line can be drawn.

Math 1 Geometry

Duality
If the words point and line, lie on and pass through and determine and meet in, are interchanged in the statements below, the statements yield new ones which are also true statements. This is known as the principle of duality.
1

There exists at least one line. Dual: There exists at least one point. On each line there exist at least three points. Dual: Through each point there pass at least three lines. Not all points lie on the same line. Dual: Not all lines pass through the same point. Two distinct points determine a unique line. Dual: Two distinct lines meet in a unique point.

Math 1 Geometry