SUPORT CURS GRAMATICA SEM 2 THE PRONOUN

Generally (but not always) pronouns stand for ( pro + noun) or refer to a noun, an individual or individuals or thing or things (the pronoun's antecedent) whose identity is made clear earlier in the text. Pronouns are classified in six different categories. They are personal pronouns, relative pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, indefinite pronouns, reflexive pronouns, and interrogative pronouns.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS

Personal pronouns have what is called case. Case means that a different form of a pronoun is used for different parts of the sentence. There are three cases: nominative, objective, and possessive. Nominative case pronouns are I, she, he, we, they, and who. Objective case pronouns are me, her, him, us, them, and whom Possessive case pronouns are my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, its, your, ours, your, yours, their and theirs.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS

Relative pronouns join dependent clauses to independent clauses. They are who, whose, whom, which, and that. John ordered the pizza that we liked..

She is the girl who answered correctly..

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

Demonstrative pronouns are pronouns that point out. They are this, that, these, and those. I like these . That is my coat.

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

Indefinite pronouns are pronouns that do not point out specifically. They point out generally. They include such words as another, any, anybody, anyone, anything, both, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, many, neither, nobody, none, no one, one, other, others, some, somebody, and someone. Everybody loves someone sometime . Somebody said that one should touch neither of them.

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS

Interrogative pronouns ask questions. Who, whom, whose, which, and what are interrogative pronouns. What is that? Who is going with me?

SELF PRONOUNS

Also called reflexive pronouns, self pronouns indicate that the person who realizes the action of the verb is the same person who receives the action. They did it themselves . I cut myself .

THE ADJECTIVE Adjectives modify or affect the meaning of nouns and pronouns and tell us which, whose, what kind, and how many about the nouns or pronouns they modify. They generally come before the noun or pronoun they modify, but there are exceptions to that rule. They tell us which, whose, what kind, and how many. There are seven (7) words in the English language that are always adjectives. They are the articles a, an, and the and the possessives my, our, your, and their. Types of Adjectives Following are the kinds of adjectives which are commonly used: Adjectives of Quality: Adjectives of Quality answer the question Of what kind Examples : Large, Small, Intelligent, Beautiful

Adjectives of Quantity: Adjectives of Quantity answer the question How much Examples : Some, Little, Any, Enough

Demonstrative Adjectives: Demonstrative Adjectives answer the question Which Examples : This, That, These, Those

Adjectives of number or numeral adjectives They answer the question 'how many?' Numeral adjectives are of three kinds: Definite numeral adjectives (e.g. one, two, three, first, second, third etc.) Indefinite numeral adjectives (e.g.several, few, all etc.) Distributive numeral adjectives (e.g. each, every, either, neither) Possessive Adjectives A possessive adjective modifies a noun by telling whom it belongs to. It answers the question " Whose ?" Examples are: his, her, its, my, our, their, and your. You can share my rice. Have you seen their house? This is his room. They are our friends. Interrogative Adjectives The interrogative adjectives are used with nouns to ask questions. Examples are what, which and whose . What movie do you want to see? Which leaves turn color first? Whose son is he?

An interrogative adjective may look like an interrogative p ronoun, but it is used differently in the sentence: it is an adjective, used to modify a noun or pronoun. Indefinite Adjectives An indefinite adjective gives indefinite, or general, information. Often, it answers the question "How much?" Some common indefinite adjectives are all, any, each, every, few, many, and some . Many children like dinosaurs. Did you want some bananas? Is there any water in the bottle? An indefinite adjective may look like an indefinite pronoun, but it is used differently in the sentence: it is an adjective, used to modify a noun or pronoun.

Adjectives can be used in comparisons which means we change the form of the adjective as follows: they change either by adding er or est to the adjective or by using the words more or most before the adjective. Some

are irregular in their form and must be memorized or looked up in the dictionary. The dictionary gives the forms for most words using er or est to form comparisons. The three degrees of comparison are called (1) positive which states a quality of one thing or person, (2) comparative which compares two things or persons, and (3) superlative which compares more than two things or persons. Gladys is a rich woman, but Josie is richer than Gladys, and Sadie is the richest woman in town.

POSITIVE rich lovely beautiful

COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE richer lovelier more beautiful richest loveliest most beautiful

Irregular forms

good bad little

better worse less

best worst least

Some adjectives do not have a comparative or superlative form. absolute fatal adequate chief complete impossible final inevitable irrevocable main principal universal stationary sufficient unanimous

THE ADVERB

An adverb is usually defined as a word that gives more information about a verb, an adjective or another adverb. Adverbs describe verbs, adjectives and adverbs in terms of such qualities as time, frequency and manner.

Adverbs generally answer one of four questions: how, when, where, or to what extent. Adding the suffix -ly to an adjective commonly turns the word into an adverb. Adverbs can:

modify a verb: - John speaks loudly . (How does John speak?) - Mary lives locally . (Where does Mary live?) - She never smokes . (When does she smoke?) modify an adjective: - He is really handsome . modify another adverb: - She drives incredibly slowly .

But adverbs have other functions, too. They can:

modify a whole sentence: - Obviously , I can't know everything . modify a prepositional phrase: - It's immediately outside the door .

Types of adverbs Adverbs of Manner : Adverbs of manner provide information on how someone does something. For example: Jack drives very carefully. Adverbs of Time: Adverbs of time provide information on when something happens. For example: We'll let you know our decision next week. Adverbs of Frequency: Adverbs of frequency provide information on how often something happens.

For example: They usually get to work at eight o'clock. Adverbs of Degree: Adverbs of degree provide information concerning how much of something is done. For example: They like playing golf a lot. Adverbs of Comment: Adverbs of comment provide a comment, or opinion about a situation. For example: Fortunately, there were enough seats left for the concert. The comparison of adverbs There are three forms: - positive - comparative - superlative Comparison with -er/-est hard - harder - (the) hardest We use -er/-est with the following adverbs: 1) all adverbs with one syllable fast high Fast er High er fast est high est

2) The adverb: early Comparison with more - most carefully - more carefully - (the) most carefully adverbs ending on -ly (not: early)

Irregular adverbs well badly much little late far better worse more less later farther further best worst most least last farthest furthest

THE NUMERAL

What is the difference between a number and a numeral? A number is an abstract concept while a numeral is a symbol used to express that number. Three, 3 and III are all symbols used to express the same number. The grammatical category of numerals can be sub-divided into: cardinal numerals, ordinal numerals, fractional numerals, collective numerals, roman numerals but the most common subdivisions are the cardinal and ordinal ones. Cardinal numerals are the numbers, which state quantity.

Mathematical form

Literal form

0 1 2 3 10 11

zero; naught; null one two three ten eleven

Ordinal numerals are adjectives derived from cardinal numerals, which indicate order. The ordinal numerals indicate number serially or relatively.

Mathematical form

Literal form

1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 11th 12th 13th

first second third fourth fifth eleventh twelfth thirteenth

Fractional numerals are used to express parts of a whole: , , 12.5.

Collective numerals are abstract nouns derived from the corresponding cardinals by means of special suffixes to express groups of units, such as dozen, pair, couple. Multiplicative numerals express the extent to which a quantity grows: single, double, triple, tenfold. Distributive numerals express distribution in groups: one at a time, two by two, by tens.