V6 Engineering

Cement Manufacturing Course Version 2006 Volume 6 - Page 1
Volume 6
Engineering

1. Guide for Establishing the Plant Master Plan ...................................................... 2
2. Power Supply and Distribution............................................................................ 54
3. Drive Systems ..................................................................................................... 104
4. Plant Automation and Motor Control ................................................................ 158
5. Instrumentation and Sensors ............................................................................ 185
6. Technical Information System (TIS) .................................................................. 232

Chapter 1
Guide for Establishing the Plant Master Plan
Guide for Establishing the Plan Master Plan
CE/HES99/4004/E

TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................... 5
II. CONCEPT OF THE PLANT MASTER PLAN................................................................... 6
III. THE POSITION OF THE PLANT MASTER PLAN IN BUSINESS PLANNING ........ 7
Procedure in case of absence of Business Plan ................................................................8
Coordination and yearly update of Business Plan, Plant Master Plan and Budget ............8
IV. RELATION TO THE MANUFACTURING PERFORMANCE REVIEW (MPR) .......... 8
Brief Description of the Manufacturing Performance Review (MPR)..................................9
Differences between MPR and PMP..................................................................................9
Coordination of MPR and PMP ........................................................................................11
V. PROCEDURE FOR ELABORATING THE PLANT MASTER PLAN.............................. 12
Starting Points ..................................................................................................................12
People Involved................................................................................................................12
The Approach...................................................................................................................13
"Typical" Plant Types........................................................................................................14
Minimum Requirements....................................................................................................15
VI. GENERIC TABLE OF CONTENTS OF PLANT MASTER PLAN............................ 16
VII. ESSENTIALS OF THE INDIVIDUAL PARTS OF THE GENERIC TABLE OF
CONTENTS..................................................................................................................... 17
1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY................................................................................................. 17
2. INTRODUCTION TO THE PLANT MASTER PLAN....................................................... 17
3. BUSINESS PLAN OBJECTIVES.................................................................................... 17
4. METHODOLOGY TO ACHIEVE BUSINESS PLAN OBJECTIVES ............................... 17
5. MATERIALS AND ENERGIES SUPPLY........................................................................ 18
5.1 Materials ................................................................................................................18
5.2 Energy ...................................................................................................................21
6. PRODUCTION PROCESS AND PLANT ........................................................................ 23
6.x.x.1 Past and Present Situation ...................................................................................23
6.x.x.2 Weak Points and Bottle Necks..............................................................................23
6.x.x.3 Alternatives for Development ................................................................................23
6.x.x.4 Operational Measures...........................................................................................23
6.x.x.5 CAPEX Projects....................................................................................................24
6.1 General Remarks on Plant Development ..............................................................24
6.2 Main Production Process.......................................................................................24
6.3 Internal Infrastructure.............................................................................................25
6.4 External Infrastructure ...........................................................................................25
6.5 Environmental Management ..................................................................................25
6.6 Abandoned Plant Sections ....................................................................................26
6.7 Dumps ...................................................................................................................26
7. PLANT ORGANIZATION AND SUPPORTING FUNCTIONS......................................... 27
7.1 Organizational Structure........................................................................................27
7.2 Personnel...............................................................................................................27
7.3 Quality Assurance..................................................................................................28
7.4 Maintenance ..........................................................................................................28
7.5 Production..............................................................................................................29
7.6 Purchasing and Stocks Management ....................................................................29
7.7 Social and Health Management.............................................................................30
7.8 Plant Security Management...................................................................................30
7.9 Public Relations.....................................................................................................31
7.10 Labor Union Relations ...........................................................................................31
8. SUMMARY OF OPERATIONAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL MEASURES ..................... 31
9. SUMMARY OF PLANNED CAPEX PROJECTS AND PLANT LAYOUT....................... 31
10. ACTUAL COST DEVELOPMENT (AND OPTIONALLY: FINANCIAL
PROJECTIONS).............................................................................................................. 32
11. PLANT DEVELOPMENT ALTERNATIVES............................................................. 32
11.1 Exhausting Capacity Reserves..............................................................................32
11.2 Maximizing clinker production capacity of installed kiln systems...........................32
11.3 Considerations in view of plant extensions............................................................32
12. IMPLEMENTATION PLAN AND PROCESS FOR PMP UPDATES........................ 32
ANNEX 1: DETAILED GENERIC TABLE OF CONTENT OF PLANT MASTER PLAN.... 34
ANNEX 2: EXAMPLE OF TABLE FOR SUMMARY OF OPERATIONAL AND
ORGANIZATIONAL MEASURES................................................................................... 46
ANNEX 3: EXAMPLE OF TABLE FOR SUMMARY OF PLANNED CAPEX PROJECTS 47
ANNEX 4: USEFUL TIPS WHEN ANALYZING THE PLANT ORGANIZATION ............... 48
ANNEX 5: SUMMARY OF THE PROCESS TO SET UP A TRAINING MASTER PLAN .. 50
Annex 6: Elements to consider when analyzing the Maintenance Environment 53
I. INTRODUCTION
Over the past years, the Plant Master Plan approach has proven to be an
excellent planning tool for the early identification of future needs such as
necessary capital expenditures and operational improvements within an
existing plant. The guide has been revised to consider recent developments
(i.e. Manufacturing Performance Review) and incorporate learnings from the
After Action Review of the latest PMP projects.
This guide provides assistance in the establishment of the Plant Master Plan.
The objective of the guide is to create a common understanding of the main
aspects around Plant Master Plans amongst people working in the Holcim
group.
More specifically, reading this guide will:
Improve the understanding of objectives and scope of the Plant Master Plan;
Clarify the integration of the Plant Master Plan into the business-planning
cycle;
Provide a logical and generic structure for the Plant Master Plan;
Offer a series of questions to consider during elaboration of the Plant Master
Plan;
Provide templates to facilitate 'first time' implementation;
Give insight into the approach to be used for a project to establish the Plant
Master Plan.
The structure of the document follows the above aspects.

The Plant Master Plan gained importance in recent years mainly due to the
following four reasons:
Enhancements within the planning cycles
The process to standardize the Holcim Group companies planning cycles
put also the Plant Master Plan in the limelight: The Plant Master Plan is the
document which translates the strategy of the Business Plan into operational
and organizational measures as well as into CAPEX projects on plant level.
Continuous improvement needs in plant performance and product quality
Continuing importance of low cost production and of high product quality,
satisfying growing market requirements, has to be transformed on plant level
into measures aiming at high plant utilization and at appropriate quality
assurance.
Increased number of small CAPEX projects
The Plant Master Plan, having a long-term perspective and a clear focus on
the Business Plan objectives, is a good tool to coordinate the various smaller
projects typically being carried out at a plant over the years.
Acquisition of plants with extensive rehabilitation requirements
Acquisitions of existing cement plants create the need of a more
standardized approach towards planning of all operational and
organizational improvements. The Plant Master Plan provides a structured
planning tool for the rehabilitation process and coordinates the work of the
various specialists involved.

II. CONCEPT OF THE PLANT MASTER PLAN
The main objective of the Plant Master Plan is

To translate Business Plan objectives into operational and
organizational measures as well as CAPEX projects on plant
level.

To reach this objective the Plant Master Plan covers:
The analysis of the plants current status with respect to the business
requirements;
The identification of deficiencies and the outline of remedial measures,
resulting in action and investment plans for all relevant aspects of the plant
(materials, energies, production process and plant organization);
The same time period as the Company Business Plan, i.e. typically 5 years;
An update frequency that allows to keep up to date with the development of
business issues, i.e. typically yearly, latest after two years;

Plant Master Plans improve company performance by:
Focusing on the best exploitation of existing installations to minimize
investment and operating costs;
Providing continuous goal orientation and guidance in planning and by
monitoring plant development to meet the objectives defined in the Company
Business Plan;
Establishing a common vision for long-term development of the plant;
Frequent updating of the planning in response to changing business
requirements;
Addressing all persons involved in the implementation of operational measures
and investment projects;
Providing transparency to support decisions on operational measures and help
make investments understandable to all stakeholders in the development
strategy for the plant;
Providing continuity in the yearly CAPEX scheduling and by giving
transparency in the case planned investments projects have to be changed.

III. THE POSITION OF THE PLANT MASTER PLAN IN BUSINESS PLANNING
The figure below shows the Business Planning Cycle including the position of
the Plant Master Plan and the Manufacturing Performance Review (see
following chapter):
Business Plan
Manufacturing Performance
Review(s)
Manufacturing Marketing Support Finance
Foundation
Procedure
& Systems
Overall
Performance
Volume of Products Produced
Variable Costs Fixed Costs Quality ofProducts Environmental Impact
Performance
KPI RawMaterial Exploitation
KPI RawMaterial Preparation
KPI RawMeal Preparation
KPI Clinker Manufacture
KPI Cement Producti on
KPI Maint Related Indicators
AFR Utilisati on
Process Control Quality Control
RawMix &Product Optimisati on
Housekeeping Overall Conditi on Past &Future Investments
Plant Management
Stateof Technol ogy
Personnel Organisati on
Qualification of Key Personnel
Process Optimisati on
Plant Master Plan
CAPEX Procedures RawMaterial Management Skills Assessment
Installation
& Equipment
Maintenance MAC
Instrumentati on
BusPlan & ProdPlan
Budget
Reporti ng Meeti ngs Actions
Budget Investment Procedures
Environmental Protection Control
Investment Plan Operational Measures Plan
Plant Master Plan(s)
Materials and
Energies
Supply
Production
Process and
Plant
Plant
Organization
and Supporting
Functions
Engineering
Studies
Realization
of Projects
CAPEX - Projects
Yearly Actions
and Budgets
Planning Cycle (Interface PMP to BP and MPR)
Strategic Plan
(Assessment, Direction Setting, Strategy Development)
Figure: Business Planning Cycle: from Strategic Assessment to Yearly Actions & Budgets

As the figure shows, the Manufacturing Plan links the Business Plan to the Plant Master
Plan. Whereas the Manufacturing Plan emphasizes the objectives ("what to we want do
accomplish where?"), the Plant Master Plan describes in details how to achieve these
objectives.
The Plant Master Plan provides operational measures and CAPEX projects in
order to improve operational and economical plant performance. The resulting
improvement in performance has to be considered as input for the Business
Plan (Manufacturing and Finance Plan). The estimated operational and
capital expenditures have to be considered in the financial projections of the
Business Plan.
As a consequence, simultaneous elaboration of the Business Plan and the
Plant Master Plan is recommended, as iterations may become necessary.

Note: For Group Companies with only one plant a separation of
Manufacturing Plan and Plant Master Plan may not be sensible and the two
planning steps ("What do we want to accomplish where and how?") may be
compiled jointly in one document.

Procedure in case of absence of Business Plan
In case there is no formalized Business Plan available, the objectives to be
achieved by the PMP have to be established by the company management.
Objectives typically include Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) like product
quantities (production volumes per type) and qualities (e.g. strength, clinker
factor, etc.), actual cost clinker and cement, specific energy consumption,
environmental performance, etc.
A clear definition of the objectives is indispensable to the successful
elaboration of a PMP. No PMP should be started if the objectives are not
clearly established and endorsed by the company management.

Coordination and yearly update of Business Plan, Plant Master Plan and
Budget
During the yearly planning cycle, the new objectives for the manufacturing
process are defined in the Business Plan. The Plant Master Plan has to be
reviewed to assure that the planned operational measures and
investments are still in line with the business plan objectives.
The results of the PMP, especially CAPEX scheduling and projections of
KPIs (e.g. actual costs clinker and cement) are to be considered for the
completion of the BP (functional plan).
Further, the CAPEX scheduled and projections of KPIs (e.g. actual costs
clinker and cement) for the following year are to be considered as input for
the budget elaboration of the next business year.
The yearly update of the PMP provides continuity in the yearly CAPEX
scheduling and gives transparency for the cases where the planned
investments projects have to be changed.
The following table shows an example for the scheduling of the yearly update
of the Business Plan and Plant Master Plan.
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Business Plan
Plant Master Plan
Budget
IV. RELATION TO THE MANUFACTURING PERFORMANCE REVIEW (MPR)
Brief Description of the Manufacturing Performance Review (MPR)
The MPR aims at improving plant performance by optimizing the existing
production process, products and utilization of materials and energy within the next
two years.
The starting point to achieve this improvement is an assessment of the current
condition of the production. The manufacturing process is reviewed by a
multifunctional task force of HGRS experts and specialists from the plant. Critical
issues and potentials for improvement with regard to costs, volumes, quality and
environment are identified. The MPR further ascertains whether management
systems are effectively put in place. Attention is also paid to housekeeping and
safety.
The results of the gap analysis, i.e. the plant fitness, are graphically represented
by color-coded blocks in a pyramid as shown in the figure below (Example):

Basics
Procedures
& Systems
Overall
Performance
Installations
& Equipment
Cement
Manufacturing
Excellence
Volumes Costs Quality Environment
Raw
Material
Extraction
Raw
Material
Preparation
Raw Meal
Preparation
Clinker
Manufacture
Cement
Production
Packing &
Dispatch
AFR
Utilisation
Process
Control
Raw Mix
& Product
Optimisation
Process
Optimisation
Benchmarking Maintenance
CAPEX
Management
Quality Control
Overall
Condition
Development of
Investments
State of
Technology
Main
Instrumentation
Emission
Monitoring
Housekeeping
Plant
Management
Systems
Personnel
Organisation
Qualification
of Key
Personnel
Plant
Master
Plan
Skills
Assessment
Safety
Raw Material
Management
Fi
gure: Example of an MPR Pyramid for assessment of plant fitness.
Following from the gap analysis, detailed measures to be taken and a prioritized
action plan are elaborated.
Differences between MPR and PMP
Though the MPR should be re-examined periodically (e.g. every 5-6 years), it is
not a continuous planning tool like the PMP. The MPR aims at improving
operational performance within two years by using only the existing process and
related equipment. In contrast to the PMP, the business plan and the development
of the environment are not taken into account in the elaboration of an MPR. The
targets of the MPR are thus determined by technical considerations only.
A PMP should be updated yearly generating lists of necessary CAPEX and
operational measures. It is an ongoing process of plant planning and
management. It aims at achieving the objectives of the business plan, i.e. it
continually adapts to the changing business environment. Consequently,
modifications and/or expansion of the existing process and related equipment are
an integral part of a PMP.
The following table summarizes the differences between PMP and MPR:
Review
Plant Master Plan
Goal
Plant performance improvement
within a short period of time
Translates business plan objective
into investments and actions
Tool Selection
Criteria
In-depth analysis ("x-ray")
Plant capacity limit reached ("plant
sold-out")
Unsatisfactory performance
Analysis and planning
Changing business environment
(products, volumes, costs, etc)
Major CAPEX foreseen (e.g.
replacement, restructuring,
rehabilitation)
Focus
Optimize performance of existing
equipment and process
Prepare plant for future business
requirements. Adapt process
(expansion, modification)
Time Horizon 2 years
Same as business planning cycle
typically 5 years
Type of Project
Periodic review (e.g. every 6
years)
Ongoing process with yearly
update
Constraints Achievable technical excellence
Business environment
Long-term plant development
Interfaces
Inputs from business plan:
Objectives (KPIs)
Output to business plan:
CAPEX scheduling, KPIs (incl.
actual cost clinker and cement).
Elaboration
HGRS experts with plant
personnel
Plant project team coached by
HGRS.
Review
Plant Master Plan
Results
(Deliverables)
Detailed quantified improvement
potential
Action list
Performance pyramid
List of replacement investments
Lists of investments required to
achieve BP objectives
List of operational measures
General plant layout
Coordination of MPR and PMP
The MPR and the PMP are complementary tools. Since a very thorough analysis
of the current condition of the plant and of its potentials is made in an MPR, it is an
ideal basis for the elaboration of a PMP. This greatly reduces the analysis of the
past and present situation with its weak-points and bottlenecks done in the
elaboration of a PMP. Therefore carrying out an MPR ideally, but not necessarily,
precedes the first-time implementation of a PMP.
Common to both tools is the focus on best exploitation of the existing equipment,
thus minimizing required investment costs. This sequential (ideal) application of
the two tools assists in planning the correct investments at the right time and
place. By yearly updating the PMP, it is assured that the correct investments as
well as the proper operational measures are executed, reviewed an amended in
the business planning process.
V. PROCEDURE FOR ELABORATING THE PLANT MASTER PLAN
Starting Points
In line with the business planning cycle the Plant Master Plan is to be
elaborated with a 5 year time horizon. If available, a recent MPR shall be
considered for the analysis of the current condition and the potential of the
production process.
Ideally, the PMP is updated yearly in parallel with the Business Plan. To
facilitate this yearly update, the individual chapters are shaped to make a
rolling process possible. Including the date of revision in the chapters helps
keeping track of modifications.
People Involved
The nature of the Plant Master Plan requires the elaboration to be a real team
effort. Only pooling the knowledge and experience of all levels and disciplines
of the company will allow for covering all aspects. To ensure the buy-in and
commitment of all parties involved in the investment decision process, it is
advised to include company management representatives. Experts from
HGRS assist in challenging the status quo and bringing additional alternatives
into discussion.
Though it is possible to carry out a PMP with only the coaching assistance of
HGRS for the methodology of the PMP, experience has shown that a much
better cost-benefit relation results from having Corporate Engineering (CE)
involved also in the engineering aspects of the PMP.
In case CE is to endorse the findings of the PMP, a close involvement of CE
into the elaboration of the alternatives is mandatory from an early stage on.
Only this way the necessary knowledge can be obtained and CE can set
technical directions.

Company Management Team
Steering Committee
(CEO, COO, VP Sales,
HGRS Coord ., Plant Mgr., )
Company Project Team
Project Manager (.)
Assistants (..)
Company Project Team
Project Manager (.)
Assistants (..)
Coaching PMP procedures
Coordinates all activities of
HGRS
HGRS
CE - Project Mgmt.
Specialist (CTS,CE,..)
HGRS
CE - Project Mgmt.
Specialist (CTS,CE,..)
Specific Studies
Technical Support
Plant I
Plant Manager (..)
Work Group (..)
Plant I
Plant Manager (..)
Work Group (..)
Plant I
Plant Manager (..)
Work Group (..)
Responsible for PMP
for his plant
Collecting of data and
coordination
Input for different
subchapters of PMP
Core Team for PMP
Internal Support
Technical, HR,
Finance and Admin.,
Marketing, Staff,
Plant II
Plant Manager (..)
Work Group (..)
Plant II
Plant Manager (..)
Work Group (..)
Strategy Definition
Approval of issues to
be elaborated
Prioritisation
Arbitration

Figure: Example of the project organization for elaboration of the Plant Master Plan
The Approach
As the elaboration of the Plant Master Plan is a unique piece of work within a
limited timeframe the usage of the Holcim Project Management Approach to
structure the elaboration process is recommended. The graphic below shows
the five-phase process of project management. It also provides an idea about
the main activities to be undertaken within the process and the time required
for a first time elaboration of the Plant Master Plan. It has to be clearly
stated that the indicated duration depends strongly on the scope of work to be
executed and on how much plant personnel can be integrated in the project
team.

Issue Analysis
- ongoing projects
- existing data-base
- recent studies
Project Outline
- main tasks
- resources
- budget
- risks
- critical success factors
Organization
- team building
- responsibilities
Scheduling
- activities
- milestones
- tasks
Risk Analysis
Communication
Strategy
Business Plan
Directives
Materials
Production Process
Organisation
Measures and
Potential Investments
Implementation
Plan
Presentation of
summaries for:
- operational measures
- investment projects
Debriefing
- learnings
- best practice
Time-frame and Resource Usage (Plant and CE)
1-2 weeks 2-4 weeks 20-30 weeks 1-2 week 1-2 week 1-2 weeks 2-4 weeks 20-30 weeks 1-2 week 1-2 week
2-4 man-weeks 2-5 man-weeks 20-60 man-weeks 2-4 man-weeks 1-2 man-weeks
1 man-week (incl. in I) 3-12 man-weeks 1 man-week (incl. in IV)
2-4 man-weeks 2-5 man-weeks 20-60 man-weeks 2-4 man-weeks 1-2 man-weeks
1 man-week (incl. in I) 3-12 man-weeks 1 man-week (incl. in IV)
Phase III
Project
Realization
Phase IV
Project
Completion
Phase II
Project
Planning
Phase V
Evaluation &
Transfer
Phase I
Project
Definition
Phase III
Project
Realization
Phase IV
Project
Completion
Phase II
Project
Planning
Phase V
Evaluation &
Transfer
Phase I
Project
Definition
Figure: Phases and activities of the elaboration process and a typical time-frame for a first
time implementation

Phase I Definition is about
Creating a common understanding between all people involved on aspects
such as objectives, the approach and deliverables of the elaboration, the
main tasks, the resources and the costs.
Gathering information on other elaboration processes to incorporate learnings.

Phase II Planning is about
Creating a level of detail that the people involved feel comfortable with and that
the targets will be met on time;
Ensuring actions have been defined to deal with known risks of the elaboration
process;
All people involved agree on the process of communication within and outside
the team.

Phase III Realization is about
Ensuring the actual elaboration of the Plant Master Plan gets done in time and
within budget;
Resolving any issues that might have an impact on the outcome of the project;
Capturing the learnings of this elaboration process in order to make future
elaborations or updates easier;
Ensuring that implementation plan and respective control system are
established.
The picture below shows the five steps in elaborating the individual chapters
of the Plant Master Plan with an indication of the time required for their
elaboration.

Phase IV Completion is about
Handing over the results (Plant Master Plan) to the organization;
Ensuring that mechanisms for updating are in place.

Phase V Evaluation and Transfer is about
Transferring the learnings of this elaboration process in order to make future
elaborations and updates easier;
Providing feedback within the team to be more effective in updates.
"Typical" Plant Types
The experience of the past years has shown that there are at least 3 plant
types to be distinguished in the elaboration of PMP:
PMP in plants without expansion plans
Focus is often on optimization, including investments of the type replacement
and rationalization. Make sure to analyze thoroughly any operational
Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 1
Elaboration,
Evaluation and
Selection of
Alternatives
Elaboration of
Operational and
Organizational
Measures
Elaboration and Implementation of Controlling
Documentation
Elaboration of
Status Quo
Assessment of
Performance and
Suitability
Elaboration
of
CAPEX
Projects
Step 5
3-5 weeks 3-5 weeks 8-10 weeks 3-5 weeks 3-5 weeks
problems before deciding on investments. An MPR (Manufacturing
Performance Review) will help a great deal to decide on the right investments
to improve performance.
PMP in plants with expansion plans.
Get a copy of the business strategy (including products and distribution)
authorized by the company management before starting any planning.
Make sure to receive from the company management a clear definition of the
objectives of the project. Make sure the objectives for the expansion are not
confused with any optimization of the present installations.
Analyze any interference between all projects involved. The elaboration of a
detailed plant layout (showing all future and optional investmentsI) is an
absolute must.
PMP in plants (new to Holcim) with investment commitments
Make sure to have a copy of the business strategy (including products and
distribution) authorized by the company management before starting any
planning.
Focus on the analysis of the process and infrastructure and the elaboration of
the corresponding investments. Make sure to analyze any interference
between the all projects involved. The elaboration of a detailed plant layout
(showing all future and optional investmentsI) is an absolute must.
If the schedule for the commited investments is tight, consider postponing the
elaboration of Chapter 7 (plant organization and supporting functions) for the
following year.
Minimum Requirements
In case resources are short to elaborate a full-size PMP, it is possible to
elaborate an abbreviated version. In chapters 5 (Materials and Energy
Supply) and 6 (Production Process and Plant) some specific subchapters of
less importance to the plant at this moment may be treated only briefly or left
out. However, make sure all departments are included where investment
projects are envisaged. Whenever deciding on an operational measure or
investment, it has to be assured that all influencing and depending factors
have been considered and the specific problem has been analyzed
thoroughly. Otherwise an isolated solution might be selected which will not
yield the expected results if the "big picture" has not been duly considered.
Plants recently acquired by Holcim should elaborate chapter 7 (Plant
Organization) in detail. For other plants, if deemed not necessary, it may be
shortened or if even skipped completely.
Shortening or skipping any chapters obviously will not exploit all potential for
improvement and future development. It is recommended to make up on
those chapters in the next update of the PMP.
VI. GENERIC TABLE OF CONTENTS OF PLANT MASTER PLAN
The generic Table of Contents for the Plant Master Plan provides:
A logical order in the content of the Plant Master Plan;
A checklist to ensure that all aspects are covered;
A basis for assigning the responsibilities for elaborating the various parts of the
Plant Master Plan in the project team;
A common language for the various Plant Master Plans within the company.

The detailed Generic Table of Contents is attached in Annex 1. In order to
explain the content of the individual chapters and subchapters detailed
explanations are given in chapter VI of this Guide. Please note that this
Generic Table of Contents in no way imposes restrictions on adding or
changing paragraphs, this just provides a recommended outline.

CONTENTS
1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Function: Provide an executive summary
It summarizes the main operational and organizational measures as
well as the main CAPEX projects to achieve the Business Plan
objectives on plant level including summaries of disbursement plan and
development of production cost.
2. INTRODUCTION TO THE PLANT MASTER PLAN
Function: Clarify to all readers the objectives of the Plant Master Plan
It includes the main purpose and objectives such as the translation of
the Business Plan objectives into operational measures and CAPEX
projects.
3. BUSINESS PLAN OBJECTIVES
Function: Provide an overview of the relevant input data transferred
from the Business Plan.
It includes in particular the Manufacturing Plan objectives but possibly
also relevant input stemming from other functional plans.
In case of absence of a Business Plan, this part contains the conditions
and objectives defined by Company Management. Ideally, a process
similar to the Business Planning process (Strategic Assessment,
Strategic Direction and Outline of Manufacturing Plan) is followed in
order to arrive at sensible scenarios as basis for the Plant Master Plan.
It might be important to analyze the company strategy with regard to
long-term targets, which are extending beyond the time horizons of the
Business Plan. Such targets may require study work and in special
cases even CAPEX already within the horizon of the Plant Master Plan
(e.g. plant development scenarios).
4. METHODOLOGY TO ACHIEVE BUSINESS PLAN OBJECTIVES
Function: Establish a link between the objectives of the Business Plan
and the detailed analyses and proposals for plant development
established in the various parts of the Plant Master Plan.
It includes a brief analysis of the main objectives and the main
measures and investments to achieve these objectives. It summarizes
the results of open creative thinking during initial brain storming
sessions. Existing structures and boundaries should be questioned to
enable the elaboration of creative alternatives.
Main objectives of a Business Plan are case specific. Hence the
structure of this chapter in terms of subparagraph will be case specific,
i.e. tailored to the company and its environment. The example given in
the Generic Table of Contents is therefore for guidance purposes only.

NOTE: In order to facilitate future updating of the following chapters, it is
recommended to mark each main chapter with the date of issue and the
date of revision.
GENERAL COMMENTS ON CHAPTERS 5 TO 10
Chapters 5, 6, and 7 contain analyses, alternatives and recommended
solutions for the different aspects of the plant operation. All these
chapters are divided into sections and these sections follow the same
structure:
1. Past and Present Situation
2. Weak Points and Bottle Necks
3. Alternatives for Development
4. Operational and organizational measures
5. CAPEX Projects.
Measures and projects are then summarized in chapters 8 and 9 and
the consequent development of production cost is presented in chapter
10.
5. MATERIALS AND ENERGIES SUPPLY
5.1 Materials
5.1.1 Regional Geological Structure
Includes a brief outline of the regional geology of the area and
reference to available documents such as published topographical and
geological maps as wells as mapping material in use at the plant(s).

5.1.2 Potential Material Resources
Includes the identification and brief description of potentially interesting
materials to be exploited within a radius of 50 km or to be procured
such as limestone, special clays, pozzolana, gypsum, iron ore,
bauxite, gravel/sand and aggregates.

5.1.3 Raw Materials - Main Components
5.1.3.1 Past and Present Situation
Includes the list of references for following documents for each raw
material deposit:
Topographical and geological map
Geological cross-sections, structural model
Summary of carried out exploration work, including date, number
and total volume of drill-holes, trenches, pit holes, geophysical
measurements, type and number of analyses

Includes a brief outline of the raw materials evaluation:
Chemical composition of all raw material components including
all elements of interest.
Physical aspects of raw materials: humidity, density, porosity,
hardness, and mineralogical composition.
Critical elements like chlorine, sulfur, magnesium, alkalis and the
corresponding implications.
Emission levels of raw materials: pyrite, ammonia, organic
components, TOC, heavy metals.

Includes the strategic planning for each of the raw material deposits,
block modeling and optimized scheduling, determination of reserves
and associated waste rock and/or overburden. In this paragraph also
the most important possibilities and limitations for the manufacturing
process and/or equipment from a raw material point of view will be
included.

Includes the most important environmental aspects with respect to
mining like:
Surface and/or subsurface water management.
Geo-technical stability and risks.
Public relation measures.
Data on noise, dust and vibration situation.
Legal situation of environmental permits.
Ultimate pit, rehabilitation plans, type of rehabilitation.

Includes the important factors of mining like:
Geo-technical situation.
Mining methods, blast parameters, use of explosives.
Loading and transport system capacities.
Contractors deployed.
Mining costs.
5.1.3.2 Weak Points and Bottle Necks
The paragraph shows present restrictions and limits in exploitation,
procurement and utilization of the raw material main components with
respect to volume, quality and price as well as anticipated problems in
meeting the Business Plan objectives.
5.1.3.3 Alternative for Development
Includes the description of options available to the plant, an
assessment of these alternatives and the reasoning for the selection of
the solution to be implemented.
5.1.3.4 Operational and Organizational Measures
Includes operational measures related to the selected solution for the
optimization of the raw material main component supply.
5.1.3.5 CAPEX Projects
Includes all investments related to the selected solution for an
improvement of raw material main component supply or required
acquisition of potential raw material deposits.
5.1.4 Correctives
Includes data on type, source, availability, distance, storage capacity
and cost of correctives. Supply specifications will also be included
where applicable. Includes data on chemical and physical (moisture,
granulometry) characteristics of the materials.
Includes information on environmental and safety aspects where
appropriate (permits, special internal or external control requirements).
The paragraph shows present restrictions and limits in exploitation,
procurement and utilization of the correctives with respect to volume,
quality and price as well as anticipated problems in meeting the
Business Plan objectives. It includes a brief analysis of the corrective
market (if not contained in the Business Plan).
optimization of the corrective supply.
improvement of corrective supply or required acquisition of potential
correctives sources.
5.1.5 Gypsum
Same structure and content as 5.1.4 Correctives.
5.1.6 Mineral Components
5.1.7 Alternative Raw Materials
5.1.8 Product Flexibility and Limitations
Includes a description of the products manufactured in the past and
present.
The paragraph shows restrictions and limitations for the currently
manufactured products with respect to volume, quality, cost and price
as well as anticipated problems in meeting the Business Plan
objectives. It includes a brief analysis of the cement product market (if
not contained in the Business Plan).
Includes the description of options of what type of different products
could be manufactured at the plant (e.g. low alkali clinker, SR clinker,
special cements for dam construction, oil well, etc.) An assessment of
these alternatives and the reasoning for the selection of the solution to
be implemented
optimization of the product flexibility.
improvement of product flexibility.
5.2 Energy
5.2.1 Electrical Energy
Includes the description of the past and present electrical energy
supply situation: supplier(s) profile, key parameters of supply
contract(s), tariff structure, main technical data at point of supply
including availability and reliability.
The paragraph shows present restrictions and limitations for the internal operation of the
different production facilities as well as anticipated problems in meeting the Business Plan
objectives. It includes a brief analysis of the electrical energy market and trends like energy
policies, new suppliers, energy stock market etc. (if not contained in the Business Plan).
5.2.1.3 Alternatives for Development
5.2.1.4 Operational Measures
optimization of the supply contract(s). This also incorporates all internal
measures related to the electrical tariff structure like production
planning, peak load control, co-generation, improvement of cos phi etc.
5.2.1.5 Investment Projects
improvement of the electrical energy supply or a better usage of the
given tariff structure. Examples are energy management systems,
equipment for co-generation, equipment for improvement of cos phi or
filters for suppression of harmonics.
5.2.2 Thermal Energy
NB. Assets for storage and preparation will be covered in
paragraph 6.2.11 Traditional Fuels Preparation and Storage.
Includes a list of the current traditional fuel situation: types of fuel used,
fuel mix, sourcing, prices etc.
The paragraph shows present restrictions and limitations for the
internal operation of the different production facilities as well as
anticipated problems in meeting the Business Plan objectives.
Includes operational measures in the sourcing of traditional fuels with
respect to the selected alternative.
Note: Measures regarding the use of the fuels in the plant will be
covered in paragraph 6.2.11 Traditional Fuels Preparation and
Storage.
Includes investments in the traditional fuel markets, e.g. projects to
develop the availability of fuels with respect to the selected alternative.
Note: CAPEX required to allow for the use of other fuels will be
covered in paragraph 6.2.11 Traditional Fuels Preparation and Storage
(for installations in the plant) or in an additional paragraph under 6.4
External Infrastructure (for installations outside of the plant).
5.2.3 Alternative Fuels
NB. Assets for storage and preparation will be covered in
paragraph 6.2.12 Alternative Fuels Preparation and Storage.
Includes a list of the alternative fuel situation: types of fuel used, fuel
mix, sourcing, prices etc.
The paragraph shows present restrictions and limits for the internal
operation of the different production facilities as well as anticipated
problems in meeting the Business Plan objectives. Includes also a brief
analysis on the situation on (liquid and solid) alternative fuels.
the solution to be implemented. In case of underdeveloped waste
markets, elaboration of possibilities for proactive measures on
alternative fuels to ensure a timely control and to enable their use as
soon as market conditions make it feasible.
Includes operational measures in the sourcing of the alternative fuels
with respect to the selected alternative.
NB. Measures regarding the use of alternative fuels in the plant will be
covered in paragraph 6.2.12 Alternative Fuels Preparation and
Storage.
Includes investments in the alternative fuel markets, e.g. projects to
develop the availability of alternative fuels with respect to the selected
alternative.
NB. CAPEX required to allow for the use of other fuels will be covered
in paragraph 6.2.12 Alternative Fuels Preparation and Storage (for
installations in the plant) or in an additional paragraph under 6.4
External Infrastructure (for installations outside of the plant).
6. PRODUCTION PROCESS AND PLANT
The structure of this part is asset focused and follows HAC (Holcim Asset
Code) and ICP (Investment Cost Presentation) structures. Asset orientation
might become problematic where operational procedures are far more
important than the related assets. This is the case e.g. in quality control and
maintenance. The beginning of such "asset sub-paragraphs" (e.g. 6.2.14
Quality Assurance / Laboratory and Control Room and 6.3.3 Workshops,
Warehouses, Stores, Garages) can contain references to corresponding
"process sub-paragraphs" (7.3 Quality Assurance and 7.4 Maintenance)
which focus on the respective concepts.
To reduce efforts only departments are to be included where operational
measures and/or investment projects are envisaged.
The analyses of these departments are to follow the same standard structure.
6.x.x.1 Past and Present Situation
Includes a short description of equipment installed/available in the plant including
the relevant technical data and the main features of the current operation. Just a
factual background for the assessment of a department's situation and the
proposed measures and investment will do; as the actual overview of the
assessment of the situation follows in the next paragraph.
6.x.x.2 Weak Points and Bottle Necks
Includes information on performance indicators such as OEE, availability and
production rate, energy efficiency, operating cost, quality and quantities (situation
with regard to production targets as per Business Plan), environment (compliance
with local regulations, compliance with target environmental standard), health and
labor safety (data provided for the Holcim Annual Technical Report may be taken
into consideration in this analysis).
It also includes a brief assessment of the condition of civil structures, mechanical
and electrical equipment and the remaining lifetime of structures and equipment.
Finally, it includes a risk analysis for the applicable risks (e.g. electrical accidents,
fire, explosion, wind, flooding, landslides, earthquakes, etc.) considering severity
of the damages and probability of occurrence.
6.x.x.3 Alternatives for Development
Includes the basic alternatives, which have been considered for the improvement
of the department in view of the Business Plan objectives. An evaluation of the
basic alternatives will show the technical and economical background for the
selection of the alternative that is presented in more detail in the following two
paragraphs.
6.x.x.4 Operational Measures
Includes the main features of the operational measures required for the
implementation of the selected alternative(s). Main features can include priority
ranking, costs and benefits and time schedule for implementation.
6.x.x.5 CAPEX Projects
Includes the main features of the CAPEX projects required for the implementation
of the selected alternative. Main features include priority ranking, cost and
profitability calculations (if applicable), benefits and drawbacks, and a time
schedule for implementation.
6.1 General Remarks on Plant Development
6.1.1 Current Situation: Plant Concept, Operation and Staffing
Includes main features of the current plant, its operation and staffing to
give the background for the more detailed analysis covered in this
chapter.
6.1.2 Constraints for Plant Development
Includes important constraints for the development of the plant.
"Important" in this context means: imposing certain (technical)
solutions or excluding solutions which otherwise would seem
reasonable alternatives.
Examples are:
Constraints imposed by existing facilities.
Legal requirements (e.g. environmental regulations).
Constraints imposed by property boundaries, neighbors etc.
Constraints imposed by contracts, agreements etc. (e.g.
restrictions on lay-offs of personnel)
6.2 Main Production Process
6.2.1 Raw Material Extraction
6.2.2 Raw Materials Preparation and Storage
6.2.3 Alternative Raw Materials Preparation and Storage
6.2.4 Correctives Preparation and Storage
6.2.5 Raw Meal Preparation and Storage
6.2.6 Clinker Manufacture and Storage
6.2.7 Cement Grinding and Storage
6.2.8 Packing and Shipping
6.2.9 Gypsum and Additives Preparation and Storage
6.2.10 Mineral Components Preparation and Storage
6.2.11 Traditional Fuels Preparation and Storage
6.2.12 Alternative Fuels Preparation and Storage
6.2.13 Flue Gas Treatment
6.2.14 Quality Assurance / Laboratory and Control Room
6.2.15 Main Substation and Power Distribution
6.2.16 Control and Automation
6.2.17 Drives
6.2.18 Instrumentation
6.3 Internal Infrastructure
6.3.1 Compressed Air Supply
6.3.2 Water Supply, Water and Sewage Treatment
6.3.3 Steam Supply
6.3.4 Workshops, Warehouses, Stores, Garages
6.3.5 Vehicles, Mobile Production Equipment (excl. Quarry)
6.3.6 Administration, Information Technology (IT), Amenities
6.3.7 Power Plant
6.3.8 Roads and Squares, Landscaping
6.3.9 Railway
6.4 External Infrastructure
6.4.1 Roads
6.4.2 Railway
6.4.3 Harbor
6.4.4 Terminals
6.4.5 Pipelines
6.4.6 Transmission Lines for Electrical Power
6.4.7 Housing Estate
6.5 Environmental Management
6.5.1 Stack Emissions
Addresses the issue of the concentrations of contaminants (dust,
nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, etc.) emitted from the individual stacks
(raw mill/kiln, kin bypass, cooler, cement mill, coal mill, dryer) and a
description of how the concentrations are measured.
For details about emission reporting, please refer to the company own
Emission Monitoring Reporting Manual (EMR).
For company own emission standards please refer to the Emission
Guideline Values (EGV).
6.5.2 Fugitive Dust Control Measures
Addresses the issue of equipment such as an air pollution control
system to control the fugitive dust emitted throughout the different
stages of the process, equipment related to material handling and
storage (such as conveyor systems, silos, and transfer points)
equipped with dust collectors. It also covers information on dust
collection and disposal in case the kiln is equipped with a bypass.
6.5.3 Liquid Effluents
Addresses the issue of how the process wastewater and the domestic
sewage are treated before being discharged to surface water. If
available an analysis of the discharged water (pH, BOD5, oil and
grease content, total suspended solid) can be included.
6.5.4 Ambient Noise
Addresses the issue of noise levels from the production process,
measured at noise receptors located outside the plant property
boundary. Where possible differentiate the data for daytime as well as
for nighttime.
6.5.5 Solid and Liquid Waste
Addresses the issue of how solid and liquid waste are recycled or
disposed especially for hazardous materials, process residues,
solvents, oils, sludges from raw water, from process wastewater and
from domestic sewage treatment systems.
6.6 Abandoned Plant Sections
6.6.1 Obsolete Plant Sections
Description and assessment of obsolete plant sections (no more
needed for present and future production and storage purposes) and
resulting proposals for actions e.g. demolition, sale, reutilization,
alternative use of assets.
6.6.2 Abandoned Quarries
Description and assessment of abandoned quarries (no more needed
for present and future production) and resulting proposals for actions
e.g. demolition, sale, reutilization, alternative use of assets.
6.6.3 Abandoned Infrastructure
Description and assessment of abandoned infrastructure (no more
needed for present and future production and storage purposes) and
resulting proposals for actions e.g. demolition, sale, reutilization,
alternative use of assets.
6.7 Dumps
6.7.1 Used Dumps
Description of dump sites in use and assessment of present and
potential operational and environmental problems. Indication of
measures to be taken to cope with such problems particularly
considering local laws and regulations and Holcim Standards.
6.7.2 Abandoned Dumps
Description of abandoned dumpsites and assessment of present and
potential environmental problems. Indication of measures to be taken
to cope with such problems particularly considering local laws and
regulations.
7. PLANT ORGANIZATION AND SUPPORTING FUNCTIONS
Function: Transforms the respective objectives of the Business Plan into
measures on plant level and assesses plant specific issues not covered in the
Business Plan
7.1 Organizational Structure
7.1.1 Organizational Structure
Includes the description of the current organizational setup and of
actions to be taken to align the plant organization with the Business
Plan objectives. Some suggestions on the process of analyzing the
organizational structure are shown in Annex 4.
7.1.2 Functions
Includes any actions required to describe job specifications that are
needed as a result of the business plan directions. Job specifications
will include Job title, Job Objectives, Key Responsibilities, Performance
Indicators, Organizational Relationships (upwards, downwards) and
Requirements Profile.
7.2 Personnel
7.2.1 Personnel Planning
Includes the measures to be taken within the specified period
regarding personnel planning to ensure that manpower, personnel
costs, labor productivity, etc. match the needs and goals of the plant as
defined in the Business Plan.
7.2.2 Personnel Administration
Includes any actions needed to bring the following aspects in line with
the needs and goals defined in the Business Plan:
Recruitment and selection procedure
Personnel compensation and benefits
Promotion
Reporting System
Shift System
Leave System
Disciplinary action and grievances, dismissal procedures
7.2.3 Management Development
Includes any actions needed to bring the following aspects in line with
the goals set in the Business Plan:
Procedures to evaluate the plant personnels potential
Performance management process (Dialogue)
Succession plans
Establishing Individual Development Plans
Handling of the Holcim International Management Program
Also other actions required in order to follow the guidelines of the
Management Development Concept and Dialogue will be included in
this paragraph.
7.2.4 Training
Includes an overview of the major training in initiatives that are
formulated in detail in the Training Master Plan (TMP). The Annex 5
provides some guidelines on how to set up a TMP.
7.2.5 Communication
A description of actions that might be needed to ensure that
communication, external communication, industrial relations, etc. fully
support the strategic goals set in the Business Plan.
7.3 Quality Assurance
7.3.1 Quality Policy and Objectives
Includes the general quality policy and objectives, such as company
positioning and differentiation from competitors.
7.3.2 Organization and Responsibility
Includes an organizational diagram with short job descriptions and
responsibilities in the Quality Assurance department.

7.3.3 Quality Management
Includes the approach to systematic quality management such as an
ISO 9000 Quality System or a Total Quality Management concept
(either in existence or in intention for implementation). Relevant
organizational elements of such a system including concept of
documentation shall be covered briefly.
The availability (or intention to achieve) of external certification incl.
Name of the certifying company will be part of this paragraph as well.
7.3.4 Quality Data Management
Includes the outline of the reporting system for quality data at various
levels (QA-department, production/works management, and corporate
management). It also covers the supporting tools (databases, QDM,
LIMS, SAP, etc) and the application of statistical process control (SPC)
tools or any other evaluation and problem solving procedures.
7.3.5 Interface to Marketing, Technical Customer Support
Includes the organizational and communication links to Marketing and
Technical Customer Services. This might cover procedures for
testing/evaluation of competitors products as well.
7.4 Maintenance
When addressing the maintenance issue, the MAC Sustainability
Review shall be taken into consideration. Annex 6 provides an
overview of element recommended to be considered when assessing
the maintenance environment.
7.4.1 General Organization
Includes evaluation and actions to align the present organizational
structure (e.g. lines of responsibility and job descriptions) with the
objectives set in the Business Plan.
7.4.2 Workload Identification
Includes the assessment of the methodologies applied for
communicating the identified maintenance needs to the maintenance
organization.
7.4.3 Work Planning
Includes the activities to align the planning, execution, control and
documentation of maintenance work with the MAC philosophy to
ensure timely and cost effective methods.
7.4.4 Work Accomplishment
Includes an overview of actions in order to upgrade the support
activities that enable the maintenance management organization to
perform efficiently. It addresses the availability of personnel, materials,
equipment and transportation as well as the execution of assignments
and staff training and supervision.
7.4.5 Work Control & Reporting (Appraisal)
Includes the evaluation of the information system features required to
monitor the deviation of actual from planned results.
7.5 Production
Includes evaluation and actions to align the present organizational
structure (e.g. lines of responsibility and job descriptions) with the
objectives set in the Business Plan.
7.5.2 Expected Dispatch Volume
Includes the assessment of the methodologies applied for
communicating the expected dispatch volumes to the production
organization.
7.5.3 Production Planning
Includes the activities to align the planning, execution, control and
documentation of production materials and work to ensure timely and
cost effective methods.
7.5.4 Production Execution
Includes an overview of actions in order to improve the activities that
enable the production management organization to perform efficiently.
It addresses the availability of personnel, materials, equipment and
transportation as well as the execution of assignments and staff
training and supervision.
7.5.5 Production Performance Evaluation (Reporting)
Includes the evaluation of the information system features required to
monitor the deviation of actual from planned results.
7.6 Purchasing and Stocks Management
7.6.1 Purchasing of Parts and Materials
Includes an assessment of the organizations ability to cope with
issues such as performance of vendors, evaluation of suppliers,
contracts, markets, data warehouse, requisition and ordering
procedures, purchase order authorization.
7.6.2 Spare Parts Stock Management
Includes an assessment of the organizations ability to cope with
issues such as storage, spares policy management (Min-Max.
Consignment, etc.), Bill of Material (BOM) parts list, obsolete parts
elimination.
7.7 Social and Health Management
7.7.1 Workplace Air Quality
Includes any available information regarding the workplace air quality
(content of coal dust, particulate, cement dust, silica/crystalline quartz).
In case employees have to work in workplaces where the exposure
levels for welding fumes, solvents and other materials exceed local or
internationally accepted standards include a list all measures to protect
the employees.
7.7.2 Workplace Noise
Includes assessment of workplace noise levels.
7.7.3 Work in Confined Spaces
Addresses the issue of safety measures for protection of the
employees in case they have to work in confined spaces (tanks,
sumps, vessels, and sewers).
7.7.4 Hazardous Material Handling and Storage
Includes a description of how hazardous (explosives, reactive,
flammable, radioactive, corrosive and toxic) materials are stored.
7.7.5 Health General
Includes general information regarding health-related issues, like
sanitary facilities, temperature and humidity control in work areas,
medical examinations for personnel, etc.
7.7.6 Safety General
Includes general information regarding safety of the employees, like
mechanical equipment, electrical equipment, availability of helmets,
safety glasses, slip footwear, gloves, etc., fire prevention and fire
safety program, safety program for construction and maintenance
work.
7.7.7 Record keeping and Reporting
Includes information regarding the reporting and the archiving of
significant environmental matters, including monitoring data, accidents
and occupational illnesses, and spills, fires and other emergencies.
7.8 Plant Security Management
7.8.1 Security Policy and Objectives
Description of the present security policy and objectives to protect the
Company's workforce and assets; assessment of the present situation
and actions to be taken.
Description of the current security organization (diagram) with short job
descriptions, responsibilities and rights; assessment of the present
organizational aspects and measures to be taken.
7.8.3 Security Management Issues
Description and assessment of major security issues (other than policy
and organization matters); suggested measures to be taken for
improvements; action plan.
7.9 Public Relations
7.9.1 Public Relations Policy and Objectives
Description of the present Public Relations policy and objectives to
project the Company's image to the outside world (shareholders,
Government, customers, suppliers, personnel, community);
assessment of the present situation and actions to be taken.
Description of the current organizational set-up with short job
7.9.3 Public Relations Management Issues
Description and assessment of major Public Relation issues (other
than policy and organization matters); suggested measures to be taken
for improvements; action plan.
7.10 Labor Union Relations
7.10.1 Labor Union Policy and Objectives
Description of the present Labor Union policy and objectives to
cooperate with organized labor; assessment of the present situation,
judgment of potential development and actions to be taken.
Description of the current organizational set-up with short job
7.10.3 Labor Union Relations Management Issues
Description and assessment of major Labor Union issues (other than
policy and organization matters); suggested measures to be taken to
meet potential challenges; action plan.
8. SUMMARY OF OPERATIONAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL MEASURES
Function: Summary of measures mentioned in chapters 5 to 7
It shows a table of all operational and organization measures dealt with in chapters
5 to 7 (see Annex 2), including benefits and responsibilities for operational and
organizational measures.
9. SUMMARY OF PLANNED CAPEX PROJECTS AND PLANT LAYOUT
Function: Summary of CAPEX projects mentioned in chapters 5 to 7
It includes a table of all investments described in chapters 5 to 7 (see Annex 3)
with a priority ranking.
A plant layout drawing is to be elaborated showing the proposed projects and
giving an overview of the future plant development.
PROJECTIONS)
Function: Summary of the consequential development of the production cost.
Although on plant level there are typically only cost and no income, let alone profit,
it sometimes still makes sense to complement the development of investment and
production costs by financial projections, e.g. if a Business Plan is not yet
available. In this case the financial consequences of the measures and projects
proposed in the Plant Master Plan should be analyzed.
11. PLANT DEVELOPMENT ALTERNATIVES
Function: Outline of the plant's inherent development potential and the evaluation
of the requirements to be met for future capacity increases
This chapter might not be needed:
If aspects have been covered already as part of the previous chapters.
If there is no expected need for development over the coming five years.
Should, in the process of up-dating Business Plan and Plant Master Plan,
extension schemes become more concrete, they are to be subject of separate
Project Studies (see CAPEX Guide).
11.1 Exhausting Capacity Reserves
Includes a description of the possibilities to remove capacity bottlenecks with
minimal investment, e.g. maximizing addition of mineral components and
running time of a cement mill to exhaust its capacity.
11.2 Maximizing clinker production capacity of installed kiln systems
Includes an evaluation of the possibilities to remove kiln capacity bottlenecks
with minimal investment. Firstly addresses the possibilities of maximizing
both present capacity and utilization rate of the kiln systems and secondly
looks into the potential modifications required in the preceding and following
plant departments. Minimum investment and, possibly, stepwise
implementation are to be considered also for such projects.
11.3 Considerations in view of plant extensions
Includes potential plant extensions with regards to raw materials and other
resources as well as space requirement for at least doubling current
capacity. Answers should be readily available on actions required to secure
sufficient raw and other production materials, on provisions to be taken with
regard to plant infrastructure and on areas to be nominated and blocked for
future plant constructions.
Obviously technical and financial considerations cannot (yet) be given, as
size and technology of a possible plant extension are most likely not known.
However, a respective separate "tentative plant extension layout" drawing,
accompanied by the underlying assumptions, attached to the Plant Master
Plan, might serve as illustration of a likely plant expansion scheme and for
future reference.
12. IMPLEMENTATION PLAN AND PROCESS FOR PMP UPDATES
The chapter serves to describe the intended implementation of the defined
measures and projects (next steps, use of summary sheets for the definition of the
yearly actions and for the budgets) and register the person(s) responsible for its
implementation. It also provides a briefing on the intended update of the presently
elaborated Plant Master Plan (parts to be updated, when and by whom).


The Annexes allow for all necessary details that go along with the content of
the Plant Master Plan. This enables the Plant Master Plan to be an easier
readable document. It is proposed to attach all necessary details to the Plant
Master Plan in form of Annexes. In some cases the separation for operational
and organizational measures and CAPEX projects might not be appropriate.
One can consider combining both topics into the same Annex if this helps to
better understand the document.

This Guide has been
Edited by: Reviewed by: Authorized by:

Daniel Schepp Robert Buess

Jacques Bourgon
ANNEX 1: DETAILED GENERIC TABLE OF CONTENT OF PLANT MASTER
PLAN
I. INTRODUCTION
II. CONCEPT OF THE PLANT MASTER PLAN
III. THE POSITION OF THE PLANT MASTER PLAN IN BUSINESS PLANNING
Procedure in case of absence of Business Plan
Coordination and yearly update of Business Plan, Plant Master Plan and Budget
Brief Description of the Manufacturing Performance Review (MPR)
Differences between MPR and PMP
Coordination of MPR and PMP
V. PROCEDURE FOR ELABORATING THE PLANT MASTER PLAN
Starting Points
People Involved
The Approach
"Typical" Plant Types
PMP in plants without expansion plans
PMP in plants with expansion plans.
PMP in plants (new to Holcim) with investment commitments
Minimum Requirements
VI. GENERIC TABLE OF CONTENTS OF PLANT MASTER PLAN
CONTENTS
1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
2. INTRODUCTION TO THE PLANT MASTER PLAN
3. BUSINESS PLAN OBJECTIVES
4. METHODOLOGY TO ACHIEVE BUSINESS PLAN OBJECTIVES
5. MATERIALS AND ENERGIES SUPPLY
5.1 Materials
5.1.1 Regional Geological Structure
5.1.2 Potential Material Resources
5.1.3 Raw Materials - Main Components
5.1.4 Correctives
5.1.5 Gypsum
5.1.6 Mineral Components
5.1.7 Alternative Raw Materials
5.1.8 Product Flexibility and Limitations
5.2 Energy
5.2.1 Electrical Energy
5.2.2 Thermal Energy
5.2.3 Alternative Fuels
6. PRODUCTION PROCESS AND PLANT
6.x.x.1 Past and Present Situation
6.x.x.2 Weak Points and Bottle Necks
6.x.x.3 Alternatives for Development
6.x.x.4 Operational Measures
6.x.x.5 CAPEX Projects
6.1 General Remarks on Plant Development
6.1.1 Current Situation: Plant Concept, Operation and Staffing
6.1.2 Constraints for Plant Development
6.2 Main Production Process
6.2.1 Raw Material Extraction
6.2.2 Raw Materials Preparation and Storage
6.2.3 Alternative Raw Materials Preparation and Storage
6.2.4 Correctives Preparation and Storage
6.2.5 Raw Meal Preparation and Storage
6.2.6 Clinker Manufacture and Storage
6.2.7 Cement Grinding and Storage
6.2.8 Packing and Shipping
6.2.9 Gypsum and Additives Preparation and Storage
6.2.10 Mineral Components Preparation and Storage
6.2.11 Traditional Fuels Preparation and Storage
6.2.12 Alternative Fuels Preparation and Storage
6.2.13 Flue Gas Treatment
6.2.14 Quality Assurance / Laboratory and Control Room
6.2.15 Main Substation and Power Distribution
6.2.16 Control and Automation
6.2.17 Drives
6.2.18 Instrumentation
6.3 Internal Infrastructure
6.3.1 Compressed Air Supply
6.3.2 Water Supply, Water and Sewage Treatment
6.3.3 Steam Supply
6.3.4 Workshops, Warehouses, Stores, Garages
6.3.5 Vehicles, Mobile Production Equipment (excl. Quarry)
6.3.6 Administration, Information Technology (IT), Amenities
6.3.7 Power Plant
6.3.8 Roads and Squares, Landscaping
6.3.9 Railway
6.4 External Infrastructure
6.4.1 Roads
6.4.2 Railway
6.4.3 Harbor
6.4.4 Terminals
6.4.5 Pipelines
6.4.6 Transmission Lines for Electrical Power
6.4.7 Housing Estate
6.5 Environmental Management
6.5.1 Stack Emissions
6.5.2 Fugitive Dust Control Measures
6.5.3 Liquid Effluents
6.5.4 Ambient Noise
6.5.5 Solid and Liquid Waste
6.6 Abandoned Plant Sections
6.6.1 Obsolete Plant Sections
6.6.2 Abandoned Quarries
6.6.3 Abandoned Infrastructure
6.7 Dumps
6.7.1 Used Dumps
6.7.2 Abandoned Dumps
7. PLANT ORGANIZATION AND SUPPORTING FUNCTIONS
7.1 Organizational Structure
7.1.1 Organizational Structure
7.1.2 Functions
7.2 Personnel
7.2.1 Personnel Planning
7.2.2 Personnel Administration
7.2.3 Management Development
7.2.4 Training
7.2.5 Communication
7.3 Quality Assurance
7.3.1 Quality Policy and Objectives
7.3.3 Quality Management
7.3.4 Quality Data Management
7.3.5 Interface to Marketing, Technical Customer Support
7.4 Maintenance
7.4.2 Workload Identification
7.4.3 Work Planning
7.4.4 Work Accomplishment
7.4.5 Work Control & Reporting (Appraisal)
7.5 Production
7.5.2 Expected Dispatch Volume
7.5.3 Production Planning
7.5.4 Production Execution
7.5.5 Production Performance Evaluation (Reporting)
7.6 Purchasing and Stocks Management
7.6.1 Purchasing of Parts and Materials
7.6.2 Spare Parts Stock Management
7.7 Social and Health Management
7.7.1 Workplace Air Quality
7.7.2 Workplace Noise
7.7.3 Work in Confined Spaces
7.7.4 Hazardous Material Handling and Storage
7.7.5 Health General
7.7.6 Safety General
7.7.7 Record keeping and Reporting
7.8 Plant Security Management
7.8.1 Security Policy and Objectives
7.8.3 Security Management Issues
7.9 Public Relations
7.9.1 Public Relations Policy and Objectives
7.9.3 Public Relations Management Issues
7.10 Labor Union Relations
7.10.1 Labor Union Policy and Objectives
7.10.3 Labor Union Relations Management Issues
8. SUMMARY OF OPERATIONAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL MEASURES
9. SUMMARY OF PLANNED CAPEX PROJECTS AND PLANT LAYOUT
PROJECTIONS)
11. PLANT DEVELOPMENT ALTERNATIVES
11.1 Exhausting Capacity Reserves
11.2 Maximizing clinker production capacity of installed kiln systems
11.3 Considerations in view of plant extensions
12. IMPLEMENTATION PLAN AND PROCESS FOR PMP UPDATES
ANNEX 1: DETAILED GENERIC TABLE OF CONTENT OF PLANT MASTER PLAN
1. INTRODUCTION
2. POWER GENERATION / POWER SUPPLY
2.1 Emergency power supplies:
3. GENERAL POWER TRANSMISSION ARRANGEMENT
4. POWER TRANSMISSION VOLTAGE LEVELS
5. ENERGY CONSUMPTION / TARIFF STRUCTURE
5.1 General
5.2 Tariff Structures
5.3 Typical Tariff example
5.3.1 Active energy consumption charge
5.3.2 Power demand charge
5.3.3 Reactive energy consumption charge
5.3.4 Tariff phases
6. STRUCTURE OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS IN A CEMENT PLANT
7. POWER CONSUMPTION OF A CEMENT PLANT
8. TYPICAL SUPPLY VOLTAGES FOR CEMENT PLANTS
9. TYPICAL CONCEPT OF POWER DISTRIBUTION FOR CEMENT PLANTS
9.1 High voltage transformer station
9.2 Medium voltage power distribution
9.3 Low Voltage Distribution / Distribution transformers / Motor control centres
10. HIGH VOLTAGE SWITCHGEAR
10.1 Typical symbols of electrical switchgear (HV, MV- and LV)
10.2 Power Distribution: Typical elements of a high voltage transformer station
10.3 Power Distribution: Typical elements of protective relays
10.4 Power Distribution: Typical elements of medium voltage power distribution
10.5 Types of high voltage stations
10.5.1 Outdoor transformer station with conventional switch gear
10.5.2 Indoor transformer station with conventional switch gear
10.5.3 Indoor transformer station equipped either with:
10.6 Circuit Breakers
10.7 High Voltage Transformer
11. MEDIUM VOLTAGE SWITCHGEAR
11.1 Medium Voltage Circuit Breakers
11.2 Properties of Vacuum- and SF
6
circuit breakers
11.3 Medium Voltage Contactors
11.4 Medium Voltage Transformers
12. LOW VOLTAGE SWITCHGEAR
12.1 Motor Control Centres
12.2 Motor Control Interface
13. CABLES
14. POWER FACTOR AND ITS IMPROVEMENT
14.1 General
14.2 Power Factor Correction
14.2.1 For low voltage motors:
14.2.2 For high voltage motors with constant speed:
14.2.3 For large variable speed drives:
15. ENERGY- / POWER-METERING
15.1 Metering for energy invoice
15.2 Metering for internal use only
16. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Touch Voltage
16.3 Step Voltage
16.4 Safety Precautions in High Voltage Equipment Rooms
16.5 Preventive Maintenance
16.6 Precautions against Electric Fires
Maintenance of Temporary Installations during Construction / Erection
16.7 First Aid
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
1.1.1 Design and application of electric machines
1.1.2 Energy flow
1.1.3 The magnetic circuit and torque
1.1.4 Operating principle
1.1.5 Motor speed
1.1.6 Power, torque and speed
1.1.7 Motor Efficiency
1.2 Environmental Protection and Cooling Methods
1.2.1 Description of standards
1.2.2 Some examples of the most applied variants
1.2.3 Insulation Treatment
2. MOTORS
2.1 Squirrel cage motor (induction motor)
2.1.1 Construction
2.1.2 Starting Characteristics
2.1.3 Operating Characteristics
2.1.4 Application
2.2 Slip ring motor
2.2.1 Construction
2.2.4 Application
2.3 Synchronous motor
2.3.1 Construction
2.3.3 Application
2.4 Synchronous induction motor
2.4.1 Construction
2.4.4 Application
2.5 DC-motor (direct current motor)
2.5.1 DC-Motor construction
2.5.2 Characteristics of a DC-Motor
2.5.3 Application
2.6 Ring motor (gearless mill drive)
2.6.1 Construction
3. POWER ELECTRONICS
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Application for power electronics in the cement industry
3.2.1 Advantages of electronic elements
3.2.2 Disadvantages of electronic power devices
4. VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE (VSD) SYSTEM
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 General
4.1.2 Example for a VSD (Fan)
4.2 AC drive with squirrel cage motor
4.2.1 Current-source inverter-fed induction motor
4.2.1.1 Operating Characteristics
4.2.1.2 Application
4.2.2 Load commutated inverter-fed induction motor
4.2.2.1 Application
4.3 AC drive with slip ring motor
4.3.2 Application
4.4 AC drive with synchronous motor
4.4.1 Synchronous motor with cycle-converter
4.4.2 Application
4.5 Synchronous motor with intermediate circuit converter
4.5.1 Application
4.6 Electronic smooth-start for three-phase motors (soft starters)
4.7 DC-drive
4.7.2 Application
4.8 Summary of large variable speed drive systems for the cement industry (>1 MW)
5. CRITERIA FOR ASSESSMENT
5.1 Specifications
5.2 Reliability
5.3 Efficiency
5.3.1 Definition of total drive system efficiency
6. CONCLUSIONS
7. MESSAGES
1. INTRODUCTION
2. BENEFITS/DRAWBACKS OF AUTOMATION AND MOTOR CONTROL
2.1 Reliability
2.2 Quality
2.3 Energy saving
2.4 Manpower saving
2.5 Maintenance
2.6 Life time cycle
2.7 Environment
2.8 Engineering/Commissioning
3. AREAS OF AUTOMATION IN A CEMENT PLANT
4. PROCESS AUTOMATION
5. ROCESS AUTOMATION COMPONENTS
6. PROCESS AUTOMATION SYSTEMS
7. PROGRAMMABLE CONTROLLERS (PLC)
7.1 Introduction, History
7.1.1 Relay Technology
7.1.2 Electronic Card System
7.1.3 Programmable Controllers
7.2 Hardware of Programmable Controllers
7.3 Structure of a PLC
7.3.1 Differences between PLC and a Computer
7.4 Software of Programmable Controllers
7.5 Programming a PLC
7.6 Programmable controller: language presentation
SELECTION CRITERIA OF AN AUTOMATION AND PLC-CONTROL SYSTEM
7.7 Automation system
7.8 Criteria governing the Choice of PLC
7.8.1 General
7.8.2 Central Unit (CPU)
7.8.3 Communication
7.8.4 Inputs/Outputs
7.8.5 Programming and Documentation
8. OVERALL VIEW AND CONCLUSION
1. INTRODUCTION
2. SENSORS (INSTRUMENTATION) BASICS
2.1 Terminology
3. SIGNAL TRANSMITTER
4. SIGNALS
5. SIGNAL TRANSMISSION
5.1 Current output
5.2 DEAD ZERO and LIVE ZERO
5.3 Power supply
5.4 4-wire and 2-wire transmitters
5.5 Non-isolating and isolating transmitters
6. CONTROL, ALARMING AND DISPLAY
7. MEASUREMENT USED IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY
7.1 Temperature
7.1.1 Thermocouple
7.1.2 Resistance bulb RTD PT 100
7.1.3 Pyrometer
7.1.4 Scanner
7.2 Pressure
7.3 Flow (gas and liquids)
7.4 Level
7.4.1 Capacity probe
7.4.2 Vibration
7.4.3 Electro mechanical
7.4.4 Contactless level probes
7.4.5 Radiation level probes
7.5 Weighing
7.5.1 Belt weigher
7.5.2 Gravimetric feed system
7.5.3 Volumetric feeders
7.5.4 Impact flow meter
7.5.5 Nuclear weigh feeder
7.5.6 Head flow meter
7.6 Analytical measurements
7.7 Electrical energy and power measurements
7.7.1 Introduction
7.7.2 Definition of energy and power
7.8 Field devices
1. INTRODUCTION
2. PROCESS INFORMATION MANAGEMENT
2.1 Introduction to the Improvement Process
2.2 Importance of information for decision making
2.3 Process Information which is relevant for plant performance improvement
3. TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS (TIS)
3.1 Types of Automation- and Information System in a plant, Definitions
3.2 Principle of a Technical Information System (TIS)
3.2.1 General
3.2.2 Tasks (requirements) of a TIS
3.2.3 Structure and Integration of a TIS
3.3 TIS Systems and Suppliers
4. TIS APPLICATIONS AND EXPERIENCES
4.1 TIS System installed and planned in Holcim plants
4.1.1 System installed and running
4.1.2 System planned to be installed (Project approved)
4.2 Some Specific Applications and Experiences, Benefits
4.2.1 Alsen Breitenburg Zement - und Kalkwerke GmbH, Lgerdorf, Germany
4.2.2 Buendner Cement AG, Untervaz, Switzerland
4.2.3 Holnam: Holly Hill, Clarksville, Dundee, Artesia; USA
5. TYPICAL PROJECT SCHEDULE AND SCOPE OF SUPPLY
5.1 Project Schedules (typical)
5.2 Scope of supply (typical)
6. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION
6.1 Results, Benefits
6.2 Conclusion
7. REFERENCES:

Annex 2: Example of Table for Summary of Operational and Organizational Measures

Annex 3: Example of Table for Summary of Planned CAPEX Projects


ANNEX 4: USEFUL TIPS WHEN ANALYZING THE PLANT ORGANIZATION

Involve a team of specialists from the following areas when assessing the organization:
Financial
Accounting and commercial operations
Production
Maintenance and technical operations
Personnel
Management
Training

Starts with the collection of information on the organizational structure, focusing on:
Task distribution
Span of control
Reporting relationships to best carry out assigned responsibilities

Second the procedures are screened in areas of:
Planning
Budgeting
Production
Maintenance
Purchasing and stores
Accounting

A possible study of the decentralized management style should focus on the framework
of:
Goal setting
Performance evaluation
Autonomy


Each department or area should be studied, to see how it is performing under these
three aspects:
The internal distribution of functions, tasks and authority (horizontal organizational
structure).
The internal distribution and delegation of tasks and authority to subordinates (vertical
organization structure).
The external organizational link of the plants to the head office and that to HGRS.

The information collected should be evaluated against the following criteria:
Do the existing structures and relationships allow the achievement of high efficiency and
productivity?
Do the existing structures ensure direct and efficient communication and coordination
between units that have to cooperate closely?
Are the external relationships of the various units limited to an extent that can be well
handled?
Are the organizational units defined in such a way that clear targets can be set and a
high degree of autonomy can be achieved while maintaining high capacity utilization
and production?
Does the present organizational structure ensure that the main organizational units have
equal importance in achieving the plants goals?

Annex 5: Summary of the Process to Set up a Training Master Plan

One of the main objectives of the Training Master Plan (TMP) is to promote additional
training for those individuals who have the greatest impact on plant operation.

Description of present situation
Objectives
Any journey must start by first knowing where you are. Therefore a description of the
present situation with regards to training efforts must be made. First, a so-called
Assessment Team must be formed, made up of people whose combined skill and
experience can provide the background necessary to measure the Plant and its people
regarding the current skill/knowledge base. Second, a general questionnaire must be
filled out per plant. The following is a list of the main topics, which should be covered:
Training Function
Do you have any formal training policy or training plan at the present time?
Who is responsible for this training policy or training plan?
Training Infrastructure
Do any in-house training facilities presently exist?
Do you have any written material available, which you believe would be relevant to
training?
Past Training Activities
List all training activities held in the last two years in your plant
Identify employees who have been trained off-site in the past two years.
Future Training Activities
Do you have any agreement with any of the suppliers for the provision of training
assistance?
What do you believe are the training needs in your plant in order of importance?
Training Budget
How many hours per year are you willing to allow the following groups of employees out
of their normal jobs for training?
Other plant specific issues

Assessment of training needs
Objectives
The aim of the training needs is to determine the following:
Identify key positions that have the greatest impact on plant operation.
Establish corporate skill/knowledge base lines for the key plant functions (process
control, quality assurance etc.)
Identify gaps between the skill/knowledge level of key plant personnel at each plant and
the corporate base lines
Determine a starting point from which progress and training effectiveness can be
measured using Key Performance Indicators (KPIs)
Ensure for the long term, that all plant personnel receive adequate training relevant to
their position and need
Identify the training needs which will result from the addition of new technology and
equipment during the plant expansion

The training needs are determined by means of a survey described below.
Targets of the Skill/Knowledge Survey
Based on the plant organization, the completed general questionnaire and discussions
with Plant Management, the benchmark positions for the skill/knowledge survey targets
are to be identified as those individuals who have the greatest impact on plant
operation.
Survey Process
The Survey determines the key skills and knowledge pertinent to the general and
specific job knowledge of the above listed positions and should:
Develop a series of questions specific to the plant and its process technology that
evaluate the key knowledge/skills necessary to successfully perform the function/job.
EVALUATE THE RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF THE KEY KNOWLEDGE/SKILLS IN
PERFORMING THE JOB BEING EVALUATED.
EVALUATE THE REQUIRED PROFICIENCY IN THE KEY KNOWLEDGE/SKILLS
RELATIVE TO THE JOB BEING EVALUATED.
EVALUATE THE CURRENT PROFICIENCY OF THE INCUMBENTS RELATIVE TO THE
KNOWLEDGE/SKILLS NEEDED TO SUCCESSFULLY PERFORM THEIR JOBS.
TABULATE THE INDIVIDUAL SURVEYS WHICH RESULTS IN AN OVERALL RANKING
OF THE KEY KNOWLEDGE/SKILLS AS FOLLOWS:
Critical Training Need
Urgent Training Need
Significant Training Need
Low Need for Training
Inconclusive
The skill/knowledge survey and analysis process will need to be repeated on a three to
five year cycle depending on the changes taking place on site. The skill/knowledge
surveys are to be carried out individually on a one-to-one basis to preserve confidentiality
and to facilitate open dialog and accurate results.

Establish Training Masterplan:
In this section the results of the survey are to be represented as follows:
A TRAINING NEEDS GRAPHIC WITH A LIST OF THE TRAINING NEEDS FROM
CRITICAL TO INCONCLUSIVE FOR EACH FUNCTION.
A TRAINING TARGET CHART WITH A LIST OF THE FUNCTIONS, THE NAME OF THE
INCUMBENT AND THE NUMBER OF SCHEDULED COURSES HE/SHE SHOULD
ATTEND:
A DESCRIPTION OF EACH TRAINING COURSE WITH INFORMATION ON COURSE
TITLE, COURSE CODE, DURATION, TARGET AUDIENCE, OBJECTIVES AND
CONTENT.
A LIST OF THE RECOMMENDED COURSES PER TARGET DIVIDED BY FUNCTION,
NAME OF THE INCUMBENT AND COURSES TO ATTEND.
Recommendation for TMP implementation including the Train the Trainer approach.
EVALUATION OF TRAINING BENEFITS.
ANNEX 6: ELEMENTS TO CONSIDER WHEN ANALYZING THE MAINTENANCE
ENVIRONMENT

Chapter 2
Power Supply and Distribution
Power Supply and Distribution
By Friedrich Richner, CE
1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 57
2. POWER GENERATION / POWER SUPPLY .................................................................. 57
2.1 Emergency power supplies: .....................................................................................57
3. GENERAL POWER TRANSMISSION ARRANGEMENT............................................... 59
4. POWER TRANSMISSION VOLTAGE LEVELS .......................................................... 59
5. ENERGY CONSUMPTION / TARIFF STRUCTURE....................................................... 60
5.1 General.....................................................................................................................60
5.2 Tariff Structures........................................................................................................60
5.3 Typical Tariff example ..............................................................................................61
5.3.1 Active energy consumption charge....................................................................61
5.3.2 Power demand charge.......................................................................................61
5.3.3 Reactive energy consumption charge................................................................61
5.3.4 Tariff phases ......................................................................................................61
6. STRUCTURE OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS IN A CEMENT PLANT ............................. 62
7. POWER CONSUMPTION OF A CEMENT PLANT......................................................... 62
8. TYPICAL SUPPLY VOLTAGES FOR CEMENT PLANTS............................................. 63
9. TYPICAL CONCEPT OF POWER DISTRIBUTION FOR CEMENT PLANTS................ 63
9.1 High voltage transformer station ..............................................................................63
9.2 Medium voltage power distribution...........................................................................66
9.3 Low Voltage Distribution / Distribution transformers / Motor control centres............68
10. HIGH VOLTAGE SWITCHGEAR............................................................................ 69
10.1 Typical symbols of electrical switchgear (HV, MV- and LV)...............................69
10.2 Power Distribution: Typical elements of a high voltage transformer station.......70
10.3 Power Distribution: Typical elements of protective relays..................................71
10.4 Power Distribution: Typical elements of medium voltage power distribution .....72
10.5 Types of high voltage stations............................................................................72
10.5.1 Outdoor transformer station with conventional switch gear............................72
10.5.2 Indoor transformer station with conventional switch gear...............................72
10.5.3 Indoor transformer station equipped either with: ............................................72
10.6 Circuit Breakers..................................................................................................73
10.7 High Voltage Transformer ..................................................................................77
11. MEDIUM VOLTAGE SWITCHGEAR...................................................................... 79
11.1 Medium Voltage Circuit Breakers.......................................................................80
6
circuit breakers ................................................82
11.3 Medium Voltage Contactors...............................................................................82
11.4 Medium Voltage Transformers...........................................................................85
12. LOW VOLTAGE SWITCHGEAR............................................................................ 88
12.1 Motor Control Centres........................................................................................88
12.2 Motor Control Interface ......................................................................................88
13. CABLES.................................................................................................................. 90
14. POWER FACTOR AND ITS IMPROVEMENT........................................................ 93
14.1 General ..............................................................................................................93
14.2 Power Factor Correction ....................................................................................95
14.2.1 For low voltage motors: ..................................................................................95
14.2.2 For high voltage motors with constant speed: ................................................96
14.2.3 For large variable speed drives: .....................................................................97
15. ENERGY- / POWER-METERING ........................................................................... 98
15.1 Metering for energy invoice................................................................................98
15.2 Metering for internal use only.............................................................................98
16. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT................................. 100
16.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................100
16.2 Touch Voltage ................................................................................................100
16.3 Step Voltage...................................................................................................101
16.4 Safety Precautions in High Voltage Equipment Rooms ...................................101
16.5 Preventive Maintenance...................................................................................102
16.6 Precautions against Electric Fires....................................................................102
16.7 Maintenance of Temporary Installations during Construction / Erection..........103
16.8 First Aid............................................................................................................103

1. INTRODUCTION
A cement plant is considered a large consumer of electrical energy. The energy
consumption in a cement plant is equivalent to the electrical energy consumption of a small
town (e.g. 15000 habitants of a town require approx. 20 MW of electrical power which is the
equivalent of a cement plant with a production capacity of 2000 tons/day).

Cement production is a continuous process, which depends to a large extent on a very
reliable power supply- and distribution network. Any interruption in the power supply
translates into a loss in production and loss of profit opportunities.
The reliability of a power supply depends on the:
design of the supplying network
environmental conditions
strength of the supply
2. POWER GENERATION / POWER SUPPLY
The geographical location, the climate and the level of technical and economical
development of a country are decisive factors for the selection on the type of power
generation systems. A power generation program incorporating several of the following
power generation methods is of great advantage in order to cope with the fluctuating power
requirements of the industry and public consumers during the changing demand periods of
the day or of the year.

The following are the most commonly used power generating systems:
Hydraulic power stations (River power plants; High level basin power plants)
Thermal power plants (Oil, gas or coal fired)
Nuclear power plants
Diesel engines

It is most desirable and most economical however, to provide cement plants whenever
possible from an existing utility network. Stand-alone power plants built for a cement plant
are extremely costly, are subject to high maintenance and are not considered as reliable as
a large interconnected network system.
Power generation plants powered by diesel engines or gas turbines are seldom used in new
installations for cement plants, with the exception of installations located in remotely isolated
areas or regions with underdeveloped power system networks.

2.1 Emergency power supplies:
Emergency power generating units are required in a cement plant to provide power to critical
processes and prevent damage to mechanical equipment in case of failure of the utility
network. (e.g. cooling water for bearings; improving safety and allowing orderly shutdown of
equipment to facilitate maintenance). In most cement plants diesel power units in the range
of approx. 250 2000 kW are installed to provide the emergency power.

Typical consumers of emergency power are:
Kiln auxiliary drive
Cooling fans for e.g. clinker cooler, kiln ID-fan, combustion air blowers,
measuring instruments. etc
Lubrication pumps
Water pumps for cooling systems and fire fighting system
Elevators and lighting systems (for safety reasons)
UPS (Uninterruptible power supply) for plant automation systems

The emergency power unit shall be located as near as possible to the loads it serves. This
will avoid expensive cable installation costs.

Typical arrangement of an industrial type diesel power plant:
Figure 2.1 Diesel power unit

Individual unit sizes for 0.25 - 2 MW
Indoor and outdoor units
Fuel: Diesel, heavy fuel oil, light fuel oil
Efficiency: < 40%
With heat recovery system to heat up e.g. heavy fuel oil
Legend:
1 Diesel engine
2 Generator
3 Control system
4 Cooling tower
5 Exhaust silencer
3. GENERAL POWER TRANSMISSION ARRANGEMENT
Electrical power generated in power plants needs to be transported from the utility to the
consumers through a network of overhead wires strung on steel poles called the
transmission line. In order to reduce the transmission line losses, the AC-voltage generated
at the generators is stepped up at the generation station to higher voltage levels such as
elevated high voltage (EHV) up to 750 kV. At the consumer side, transformation to lower
voltage levels (down to e.g. 13.8 kV, 11 kV, 6.9 kV, 6.0 kV, 4.16 kV, 3.3 kV, 460 V or 400 V)
is required in order to feed the common industrial and household networks.
Figure 3.1 Typical transmission scheme

4. POWER TRANSMISSION VOLTAGE LEVELS
An elevated high voltage (EHV) level network for economical and technical reasons can only
be distributed by means of an overhead transmission line system. For short distances
however, gas insulated cables can be used buried underground for voltages from 230 kV to
400 kV. For lower voltages from 69 kV to 115 kV conventional power cables can be used
underground as well as in above ground raceways.
High voltage (HV) and medium voltage (MV) networks use both cables and overhead
systems. In built-up areas cable connections are preferred whereas on open areas overhead
lines are used mostly due to economical reasons.
Voltage levels:
> 150 kV to 750 kV = elevated high voltage (EHV) or maximum voltage
> 50 kV to 138 kV = high voltage
1 - 50 kV = medium voltage
< 1 kV = low voltage
The installation of a new overhead transmission line is a long elaborated process requiring
the involvement of many governmental agencies and it takes many years to get the approval
from all concern parties. Therefore, such requirements must be anticipated and planned
ahead several years in advance of the construction of the cement plant. Fortunately, long-
term distribution planning programs are in place with most of the large utilities.
5. ENERGY CONSUMPTION / TARIFF STRUCTURE
5.1 General
Electrical energy cannot be stored, which is in sharp contrast with the other forms of energy
such as gas, oil, coal, wood, water, etc. Therefore, the production of electrical energy and
consumption must always be balanced and the utility companies undertake every effort to
cope with the continuously charging demand. With good planning surplus generating
capacity must be available to avoid energy demand bottlenecks.
The interconnection of power distribution networks from different utilities and cross borders
from state to state, or province or country to country which are also supported by mutual
agreements of network support ensure a most reliable distribution system. (Example: Europe
= interconnected grid from North of Norway to South of Italy).
Isolated grid systems have the disadvantage of being weak, with unstable frequencies
during network disturbances. Heavy load demands may require temporary disconnection
from the grid during such disturbances.
5.2 Tariff Structures
The utility companies must be able to forecast with certitude consumption requirements and
plan power distribution accordingly. For this reason, most power supply contracts are
structured based on a combination of firm power demand and energy consumption rates
metered monthly. Above the firm power demand limitation of the contract additional power
may be made available based on load-shedding agreements. The availability of electrical
energy is also reflected in tariffs structured for different consumption levels and time of day,
including also some penalties for excess consumption. For obvious reasons electrical
energy consumed during the night is considerably cheaper and utility companies encourage
consumers to use night-energy.
Therefore, new contracts as well as energy contracts due for renewal must be negotiated
with utility companies, based on present and future operating practices of the cement plant.
Factors which influence the Power / Energy-contracts:
Seasonal influences (Summer, Winter)
Time of day (daylight hours, AM, PM and night hours)
Market aspects (availability of fuel, real time energy rates)
Type of contract: Firm power, interruptible power or a combination contract
Tariffs rates distinguish between the power demand (kW) and energy consumption (kWh).
Energy consumption rates in certain areas can vary from hour to hour (real time pricing).
Extra charges (penalties) may have to be paid if agreed limits on power demand are
exceeded.
5.3 Typical Tariff example
The following shows a typical tariff structure showing cost-split for energy, power and
reactive energy:
5.3.1 Active energy consumption charge

Winter Summer
High tariff 0-25 Mio. KWh: 6,3 cts/kWh

> 25 Mio. KWh: 6,1 cts/kWh

0-20 Mio. kWh: 4,5 cts/kWh

>20 Mio. kWh: 4,3 cts/kWh

Low tariff 0-20 Mio. KWh: 4,6 cts/kWh

> 20 Mio. KWh: 4,4 cts/kWh
0-10 Mio. kWh: 2,6 cts/kWh

> 10 Mio. kWh: 2,4 cts/kWh

5.3.2 Power demand charge
US$ 14 - US$22.- per kW, based on maximum coincidental demand of the month and
seasonal rates.
The maximum demand is the mean value of the four highest peak demands averaged over
15 minutes sliding over a 60 minute time interval.

5.3.3 Reactive energy consumption charge
The total consumed reactive energy during high tariff phases is limited to 45,5% of the active
energy consumed (corresponds to average power factor (cos phi = 0,91).
Additionally consumed reactive energy will be billed to 2.1 cts/kVArh.

5.3.4 Tariff phases

High tariff: Monday-Friday
Saturday
07.00 - 21.00 h
07.00 - 13.00h
Low tariff: Remaining time
Summer: April September
Winter: October March

6. STRUCTURE OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS IN A CEMENT PLANT

7. POWER CONSUMPTION OF A CEMENT PLANT

8. TYPICAL SUPPLY VOLTAGES FOR CEMENT PLANTS
In the cement industry voltage levels are dictated by the utility companies and in general are
supplied in the following ranges:
15 kV (for small plants), up to 20 MW based on available capacity of the
existing distribution.
37.5 kV to 85 kV for larger plants depending on the utility
115 kV to 350 kV for larger plants depending on the utility.

In power distribution systems we distinguish between the following voltage levels:
high voltage > 50 kV
medium voltage 1-50 kV
low voltage 1 kV
extra low voltage > 50 V (AC or DC)
The design of the equipment (e.g. circuit breaker) varies according to the requirements of
the different voltage levels and power ratings.
Note: The commonly used expression of high voltage motors means actually a power
supply to the motor in the medium voltage range, i.e. between 3.3kV up to
13.8 kV. Higher voltages are for technical reasons not applied for motors.
9. TYPICAL CONCEPT OF POWER DISTRIBUTION FOR CEMENT PLANTS
In the following sections typical arrangements for cement plant internal power distribution
systems are discussed. The arrangement for the power distribution depends on the following
main aspects:
Plant layout (process arranged in one line from crushing to packing;
expansion to existing plant)
Location of existing or new power supply line
Future plant expansions
Environmental aspects
Financial aspects
9.1 High voltage transformer station
Depending on the layout of the cement plant and on the type of switchgear installed this
station is located on the periphery or in the centre of a cement plant. For reliability reasons a
cement plant is preferably fed via two incoming power cables or overhead lines. The
transmission voltage can vary between 11 kV and 350 kV and is normally fixed by the utility
as mentioned above. The high voltage will be stepped down to 3.3 to 13.8 kV for plant
distribution by means of two transformers preferably. Each transformer is designed and
rated to carry the plant load should the other transformer fail.
For power distribution system-arrangement see Fig. 9.1.1
For power distribution single line diagram see Fig. 9.1.2
Figure 9.1.1 Example of a Power Distribution System (Layout)

Figure 9.1.2 Example of a Power Distribution Single Line Diagram

9.2 Medium voltage power distribution
The medium voltage power distribution is usually located in an electrical room in the centre
of a cement plant, this is order to minimise cabling and installation costs (centralised MV-
distribution).
However, depending on the layout of the plant, the MV-power distribution may be arranged
in a decentralised manner, i.e. the MV-distribution might be located in load centres common
with the LV-distribution transformers and motor control centres.
Decentralised arrangements may result in the application of a higher quantity of circuit
breakers, control equipment, larger electrical rooms, a more sophisticated protection scheme
and requires a somewhat more costly maintenance. Costs for MV-cabling may however be
smaller.
For comparison of centralised and decentralised arrangements refer to single line below.
The medium voltage level normally ranges from 3.3 kV up to 13.8 kV. There is a strong
tendency to use the higher voltage of 11 kV; 50 Hz, resp. 13.8 kV; 60 Hz, because a higher
working voltage results in smaller cable cross-sections (i.e. lower investment costs) and less
voltage drops (i.e. less energy losses).
The distribution station is equipped with a main busbar, the incoming circuit breakers and the
different outgoing circuit breakers to the distribution transformers and high voltage motors.
Distribution transformer stations are located in the different load centres, namely the
crushing plant, the raw meal grinding plant, the kiln plant, the cement grinding plant and the
packing plant.
All high and medium voltage equipment (transformers, cables and motors) has to be
protected against overload, short circuit, earth fault, overvoltage, etc. to guarantee a
selective fault isolation.
Figure 9.2 Centralised & de-centralised medium voltage distribution
Typical single-line-diagram

9.3 Low Voltage Distribution / Distribution transformers / Motor control centres
The power supply to the LV-power consumers is normally arranged from the departmentally
located load centres (also called LV-Substations, Department Substations, LV-Electrical
Rooms or Motor Control Centres).
The departmental transformer's secondary is connected to the LV-distribution equipment
and from there to the individual Motor Control Centres.
The departmental transformers normally have a capacity of 630 up to 2000 kVA depending
on the power requirement and a low voltage level of 400 V up to 660 V. These distribution
transformers are normally installed indoors in individual transformer bays, however also
outdoor arrangements with a suitable weather protection are applied.
The low voltage distribution equipment consists primarily of all necessary feeder outlets,
starters and protection devices for the individual motors or other consumers receiving power
from the load centre.
Within the same electrical room other essential equipment necessary for the control of the
motors such as the control system (PLC) and marshalling cabinets can also be located.
Depending on local rules such equipment might have to be separated from the high power
equipment by fire partitions.

Figure 9.3 Typical Single line diagram
Example of a load centre with distribution transformer and MCC

10. HIGH VOLTAGE SWITCHGEAR
The high voltage transformer station generally consists of following main electrical
components:

10.1 Typical symbols of electrical switchgear (HV, MV- and LV)

Circuit breaker (disconnects a circuit under load and in
case of fault, e.g. short circuit loads)

On-load isolator (disconnects a circuit at max. double-
rated current)

Off-load isolator (isolates a circuit at no load e.g. for
maintenance purposes)

Earthing switch (connects a circuit to earth for safety
reasons)

Step-down transformer (transforms incoming voltage to
the plant power distribution level e.g. 110 kV to 7 kV).
Arrow indicates that transformer is equipped with tap-
switch for limited adjustment of voltage level


a) current- and b) voltage transformer: Measure the
amount of current resp. voltage (for energy
measurement).
Also required as primary inputs for protection devices.

Circuit breaker, draw-out type, motor operated

Lightning arrestor (protects the substation against over
voltage such as lightning)
10.2 Power Distribution: Typical elements of a high voltage transformer station

10.3 Power Distribution: Typical elements of protective relays

10.4 Power Distribution: Typical elements of medium voltage power distribution

10.5 Types of high voltage stations
The following 3 types of main incoming transformer stations are mainly used:
10.5.1 Outdoor transformer station with conventional switch gear
Characteristics:
biggest surface area required
medium investment costs for high voltage switch gear
time consuming for maintenance (cleaning)
10.5.2 Indoor transformer station with conventional switch gear
Characteristics:
Medium surface area required
lowest investment costs for high voltage switch gear
medium time required for maintenance
10.5.3 Indoor transformer station equipped either with:
SF
6
,- gas insulated- or vacuum type switch gear conventional switchgear
Characteristics:
Smallest surface area required
highest investment costs for high voltage
needs the least of maintenance
10.6 Circuit Breakers
In high voltage installations mostly SF
6
gas circuit breakers are applied. The low oil content
circuit breakers are still used but manufacturing will run out in the next years.
Figure 10.6.1 SF6 Gas Circuit Breaker
3-pole circuit breaker with operating mechanism

Figure 10.6.2 Schematic function of arc quenching mechanism of circuit
breaker pole

1 Terminal plates 3 Fixed tubes
2 Contact support 4 Moving contact tube

a) Breaker in ON - position c) Precompression
b) Gas flow during arc-quenching d) Breaker in OFF - position
Figure 10.6.3 Metal-clad, SF6 Gas-Insulated Circuit Breaker

Figure 10.6.4 Cross section of double busbar cable feeder:

Legend:
1 Busbar with combined disconnect/grounding switch
2 Circuit breaker
3 Current transformer
4 Potential transformer
5 Cable end unit with combined
Disconnect/grounding switch
6 Fast acting grounding switch
7 Control cubicle
8 Isolation

Schematical arrangement:

10.7 High Voltage Transformer

High voltage transformers are used in the cement plants power distribution to lower the
incoming voltage from the utility to the voltage level typically 13.8kV, 6.9kV or 4.16kV used
for the power distribution to the departmental transformers. These transformers are
designed to operate with low losses typically with less than 1% loss on the name plate
rating. The transformers are always filled with oil, which offers the best overall dielectric
insulating properties.
In order to maintain a steady voltage level in the plant under various load conditions and to
cope with varying voltage levels at the utility substation, the transformer must be equipped
with a load tap changers and voltage regulator. The function of the regulator is to
automatically increase or decrease the secondary voltage in tune with the requirements of
the load, but typically these are small steps of about 1 to 1.5% of the nominal voltage.
Large transformers are designed to operate with natural cooling air at the base nameplate
rating. Increased power can be delivered when the transformer is forced cooled. The forced
cooling equipment such as air or water cooling equipment are often included with the original
specifications which is most economical. For example a 20 MVA transformer with an
efficiency of 98% produces a heat load 400 kW of heat.
This type of transformer being the most critical piece of equipment in the plant must be
protected adequately from overloads and over-voltages. For this reasons the transformers
are equipped with lighting arrestors, temperature sensors, oil level sensors, tap changer
position indicators, sudden pressure/gas accumulation relay (Buchholz-Relay) and current
differential, which together protect the transformer against overload and insulation failures.
The Buchholz-Relay detects gas bubbles, which accumulate at the highest point of the
transformer, and gives a good indication if there are insulation or over-temperature problems
with transformer windings.
The installation of the high voltage transformers most often is outdoors far enough from
buildings and other plant structures. In certain applications however and for aesthetic
reasons these transformers must be located inside a building structure designed specifically
to house the transformer.
Typical picture of a high voltage transformer see below

Figure 10.7 High voltage transformer

Legend:
1 Core- and coil assembly 6 Buchholz relay
2 Iron core 7 Tank
3 Windings 8 Tank cover
4 On-load tap changer (Motor driven) 9 Truck
5 Bushings 10 Conservator
11. MEDIUM VOLTAGE SWITCHGEAR

Medium voltage power distributions consist mainly of the same components as described in
paragraph 10. They are generally of the indoor type. Today draw-out type cubicles are
commonly used. Different equipment can be mounted on identical trucks. The trucks are
easy to handle and allow a quick replacement in case of a failure. The figure below shows a
medium voltage distribution station.

Figure 11 Medium voltage substation

11.1 Medium Voltage Circuit Breakers
Vacuum circuit breakers or SF
6
-circuit breakers are normally used in Medium Voltage power
distribution systems.
Low oil content circuit breakers are still being manufactured but are less and less used in the
industry due to higher equipment costs.
Figure 11.1.1 Truck mounted SF
6
circuit breaker

Figure 11.1.2 Assembly of vacuum circuit breaker

Legend:
1 Control panel / Motor drive 4 Moving contacts
2 Actuating road 5 Ceramic insulators
3 Fixed contacts
Items 3 and 4 operate within the vacuum environment
6
circuit breakers

Application: Protection and switching operation for
Power cables
Transformers
Motors
Capacitors and reactors

Criterias:

Vacuum circuit breaker SF
6
circuit breaker

Interrupter service life 20000 to 30000
Close-Open operations
10000 to 20000
Close-Open operations
Service interval Lubrication of mechanism
(max. 10 years)
Lubrication of mechanism
(max. 10 years)
Overhaul of interrupter Interrupter to be replaced Interrupter can be
reconditioned
Switching of lines, cables,
transformers, capacitors
Well suited Well suited
Switching of motors Well suited but measures
may be necessary to limit
over voltages
Well suited normally no
measures necessary to limit
over voltages

11.3 Medium Voltage Contactors

The operating principle is similar to that of a circuit breaker, except that the interrupter is not
designed to interrupt short circuit currents. The contact system is optimised for high numbers
of rated current operations.
High rupture current limiting fuses are installed in series with the interrupter to provide co-
ordinated protection during short circuit conditions.
Overload protection is ensured by separate relays.
Fused contactors can be used to supply motor and transformer loads.

Examples: maximum rating of fuse rating = 250 A, 6 kV, can be used with
Distribution transformers max. 2000 kVA
Motor with starting current 1350 A maximum
and acceleration time of 10 sec. Maximum

Advantages of fused contactors:
very compact design
more economical than circuit breakers
Disadvantages of fused contactors:
Limited short circuit interrupting capability, require fuses
Tripping mechanism with auxiliary contact required for each fuse to prevent
single phasing.
Limited current ratings of 400 A and 800 A per interrupter and 7.2 kV maximum
voltage. The current ratings are reduced when the interrupters are enclosed in
metal switchgear.
Replacement fuses are expensive
Figure 11.3.1 Contactor panel (double tier)

Legend:
1 Fuse contactor compartment
2 Contactor
3 LV plug-in connection
4 Fuses
5 Metal safety shutters covering fixed disconnecting contacts
6 Busbar compartment
7 Busbars
8 Cable-connection compartment
9 Earthing switch
10 Current transformer
11 Potential dividers
12 HV solid-dielectric cables
13 LV auxiliaries compartment
14 LV wiring trough
15 Earthing bus
Figure 11.3.2 Contactor panel arrangement (draw-out type)

11.4 Medium Voltage Transformers
These transformers are normally also mineral oil-immersed. For special applications
however, the transformer can be supplied filled with silicone oil, which has a higher flash
point temperature than the mineral oil and therefore is better suited in indoor locations or
outdoors adjacent to buildings.
Figure 11.4.1 Oil-immersed three-phase distribution transformer

Picture shows transformer with conservator, typically for 5MVA and larger transformers.
Sealed transformers (hermetically sealed tanks) without conservator are normally used up to
5000 kVA.
Oil immersed transformers need for environmental reasons to be installed above an oil-tight
catch basin. For fire protection reasons, adjacent transformers must be separated by
concrete block walls. Such walls have to reach as a minimum up to the height of the
transformer tank. Sufficient airflow has to be provided for cooling. Depending on the
insurance underwriter requirements, sprinklers may or may not be required above the
transformers.
Dry type transformers, which use polymer insulation and epoxy resign encapsulation are built
up to 10 MVA. These transformers are ideally suited for indoor installation where heat
dissipation is not a problem. For outdoor installations the dry type transformer and its
enclosure are usually more expensive than an equivalent oil transformer.

Figure 11.4.2 Dry-type three-phase distribution transformer

Legend:
1 3-limb core assembly 6 Terminal strip
2 LV-winding 7 Resilient spacers
3 HV-winding 8 Yoke camping frame / truck
4 LV-terminals 9 Epoxy resin insulation
5 HV-terminals
12. LOW VOLTAGE SWITCHGEAR
Low voltage switchgear is located in electrical rooms in the different load centres of the
plant.
12.1 Motor Control Centres
The motor control centres comprise all equipment for the remote control of the low voltage
consumers (motors, heaters, valves, etc).
.
Figure 12.1 Motor control centre with outgoing feeders of the draw-out,
fully-plugged design

12.2 Motor Control Interface
The power- and control wiring is normally standardised for each type of feeder. For
maintenance purpose START/STOP - push buttons and OFF/READY - isolator switches are
located near each individual drive.
The AC- or DC-control circuits are connected via multiple-core cables to the marshalling rack
of the respective process stations or alternatively directly to remote I/O-units installed
internally in the MCC-panels.
Figure 12.2 Typical motor feeder circuit diagram

Legend:
G: Motor Local Go (Start) DI: Digital Input
S: Motor Local Stop DO: Digital Output
U: Motor Local Isolated AI: Analogue Input
T: Motor Thermal Overload D1: Interface Relay ... VDC
R: Motor Run C1: Contactor
K: Motor OK F1: Circuit Breaker
Z: Motor Power *) Option F2: Thermal Overload Device
D: Motor Start

13. CABLES

The selection of power cables for the correct application is an integral part of the power
distribution for a cement plant. There are many choices for power and control cables all of
which will do the job, but with increasing installation costs and available bulk quantity
discounts it is best to limit the selection to a few types which will cover all applications.

Power cables for:
High voltage (e.g. 110 kV) for incoming feeder from power company
Medium voltage (e.g. 6 kV) for medium voltage power distribution of the plant
Low voltage (e.g. 400 V) for low voltage power distribution of the plant

Control cables for:
Low voltage (e.g. 220 V) for control circuits
Extra low voltage (e.g. 24 V DC) for process control, instrumentation,
communication.
Fibre-optical cables for IT, communication bus systems.

Types of cables

The selection of the type of cable depends on the installation whether is on a tray, conduit,
buried in the ground or suspended overhead.
single conductor, non metallic or interlocked aluminium armour
Triplex conductors, non metallic, aluminium or steel interlocked armour
Shielded conductors for medium voltage installations
Unshielded conductors for low voltage installations
Single conductor cables are normally use on trays and conduit. Interlocked armour cable is
used when the cable can be exposed to mechanically damaged
Figure 13.1 Medium voltage power cable (3-core)

Figure 13.2 Medium voltage power cable (3-core, with steel armour)

Legend:
1 Lead sheath
2 Single wire armour (steel)
3 Overall sheath (jute)
4 Conductor (copper)
5 Paper-Insulation
6 Filler
7 Inner sheath (paper)
8 Fibrous sheaths (in layers)

Figure 13.3 Low voltage power cable (4-core)

Figure 13.4 Extra low voltage cable (multi-core)

Polyethylene, cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) insulated cables are the most widely
installed power cables today in a cement plant. Ethylene-propylene-rubber (EPR) insulated
with PVC jacket cables are used extensively for larger cables and will in the future replace
many of the PE and XLPE-cables.
Copper conductors are preferable to aluminium conductors mainly due to the simpler
installation method but also for their higher current carrying capacities and therefore smaller
cross sections.
The PVC jacket of cables is flame retardant, low acid gas evolution and when exposed to
sunlight has to be UV proofed. Also non-corrosive sheath material (EVA) can be installed.
Dimensioning of cables
Power cables have to be carefully dimensioned in respect of
Current carrying capacity by taking into account
ambient temperature
kind of installation (ground, air grouping)
Magnetic or non-magnetic raceway
Voltage drop (power loss)
Thermal and dynamic short-circuits withstand capabilities
Installation of cables
In cement plants most of the cables are installed on cable trays inside the buildings, on
bridges, in walk-through cable tunnels or they are installed in metallic and non-metallic
conduit raceway. Therefore, armoured cables are seldom required, but by exception they are
applied only when local electrical safety codes specify the use of armoured cables.
14. POWER FACTOR AND ITS IMPROVEMENT
14.1 General
The electrical energy delivered by the utility contains two components of power, the active
(real) power (kW) and reactive power (kVAr). The reactive power usually lags the active
power component by 90 electrical degrees. The quadratic sum of these two components
gives the kVA or the apparent power the utility companies have to generate and distribute to
consumers (see vector diagram Fig. 14.1.2).
The ratio of the active power kW divided by apparent power kVA defines the power angle of
these two power components. The cosine of this angle is called simply the power factor. It
can have value from zero to unity. Unity power factor is excellent, but most installations have
power factors between 0.79 to 0.83 before compensation.
Reactive power is used by the magnetic circuits of the stator and rotor, in motor's case to set
up rotating but opposing magnetic fields, which produce the torque. In the case of the
transformer the magnetic flux is required to induce voltage in the transformer secondary
circuits.
Active power or real power is drawn from the power lines by the load connected to the motor
shaft or by the load connected to the secondary of the transformer.
For a magnetic circuit such as the induction motor and transformer, the reactive power lags
the real power by 90 electrical degrees. This means that reactive power is drawn from the
supply. For a synchronous motor with over excitation or for a capacitor the reactive power
leads the real power by 90 electrical degrees. This means that the reactive power flows back
into the supply.
The induction motors and transformers are the largest consumers of lagging reactive power
in a cement plant. This power has to be delivered by the utility companies. It can be seen
readily that lagging reactive power is a burden on the generator and the supplying cables. It
appears as the total current or the active current and causes losses in the cables,
transformers and in the generator.
Figure 14.1.1 Typical power flow in motor circuit

Legend:
S: Apparent power kVA P1: Active Power kW
Q: Reactive power kVAr P2: Mechanical Power kW
Figure 14.1.2 Vector diagram

Legend:
OA: Active power W (kW)
OB: Inductive reactive power Q (kVAr)
OC: Apparent power S (kVA)
CD: Capacitor reactive power Q (kVAr)
Phi: Phase angle, uncompensated
Phi
1
Phase angle, compensated
Cos phi = P
1
S

The electrical authorities contractually demand that the plant operates with a minimum
lagging power factor (cos phi) to limit the losses in their own power distribution system. The
power factor can be specified as 0.9 to 0.95 lagging based on the monthly billing demand
charges. Failure to maintain the minimum power factor results in power demand penalties
with the power demand corrected for the stipulated power factor.
One of the most common practices used to improve the power factor is the installation of
capacitor banks. The capacitor produces static leading reactive power, which displaces
some of the lagging power required by inductive component of electrical equipment, thus
relieving the supply generator of the extra burden.
Other more economical methods include the installation of synchronous motors designed
with leading power factor or synchronous condensers. With these rotating machines the
power system can be dynamically compensated as dictated by the load.
14.2 Power Factor Correction
The plant power factor is normally corrected in three different modes.
14.2.1 For low voltage motors:
They can be compensated through automatically regulated reactive current compensation
plants situated at each low voltage power distribution.
Figure 14.2.1 Module-type, automatic controlled capacitor bank
(with 11 modules, each 50 kVAr)

14.2.2 For high voltage motors with constant speed:
Capacitor banks suitably sized for each individual motor in general can be switched together
with the motor provided that the capacitor does not exceed the maximum permissible value
allowed for that particular motor. For slip ring motors however, switching of capacitors must
be carefully considered in order to prevent damage to the electrodes from switching voltage
transients or flashover of the collector ring assembly.

Figure 14.2.2 Direct compensated high voltage motor
(e.g. slip ring motor 2000kW)

14.2.3 For large variable speed drives:
Large variable speed drives shall be compensated +individually for the power factor and
harmonics generated at the point of common coupling to other loads. This is the best
method to ensure an adequate power factor is maintained over the speed range.
The installation of non-linear loads such as the variable frequency drives in existing and new
plants must be carefully examined to limit the damaging effects of harmonics and to prevent
resonant amplification from taking place in the presence of capacitor banks. A detailed
network analysis must be carried out.

Figure 14.2.3 Circuit diagram of a harmonic absorber and
power factor compensation circuit (1 MVAr)

Legend:
L: Inductance 14.1 Mh
R: Resistor 50
C
1
: Capacitor 720 F
C
2:
Capacitor 90 F
PROT: Protection (MCX 912)
15. ENERGY- / POWER-METERING
The power distribution scheme of a cement plant shall comply with the process
requirements. Independent process departments receive independent power supplies and
distributions. Therefore, metering equipment shall be installed at:
the HV incoming feeder (metering for energy invoice)
the MV outgoing feeders to the individual process departments
the MV outgoing motor feeders
the LV outgoing non-process feeders
the LV outgoing main motor feeders
This allows for detailed information such as:

15.1 Metering for energy invoice
total active energy consumption (kWh)
total reactive energy consumption (kVArh)
power factor (cos phi)
total power demand (kW)

15.2 Metering for internal use only
energy consumption per department (kWh)
specific energy consumption per department (kWh/t)
power demand per department (kW)

For a typical arrangement of metering equipment see Fig. 15.1.
Figure 15.1 Energy-/power metering in a cement plant

16. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
16.1 Introduction
Electrical equipment carries large amounts of hidden energy, which by its nature is
inherently dangerous to personnel if safety practices are not implemented around the
plant. Safety around electrical equipment and enforcing safety regulations and
training are responsibilities of personnel and management alike.
The design and installation of the main grounding network are paramount to ensuring
safety of the power distribution system in a cement plant. Measurements of ground
electrode resistance must be included and recorded periodically as part of an
effective maintenance program.
The metal enclosures of electrical equipment and must be grounded to earth to reduce
shock hazard to personnel and to provide a low resistance path to ground for
currents induced in the system through lightning or power system faults.
16.2 Touch Voltage
Figure 16.2 Equivalent circuit of a person exposed to touch voltage

Touch voltage is defined as the potential difference between a grounded point and a point
on the earths surface equal to a persons normal maximum horizontal reach. Fault current
flowing into the earth via the grounded casing of the motor will develop a voltage drop across
R
E
, representing total ground system resistance. A person touching the faulty motor will be
safe as long as his body resistance R
B
and his contact resistance to the earth R
C
are much
bigger than R
E
. The body resistance R
B
varies greatly, even on the same person, between
approx. 1,300 Ohm on a hot day in a humid atmosphere and approx. 3,000 Ohm in dry
weather and with dry hands.
The maximum permissible voltage the body can be exposed to without immediate danger is
65 V. This corresponds under worst conditions to a maximum current of:
65V / 1300Ohm = 0.05 Amperes
These values of 65 V and 0.05 A are laid down in the German VDE regulations. In many
countries, however, the voltage considered to be safe is 50 V.

16.3 Step Voltage
Figure 16.3 Equivalent circuit of a person exposed to step voltage

Step voltage is another hazardous condition caused by distributed voltage gradients. It is
defined as the potential difference between two points on the earths surface separated by a
distance of a persons pace or about 1.0 m. The figure above illustrates such a condition.
Again, fault current flowing into the earth via the grounded pylon will develop a voltage drop
across R
E
representing the total ground system resistance. Voltage appearing across portion
U will determine the magnitude to which the body will be exposed. Keeping the total ground
system resistance low will reduce the value of U for safety purposes.
Limiting the step and tough potentials are the most important safety considerations when
designing the ground mat and fence grounding in a high voltage switchyard.

16.4 Safety Precautions in High Voltage Equipment Rooms
The electrical equipment in the plant has to be protected in such a way that no one can touch
any live parts. National as well as international safety codes have set up strict rules for all
equipment, its insulation, wiring and earthing.
In electrical rooms, strictly accessible to trained electricians only, different regulations apply
which allow for live parts to be exposed.
Special precautions therefore have to be taken in case of alterations and/or maintenance in
such rooms. Under no circumstances should artisans of other trades (e.g. masons) be
allowed to work in such rooms without the supervisions of an electrician. Temporary
barricades may also be required to isolate work areas to prevent accidental contact with
energised high voltage parts.

16.5 Preventive Maintenance
Each cement plant has a variety of mobile equipment, which can be temporarily connected
to the power or lighting network by means of flexible cords. Such flexible connections are
subjected to abnormal wear; therefore the electrical staff must pay special attention to proper
maintenance and repair of such apparatus and cords.
The grounding system has to be measured at regular intervals to assure its low resistance
and to detect any faulty or corroded connections.
Most safety regulations however, also recommend that plugs and receptacles used with
portable power tools and electrical equipment is equipped with ground fault circuit breakers.
Furthermore, in areas where flammable or potentially explosive goods are stored or handled,
the electrical installations have to be flameproof or explosion-proof. Such installations are
mandatory for fuel dispensing stations, oil treatment plant or near natural gas installations.
16.6 Precautions against Electric Fires
An American factory insurance company has compiled statistics showing that wiring alone is
responsible for almost half the electric fires, and that over half the losses could have been
avoided by correcting minor wiring defects.
Sufficient attention is normally paid to the proper protection of oil filled transformers, thus
limiting damage because of fire.
Wiring, however, covers large areas of every structure; it is attached to or part of all types of
machinery, and is exposed to almost every conceivable environment; heat, cold, dust,
moisture, oil, vibration, corrosive liquids and gases. Cables are grouped in large steel
enclosures, floor trenches, junction boxes, pits, manholes, and tunnels. Fires in such places
are often well advanced before being discovered. The limited accessibility impedes the
application of extinguishing agents.
The almost universal use of PVC-covered and sheathed cables can increase the damage of
such fires because of the extensive development of fumes of hydrochloric gases, which
combine in the presence of moisture to form hydrochloric acid.
As a protection against such damages and prevention of plant interruption caused by wiring
fires, the following means should be considered:
installation of sprinklers
installation of fire barriers
installation of linear fire detectors in cable trays and tunnels
installation of thermal and smoke detectors in electrical rooms
cable tunnels and trenches shall be divided into partitions equipped with fire barriers
proper insulation of hot steam or oil pipes using the same tunnel
sufficient separation and ventilation of cables subjected to high loads
proper protection against sparks during welding operations
marking of escape routes in tunnels and buildings
shutting down all ventilation in the event of a fire
automatic fire detection and alarm to fire department or security personnel

Maintenance of Temporary Installations during Construction / Erection
Special attention has to be paid to the proper handling and maintenance of temporary
installations. Cables suspended on steel structures are dangerous; if they tear they can set
alive the whole structure. Mobile boom cranes, which can quickly change their working
location, are frequently the cause of electrical accidents when they touch overhead lines or
tear down suspended cables.

16.7 First Aid
First aid instruction posters are commonly available and prescribed in electrical rooms.
Since quick and correct action in case of an electrical accident is of vital importance, first aid
training should take place at regular intervals.

Chapter 3
Drive Systems
Drive Systems
By Roman Menz, CE
1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................106
1.1 General ............................................................................................................106
1.2 Environmental Protection and Cooling Methods..............................................111
2. MOTORS........................................................................................................................113
2.1 Squirrel cage motor (induction motor)..............................................................113
2.2 Slip ring motor ..................................................................................................118
2.3 Synchronous motor ..........................................................................................120
2.4 Synchronous induction motor...........................................................................123
2.5 DC-motor (direct current motor) .......................................................................126
2.6 Ring motor (gearless mill drive) .......................................................................130
3. POWER ELECTRONICS ...............................................................................................132
3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................132
3.2 Application for power electronics in the cement industry .................................133
4. VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE (VSD) SYSTEM..................................................................135
4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................135
4.2 AC drive with squirrel cage motor ....................................................................138
4.3 AC drive with slip ring motor ............................................................................143
4.4 AC drive with synchronous motor ....................................................................146
4.5 Synchronous motor with intermediate circuit converter ...................................148
4.6 Electronic smooth-start for three-phase motors (soft starters).........................150
4.7 DC-drive...........................................................................................................152
4.8 Summary of large variable speed drive systems for the cement industry (>1 MW)
155
5. CRITERIA FOR ASSESSMENT ....................................................................................156
5.1 Specifications...................................................................................................156
5.2 Reliability..........................................................................................................156
5.3 Efficiency..........................................................................................................156
6. CONCLUSIONS.............................................................................................................157
7. MESSAGES ...................................................................................................................157

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
Long gone are the early days of the industrial revolution when steam and gasoline engines
where used exclusively as primary power movers of the manufacturing process of the 1800
and early 1900s.
In a modern industrial plant of today the electric motor is the workhorse. It plays the most
important role in the manufacturing process and it is used in all applications in which motive
power is required to satisfy mechanical equipment requirements of a given process.
Simply stated a motor is the electromechanical equipment, which converts electrical energy
at the input into rotating power at the output shaft. The amount of electrical energy input
must be sufficient to be converted to an equivalent mechanical output power to satisfy the
requirements of the driven load.
From the electrical operating principle point of view, the motor action is a result of the
interaction between two magnetic fields. That is, the interaction of the magnetic field
produced in the stationary part of the motor circuit (the stator) and the interaction of the
magnetic field produced in the rotating part of the motor circuit (the rotor), as a result of
passage of current, or simply by electromagnetic induction.
It is important to recognise that an electric motor is a piece of equipment whose design must
be carefully selected and applied to a particular process to ensure a satisfactory
performance for a long time.
1.1.1 Design and application of electric machines
From the electrical power point of view, we have two choices:
Direct current (DC) machines. This includes the series field, the shunt field and the
compound field connected direct current machines. For a cement plant operation the
shunt field connected motor is the most popular for basically all applications.
Alternating current (AC) machines. This includes the synchronous motor, the squirrel
cage induction motor, the slip ring induction motor and the synchronous induction motor.
In industrial applications a motor can be designed to operate at speeds of up to 3600 RPM,
or at speeds as low as few revolutions per minute.
Depending on the torque requirements and the inertia of the load the motor can be designed
to produce high starting torque (160 to 300% of rated torque), a low starting torque (40 to
80% of rated torque) or a normal starting torque (90 to 150% of rated torque.
Depending on the strength of the power system, a motor can be designed with normal
torque and current inrush at start up (5-6 times full load current), low torque and current
inrush (3.75 - 4.5 times full load current), or high torque and high current inrush (7-10 times
full load current).
Depending on the power ratings and the quality of the utility power source, the motor can be
designed and powered at high voltages 11 kV to 13.8 kV or for low voltage 120 V to 600 V.
The available power ratings for the motor ranges from a few hundred watts (0.200 kW) to
several megawatts (15,000 kW). In a cement plant a ball mill was equipped recently with a
9000 kW AC motor.
For physical protection from the operating environment, motors can be designed with the
following type of enclosures:
Open-drip proof: These are mostly for indoor applications in clean environments.
Totally enclosed: Indoor/outdoor, hazardous locations, dirty environment.
Weather protected: Indoor/outdoor, dirty environment
Cooling and ventilation are the most important factors affecting machine performance
The machines can be designed with the following ventilation and cooling methods:
Self cooled non-ventilated for smaller machines.
Self-cooled, blower ventilated. The blower is mounted on the machine shaft directly.
Forced ventilated. The blower is independently powered and it can be mounted on the
machine directly or it can be ducted.
Air to air heat exchanger for totally enclosed machines. The blower is mounted on the
shaft of the motor.
Air to water heat exchanger for applications in extreme hot environments. Water
requirements and the quality of the water makes this method of cooling an expensive
proposition in a cement plant, therefore it should be avoided at all if possible. The
weather protected enclosure for the machine will work just as satisfactorily.
From the above we can distinguish many features which impact on the design and
application of electric machines. For example, the selection of a motor designed for high or
low voltage applications is equally dependent on:
Power system quality
The distance between the motor and the substation impacts on cable and installation
costs.
The cost of the drive including costs of switching and protection components.
With increased power ratings of the equipment applied in the new cement plants there are
inherent benefits to utilise higher distribution voltages of 6.9 kV to 13.8 kV. This applies in
general to grinding mills and large fans. This translates in the following advantages:
The load currents are reduced thus the copper loss is reduced.
Short-circuit currents are reduced.
Smaller cross-section cables can be used which in turn lowers installation cost of the
cables.
Full advantage can be taken of the 6.9 or 15 kV switchgear without intermediate starters.
1.1.2 Energy flow
Fig. 1: Input/output diagram

The energy conversion takes place in the direction of current flow. If the current flows from
the power source into the load we have motor action. If the current flows in the other
direction the motor would become a generator. In such case, the mechanical energy of the
prime mover will be converter into electrical energy.
1.1.3 The magnetic circuit and torque
The electric motor consists of two elements the stationary (stator) and the rotating (rotor)
elements. Each element is built of metal laminations (ferromagnetic core), which is
surrounded with many turns of copper wires (coils). The laminations contain slots in which
the copper wire is embedded. The strength of the magnetic field is a function of the number
of turns per slot of the coil, (Amperes-Turns) and the size of the core, which the coil
surrounds. Depending of the current carrying capacity of the machine, several copper coils
can be embedded in parallel in the slot of the core.
The slots of the machine and coils are distributed uniformly around the circumference of the
stator and rotor. The passage of current magnetises the coils of the rotor and those of the
stator and sets up north-south magnetic field orientation, which are called the poles of the
machine. An electrical machine must have an equal number of north and south poles or pole
pairs. The interaction of the north-south magnetic fields produced around the poles gives
rise to the motive power.
A large machine would require many turns of copper to be embedded in the slots of the
magnetic core, but physically it would not be possible. Therefore, larger laminations with
fewer coils must be used. This is what happens in the transition from low voltage motors to
medium and high voltage motors.
1.1.4 Operating principle
The operation of the electrical machine is based in the principle of electromagnetic induction.
When electric power is applied to the stator circuit of the motor a magnetic field is induced
through the air gap into the rotor circuit. The magnetic field set up in the rotor induces a
current in the windings of the rotor. The current in the rotor circuit induces a separate
magnetic field in the air gap, which tends to oppose the magnetic field induced by the stator.
The north-south polarisation of these magnetic fields and the interaction between the
electromagnetic forces produced by these magnetic fields produces the torque and motion at
the output of the motor shaft.
1.1.5 Motor speed
The speed of the motor is function of the number of pole pairs, frequency in the case of
alternating current machines and armature voltage for a DC-machine.
Synchronous Motor:
n = synchronous speed, turns or revolutions per minute
P = number of pole pairs
f = frequency of the power supply (50 Hz or 60Hz)
Induction Motor:
n = asynchronous speed
s = slip frequency of the rotor. The slip can vary between 2% to 5% of the synchronous
speed
f = frequency of the power supply (50 Hz or 60Hz)
P = number of pole pairs

DC - Machine:
V
a
= Armature voltage
I
a
= armature current
R
a
=Armature resistance
= magnetic flux
k = proportionality constant of the machine which depends on the number of armature
conductors, the type of armature winding and the number of poles.
P
f
n
=
2
( ) ( )
P
f s
n

=
2 1
( )

=
k
Ra la Va
n
1.1.6 Power, torque and speed
The relationship between these variables is expressed by the following equation:
P = Mechanical power output expressed in kilowatts (kW) or horsepower (hp)
T = Mechanical shaft torque expressed in Newton-meters or pound feet (lb-ft)
K = proportionality constant, which depends if SI units are used or British units are used.
n = output speed
In order to select the motor for the correct application the relationship of these quantities
must be known. These relationships are expressed in terms of torque versus speed
characteristic curves.
The influence of the torque or speed on the size of a motor can also be explained by means
of a mechanical example:
truck (30 t payload)
motor: 15 l > power = 200 kW
formula 1 racing car
motor: 2 l > power = 400 kW
The truck motor generates a much higher torque at a much lower speed.
For the electric motor the magnetic circuit produces torque at the output shaft of the
machine, and the speed at which the shaft is turning determines the power drawn from the
power source.
The torque requirements for any load can be characterised as following:
breakaway torque is the torque required to move the load from rest. For the motor this
would be called locked rotor torque or starting torque.
acceleration torque, which is the average torque required to accelerate the load to full
speed. For the motor this would be defined as the pull up torque or saddle torque.
breakdown torque, which is the maximum torque safely sustained by the mechanical
equipment. For the electric motor, the breakdown torque is the maximum attainable
torque, which can be produced by the magnetic circuit. Beyond this value the motor
torque breaks down and the motor pulls out of step, which creates a short circuit and
could severely damage the mechanical equipment, the foundation and the rotor.
Therefore, it is always prudent to ascertain the limitations of the gearboxes, pulleys and
couplings to avoid catastrophic failures.
1.1.7 Motor Efficiency
The flow of current through the conductors of an electrical circuit creates electrical losses,
which are proportional with the square power of current (i) multiplied by the resistance (r) of
the circuit, or simply (i
2
r) losses.
( )
K
n T
P
=
With rotating equipment such as motors additional losses are created, which are a function
of the magnetic circuit losses (eddy current losses) and windage losses. The windage losses
are the result of friction losses in the bearings, cooling fan and resistance to air-flow. The
windage losses can be relatively low for a well-designed and ventilated machine. Bearing
losses can be minimised by using oil lubricated sleeve bearings as opposed to anti-friction
ball bearings. The use of sleeve bearings is highly recommended for machines rated above
1050 kW.
In general however, the electrical machines are very efficient when compared to equivalent
mechanical or hydraulic motors. Typical design efficiencies are in the order 92 to 98% of the
base ratings, including accessories. The least efficient of designs starting with the DC-motor,
followed by the slip ring induction motor, the squirrel cage motor and the synchronous motor
which is the most efficient because there are no slip losses.
1.2 Environmental Protection and Cooling Methods
The losses produced by electrical machines give of heat, which must be dissipated into the
surrounding area. Ventilation requirements are the most important aspects of machine
performance and must be always incorporated at the planning stages of design. The type
and methods of cooling have been described briefly in the preceding paragraphs.
The box-shaped fabricated casing of the larger motors make them easily adaptable to
designs to suit a wide range of stringent environmental requirements encountered in a
cement plant, most of which are far from favourable. For example the enclosure can also be
lined with sound-absorbent material to lower the noise emission from the cooling blowers.
Cast iron frames of totally enclosed motors can also be equipped with silencer shrouds to
reduce the noise level near the machine.
The type of protection for motors is very important in the cement industry. The type of
protection is defined by the International Protection standards (IP), followed by two numbers,
which indicate the degree of protection (according to IEC).
e.g. IP 44 means
protection against foreign bodies with a diameter above 1 mm
protection against spray water from all directions.
The cooling of a motor is closely related to its protection. The ideal solution of a completely
enclosed, surface-cooled motor is not practical for large motors. Forced cooling with air
filters or air/water heat exchangers are normally required.
1.2.1 Description of standards
IEC PROT. DEGREE NEMA DESCRIPTION

IC 411 IP55 TEFC Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled
IC 01 IP23 WP1 Weather Protected
IC01 IPW24 WPII Weather Protected
IC611 IP54 TEAAC Totally Enclosed Air-to-Air Cooled
IC616 IP54
IC81W IP54 TEWAC Totally Enclosed Water-to-Air Cooled
1.2.2 Some examples of the most applied variants
Fig. 2:

a) Machine with mounted Water-To-Air heat exchanger (TEWAC, IC81W). The circuits are
completely separate.
b) Machine with mounted Air-to-Air heat exchanger (TEAAC, IC611). The circuits are
completely separate.
c) Surface cooled machine with fan mounted on the shaft end (TEFC, IC411)
d) Weather protected machine (WPII, IC01); the cooling air goes directly through the
machine.
1.2.3 Insulation Treatment
The working environment in a cement plant even the cleanest of the plants, subjects the
electrical insulation to a high degree of abrasion from the air born dust particles in the air
cooling the machines. To prevent premature insulation failure electrical machines applied to
the cement industry are specified to be built with abrasion resistant epoxy insulation applied
through a vacuum pressure impregnation process and subjected to water an immersion test.
Compliance with the immersion test is the most stringent insulation quality requirement
provided in the industry today.

2. MOTORS
2.1 Squirrel cage motor (induction motor)
2.1.1 Construction
The squirrel cage motor is in its construction the simplest motor used in the cement industry.
The main feature is a rotor without external connections (no slip rings, no brushes). Its two
bearings are the only parts exposed to wear and tear. As the name implies, the rotor design
resembles a rotating cage similar to that used by pet rats or squirrels. It is the most
economical in terms of initial price and requires less maintenance than other motors.
Fig. 3: Typical construction of a squirrel cage motor

Fig. 4: Typical connection diagram of a squirrel cage motor

The normal starting torque squirrel cage motor has a starting current of 5 to 6 times full load
current at zero speed. The starting torque and the current inrush are a function of the
resistance of the rotor circuit.
Fig. 5: Typical starting characteristics of a squirrel cage motor

a : Starting torque b : saddle torque or pull up torque
c : Break-down torque I : current
M : Torque n : speed
cos : Power factor : efficiency
P : Load
Fig. 6: Operating characteristics of a squirrel cage motor (abbreviations see
Figure 4)

2.1.4 Application
The squirrel cage motor can be used for almost any drive application operating with a
constant speed on a sinusoidal waveform and having normal starting torque and short
acceleration time. The motors are available from a fraction of a kW to thousands of kW.
The advent of variable frequency drives (VFD) has extended their use for inverter duty
application with non-sinusoidal waveform e.g. kiln, separator, fans. When applied to non-
sinusoidal waveform operations the squirrel cage motors must be designed to be compatible
with such operation. Failure to specify VFD duty operation could destroy the motor
prematurely due to insulation failure and iron core heating.
Motors designed for VFD duty only have weak rotors, which are not suitable to accelerate
loads when starting directly across the line. Therefore if the motor must be operated on VFD
and also across the line with a bypass, then the rotor should be also designed for direct
across the line start or DOL.
Fig. 7: Application graph for a Tube Mill driven by a squirrel cage motor.

2.2 Slip ring motor
2.2.1 Construction
The slip ring motor, like the squirrel cage motor, is an induction motor. The major difference
is that the rotor windings are not shorted like the squirrel cage motor but are terminated at
collector rings. Since the starting torque and current are a function of the rotor resistance,
the collector rings are connected to variable resistors, which allow control of the starting
torque and current within a wide range of values.
This is also the reason why the motor quite often is called Wound rotor motor.
Fig. 8: Typical connection diagram of a slip ring motor

The introduction of an external resistance in the rotor circuit changes the torque
characteristic of the motor and reduces the starting current. It allows changes of the torque
of the motor and adaptation to the torque of the load (e.g. maximum torque at standstill).
The starting time of the motor can be extended since most of the heat is generated in the
starting resistor away from the motor.
For small motors under 1000 kW, metal starting resistors are used. The resistors are built in
different numbers of steps as required by the drive. The last step of the resistor may be
permanently connected to the rotor when the drive requires a softer torque characteristic.
Liquid starting resistors provide smooth and continuous acceleration. These are used for
1000 kW and larger motors.
Fig. 9: Start of a slip ring motor by eight steps (resistor starter)

M
N
: nominal torque
M
A
: torque characteristics during start-up
M
G
: torque of the load
The slip ring motor is started with full resistance in the circuit. As the motor accelerates, the
amount of resistance in the circuit is reduced until the motor reaches full speed. At this point
the rotor is short-circuited and the motor runs like the squirrel cage motor.
Without the external resistance in the rotor circuit, the slip ring motor cannot develop
sufficient torque to accelerate the load because its rotor resistance is very small. The small
resistance of the rotor circuit poses an inherent danger if a fault takes place in the motor
circuit. Large transient torque is developed, which can pull the motor out of its foundation
and at the same time creates large current swings and voltage drop in the power system.
Transients of 8 to 10 times the full load torque are possible. Therefore, care must be
exercised to ensure that the foundation and bolting arrangement are adequately designed to
prevent such occurrences.
The disadvantages in applying slip ring motors are the high maintenance of the collector
rings, brushes, the rheostat. Another disadvantage is that the motor has a lower efficiency
than an equivalently rated squirrel cage motor. To alleviate these maintenance issues, and
reduce operating costs, slip ring motors are supplied with brush lifters and flashover
detection circuits. The flashover circuit adds another degree of safety and prevents
catastrophic failures of the collector rings and rotor. In addition, the collector ring assembly
must be designed and housed separately from the main motor windings and be separately
cooled and ventilated to prevent carbon dust accumulation from the brushes.
2.2.4 Application
The slip ring motors are best applied where a combination of high speed, high starting
torque and low starting current are required, in weak power systems. Some applications
include raw mill, cement mill, high inertia fans.

2.3 Synchronous motor
2.3.1 Construction
The stator of the synchronous motor is no different than the stator of the induction motor.
The main difference is in the design of the rotor circuit. The rotor of the synchronous motors
contains two separate and distinct circuits. The first circuit is called the cage winding, gives
the motor a starting characteristic much like that of the squirrel cage motor. The second
circuit is the DC field winding, which is built on laminations evenly distributed in pairs on the
rotor shaft. These are called the poles of the machine. Because of the discrete arrangement
and large gaps, as opposed to uniform distribution and no gaps, these are called also,
salient pole arrangement. The saliency provides stronger magnetic field in the air gap.
Typical synchronous motors can be designed with a starting torque of approximately 60-
80% out of the nominal torque, with relatively very low current inrush, typically 3.5 to 4.5
times the full load current. For high torque starting is possible to built machines which allows
up to two times nominal torque during starting. These high torque machines have usually
between 7 to 8 times inrush current.
Fig. 10: Typical connection diagram of a synchronous motor

When power is first applied, the synchronous motor accelerates, similar to a squirrel cage
motor, near to 95%-98% of synchronous speed. At this time the DC power is applied to the
field windings. The application of DC excitation set up a magnetic field in the field winding,
which produces the necessary pull-in torque to pull the rotor into synchronism.
The speed of the synchronous motor is proportional with the frequency of the supplying
network and independent of the load on the motor shaft up to the pull out torque. The pull
out torque is 1.5 to 1.9 times the nominal torque and depends on the excitation and the
terminal voltage.
The great advantage of the synchronous motor is its capability of compensating reactive
power and the very high efficiency of 96 to 98%. The higher efficiency is and inherent benefit
when applying synchronous motors when compared with induction motors, which operate
with lower efficiencies because of slip loss.
2.3.3 Application
The application of synchronous motors in the cement industry is limited to loads greater than
2000 kW with low-torque starting characteristics and low current inrush. Synchronous motors
designed with low torque and low inrush are very economical when compared with induction
motors. Depending on the application, low torque motors are coupled with air clutches or
fluid couplings to accelerate larger loads. Fluid couplings with lock up features, zero slip, are
used for the higher range of speed and power ratings whereas air clutches are limited to
lower speed and lower power ratings (e.g. 4000 kW and below, 515 RPM and lower speed).
The greatest advantage of the synchronous motor is that it can be overexcited to produce
leading reactive power to compensate the remainder of the plant.
Low torque synchronous machines are designed with brush-less exciters and do not require
the intensive maintenance of the collector rings and brushes. This is an added advantage.
Depending on the strength of the power supply, low speed high torque drive arrangements
with synchronous motors are also possible (e.g. cement mill drive without gearbox directly
connected to the pinion shaft of the mill). High-torque synchronous motors are almost twice
the cost of normal torque motors for the same speed and power range and have high current
inrush, which limits their application to strong power supply networks. In contrast with the low
torque synchronous motors, the high torque machines require stronger fields and high
current exciters and therefore must be equipped with collector rings and separate power
supplies. This increases the maintenance and losses in the circuit.
Synchronous motors are mainly used in the US market and are not very much applied in
Europe or Asia.
2.4 Synchronous induction motor
The synchronous induction motor combines the starting advantages of the slip ring motor
and the reactive power compensation capability of the synchronous motor. It has been
specifically designed for application powering ball mills in the early 1930s. It has been
popular with the cement and mining industries until mid 1960s. The high initial cost and
ongoing maintenance and complex switching arrangement have wiped out any side benefits
of its application. Today this type of motor is not very popular because of initial cost and on
going maintenance and there is only one remaining manufacturer producing it.
It has the high starting torque at a low starting current of the slip ring motor and also the
capability of compensating reactive power. The operating efficiency is lower than that of
either type of motor stand-alone.
2.4.1 Construction
The synchronous induction motor is built like a slip ring motor; only the mode of operation
differs. It is equipped with collector rings and a separate field excitation, which reduces the
overall efficiency.

Fig. 12: Typical connection diagram of a synchronous induction motor

a) induction motor
b) starting resistor
c) DC power supply
The synchronous induction motor starts with a rheostat like a slip ring motor. After it has
reached the asynchronous speed, the collector rings are short-circuited in such a way, as to
form two polarised circuits, which can accept DC excitation. With DC excitation applied pull-
in torque develops and pulls the motor into synchronism. The transition to synchronous
motor is complicated arrangement as far as the distribution of the field windings and very
often results with a rotor, which is electrically unbalanced, when operated as a synchronous
machine.
In the synchronised operating mode the motor acts like a synchronous motor. It can operate
with unity power factor or leading power factor to compensate the remainder of the plant.
Typically the leading reactive power compensation is limited to 0.9 leading power factor of
the rated power by design. The conventional synchronous motor is designed to operate with
a 0.8 leading power factor.
2.4.4 Application
These motors are very expensive when compared with conventionally designed motors.
These motors are applied in weak power systems, which cannot tolerate high current inrush
above 2.5 times normal load current with loads above 3500 kW. Reactive power
compensation is a side benefit in such applications. One draw back is that these motors are
solidly coupled to their loads, therefore leading reactive power compensation benefit is lost
when the equipment is shut down. Conventional synchronous motor coupled with an air
clutch or fluid coupling can operate de-coupled from the load to correct the plant power
factor.
Applications for synchronous-induction motors in a cement plant operation include vertical
roller mills, ball mills and large capacity fans.
2.5 DC-motor (direct current motor)
The DC-machine until the invention of the variable frequency drives was the most popular
choice for applications of speed control in industrial plants. The DC-machine has a far more
complex design and requires more maintenance than other AC-machine.
Its name implies that the DC-motor runs on a direct current power supply. In the early days
of power generation, utilities generated and transmitted power directly to the industrial
plants. Today only AC power is being generated and transmitted to the plants and DC power
in a plant today must be generated locally in the plant. Motor generator sets were used in
the early days and although inefficient and requiring frequent maintenance majority of
installations remain in use in many plants today. The advent of solid state controlled
recTIFiers (AC to DC converters) connected to three-phase power distribution has replaced
the motor generator practically in all new installations of the last 30 years.
2.5.1 DC-Motor construction
Like all other electric machines, the DC-motor consists of a stationary part containing the
main poles of the machine called the field and a rotating part containing the armature or the
rotor.
The excitation windings around the main stator poles are fed by a DC power supply and
produce a constant magnetic field.
The DC current flowing through the armature conductors underneath the main poles produce
a tangential force on the rotor, which is identical to the torque on the motor shaft.
Fig. 13: Magnetic flux of a DC-motor

Fig. 14: Magnetic forces turning the rotor

The rotor now moves to the neutral position between the South and the North poles.
To keep the armature rotating, a polarity change in the rotor circuit is required. This is
achieved through commutation action of the brushes. The commutator is built up of copper
segments connected to the coils of the armature. The brushes bridge the segments and
change the direction of the current flow in the coils, thus changing polarities.
To smooth out commutation in the neutral zones between adjacent poles additional windings
and laminations are installed called commutation poles, which compensate for the non-
uniformity of magnetic field in the air gap between adjacent poles to improve commutation
and reduce torque pulsation.
Fig. 15: DC - machine with main and commutation poles

Fig. 16: Cut-away view of a large DC-motor

2.5.2 Characteristics of a DC-Motor
The DC-motor offers the advantage of a relatively simple torque and speed control over the
full range of speed and power required for a given application. The best advantage is that a
relatively small machine can provide very high torque output, as high as 300% on start up by
virtue of control of field excitation and armature voltage.
The torque can be constant up to the base speed such as is required by kiln drives
applications. The motor can also operate above base speed with constant kW by field
weakening and decreasing torque.
There are three main characteristics of a DC- machine, which influence the torque
behaviour. These characteristics are dependent on the excitation requirements of the field.
These characteristic are as following;
shunt connected field, self excited or separately excited
series connected field
compound connected field, which is a combination of the above two.
In cement plant applications shunt connected field is the most common machine because it
exerts a linear torque versus speed characteristic.
These properties made the DC-motor the most commonly used variable speed drive in the
cement industry in the past.
The main drawbacks of the DC-drives are that they:
are 2 - 4 times more expensive than squirrel cage motors
are maintenance-intensive (collector, power electronics)
are space-intensive (transformer, converter)
require many spare parts
are not efficient as a drive system
2.5.3 Application
DC-motors are installed where variable speed is necessary and where the excellent
characteristics of the drives outweigh the above mentioned drawbacks. Crusher feeders,
weigh belt feeders, separators and kiln drives are such possible applications.
2.6 Ring motor (gearless mill drive)
2.6.1 Construction
The ring motor is a low speed synchronous motor. The stator is powered by a cycle-
converter power source, which converts the supply frequency to low frequency variable
supply. The output frequency ranges from zero and a few Hertz.
Applying a ring motor is economical for 7500 kW and larger loads.
The first ring motors were developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s. There are many
installations in the mining and cement industry benefiting from this development. The main
advantage is the overall small footprint of the mill and motor and reduced foundation and
building requirements.
With the ring motor, the rotor becomes part of the mill. It is connected to the mill via a tube
called the torque tube. Around the circumference of the torque tube the salient poles of the
rotor are fastened.
Controlling the frequency of the cycle-converter allows control of the speed of the mill.

The rotor and the cycle converter are designed to produce 150% of starting torque required
by the ball mill. The motor starts synchronised and full field applied at zero speed. As the
machine accelerates to full speed the field current is adjusted to reduce the torque to normal
values. The speed range of ring motors is somewhere between 13- 35 rpm. Whereas most
applications in the past applied only to tube mills, the concept of a ring motor can be equally
applied to vertical mills as well.
The power factor of the motor itself can be unity, the cycle-converter however, requires
reactive power compensation at the input power supply.
Fig. 17: Starting characteristics of a synchronous motor with frequency and with
asynchronous starting

M) torque
n) speed
I) motor current
1) torque of the load (mill)
2) torque with frequency starting
3) current with frequency starting
4) torque with asynchronous starting
5) current with asynchronous starting
3. POWER ELECTRONICS
3.1 Introduction
The electronically adjustable speed drives make use of high power semiconductor devices to
rapidly switch on/off the flow of electrical current through the circuit.
Advances and the design and packaging of the semiconductor devices and circuit boards
have made them very reliable to apply. The latest devices have mean times between failures
as high as 800 years. Increased current carrying capabilities reduces the number of devices
required to power a drive. This combined with reduced unit cost makes them economically
attractive to apply in all applications requiring speed control.
To distinguish between electronics and power electronics, it may be said that electronics
handle currents above 1 mA while power electronics handle currents above 1 A. The present
maximum is about 9000 A (recTIFier diodes) for a single element.
The most familiar power electronic semiconductor devices are:
diodes - static recTIFiers without commutation control
transistors - static current amplifiers with current bias control
thyristors - silicon controlled recTIFiers (SCR) with active bias current control of the gate
circuit
triacs - AC controlled recTIFiers with active bias current controlled gate circuit. These
are also compared with back to back SCRs because they conduct power in both
directions.
GTO (gate turn-off thyristors) forced commutation the gate circuit
IGBT (insulated gate bipolar transistors) most modern device with integrated gating
package which reduces switching frequency losses. These devices have very fast rate of
rise of voltage (dv/dt), which can damage the insulation of motors.
IGCT (integrated gate commutation thyristor) these are the latest devices developed to
handle large currents with even lower switching frequencies losses than IGBT and lower
rise of voltages(dv/dt).
The above mentioned electronic switches can be compared with other physical media, e.g.
modulating valves in water flow control.
3.2 Application for power electronics in the cement industry
In modern cement works power electronics are used as:

(a) recTIFiers for - electrostatic filters
- magnetic separators
- DC power sources

(b) voltage regulators for - speed (torque) control of DC-drives
- voltage control of electrostatic filters
- electronic contactor

(c) frequency converters for - speed control of synchronous motors,
ring motor, squirrel cage motors
- stabilised power sources for supply of
control equipment, e.g. computers

3.2.1 Advantages of electronic elements
Electronic elements do not wear out. Their modular design permits quick trouble-shooting
and short repair times. These devices are very efficient with less than 2% losses. These
devices are very reliable. The latest devices can be applied without individual fuse protection
but relying on the fast commutation of the device to block fault currents. The electronic
power fuse cost just as much as a new semiconductor device, therefore more and more of
the new designs will be fuseless.
3.2.2 Disadvantages of electronic power devices
a) Cooling
Losses occur in electronic power devices as a result of switching frequency. These losses
produce large amounts of heat and since the switching components have small dimensions,
cooling of the device can be a real challenge for the design engineer. The cooling media is
usually air, but water/glycol media may also be used. The ambient temperature of electronic
boards is often specified up to a maximum of 45
o
C, thus in most cases air-conditioned
rooms are necessary.
b) Distortion of the sinusoidal waveform
All electronic devices exert non-linear voltage current characteristics as a result of the
blocking -conduction switching cycles. The resulting waveform is a composite waveform
containing sinusoidal currents of multiple order of the fundamental frequency. These are
called harmonics of the fundamental frequency. The magnitude of the current in the
harmonic waveform is in inverse proportion with harmonic order. For example the magnitude
of the 5th harmonic current is 1/5 or 20% of the fundamental current. The magnitude of the
7th harmonic would be 1/7 or 15% of the fundamental current. In actual life these magnitude
are lower because of impedance of the circuit.
The harmonic order generated is in direct correlation with the number of switching pulses of
the circuit. A full wave three-phase recTIFier contains six switching devices or it set to have
6 pulses. In this circuit harmonics will be generated at multiple frequencies corresponding to
the relationship n*(p1). P is the number of pulses and n is the number of multiple
frequency. The 6 pulse recTIFier has a first order harmonic on the 5th and the 7th harmonics
or multiple of the fundamental frequency. For a twelve pulse recTIFier the first order
harmonics would be the 11th and the 13th harmonics. It can be seen that the higher the
number of switching pulses the lower the magnitude of harmonic currents.
This high frequency harmonics power causes the following interferences:
emission of strong magnetic fields which can interfere with control signals (control
cables must be protected and separated)
malfunction of other electrical equipment inside and outside the plant due to
distortion of the voltage wave form.
4. VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE (VSD) SYSTEM
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 General
Many process applications in a cement plant require the use of variable speed drive (VSD)
for energy efficiency purpose and finite control of the process variables such as air flow,
additive rates, raw meal feed and clinker. An added benefit of the use of VSD is the smooth
starting of the motors, which causes less stress to mechanical components as well as to
power supply systems. Traditionally, requirements for variable speed in the cement industry
were covered with the application of direct current (DC) drives or occasionally by hydraulic
drive systems. The newly installed drive systems make use exclusively of variable frequency
drives and a squirrel cage motor.
In a cement plant the variable speed drive finds application with the following equipment:
Process Fans
Conveyors
Bucket elevators
Kiln drive
Cement coolers
Mill drives
Starting duty applications
Energy savings applications
A variable speed drive system consists of the following major components:
Fig. 18

4.1.2 Example for a VSD (Fan)
The correct air volume for process is often achieved by damper control or radial vane in
conjunction with constant speed drives. Considering the "BCM" (Better Cost Management
Approach) concept, constant speed and damper control for large fans (1-4 MW) is not
economical today.
Figure 31 compares the reduced energy consumption of using variable speed equipment for
fans and pumps with radial vane damper and throttle valve. Where air or water quantities
have to be adjusted according to process parameters, a variable flow is needed. Very often,
this variable flow is created with more losses than necessary. Compared with other means of
flow-adjusting devices, the variable speed drive can save a considerable amount of energy,
especially at 50 to 90% of the rated speed.
Fig. 19: Power requirement at different speed

Some advantages for applying a variable-speed drive are as following:
a) Optimal control of the process variable
b) Better use of primary energy due to higher efficiency of the process
c) Reduced stress on machines and supply system during starting
When new cement plants are ordered, it very important to assess first the various options for
electrical and mechanical variable speed drives applied to new processes. It equally
important to assess these options when carrying out partial modernisation or replacement
obsolete equipment because unavailability of spares or having high maintenance or
operating with a poor efficiency. For example conversion of hydraulic drives to VFD, or
replacing an old DC-drive with a VFD, or installing a VFD for a fan operated with damper
control.
The following catchwords applies for drive specification:

Robust The drive system must be designed to cope with the typical cement
plant environment and the type and quantity of dust prevailing at the
location of installation, e.g. clinker dust for cooler fan drives.

Ease of maintenance The necessary amount of man-hours required by the equipment must
be minimal. Diagnostic systems must help to idenTIFy failures and
indicate steps to correct the fault/failure. Modular design and access
must allow for a fast replacement of the defective component in order to
restore normal operation.

Reliability High reliability shall be achieved with adequate sizing of a well-proven
drive system. The system shall not be over-engineered with additional
redundant components and equipment, which increases the initial
installation cost. Kiln drives and critical process fans requiring by-pass
are excepted.

Efficiency Total drive system efficiency is of utmost importance, since it influences
the operating cost for many years especially with an almost guaranteed
assurance to sustain increase in rates for future energy.

Investment cost Evaluation of initial investment cost is only meaningful if complete
systems are compared including auxiliary installations (e.g. differences
in cooling systems, civil works etc.) as well as the operating cost over
the next ten to fifteen years.

4.2 AC drive with squirrel cage motor
The variable speed drive system, using a squirrel cage motor, consists of the following main
components (see Fig. 35):
3-phase full-wave recTIFier (1)
DC-intermediate link with reactors (2)
forced commutation inverter (3)
normal 3-phase squirrel cage motor (4)
An input recTIFier creates the intermediate link DC voltage. The reactors inserted in the DC
link uncouple the AC power supply side from the inverter side driving the asynchronous
motor. The forced commutation inverter is using the principle of phase sequence turn-off.
Each of these switching circuits consists of a thyristor, a diode and a commutation capacitor.
The input recTIFier is current-regulated and supplies its power into the DC intermediate link.
The output inverter is voltage regulated, maintaining the correct V/Hz relationship over the
speed range. The speed of the motor is adjusted by variable frequency. No tachometer is
needed, since the frequency feedback signal is taken from inside the panel. The normal
speed range is from 5 to 50/60 Hz and up to approx. 90 Hz.
The power of the available units presently ranges from 0,5 kW to approx. 15,000 kW of
several typical AC input voltage levels like 380 V, 415 V, 500 V, 690 V, 3.3 kV, 4.16 kV, 6.6
kV, 7.2 kV and recently 13.8 kV AC.
4.2.1 Current-source inverter-fed induction motor
Fig. 20: Frequency converter with phase-sequence turn-off

4.2.1.1 Operating Characteristics
The converter as described above does not need any additional semiconductors in order to
perform a full 4-quadrant operation. The flow of energy is reversed by reversing the polarity
of the DC link voltage, with the current direction remaining unaltered. At speeds below 5 Hz,
torque pulsation may be noted as a result of low frequency motor-current harmonics. This
effect is damped by the mass of the mechanical system.
The prevailing use for this type of variable speed drive is to be found with fans and pumps in
many different configurations.
Usually a totally enclosed, fan-cooled standard motor can be chosen with no extra forced
cooling system because the torque curve of these mechanical devises follows a square
function versus speed.
Fig. 21: Typical block diagram of the voltage-controlled variable frequency
converter

1 voltage controller 5 trigger unit of the line-commutated converter
2 value generator and limiter 6 actual current measurement
3 actual voltage measurement 7 voltage/frequency converter
4 current controller (secondary) 8 trigger unit of the self-commutated converter
9 voltage reference potentiometer
Fig. 22: Torque/speed diagram

A : continuous duty self-ventilated
B : continuous duty with forced ventilation
C : intermittent duty
4.2.1.2 Application
Cooling equipment manufacturers and suppliers of water pumping stations have used this
type of variable speed drive since 1975. Several converter manufacturers have application
references for more than 1000 units of a wide power range within the past years.
The initial equipment cost is slightly higher than for a comparable DC-drive system due to
more semiconductor elements in the power circuit. On the other hand, the squirrel cage
motor is much cheaper than the DC-motor. Harmonic content and power factor aspects are
identical with those of a DC-drive since the input recTIFier represents the same type of load
to the supply side network.
This type of system is advantageous for retrofitting existing equipment. The installations of a
VFD to an existing piece of equipment, which until now was connected to a constant
frequency supply of 50 or 60 Hz, allows the motor to run under speed-controlled. It might be
of interest to notice that a speed-increase is also possible by applying more than line
frequency (e.g. 70 - 90 Hz). In other words, a separator or a belt conveyor could run faster.
These type of applications must be evaluated on an individual basis to ensure that the
additional power required by the process are within the power rating and safety factors of
exiting motor and gear box.
4.2.2 Load commutated inverter-fed induction motor
The main components of this drive type consist also of a line-side converter, DC link circuit
reactor and load-side inverter. Additionally, a current diverter is added in order to force
commutation (switch-off) the inverter at low frequencies, while an output filter is added to
smooth output waveforms and provide sinusoidal excitations for the induction motor.
Fig. 23: Cage induction motor with load-commutated inverter (output Filter)

As with the conventional frequency converters, for normal operation the converter is
commutation by line-voltage and the inverter commutation by the load. Unlike the
conventional type, the current diverter circuit on the DC link is used for commutation of the
inverter at low frequency operation. The thyristors are gated individually phase displaced
(switched on) to produce the three-phase output.
Above 60% of rated frequency, depending on the motor, the diverter circuit turns off and the
inverter is load commutated by the combined effects of the output filter and the induced
motor-voltage (e.m.f.). The filter is sized to provide motor excitation over a wide frequency
range. The voltage and current waveshapes are nearly sinusoidal, typically containing less
than 5% harmonic distortion at rated output. No motor derating is necessary.

4.2.2.1 Application
The load-commutated inverter-fed induction motor is best suitable for very large loads with
squared torque/speed characteristic (Fig. 39) and reduced speed range, i.e. for fans.
However, recent developments and the introduction of high power IGBT/IGCT drives with
pulse width modulation control renders the use of this type of drive unnecessary in most
applications in a cement plant.
4.3 AC drive with slip ring motor
In many exiting installation with slip ring motors in particular fan drive application, it is
possible to install efficient speed control systems, which make use of the slip energy of the
drive to control the top 20% of base speed. It is important to note that in most fan
applications this is all that is required to provide to ensure an efficiently run process. As a
result, the converter package is rated for only 20% of the power, which makes relatively
inexpensive.
In new applications this drive combination is seldom used, primarily because of lower overall
drive efficiency, higher maintenance and initial investment cost as compared with a modern
VFD.
Fig. 25: Schematic of sub-synchronous cascade

a) HV slip ring motor with tachometer (T)
b) 3-phase full-wave recTIFier (diodes)
c) 3-phase full-wave inverter (thyristors)
d) matching transformer
e) electronic speed regulator
f) starting resistor
g) speed reference potentiometer
The stator of the slip ring motor is connected directly to the power system. The rotor slip
power, which is proportional to the slip frequency, is fed back into the power system via a
diode recTIFier, a smoothing reactor, an inverter and a matching transformer. A starting
rheostat is normally used to drive the motor up to near 20 to 30% of full speed, then the rotor
is connected to the converter and the electronic regulator takes over the speed control. The
static converter section has to be sized only for the rotor slip power. The sub-synchronous
cascade system is mostly used to drive large pumps, fans and compressors, where the
torque increases with the square of the speed. A considerable change in capacity is
obtained by only a slight adjustment in speed therefore large speed variation is normally not
required. Typically with square law torque functions only the top 30% to 20% of the speed
require to be controlled.
The normal power range for sub-synchronous cascade systems is from about 500 kW to 10
MW with motor nominal speeds of 1500 min
-1
or below. For special applications, similar
converter systems have been built up to 60 MW. Motor cooling systems are identical to
those of normal slip ring motors running at a constant speed.
A sub-synchronous cascade drive needs a starting rheostat . The variable speed range is
very much reduced compared to a DC-drive. No over-synchronous speed can be reached
and only 1-quadrant operation is possible, i.e. motoring in one direction only.
Every converter requires reactive power. A larger drive system has a higher demand for
reactive power, which has to be considered and compensated. With the sub-synchronous
cascade drive system, the reactive power demand increases with increasing speed range.
Therefore, the variable speed range should be kept as small as possible. The compensation
system has to be designed on an individual basis and should be optimised for the normal
running speeds of the motor. Furthermore, the harmonic currents, created by the static
converter, have to be considered during the design of the power factor compensation
system. In a modern installation, the filter-circuits cover both aspects, resulting in a
combination network of reactors and capacitors instead of capacitors only.
The efficiency of the variable speed drive system is not as high as that of a slip ring motor
alone due to more power components in the circuit. The overall efficiency over the speed
range is, however, much better than for example controlling the air-flow with a radial vane
damper at constant motor speed or at variable slip ring motor speed using permanently
connected resistances in the rotor circuit.
Fig. 26: Typical speed/efficiency curve of a sub-synchronous cascade drive

4.3.2 Application
Especially large plants require large fans (with high torque inertia) where DC-drives are not
feasible as the power/speed ratio exceeds the typical DC-motor frame size. Here, the sub-
synchronous cascade system offers a feasible alternative.
A 2000 t/d plant, for example, needs a kiln fan of 1700 kW at 1500 min-
1
. Large fans in the
cement industry can have a range of up to 5 MW. Therefore, this type of drive will be seen in
our industry more often since it meets all requirements in terms of controllability, operating
behaviour and economy.
Furthermore, any existing slip ring motor can be converted into a variable speed drive by
adding a sub-synchronous cascade converter system. On the other hand, every cascade
system can run at rated motor speed without the static converter, e.g. during a fault in the
electronic regulation part. Leaving the mechanical flow control device installed will be of
advantage!
The sub-synchronous cascade drive is, therefore, a technically and economically favourable
system for large fans requiring variable speed due to process parameters.
Nowadays the system is used mainly within retrofit projects. For new installations a
combination of a squirrel cage motor with a frequency converter are normally applied.
4.4 AC drive with synchronous motor
4.4.1 Synchronous motor with cycle-converter
This type of power converter is used exclusively with ring motors in mining and cement
industries to drive large tube mills, 7500kW and larger. As the capacities of the new cement
mills increase with every new application, this type of drive is becoming once again
economically attractive to apply.
Fig. 27: Converter schematic used in conjunction with the ring motor (gearless
mill drive)

1) converter transformer
2) two converters in anti-parallel three-phase bridge connection
3) synchronous motor
4) exciter winding
Each motor phase is connected to the feeding power system via SCR recTIFiers (thyristors)
arranged in anti-parallel or full wave recTIFication, three-phase bridge network. Lower
frequency at the output is obtained by means of control of the gating and phasing the
conduction cycle of the SCR bridges.
A power system frequency of 50/60 Hz can be converted to an output frequency as low as 3
to 6hz. The anti-parallel arrangement of the SCR is four-quadrant operation and reversal of
the direction of rotation and regenerative braking is possible without any modification.
This system is almost identical to a four-quadrant DC-drive, except for the motor.
High starting torque (150%) and almost sinusoidal current results in smooth torque
characteristics at all speeds.
This cycle-converter system is not limited to ring motors only. It is also well-suited for other
applications where substitution of large DC-drives in conveying machinery, in rolling mills
drives, propeller drives for ice breakers and hoist drives for mining, especially where the DC-
motor can no longer be employed because of ambient conditions, maintenance costs or
power limits.
The system covers a range from 1 to 20 MW.
4.4.2 Application
The cement industry uses this system only for large tube mills, eliminating the girth gears,
pinion, gearboxes, inching drive and foundation, main motor foundation, lubrication systems
for the gears thus saving space maintenance and building cost.
4.5 Synchronous motor with intermediate circuit converter
Fig. 28: Basic circuit, 6-pulse

Fig. 29: Basic circuit 12-pulse

RecTIFier and inverter, 12-pulse with transformer windings displaced by 30
o
el. Two anti-
parallel bridges are connected in parallel.
This type of circuit is called converter-fed synchronous motor and consists of a controllable
recTIFier, a smoothing reactor and an inverter. In these designs the recTIFier and inverter
have to be sized for the full motor power, compared to the sub-synchronous cascade, where
the converter has to cope with the rotor slip power only. Natural commutation from phase to
phase is a function of the terminal voltage of the synchronous machine. This natural
commutation does not need any additional circuit like the forced commutation with the
converter type for squirrel cage motors.
This type of converter is suitable for 4-quadrant operation and can cover a full speed range
like a DC-drive variable speed system.
The 6-pulse scheme is normally used for power of 1 to 5 MW. For larger systems, the
harmonic currents lead towards 12-pulse configurations due to motor and line side problems.
Modern synchronous motors have a brush-less excitation system. A synchronous exciter is
mounted on the shaft of the machine. It supplies power to the field through a rotating diode
recTIFier to the DC field winding, which is turned on by the rotor frequency. This avoids the
trouble of maintaining collector rings.
Converter frequencies of up to 120 Hz can be realised driving 2-pole synchronous motor up
to 6000/7200 min
-1
at almost any power. Systems of 30 MW have been built and projects of
50 MW are being studied.
4.5.1 Application
The main applications of the converter-fed synchronous motor for pumps, extruders and
compressors, where a precise speed control over a wide speed range are important. These
drives are not installed in the cement industry, as the existing type of machinery does not
specifically require a converter-fed synchronous motor system.

4.6 Electronic smooth-start for three-phase motors (soft starters)
The simplest and most economical way to start a three-phase motor is full-voltage, across
the line starting and this method is used whenever the power system permits. With weak
power systems there is always a requirement to limit the locked-rotor current inrush and
voltage drop on the bus, or to control the starting torque of the motor in order to avoid
damage to the equipment.
For example, it might be necessary to control acceleration and starting torque of a conveyor
motor to prevent shock damage to the loaded belts.
Fig. 30: Electronic soft-start for a three-phase motor

Figure 31 shows the torque characteristics with a smooth-start for a three-phase motor. The
starting procedure begins by 20 to 40% of the nominal voltage. During the adjusted starting
time, the stator voltage will be increased to 100% through the control of the firing-angle of
the thyristor-controllers.
The motor runs up along the load characteristic M, whereby torque-shocks will be avoided.
The speed increases linear during the starting time from 0 to the nominal speed of the motor.
After the starting procedure, when the motor runs with nominal load, the thyristor will be fully
conducted.
The electronic smooth-start works similar to the hydrodynamic fluid coupling but it has the
decisive advantage that the starting time and the starting torque can be easier adjusted to
the individual operating conditions.
The advantage of the fluid coupling is that it provides 100% starting torque whereas the soft
started is basically a reduced voltage starter in which the starting torque is a square function
of the terminal voltage. Therefore when applying a soft starter additional considerations
must be given to the current rating of the starter and its short time duty.
Fluid couplings for starting duty are most frequently used in a cement plant with a weak
power system. A low torque synchronous motor with low starting current is used in this
application. The fluid coupling is designed to accelerate the load and develop an output
torque equivalent to 120% of rated torque to allow starting of large loads such as ball mill,
heavy inertia fans or conveyors.

4.7 DC-drive
The DC-drive has been in use for many years in the cement industry. A large number of
them remain in use today. The main components of these drives are shown in the following
figure.
Fig. 32: DC-drive system

A DC-drive system normally includes:
3-phase isolation transformer (1)
3-phase full wave recTIFier (2)
DC-motor (3) with shunt field (4) and tachometer (5)
electronic speed regulator (6)
The speed of the DC-machine varies proportionally to the applied armature voltage. Motor
field weakening can increase the speed even more, but the result is reduced torque. DC-
drives can be built from less than 1 kW to approx. 1000 kW, for motor speeds of up to 3000
min
-1
for the smaller drives and speed of 700 min
-1
and lower for the larger size motors. In
steel mills, large DC-drive systems are built up to 8 MW with approx. 100 min
-1
. The motor
size is the limiting factor due to the centrifugal forces in the commutator. The controllable
speed range is almost infinite, since the DC-drive can start and run close to zero speed even
under severe overload conditions. Due to the wide speed range, DC-drives in most cases
require external forced-cooling systems.
The scheme as shown in Figure 33 can operate only in quadrant 1, i.e. motoring in forward
direction. For full 4-quadrant operation, a double anti-parallel (back-to-back) thyristor bridge
arrangement is necessary.
Once the DC-motor is equipped with a forced-cooling system, no torque limitations exist.
Totally closed DC-machines are available too, but they are oversized and cover a limited
speed range only. Therefore, a totally enclosed fan-cooled machine is usually very
uneconomical. The field weakening range is not used in the cement industry, since it serves
mostly for winder applications.
Fig. 33: 4-quadrant operation

4.7.2 Application
The DC-drive system is widely installed in the cement industry for the following machines:
kiln main drives 200 - 500 kW and twin drive
large fans (e.g. kiln, raw mill) 800 - 2000 kW
weigh feeders 5 - 15 kW
apron feeders and special belt conveyors 20 - 100 kW

Due to the rapid developments in power electronics, the variable speed drive technology has
gone through various stages in the last decades, but the DC-drive represents still an
efficient, approved and solution today. The commutator, the most delicate part of the whole
system, and the cooling system require special and permanent maintenance attention.
These two aspects explain the desire for other variable speed drive systems without
commutator.
Fig. 34: Typical schematic diagram of a twin drive for a rotary kiln employing
thyristor-controlled DC-motor

1 RecTIFier transformer 7 Current controller
2 Reactor 8 Speed controller
3 Thyristor recTIFier, controllable 9 Speed reference potentiometer
4 DC-motor 10 Current transformer and recTIFier for the current
actual value
5 Tacho generator 11 Thyristor recTIFier, uncontrollable
6 Gate control unit

4.8 Summary of large variable speed drive systems for the cement industry (>1
MW)

5. CRITERIA FOR ASSESSMENT
5.1 Specifications
The specifications of the drive equipment must include operational requirements, the
performance and manufacturing standards of design and reliability. Apart from the
description of the main features required from the drive and the ambient operating
conditions, a number of other factors are important for the design and selection of the
variable-speed drives:
Starting and slow-running characteristics
Speed/torque characteristic of the driven machine and of the selected drive system
Range of operating speed and accuracy
Suitable means of protecting the installation, which does not lead to unnecessary
stops in the event of short interruption of the supply
Definition of the maximum admissible harmonic current content on the network and
of the filter equipment
Extent to which the power electronics is proof against short circuits
Cooling for the motor and converter
Redundancy requirements
Operating power factor over the speed range
5.2 Reliability
The main objective when using any drive system, be it mechanical or electrical, is to ensure
high availability and reliability for the installation as a whole, with minimum maintenance. The
reliability in critical applications is more important than in non-critical applications. Therefore
the requirement of redundant components and subsystems with bypass operations of the
electronic drive must be always considered in critical applications. The critical applications in
a cement plant include the kiln drive, main baghouse, kiln ID fan, alkali bypass, cooler
exhaust, ID fans with drives for roller mills.
5.3 Efficiency
The operating efficiency at the most frequently used operating point is a key factor for
consideration in determining the effect of energy consumption and how it affects operating
cost of the plant. Energy costs will continue to increase in the future at faster rates than
investment costs. Therefore, when planning installations, it is necessary to make a
comparison of the investment cost with the operating costs of the potential drive systems.
This trend should be taken into account in the appropriate manner during the evaluation.
The efficiency figures provided by the manufacturers of drive systems have to be examined
with great care, as in most cases they only provide an efficiency curve for full load of the
most significant drive component, e.g. the motor. Information on partial load is difficult to
obtain, but in most cases the values are below those quoted.
5.3.1 Definition of total drive system efficiency
Efficiencies of individual drive components do not define the total system behaviour. For
comparison, it is therefore essential to establish meaningful and measurable limits, which
define the borderline of efficiency for the complete drive system. On the one hand, the power
drawn from the network is measured and, on the other, the mechanical power imparted at
the variable speed shaft. All components located between these two extremities are to be
taken into account for any system including auxiliary power consumption for cooling or
ventilating purposes.
Fig. 35: Definition of total drive system efficiency

6. CONCLUSIONS
The existing and the newly planned installations should be evaluated to determine whether
the application of drive control systems could improve the efficiency of the operation. Making
use of up-to-date measuring techniques it is possible to achieve substantial savings in
operating costs.
No matter how high the efficiency may be, it loses all its significance if the system fails only a
few times! It will therefore be necessary to weigh reliability and efficiency very thoroughly,
one against the other.
Some typical applications of variable-speed drive systems were dealt with in this session.
Unfortunately there are not generally valid solutions for the various applications in all
countries.
7. MESSAGES
Be energy conscious when selecting variable speed drives
Consider alternatives and new technologies
Analyse new technologies very thoroughly especially with respect to reliability and
efficiency
Be aware of the Total Cost of Ownership of a system

Chapter 4
Plant Automation and Motor Control
Plant Automation and Motor Control
By Roland Luder, CE
1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................160
2. BENEFITS/DRAWBACKS OF AUTOMATION AND MOTOR CONTROL....................161
2.1 Reliability..........................................................................................................161
2.2 Quality..............................................................................................................161
2.3 Energy saving ..................................................................................................161
2.4 Manpower saving.............................................................................................161
2.5 Maintenance.....................................................................................................161
2.6 Life time cycle ..................................................................................................162
2.7 Environment .....................................................................................................162
2.8 Engineering/Commissioning ............................................................................162
3. AREAS OF AUTOMATION IN A CEMENT PLANT.......................................................163
4. PROCESS AUTOMATION.............................................................................................164
5. ROCESS AUTOMATION COMPONENTS ....................................................................166
6. PROCESS AUTOMATION SYSTEMS...........................................................................167
7. PROGRAMMABLE CONTROLLERS (PLC) .................................................................169
7.1 Introduction, History .........................................................................................169
7.2 Hardware of Programmable Controllers...........................................................170
7.3 Structure of a PLC............................................................................................172
7.4 Software of Programmable Controllers ............................................................173
7.5 Programming a PLC.........................................................................................174
7.6 Programmable controller: language presentation ............................................175
SELECTION CRITERIA OF AN AUTOMATION AND PLC-CONTROL SYSTEM............180
7.7 Automation system...........................................................................................180
7.8 Criteria governing the Choice of PLC...............................................................182
8. OVERALL VIEW AND CONCLUSION ..........................................................................183

1. INTRODUCTION
In earlier day the topics automation and motor control was separated. Today more and more
of the control elements include intelligence that is the devices are equipped with micro chips
and thus perform some part of automation or control at the periphery. Thus the two topics
have moved so close together that it is now handled as one topic.
Automation and Motor control can be defined as a physical system which is capable of
reaching a certain target without any human action. Motor control is within the automation
what we could call the output. The automation commands and the motor control switches
drives, valve, actuators etc. ON and OFF.
Applied to the cement manufacturing process, different targets can be formulated. One could
for example be: load bags to the packing machine without any human action. The most
extreme target would be an automatic bank transfer to the shareholders of the dividends of
the totally automatic cement manufacturing.
But already the small example of the bag loading shows that automation very soon reaches
limits: An automatic bag loader today is no longer a problem, but the target "loading bags to
the packing machine without human action" has by far not been reached today. Who
unloads the bags? And who does maintenance on the bag loader? Theoretically, these
activities could also be made automatic, but it would generally not be feasible and there are
of course still limits (e.g. who does the maintenance of the "automatic bag loading
maintenance machine"?).
When we mention "automation" we nowadays immediately associate computers or
electronic equipment to it. This is only natural since almost all automation systems are today
based on electronic components. When the term automation system is used it shall therefore
mean a system based on electronic components. The term automation associates as well
control of a plant, of machines, of a process. However, the term automation includes today
as well office automation, it includes the automatic task of collecting data (process, financial,
administrative) and goes as fare automatically producing reports to present the data to the
user and in a condensed form to management.
The automatic operation of the motor control system includes among the switching fuction
monitoring and alarming of the various conditions. This status is reported back to the
automation system where appropriate action is taken. Physically, a motor control system
consists of
an operating panel as interface to the operator (with displays for the visualisation and t
enter commands, mouse, touch screen, push buttons or key board)
a logic controller which performs the logical interlocking of all information (with relays,
electronic or programmable controllers)
a plant/process interface with sensors (e.g. temperature or pressure probes, etc.) and
command elements (switches, contactors, valves)
cabling and bus system, which interconnects the different components of the system.
2. BENEFITS/DRAWBACKS OF AUTOMATION AND MOTOR CONTROL
The example given in chapter 1 shows that an automation project has to be clearly analysed
for its ultimate benefit within the cement manufacturing process. The achievable benefits can
generally not be expressed or calculated in exact figures, automation is always related to or
has to be compared with human factors and these factors are difficult to determine.
Nevertheless, some fields where automation can yield some benefits as well as drawback
shall be further elaborated:
2.1 Reliability
The installation of modern electronic equipment instead of electro-mechanical components
guarantees a higher reliability of the control system. Equipment downtime can be reduced
due to the availability of detailed process warnings. However, the detailed information
system entails a more complex control system.
2.2 Quality
The operator is released from all routine operations, checking and controlling. He is thus in a
position to fully concentrate on the optimum and efficient operation of the process. In this
objective he is greatly supported by the system which presents all relevant information in a
logic and easily understandable way. The market demands for less tolerances in the cement
quality. An uniform operation, more precise on-line measurements are a guarantee also for
better quality.
2.3 Energy saving
A modern control system automatically starts and stops motors according to the process
requirements. Inefficient continuous running of motors and high energy losses during
unproductive start-up trials can be eliminated. The control system can easily include the
control of the peak load to the plant (energy management). A better stabilised process can
have a very positive influence on thermal as well as on electrical energy consumption.
Application of variable speed drives not only optimise the process but add greatly to energy
saving. The power requirements of modern electronic equipment is continuously decreasing
but this saving is some how compensated by the increased number of such control
elements.
2.4 Manpower saving
Achievable savings depend on actual labour situations, labour costs, labour policies (unions)
etc. However, the manpower rationalisation effect has as well adverse effects not to be
neglected. When considering the replacement of staff by automation the impression on the
employees as well the community should be contemplated.
2.5 Maintenance
The maintenance on control and instrumentation can be kept to a minimum due to the
installation of electronic equipment. No time-consuming troubleshooting will be required
since failures are displayed in clear text. Mechanical maintenance can be optimised and
preventive maintenance can be introduced due to the availability of detailed failure and
warning messages and statistical evaluation of all events. Modern sensors (smart sensor)
and control system can monitor their behaviour and recognize possible failures before they
occur.

Disadvantageous is the complexity of modern automation system. Maintenance requires
highly skilled personnel and might involve outside companies thus induce new problems like
dependencies, knowledge transfer, external or higher costs etc. An other drawback is the life
cycle of electronic equipment. Soon out dated spare parts are scarce or even not available
after a short time.
Often neglected is the fact that automation system require regular maintenance; soft and
hardware. And this not only for the running system but as well for spare parts. A typical
example is the updating of firm ware (down loaded from the internet). The installed hardware
is updated with the firmware but the same peace of electronic in the store is not touched. If
at a later a peace of HW has to be replaced due to a fault, the item new from the store does
not work.
2.6 Life time cycle
As mentioned above automation system based on PLC and computer based visualisation
system have a much shorter live time cycle as opposed to a relay control. The reason is the
fast growing market which makes it difficult for the supplier to keep spares for all these
system. Thus the user must be aware that the life time cycles are getting shorter and shorter
and are now around 10 years. After 10 years the automation system must be replaced.
Depending on how the system was set up initially all or only part require replacement.

2.7 Environment
A modern automation system not only controls the process, it is furthermore and more
responsible for continuous environmental protection.
Example: Exhaust gas analysis
Waste water treatment
Energy management
The given examples are typical closed loop control systems. Thus, the process is not
dependent on human observing abnormalities and reactions. It is a continuous process
acting in very narrow limits and process abnormalities are monitored.
Since in recent years environmental protection is widely spread and even used as a
marketing tool more and more consideration has to be given when applying automation and
motor control.
2.8 Engineering/Commissioning
The complex nature of the automation system asks for stringent engineering measures, that
is a well planed system possibly fully standardized. The system must be as modular as
permitted with clear interface. Thus it is guaranteed to replace each part when required.
Prior to sending such system to site Factory Acceptance Test (FAT) must form part of the
engineering process. FAT requires external test/simulation software. Only well planned
engineering and standardized automation approaches guarantee a functional and
maintainable automation system.

3. AREAS OF AUTOMATION IN A CEMENT PLANT
Automation can be applied in many different fields of the cement manufacturing process.
Table 1 gives an overview of those fields which are mainly concerned with automation. It
also shows what type of hardware normally is applied to perform this automation.
The table clearly shows that a vast variety of equipment can be used for the different
automation tasks. When it comes to software this variety is even bigger. In order not to end
up with a patchwork of different automation systems, it is therefore very essential to carefully
plan and to evaluate any automation project. It is mainly important to always keep the entire
process and the entire system in mind. Automation can start with the modernisation of a
single machine, but the automation or control of this single machine should be designed
from the beginning to fit into an overall automation concept.

Table 1
AUTOMATION AREA AUTOMATION
HARDWARE
POSSIBLE
SUPPLIERS
1) QUARRY CONTROL
Quarry planning, Mixed bed control Workstations, PC's, GPS QSO of HMC, BMH
2) PROCESS AUTOMATION
Motor control
Process control
Monitoring
High level control
Programmable controllers
PC's, (Slot PLC's),
Workstations
Graphics Displays
Process computers
Siemens, ABB,
Rockwell, GE,
Schneider,
Honeywell, Omron
3) DISPATCH CONTROL
Loading
Administration
Workstations, PC's
Local SW company
WF-supplier
4) QUALITY CONTROL
Sampling preparation
X-ray
On-line raw mix control

EMR
Including micro-computers
(dedicated equipment)
PC's, Workstations
Control unit (PC, or
dedicated HW
"Polab", Gamma-
metrix, Philips, ARL,
Siemens

ABB, Opsis, Sick
& EMR-TIS
5) MAINTENANCE and TRAINING
Materials management
Maintenance planning
Reporting, documentation
Process simulation system
Workstations
Personal computers (Office
automation), Handheld PC's
SAP, dedicated.
6) MANAGEMENT INFORMATION,
ADMINISTRATION

Production reports, statistics
Commercial data
Personnel administration, ERP
Workstations
Personal computers, Hand
held PC's, Network
SAP, TIS/LIMS of
ABB/HGRS,
7) Office
Project management, CAD,
Engineering, FAT
PC's, Network Micro Soft and
Autocad World
WinMOD

4. PROCESS AUTOMATION
Automation and motor control has undergone fast changes in the recent years. Process
automation or process control has become more and more important together with the
increasing capacity and complexity of cement plants. With the degree of automation the
amount of control devices respectively equipment has risen sharply.
Table 2 shows how the number of drives and instruments (which can be used as degree of
complexity) . The figures given represent very approximate values of a medium-size cement
production line.
The technology of control system components has drastically changed during these periods,
whereby most new developments have been based on the respective underlying
developments in the field of electronic/computer technology.
To predict the future is of course always a difficult task. Some trends, however, can already
be observed. One trend is surely that there will be developments for more memory at a lower
price which will allow better and faster information handling (which is necessary due to
increasing amount of data). This again will have an influence in the further development of
self-learning ("expert" or "intelligent") systems.
The trend in graphic displays goes towards bigger, flatter screens with higher resolution.
Large rear projection system offer the comfort of an overall view of the entire process.
More and more the move is towards plants and control rooms with very low manning. Thus a
plant monitors itself, uses its control capability to evade faulty equipment and allows trough
remote diagnostic that stand stills can be planed. The control system can be accessed
remote and can access a remote station to report abnormal situation.
To understand the development in automation systems (table 2) we take you now in a short
review of the history. One point coming out clearly when travelling through this history, is the
shorter and shorter evolution time of the control equipment. Thus the life time cycle is shorter
too, resulting in increased importance of depreciation of the equipment, spare part
management and education of personnel.
This progress is in some aspects to your advantage and in some aspects works against you.
Thus when planning to automate you should carefully consider this development and
account for it in your business plans.
Table 2 History of process automation system

- 1940 Local control of individual machine, local
pneumatic/mechanical indication
50 motors, 20 instruments

- 1960 Central control rooms , sequence control of motors
(relay), remote indication of instruments
200 motors, 70 instruments

- 1975 Central control rooms, decentralised programmable
controllers, monitoring or process computers
400 motors thereof 5% variable speed drives, 200
valves and 150 instruments

- 1985 Central control rooms, centralised controllers with
remote input/outputs, graphic displays, data-highways

- 1990 Central control rooms, distributed control systems,
automated documentation tool, integration of
management information

1995 Central control rooms, distributed as well as centralised
control system, local intelligence
1000 motors, thereof 10% variable speed, 1000 valves
and 800 instruments

2000 Central control room, distributed as well as centralised
control system, local intelligence with function status
monitoring. Instruments and control devices connected
via bus system.
1000 motors, thereof 15% variable speed drives 1000
Valves and 1200 instruments

2005 PLC and Visualisation as one system.
1100 motors, thereof 20% variable speed drives, 1000
valves and 1300 instruments (part thereof smart
sensor)
Future Integration of expert knowledge, integration of
simulation, field bus to the level of all the instruments
and control devices, intelligent sensors, plug and play,
remote diagnostic over WWW, unattended control
room. Quarry automation with GPS-controlled vehicles

5. ROCESS AUTOMATION COMPONENTS
The automation system is organised in three levels:
The department control level (level 1): using the process stations (PS) with their process
input/output devices, assuring the safe operation of machines, of the production process and
provide all required communication interfaces to other control levels.
The operator level (level 2): using the operator stations (OS), assuring a simple and efficient
human/machine interface for the remote operation of the plant.
The supervisory level (level 3): using management stations (MS) with their peripheral
devices and software tools, optimisation and management information. This level will not be
used for the Project.
The function or tasks of the three levels are further elaborated below.

The total system of these component functions in a similar way as a human being:
Sensors and the cabling perform similar tasks as the nerves - capturing and transmission of
information to the brain.
The controller performs similar jobs as the brain. It processes the information.
The result of this data processing is transmitted again by the nerves to the muscles which
transform the information into a physical movement as in a plant control system, where the
controller output is transmitted - over cables or bus system - to the actuator or the MCC
where the information is transformed into physical power, the electric motor.
and Test System
Training &
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(redundant)
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Programming,
Documentation,
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Plant IT Network
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Server &
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(
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601
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Operator
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(HMI)
OS
Management
E5: Process Control System Typical Layout
redundant server
Following switching of
Production Meeting Room
Ethernet Connection Behind Switch
Central Control Room
Local Control Room
Input / Output
Computer Room
Motor Control
Motor
Holcim Supply
Actuator / Valve
Sensor / Switch
Primary Element
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Programming, Documentation,
Mobile Engineering
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Cement
Grinding
Clinker
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401 301 501
+ Auxiliaries
Coal Mill
L01
Level 1
Level 2
Level 3
Needless to say, a plant control system plays a very important part in the performance of a
plant, similar to the one of the brain and the nerves of a human being.
The individual components "analogue as well as digital sensor/transmitter" will be further
explained in the chapter SENSORS, the component "logic controller" in the chapter 7.
The subdivision process controller / logic controller / computer / human-machine interface
within the so called "integrated controller" has evolved from the various older structure to
present today's modern integrated control system.

The subdivision of a modern automation system in the 3 parts
motor control
instrumentation and process control
data logging
has changed insofar as motor control and instrumentation have moved together and are
no longer distinguished. So, in a modern system In- and Outputs will be freely mixed
analogue and digital signals

The human/machine interface is no more subdivided in
push-buttons and lamps for motor control
potentiometers and instruments for process control
keyboards and displays for data logging.
but rather in a screen based display system (mouse operated or touch screen) and the
control takes place on various screens (pictures) with the corresponding control
elements.

This control equipment is no longer offered from more or less specialised manufacturers, as
e.g.:
Modicon for Motor Control
Honeywell for Instrumentation
Digital Equipment for Data logging
Today market tendency for the established manufacturers to expand outside the field in
which they have hitherto specialised and to enter the other areas of automation more and
more; this means that modern programmable controllers can perform process control tasks
and condition data; computer systems are also able to perform sequence control and they
are all linked by computer bus systems and networks.
6. PROCESS AUTOMATION SYSTEMS
For the automation of a cement plant which has to combine all the three functions of motor
control, process control and data logging, it is thus possible to select the most appropriate
component for each of the three areas and to integrate them in a complete system. In
practice, though, this procedure is often obstructed by the lack of compatibility of the units
(i.e. difficulty in interconnecting them) because, owing to the rapid progress made in
electronics, neither hardware nor software were sufficiently standardised. Furthermore, the
user was confronted with the problem of maintaining three inherently different systems. And
as mentioned earlier the life time of electronic equipment and accordingly the availability
does not help to improve the situation
Fortunately, we have seen that manufacturers have expanded their fields of activity and that
today, a level has been reached where all three functions can be realised with only one or
perhaps two different control system supplier and/or hard- and software system.
The structures of complete systems from different suppliers, however, still shows
considerable differences. And only limited amount of HW equipment of different supplier are
interchangeable or can be mixed. The leading suppliers have standardized there lines of
hard- and software. A typical example of such a modern automation system is PCS7 from
Siemens. Also the HW of the PS and the OS is still different one programming software
allows to program both levels. Object defined in the PC are available immediately in the OS
Since in the cement industry motor control represents the most extensive part of the
automation system, it is regarded to be optimal to choose programmable controllers as basic
control units.
Among the various types of programmable controllers available less and less manufacturers
are represented on the market), it is the medium to large units that are most suitable for the
cement industry. "Large" units are regarded as being those capable of catering for the motor
and process control of a complete department (e.g. raw mill) with all the associated
processing of data for the man/machine interface. As regards configuration, documentation
and ease of modification, large systems are preferable to a number of medium or small
units. In order to assist you in choosing the right manufacturer and the right system and in
order to standardize throughout the Holcim plants HGRS procurement is in the process of
selecting supplier, facilitators and system. With preferred supplier HGRS will conclude frame
contracts.
With this concept the automation system of a complete cement production line generally
consists of one programmable controller for each department (crusher, raw mill, kiln, cement
mill, coal mill, cement dispatch), each controller with its separate operator station and each
performing motor control as well as process control. For general management information
and reporting, the operator stations are interconnected and linked via gate way computer to
a separate data base computer being part of the information management system.
Accessories:
Power supply:
In order to absorb brief interruptions of the plants power supply or power dip and in order
to correctly alarm any real voltage supply failure, it is recommended to connect the entire
control system to an uninterrupted power supply.
Test system:
The spare parts required for the automation system are preferably assembled to form a
"test system". This system should be procured before anything else in order that the
software can be set up and tested before the actual process control system is installed.
After commissioning, the test system is used as "spare parts stock" as well as for testing
possible changes to the programs and also for training new personnel. Naturally, the
"spare parts stock" has to be replenished according to the consumption.
Simulation system:
In order to test the programming code install a simulation system which allows to
simulate the plant behaviour an thus test each program module.
System documentation:
To establish the system documentation, every possible use should be made of the
facilities offered by computers today. A special chapter will be allocated to this topic.

Communication:
A good communication system can help a lot to improve efficiency in operation and
maintenance. Here, too, a clear concept should be established. All possible methods:
telephone/paging, walkie-talkie, intercom, loudspeaker, fax, video etc.
should be considered and possible applications evaluated.
7. PROGRAMMABLE CONTROLLERS (PLC)
7.1 Introduction, History
The logic controller is the brain of the motor control system, i.e. the decision-making part. It
takes care of the safe, convenient sequential starting, running and stopping of single motors
or of whole groups of machines.
There are basically three different techniques to build-up an electrical logic controller:
7.1.1 Relay Technology
A relay uses the electro-mechanical equipment which uses the electromagnetic force of an
electrical coil to open or close electrical contacts. The internal wiring of these coils and
contacts determines the specific function of the set-up.
Relays control has been the only technology until approx. 1960.
Today relays are still used for interfacing (power amplifying) purposes and for very small
control systems.
7.1.2 Electronic Card System
This technology was developed in Europe and was applied approx. until 1975. It consists of
electronic components, pre-assembled on printed circuit boards and performing specific
logic functions. The function of the total system is determined by the wiring between the
different logic cards.
Today these systems are hardly anymore installed.
7.1.3 Programmable Controllers
This technology was introduced in the market approx. 1970, and is the todays dominating
technology. The tendency is to replace relays by programmable controllers even in very
small applications. The programmable controller uses basically the same idea as a computer
does: it uses a memory to store information and it uses this information to execute step by
step a procedure which is determined by this information (program; software). The market
offers PLC's either as dedicated units micro processor and input output cards or personal
computer with slots equipped with PLC cards.
The advantages for all these types of controllers as opposed to other technologies are:
No mechanical wear
no rewiring when modifications are required
easier planning (hardware / software can be planned in parallel)
higher level of automation is possible
integrated solutions with analogue and digital control and data acquisition are possible.
direct or bus connection of field devices, control system, data logger and PLC's
7.2 Hardware of Programmable Controllers
A programmable controller is basically a BLACK BOX with INPUTS and OUTPUTS and a
connection to a PROGRAMMING UNIT.
With the programming unit, the user determines how the different inputs and outputs must
be logically correlated and sequenced to perform the desired control task. The programming
nowadays uses a PC to display, to enter or to modify the program as well as an additional
storage devices to safeguard it.
The BLACK BOX is composed on one or several chassis or racks which basically contain
the following elements (see Fig. 7.2.1)
Figure 7.2.1 Programmable Controller Hardware Configuration

The power supply provides the internal stabilised control voltages of the programmable
controller
The processor performs the actual logic / timing and internal control functions thus contains
the program
The memory is required to store the program and raw process data.
To transform the signal coming in (INPUT) from outside (e.g. from a level switch) or going
out (OUTPUT) to the outside (e.g. to lamps, to the MCC). Today programmable controllers
handle digital as well as analogue I/O signals Analogue signals may be entered as 4-20mA
(see instrumentation) or directly as resistance in the case of RTD's or mV in the case of
thermo couples. More and more the traditional signal from a single instrument is replaced by
a bus system. In most cases the I/O modules are not placed adjacent to the PLC but rather
in the field (junction boxes) or in the MCC. Such remote I/O's are connected via system bus
to the PLC.
The PLC can be expanded with various additional units. One very important unit is the
communication port. Such a port will in our day be an expansion due to the variety of
communication channels. A simple serial port (RS 232), a network e.g. Ethernet or possible
in future Bluetooth.
Physically all these elements are generally grouped and are interconnected via a system bus
or already with a field bus which performs a fast exchange of the necessary information
between the different units.
This arrangement provides great flexibility in hardware planning: if additional memory space
is required, for examples, it is generally sufficient to plug in an additional memory card. More
and more hot plugin is common. But this feature is not very practical in our industry and
would have to be used with great care. Additionally it must be noted, that once a system is
correctly set-up, hardware failures occur rarely.
Figure 7.2.2 shows an example of an input card of the draw-out type which contains 16
inputs. Output cards may be arranged in a similar way.
Figure 7.2.2: INPUT (OUTPUT) Card of a Programmable Controller

The size of a programmable controller can be expressed by different figures. The most
important figure is the number of I/O which a programmable controller can handle. The
smallest units start at approx. 15 I/O, the biggest go up to 16'000 I/O.
The maximum memory size is another figure which, however is not any more of grate
importance, generally goes in parallel with the number of I/Os. Normal sizes range of up to 1
- 4 G.
The cycle time (see software) generally goes in parallel with the size of the memory used
and is generally expressed in milli seconds. The Holcim specification calls for a cycle time of
less than 150 ms. Rather than relining on cycle time a system can be specified in response
time.

discrete signal response time 100 ms
analog signal response time 250 ms
7.3 Structure of a PLC
The diagram below shows the structure of a PLC. The main functional elements of a
programmable logic controller are the control unit with one, or sometimes several micro-
processors and the corresponding memories for data (timers, counters, markers, etc.) and
programs (programmable memories).
Block diagram of programmable controller

The program memory, processor, counter, data memory and the input/output units are
interconnected. Here connection via bus has become standard practice. By means of this
bus the data are exchanged between data memory, processor and program memory.
7.3.1 Differences between PLC and a Computer
What are the main differences? In a PLC so-called bit processing is used. This is special
processing method which processes only one bit. In contrast, the computer always uses
word processors, i.e. single bits can only be addressed by programming.
A PLC functions in much the same way as a computer, but with the following main
differences.
Users programs are executed cyclically
A PLC needs a very simple operating system this holds less and less true where
industrial PC's (e.g. Slot PLC) are used instead of dedicated machines like PLC's
The information is processed a bit at a time (facilities for word processing are available)
A PLC is a real-time system, i.e. the results of operations are obtained within a short,
clearly defined time
The set of command is especially intended for control requirements and is therefore
limited in its scope
The hardware is designed for rough industrial conditions (temperatures between -10 and
+60C)
Programming is simple, can be understood by electricians and is easy to learn. More
advanced is the setting up of the units and the communication. Depending on which level
within the control pyramid data are stored (PLC, automation level or even in a separate
MMI computer) programming and set up can be more complex.
Addressing of input and output cards is transparent and is part of the bus system and the
appropriate protocol (e.g. HART protocol from Siemens). This allows to group I/O's to
what ever order seam fit and does not restrict this order according physical signals. (e. g.
no difference is made whether a signal is analog or digital).
To program a PLC either a special programming unit has to be connected to it or an
ordinary PC is used. Programming in a productive environment as mentioned already
ought to be prepared on an engineering station or a test system. Once tested it may be
loaded online whilst the plant is producing.
7.4 Software of Programmable Controllers
In the chapter Hardware of Programmable Controllers we have seen that a programmable
controller can be represented as a BLACK BOX which contains inputs, outputs and a
program.
The different inputs and outputs have now to be logically and sequentially interconnected to
perform the desired control task. To represent this "logical and sequential interconnection",
special languages have been elaborated. Unfortunately, these languages or graphic
presentations are not standardised. Main differences can be found between European and
American presentations but even within one language, practically every suppliers uses his
own slang.
For a long time there was a certain market tendency toward the ladder diagram, influenced
by the American market where generally only this language is used.
The ladder diagram is based on the representation which was used for relay systems. It can,
therefore, easily be learned by people who worked with those systems but it does not well
represent the new thinking in inputs/outputs. Besides modern PLC offer many functions
which have nothing in common any more with relay control, thus the advantageous of using
"simple" ladder diagram does no longer hold true.
Nowadays a standard is on the market named IEC1131.
Any logic can actually be represented with only 4 different instructions:
Logic AND, logic OR, logic NOT and TIME instruction. In order to make programming easier,
all programmable controllers use additional logic instructions which are composed of specific
often-used combinations of above four elements.
Thus function like timers, latching relays etc. are of course all presented as normal
programming functions within any PLC. But today's PLC offer a variety of advanced
functions like counter, data storage, watch dog (self diagnostic), logic gates tailored to suit
with parameter and not to elaborate in depth all the functions for various communication
requirements.
When a programmable controller is equipped to accept analogue inputs, additional
instructions for arithmetic operations and file handling are available. Modern PLC perform
complex PID routines to handle any closed loop control.
For bigger applications (as e.g. in the cement industry) a structured programming making
use of macros or subroutines should be applied. The same applies when analogue control
capabilities are included in the programmable controller.
The actual program is now composed of a series of program steps, every step uses a
combination of instructions or macros to define how the different inputs have to be linked
with the outputs.
It is important to mention that the program is executed step by step. This means that one
instruction after the other is read, interpreted and executed.
At the end, the program automatically restarts at the beginning. The total time which a
program needs to come once from the beginning to the end is called the system cycle time.
This time is generally very short (approx. 1...300 ms). For an external observer of the system
it, therefore, behaves as if everything (all commands) would be immediately executed - all at
the same time. In reality, as explained, only one instruction is executed at one time.

7.5 Programming a PLC
In order to program a PLC a special programming unit is required. The pictures below show
different versions of programming units.

. the hand held small unit for simple tasks

and a state of the art Personal Computer industrialised or simply use the operator
station which in many system has not only the task of the HMI but may be used for
programming and configuration of the system

Programming units are very efficient, they are PC's of special industrial design, equipped
with large-area LCD or with a monitor. They can translate the functions entered by the user
in a higher-level programming language specifically intended for control tasks, e.g. as a list
of instructions (Fig. a), as functional diagram or contact diagram, direct into the machine
code of the control units. They can also translate from the machine code back into the
higher-level representation.
7.6 Programmable controller: language presentation
The language used to program PLC's has only little in common with programming languages
used in business application. Although there are less dialect than in the business word
different language exist. Basically there are two man language: ladder and logic diagram.

On the next page find a diagram showing the programming language and a comparison with
ladder diagram. Both these languages are high level languages but only used for industrial
purpose.
Figure (a) Programming languages (Siemens)

A control task can be expressed in different languages; the list of instructions (a) can also
be translated by simple programming units into a machine language understood by the
control system. The functional diagram (b) which is easier to understand by engineers and
the ladder diagram (c) which is very popular in USA, impose more exacting demands on the
programming unit.
At all events such units can be employed on-line, i.e. connected direct with the controller.
The programs to be entered in this case are usually entered direct in the programming
language of the controller, or for display purposes are read out of a memory. In on-line
operation it is also possible to perform test functions, fault location and program correction.
A further important function of the programming unit is the program documentation. Special
documentation software converts the programs into a form readily understood by the user
(auxiliary text, I/O description, comments, etc.). A printer connected to the system is able to
print out the documented programs.
The following typical schematics would like to introduce you in understanding how a PLC
works. The pictures are simplified but give a good understanding of the internal life. The
schematics compare an electrical circuit with relays with the high level language adopted in
PLC's
1. Relay European: AND NOT / OR

The first schematic shows two switches in series. Both A AND B have to be closed to allow
the relay C to close. The second schematic in turn show that only one switch A OR B has to
close for the relay to engage.
2. Relay American (Ladderdiagram): AND NOT / OR

Now what you just have learned on an ordinary schematic would look like the above ladder
diagram. Thus the first circuit A AND B to be closed for C to make. Note that B is closed
under normal condition. B could signify a rope wire switch, whereas A is the start button.
3. Logic card European: AND NOT / OR

Now in an other PLC language called logic diagram the same schematics look different but
mean exactly the same: A and NOT B = C. And in the second picture A or B = C.
4. Black box or subroutines
The next picture shows black box which executes various functions (And, Not, Or). Inputs
(A and B) are treated accordingly and the result transferred to the outputs (C and D). The
content of such a black box is called function or when large subroutine. Such a black box
may be fairly simple or very complex. Instead of programming the same function over and
over a subroutine is programmed once and then called up when required.

Example:
A: Operator command: Turn motor left
B: Plant feedback: Limit switch left reached
C: Control system command: Turn motor left
D: Operator information lamp: Device in position left

Program Short
1. Input A
2. AND NOT Input B
3. Equals Output C A AND NOT B = C
4. Input B
5. Equals Output D B = D
The next function has a time component included (the cycle time is neglected). Thus when
something has to happen only after a certain time has elapsed functions have to be
programmed with timer (e. g. stop conveyer 2 only after 30 seconds running empty time).

Subroutines or function blocks are state of the art. Most suppliers of hard- and software have
function blocks in there program. A function block may be a complete motor module or even
as complex as an actuator module. These modules not only take care of the logic part (start
stop) but as well of the visualisation like mimic and alarm message.
Motor Control - Programmable controller: Language, timer

Example Timer:
A: Operator command: Turn motor left
B: Plant feedback: Limit switch left reached
C: Control system command: Turn motor left
Program
1. Timer X = 30 seconds
2. Input A
3. Equals timer X
4. Timer X
5. AND NOT input B
6. Equals output C

The time diagram shows how the input A which only last for very short time is with the aid of
a timer prolonged to the desired time (e. g. 30 seconds).
Motor control - Programmable controller: Language, structured programming

The schematic on the previous page represents a typical motor module, one of the more
complex functions. All possible status of a motor are programmed in this module and would
be available. However only those required are used. Thus programming becomes not only
fast but very reliable too. To develop such a motor module of course the necessary care
must be taken to ensure its proper and reliable function.
SELECTION CRITERIA OF AN AUTOMATION AND PLC-CONTROL SYSTEM
7.7 Automation system
When selecting an automation system one of the first decision to be made is the selection of
the type of system: Individual components or a proprietary system.
When selecting a system, individual or proprietary, advantages as well as disadvantages
can be found with either system. Thus it is the customers preference what to select. (i
Preference for individual, n preference neutral, p preference proprietary (one supplier)

Criteria i n p Remarks
Visualisation X Only marginal differences between
various suppliers
High level bus X Common for all system
Bus between automation and
motor control
X Ethernet for example is a common bus
system, maintenance simplified
PLC X Supplier preference
Bus between PLC and field X Addressing of signals does not change
right through the system
I/O racks X Best suited I/O module can be
purchased
Field devices / signals X Possible shift to p when in future
devices are plug and play.
Price X Possibly cheaper
Complexity X Uniform programming, single
programming place
Dependency X Almost independent
Modernisation X Follow the trend when required.
Modularity X Life time of components is different.
When using i each device can be
replaced individually
Documentation X Uniform and printed from one system
only
Training X Various system require extensive
training.

The schematic on the next page shows the principle devices in a automation and motor
control system, i. a. visualisation, PLC, and I/O rack with field devices. The main assertion to
be made from this schematic is the difficulty to distinguish between an individual and a
proprietary system. Both systems (although supplier claim different) consist of a computer
(PC) for the upper level control and a PLC for the motor control. The proprietary system has
only one programming and configuration terminal whereas in an individual system each level
has its own programming and configuration device. However this seeming advantage is
overcome by the dependency to a supplier (e.g. life cycle of equipment).

7.8 Criteria governing the Choice of PLC
Basically, any PLC can be used for control tasks in the cement industry, provided it satisfies
to following requirements.
7.8.1 General
The system is well represented and generally known in the country
Spare parts are guaranteed obtainable at least for 10 years
The system must be capable for expansions in order to integrate future adaptations
The dimensions of equipment permit the replacement of existing facilities
7.8.2 Central Unit (CPU)
When the system is extended to full capacity, the cycle time should not exceed 150 ms
as mentioned in chapter 7.2
Adapted memory capacity, so that there is no shortage of storage capacity when the
system is fully expanded.
Hot plugging
On-line programming of modifications while the process is in progress
Reasonable set of instructions containing the following:
arithmetic with variable decimal point, PID algorithms and functions specified by the
user, modules (e.g. motor module).
Floating point arithmetic's
7.8.3 Communication
Between PLC's with TCP/IP protocol on Ethernet bus.
Standardised interface with simple protocol to a main-frame computer (e.g. via RS 232,
RS 422, RS 485, Ethernet).
Standardised interface with subcontrol systems (field bus, profibus, serial link RS 232)
Expansion for additional communication port
7.8.4 Inputs/Outputs
Decentralised peripherals connected with the CPU by a field bus (possibly an optical
link)
24 V DC single-ended inputs/outputs with common ground
4-20 mA analogue inputs/outputs, PT 100 (resistance) or thermo couples (mV).
Digital I/O for fast speed signals (kWh counts, speed measures).
I/O capabilities for electrical signals
Capable of extension up to 2000 inputs and outputs
7.8.5 Programming and Documentation
Off-line programming and documentation with standard PCs
Remote line connection of programming units
Graphic representation, preferably by functional diagram
Symbolic programming of addresses with at least 15 freely chosen characters
Commands and operating instructions in the local language

8. OVERALL VIEW AND CONCLUSION
After the selection of automation system and PLC's the overall concept has to be
considered. The definition of upper an lower level control with the selected components
according the selection criteria may warrant to redo some of the selection process. A typical
layout of such an entire system can be found on the next page.

Automation systems - Typical configuration

Modern process automation systems in conjunction with motor control can contribute a lot to
the enhancement of the efficiency of plant operation. Nevertheless, the degree of the most
feasible level of automation has to be carefully evaluated. And most important: even the
highest automated plant needs a good maintenance in order to run efficiently. Or in other
words: The most luxurious process control system with the most brilliant graphic displays
cannot guarantee smooth operation if it does not receive reliable, correct information from
the sensors. And to achieve this reliability highly skilled and motivated personnel has to form
an integral part of your automation system.

Chapter 5
Instrumentation and Sensors
Instrumentation / Sensors
By Wolfgang Kornberger, CE
1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................187
2. SENSORS (INSTRUMENTATION) BASICS .................................................................187
2.1 Terminology .....................................................................................................189
3. SIGNAL TRANSMITTER ...............................................................................................195
4. SIGNALS........................................................................................................................198
5. SIGNAL TRANSMISSION..............................................................................................199
5.1 Current output ..................................................................................................199
5.2 DEAD ZERO and LIVE ZERO.....................................................................200
5.3 Power supply....................................................................................................202
5.4 4-wire and 2-wire transmitters..........................................................................202
5.5 Non-isolating and isolating transmitters ...........................................................204
6. CONTROL, ALARMING AND DISPLAY .......................................................................209
7. MEASUREMENT USED IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY ................................................209
7.1 Temperature.....................................................................................................209
7.2 Pressure...........................................................................................................214
7.3 Flow (gas and liquids) ......................................................................................214
7.4 Level.................................................................................................................215
7.5 Weighing ..........................................................................................................218
7.6 Analytical measurements.................................................................................224
7.7 Electrical energy and power measurements....................................................225
7.8 Field devices ....................................................................................................231

1. INTRODUCTION
When looking at the automation pyramid, it becomes obvious that instruments and sensors
form the foundation for any control and automation. It is here where the information is
gathered which is then used further in the automation pyramid for either:
interlocking and control for automated production
regulation with PID-controller and high level control to ease the workload of the operator
and to improve the plant performance (reduce energy consumption and/or increase
production)
display and register process values to inform the management and the operator about
the plant performance
Note: It is important to remember that it is impossible to control anything unless the
parameters have been accurately measured in advance.
2. SENSORS (INSTRUMENTATION) BASICS
The task of an instrument or a sensor is to convert a physical value into an electrical signal.
A signal is picked up with a primary element, then converted in the transmitter to an
electrical signal and finally transmitted to a control centre where the signal is further treated
for either display, alarming or control. (See drawing F44570-1)
The example in the drawing F44570-1 shows a pressure transmitter. The pressure
(connected on either side) distorts the bellows. This deformation is moving a lever which is
connected to a plunger moving in a coil. The movement of the plunger in the coil evokes an
electrical signal which then is converted to a standard electrical signal of 4-20 mA.
All transmitters work on a physical principle which depends on the process media, the
desired type of measurement and the accuracy required. Some principles are as simple as
in the example in drawing F44570-1 given. Others, like gas analysers working on light
diffraction are more sophisticated and therefore not only more expensive but as well prone to
high maintenance.

Q:\sek-pbu\Kurse\zem-kurs\Folien\B07C05FB KO/ip
Transmitter with
Current Output
(F44570-1)
Power-Supply Power-Supply
Vacuum Vacuum Pressure Pressure
Process line Process line
Transmitter Transmitter
Test - Test -
Terminals Terminals
(+A) (-A)
= =
Mechanical transmission Mechanical transmission
of the pressure signal of the pressure signal
Amplifier Amplifier
FIELD FIELD CABLING CABLING
CONTROL CONTROL
ROOM ROOM
+ -
No Line Losses No Line Losses
(Impressed Current) (Impressed Current)
Very High Noise Immunity Very High Noise Immunity
"Live Zero" Supervision "Live Zero" Supervision
Possible Possible
Recommended ! Recommended !
NOISE NOISE TWISTED WIRES TWISTED WIRES
CORRECT CORRECT
0-60mbar 0-60mbar
CURRENT LOOP: CURRENT LOOP:
(0..20mA) 4..20mA (0..20mA) 4..20mA
~
~
~
~

2.1 Terminology
Like in all engineering fields, instrumentation has its own kind of terminology; and to be able
to read a technical specification these terms have to be known. The following list gives a
short overview of the most important terms used.
Example Ampere meter .5% accuracy
Temperature meter 5
o
C

Q:\sek-pbu\Kurse\zem-kurs\Folien\B07C05FA KO/ip
Accuracy Accuracy
Downscale Downscale
characteristic characteristic
Maximum positive Maximum positive
deviation deviation
input input
output output
0 0 100% 100%
Span Span
High or positive High or positive
permissible permissible
limit of error limit of error
Specified functional characteristic Specified functional characteristic
Envelope Envelope
Upscale characteristic Upscale characteristic
Instrumental error curve Instrumental error curve
Maximum negative deviation Maximum negative deviation
Low or negative permissible limit Low or negative permissible limit
of error of error
Terminology

Accuracy: A number of quantity (usually expressed in % full scale) which defines the maximum error.
Calibration: The ascertain by the use of a standard the locations at which scale or chart graduation of an
instrument should be placed to correspond to the required value.
To adjust the output of an instrument to bring the desired value within a specified tolerance.
Deadband: The range throughout which an input can be varied without initiating response. Deadband is usually
expressed in percent of full span.
Deadtime: The interval of time between initiation of an input and the start of the resulting response.
Damping Reducing of the oscillation of a process input or the output of a controller.
Drift: Undesired change of an output over a period of time.
Deviation: Departure from a desired or expected value also difference between measured value and true value.
Error: (see drift) Error = indication minus true value
= setpoint minus measured value
Elevated Zero: A range where the zero value is greater than the lower range value.
Feedback: Positive answer to a demand in change
Gain: Is the ratio of an output change to an input change. (Reciprocal to proportional band).
Hysteresis: The maximum difference between the upscale and downscale indications of the measured signal
during a full range traverse for the same input.


input input
output output
0 0 100% 100%
Full scale traverse Full scale traverse
Input % Input %
Downscale Downscale
Upscale characteristic Upscale characteristic
Maximum hysteresis (max. Maximum hysteresis (max.
dif ference) dif ference)
Hysteresis

(Alarm limits for example are equipped with a hysteresis in order to prevent repeated signals
around the alarm point).

Impedance: Resistance of a network of resistors, capacitors and/or
inductors.
Interference: Noise (spurious voltage or current arising from external
sources or interference between measuring circuit and
ground).
Input: Device to convert the electrical signal into a digital information
for further treatment in a Process Station or Programmable
Logic Controller (PLC).
Linearity: The closeness to which a curve approximates a straight line.


Actual functional Actual functional
(average between (average between
upscale and upscale and
downscale downscale
readings) readings)
The vertical distance The vertical distance
between the function lines between the function lines
enclosing the shaded enclosing the shaded
areas is the nonlinearity at areas is the nonlinearity at
that position (accuracy) that position (accuracy)
Straight line (specified Straight line (specified
functional characteristic) functional characteristic)
input input
output output
Linearity

Limit: Alarm limit
Lag: (Time lag) time elapsed between process and measuring
point as well as measuring point and control device.
Noise: False signal picked up in the transmission line (see
interference and signal-to-noise ratio).
Output: Signal from a device (instrument).
Range: Region between limits of measuring device expressed by
stating the lower and upper range values.


Illustrations of the Useof Rangeand SpanTerminology
Typical Ranges Name Range
Lower
Range
Value
Upper
Range
Value
Span
Supplementary
Data
0 t o 100 0 +100 100 ---
Suppressed
Zero
Range
20 to 100 20 +100 80
Suppression
Rati o = .25
Elevated
Zero
Range
-25 to +100 -25 +100 125 ---
-100 to 0 -100 0 100 ---
Elevated
Zero
Range
-100 to -20 -100 -20 80 ---
Typical Ranges Name Range
Lower
Range
Value
Upper
Range
Value
Span
Supplementary
Data
0 t o 100 0 +100 100 ---
Suppressed
Zero
Range
20 to 100 20 +100 80
Suppression
Rati o = .25
Elevated
Zero
Range
-25 to +100 -25 +100 125 ---
-100 to 0 -100 0 100 ---
Elevated
Zero
Range
-100 to -20 -100 -20 80 ---
-100 -20
-100 0
-25 +100 0
+20 +100
0 +100


Downscale Downscale
characteristics characteristics
Maximum repeatability Maximum repeatability
input input
output output
0 0 100% 100%
Full range traverse Full range traverse
Repeatability Repeatability
Upscale Upscale
characterisitcs characterisitcs
Repeatability


Response: General behaviour of the output of a device as a function of an input.

time time
output output
100% 100%
62.3% 62.3%
0% 0%
Response

For additional information regarding PID control refer to the relevant paper in the process
technology department.
Sensitivity: (see deadband and gain).
Signal to
Noise Ratio:
Ratio of signal amplitude to noise amplitude.
Span: The algebraic difference between the upper and lower range
values.
Suppressed
zero:
The zero value of the measured variable is less than the
lower range value. (Zero does not appear the scale).
Time constant: Time required for an output of an instrument to complete 62.3
% of the total rise or decay.
Zero: Zero point of scale (to be calibrated frequently due to zero
shift resulting in parallel shift of the input output curve).
3. SIGNAL TRANSMITTER
As mentioned in the introduction, the task of the transmitter is to convert a physical signal
into a suitable electrical signal. This electrical signal is then converted into a standard
analogue signal of for example 4-20 mA or 24 V digital on/off. Other standard signals exist
but the Holcim standard analogue signal is 4-20 mA, for digital on/off signal 24 VDC
(Exception America: 110 VAC).
It is, in most cases, necessary to calibrate or verify (adjust zero, span and range) a
transmitter. Normal adjustments are Zero = 4 mA and Span = 20 mA. Thus the actual
electrical signal representing a process value of 0 - 100% is represented by 16 mA.
Calibration is usually performed by simulating the physical signal. Thus, a true zero and if
feasible a 100% signal should be evoked in order to calibrate the transmitter over the entire
range. The smaller the range of the calibration signal is the more inaccurate the calibration.
Each type of instrument transmitters requires its particular way of calibration. It is therefore
mandatory to provide the proper instruments for calibration purpose. Additionally, it is
important not only to calibrate the transmitter but the entire instrument loop. Thus, the
transmission and the signal treatment in either a display instrument or a PLC must be
included in the calibration procedure. (See drawing F44570-1)
Some modern instruments require an initial calibration during commissioning and only an
occasional check up during their lifetime. Others, like for example power transducers cannot
be calibrated nor do they require any adjustments since they are factory precept.
The instruments described above are analogue instruments. Thats why the signal varies
continuously between 0 and 100%. Often, however only one single point is required. For
such a purpose a sensor with an on/off output is sufficient. It saves programming of an alarm
limit in case a PLC is used, respective the use of an extra alarm device to produce a thresh
hold. However, using an on/off device only can be controversial since this device cannot be
checked about its proper function. A 4-20 mA signal can be supervised if it is functioning
properly (signal <20 mA and signal >4 mA). An on/off signal can be connected fail safe
(contact closed under healthy condition) and a dynamic supervision (contact changes when
the process is stopped) included but an analogue signal is easier to verify.
The trend of automation in process engineering leads to intelligent field devices. A new
generation of instruments called smart sensors is on the market. A smart sensor cannot
only perform its dedicated task (e.g. measure the temperature) but monitor its performance
at the same time. These smart sensors are microprocessor-based field instruments which
are designed to communicate with a control unit. A lot of these sensors are operated via
hand-held terminals or PCs. Usually the signal picked up by the primary element is
converted into a digital signal by an analogue to digital converter. The digital signal is
linearized, ranged (0-100% as required), dampened and if required multiplied or squared.
The micro controller also controls the digital-to-analogue signal converter for 4-20 mA output
and drives the digital communication.
Configuration- and sensor linearization data are stored in a non-volatile EPROM memory.
The control unit communicates via a superimposed digital signal over the 4-20 mA signal or
via a bus with the smart sensor.
Each manufacturer has his own communication carrier (bus or via frequency shift keying
FSK) over the 4-20 mA signal and his own protocol. Usually communication is performed
without interrupting the control loop. Some of the following tests and functions can be carried
out via link, smart sensor and control unit:
loop test of the 4-20 mA signal
inject a specific mA signal and check the display
check the configuration data and call up its values
check changes of the performance of the smart sensor
name (tag) a device and give an alarm or message text in the smart sensor. Store data
about spare parts for the device.
Today, neither in the operator control unit nor in the operator philosophy a compatibility or
standardisation is discernible. Due to this situation user acceptance is very low. Additionally,
the tasks as mentioned can be performed by the normal transmitters connected to a PLC.
Thus, it remains questionable to whether smart sensors and Profibus are required today for
the cement industry.
The enclosed instrument list shows the most frequent measurements applied in the cement
industry and the approximate amount of instruments. The number of measurement,
approximately 3000, applied in a modern cement plant is quite impressive. And the tendency
is certainly not diminishing in the near future. Especially in connection with environmental
control and with rising energy prices, the number of additional measurements will increase.

Typically installe d
Measurement Application Analog Digital
Active Powe r Current- and Voltage Transformer 200 2
Position
Inductive, Potentiometric, Capacity ,
Proximity , Mechanical
50 1000
Electric Voltage Voltage Transformer 4
Electric Current Current Transformer , Thermal overload 4 1000
Level
Electro-Mechanical, Sonar Systems,
Capacity , Radioactive
50 100
Speed
Tacho-Generator , Inductive and Magnetic
(Proximity Type)
40 100
Flow
(Volumetric)
Liquid, Gas
Flow (Solids)
For Gas Flow : Venturi, Orifice, Pitot-T ube;
For Liquid Flow : Turbine-, Piston- and
Oval Type Counter , Electro Magnetic
Belt Weigher , I mpact, Flow Meter , Nuclear
Belt scale
15
20
50
Temperature
Thermocouple, Resistance, Thermometer ,
Radiometric
400
Weight (Mass) Load Cells, Strain Gage 30
Pressure
Barton-, Bellows-, Diaphragm Cell Burden
Tube, Pizo Crystal
40 20
Sound Level
Sonic Detector , " Electronic Ear"
(Microphone)
2
O
2
Content
SO
2
, NO
X
CO
Dust
Paramagnetic Oxygen Analyzer , Zirconium
Oxide Probe, Electrochemical Cell
Infrared Absorption
Infrared Absorption
Opto Electronics/Light Absorption
6
2
4
2
Closed Circuit
Television
TV Camera and Monitor
Kiln, Cooler , Raw Mill Feed, Crusher Feed
2
4
Around 900
Analog
2200 Digital
= 3000 Sensors
+ 2000 Control Elements
+ 2000 EL Circuit Protection

4. SIGNALS
When talking about signals at first two different sides must be distinguished:
the primary side is the actual physical measurement which is detected with the primary
element (e.g. thermocouple, diaphragm of a pressure transmitter)
the secondary side is the signal leaving the transmitter and being transmitted back to the
control centre.
This and the next chapters deal with the signal transmitted to the control system since this is
an important factor for the installation. When looking at the secondary side of the signal
transmission four different signals have to be distinguished:
1) Analogue signal current e.g. 4-20 mA DC, or voltage e.g. 2-10V DC
2) On/off signal on/off e.g. 24V DC
3) Pulse frequency e.g. speed detector pulse
4) Field Bus code e.g. 500
C as a BCD code
The cement industry is concerned with all four types of signals. In the field it is mainly the
analogue 4-20 mA and digital 24V DC; to a lesser extend with pulses and, if at all, they are
converted as soon as possible to an analogue signal. The classical cement industry was not
concerned with a bus except for communication between PLCs or computers. However, the
market shows that the near future is in the application of the Fieldbus. The respective
standards are set and respective commercial advantages result. The signals 1) - 3) will
become less important.
5. SIGNAL TRANSMISSION
For safe and efficient operation of the plant it is most important to have a reliable signal
transmission between the field, - where the signal is generated, - and the control room, -
where it is used for indication, recording, limit supervision, process control etc. The
distances from the filed to the control centre may range between 100 meters and 1000
meters, or more. And it is well known that problems with electrical disturbance, interference,
noise and losses, increase with longer transmission distances.
For signals as mentioned in the previous chapter, several alternatives for the long distance
transmission are applied; some of them are becoming obsolete due to new developments in
the filed of electronic components.The simplest method would be to run any sort of signals
(pressure, electrical) back to the control room as performed in the early stage of
instrumentation when the control centre was local and closed by. On the example of a
thermocouple (TC), the problems encountered are discussed.
Is it possible to run a thermocouple extension wire with a mV signal all the way from the
thermocouple junction to the indication in the control room? Why not? Mainly because the
thermocouple extension wire is expensive. And unless it is very well shielded, which adds to
the expense, it will pick-up all sorts of unwanted noise from radio transmitters (walkie-
talkies), motors, high voltage cables etc. Since the signal from the thermocouple is only a
few milli-volts to begin with, any noise is a problem and it doesnt take a lot of noise to
blanket the signal entirely. Such a millivolt signal cannot be transmitted together with other
signals in a multi-core cable and it cannot be brought to several users in parallel, such as to
an indicator and a recorder, although PLCs with TC input exist.
Though, it is true that in some instances by using thermocouple wires over a long distance
and achieving satisfactory results, the odds are against it, making it a risky method to try in a
cement plant!
Even the idea to amplify the voltage signal (to reduce the signal to noise ratio) is not good
enough since the noise picked up may be several hundred volts high.
5.1 Current output
If a thermocouple transmitter with 4-20 mA DC (or 0-20 mA DC) current output is used,
instead of a voltage output, some important advantages are gained. The controlled current
line eliminates losses due to the wire resistance (line losses), because the resistance of the
wire merely drops voltage along the line - the current remains constant (impressed current).
Also, the noise pick-up is all but eliminated by the very high noise immunity of the current
line due to the very low output loop impedance.
This allows to use a twisted pair of ordinary signal wires. The wires are twisted, so that any
noise that appears on the line will be on both lines. It can be eliminated by means of specific
electronic circuits at the input of the upstream connected instrument. (=common-mode
rejection, meaning the ability of a circuit to reject signals of equal amplitude on both input
leads.)
Current signals can be collected in the field (field junction box) and transmitted to the control
room with low-cost multi-core cables.
Summarising, it can be said that the beginning of the measuring range of any type of
analogue measurement is represented on the transmission line by a current of 4 mA (or 0
mA). The end of the measuring range of any type of measurement is represented on the
transmission line by a current of 20 mA. That means, an unscaled value in electrical units is
transmitted. To produce an indication scaled in the desired physical unit the indicator has to
be provided with the respective scale.
5.2 DEAD ZERO and LIVE ZERO
In a standard 0-20 mA the zero-point of the measuring range e.g. 0C, is represented with 0
mA (DEAD ZERO), and the end-point of the measuring range, e.g. 150
C, is represented
with 20 mA signal current. However, the signal current also becomes 0 mA (no current flow),
in case of a transmitter failure, broken cable, or loss of power.
In a standard 4-20 mA the zero-point of the measuring range e.g. 0C is represented with 4
mA (live zero) and the end-point of the measuring range e.g. 150
C with 20 mA. Therefore,

for the transmission of an analogue measurement, only a range of 16 mA is available.
A signal current of 0 mA (no current flow, or a current <4 mA), can only be caused by a
transmitter failure, broken cable or loss of power. Thus, the 2 cases FAILURE and ZERO-
POINT of MEASURING RANGE, can easily be distinguished.
An electronic circuit can monitor the measurement-loop with live zero and immediately
generate an alarm if a failure occurs.

Loop Supervisionwith
"Live Zero"
ACTUAL INDICATION: ACTUAL INDICATION:
FAILURE ! FAILURE !
(0mA) (0mA)
= LOOP IS NOT WORKING = LOOP IS NOT WORKING
"DEAD ZERO" "DEAD ZERO"
0C 0C
OR OR
FAILURE ! FAILURE !
150C
(20) (mA)
75
(10)
0
(0)
INDICATOR INDICATOR
STANDARD SIGNAL : 4...20mA STANDARD SIGNAL : 4...20mA
STANDARD SIGNAL : 0...20mA STANDARD SIGNAL : 0...20mA
(20) (mA)
150C
75
(12)
0
(4)
(0)
0C 0C
(4mA) (4mA)
= LOOP IS WORKING = LOOP IS WORKING
"LIVE ZERO" "LIVE ZERO"
(20) (mA)
150C
(4)
(0)
0
(12)
75
Similar on a computer display ! Similar on a computer display !
Under + Overflow Under + Overflow

5.3 Power supply
A 2-wire transmitter can only operate with a live zero* standard signal (4-20 mA), because
the first 4 mA are used to supply the electrical power to the 2-wire transmitter, 4-wire
transmitters are available with live zero (4-20 mA), or dead zero (0-20 mA), standard
signals.
5.4 4-wire and 2-wire transmitters
4-wire transmitters need 2 wires for the transmitter operating power supply and 2 other wires
to transmit the output signal to a remote location for indication or other purposes.
2-wire transmitters need 2 wires only to bring the power to the transmitter and to transmit the
output signal. The basic idea is to use the first 4 mA of the output signal to cover the
transmitters power consumption and the remaining 16 mA for signal transmission.
4-wire transmitters are available for any DC or AC power supply voltage. The output signal is
usually a standard signal of 4-20 mA or 0-20 mA DC. The admissible external burden can go
up to 3000; however, a typical burden is 500.
Zero and span are independently adjustable, which facilitates the commissioning and
calibration of a transmitter. To prevent electrical disturbances caused by earth-loops only
transmitters with galvanical isolation between power supply, input and output should be
applied. Where feasible interconnections between measurement loops should be avoided.
(See also the chapter Non-isolating and isolating transmitters.)
Summary
Goals and drawbacks of the 4-wire concept:
Compact transmitter, i.e. power supply is integrated in the transmitter.
Large variety of power supply voltages possible (220 V, AC, or 110 V AC is already
available at most locations of the plant).
4-wire transmitters can perform all measuring functions between very basic and very
complex.
Independent zero - and span-adjustment.
Very high external burden possible.
Output signal 4-20 mA or 0-20 mA possible.
Cabling and installation expensive, due to separate power supply cable.
The 2-wire transmitter converts the input signal to a standard output signal of 4-20 mA and
receives its power from the same 2 wires.
The output signal consists of two components:
The 4 mA component (also called live zero), is a constant drain on the remote located
power supply. This current is used to provide operating power to the transmitter.
The second component, 0-16 mA, is a variable drain on the power supply that is
proportional to the transmitters input signal, which may represent a temperature,
pressure, flow etc.

Working principle of
2-wiretransmitters
1 1 4mA Constant Current for Transmitter 4mA Constant Current for Transmitter
Operating Power Operating Power
2 2 0...16mA Variable Current, Proportional to 0...16mA Variable Current, Proportional to
the Input Signal ("Current Valve") the Input Signal ("Current Valve")
3 3 Input Amplifier Input Amplifier
4...20mA 4...20mA
+ -
OUTPUT OUTPUT
+
-
4mA 4mA
2-WIRE Transmitter 2-WIRE Transmitter
0...16mA 0...16mA
(mV) (mV)
Sensor Sensor
INPUT INPUT
+
-
1 1 2 2 3 3
Power Power
Supply Supply
Typical: Typical:
U= 24V U= 24V
+
-
R
L
-
+
500 500
Burden Burden
Typical: 0...600 Typical: 0...600
for for
24V Power Supply 24V Power Supply
or R or R
L L
U- U U- U
mi n mi n
20mA 20mA
< <
_ _

U U
mi n mi n: : Minimum voltage Minimum voltage
required by the transmitter required by the transmitter
(technically specified) (technically specified)

The sum of these two current components results in a 4-20 mA current that flows in the
measurement loop at the transmitters output. It is obvious that 2-wire transmitters may
operate only with the live-zero standard signal 4-20 mA. The typical measurement loop in
2-wire technology shows the power supply, the transmitter and the receiving elements, such
as analogue inputs, indicators, recorders etc., connected in series with the loop.
Usually the power supply is located in a clean room, e.g. in the control centre, however, the
transmitter in a dust and water-proof housing is placed in the field, next to the detecting
point.
2-wire transmitters using the most advanced electronics technology may operate with power
supply voltages between 12 V, DC and 50 V, DC. The admissible maximum burden
connected to the output loop depends on the power supply voltage.
In the 2-wire mode it is technically impossible to provide independent adjustments for zero
and span. Therefore, calibration and maintenance is slightly more time-consuming and
needs more experience compared with 4-wire transmitters.
5.5 Non-isolating and isolating transmitters
While driving grounding rods into the ground at two points several hundred meters apart and
connecting a voltmeter between them, a voltage difference becomes noticeable.

Non-Isolating Transmitter
e
.
g
.
3
0
0
M
e
t
e
r
s
e
.
g
.
3
0
0
M
e
t
e
r
s
Non-Isolatin g Non-Isolatin g
Power Suppl y Power Suppl y
Control Control
Earth Earth
-
Output Output
Input Input
Earth Potential Earth Potential
Difference Difference
(e.g. 150V) (e.g. 150V)
VOLT VOLT
230V~ 230V~
Neutral Neutral Phase Phase
Induced Error Current Induced Error Current
Don't use non-isolating transmitters ! Don't use non-isolating transmitters !
Machinery Machinery
Earth Earth
Protection Protection
Tube Tube
Gas Duct Gas Duct
ERROR ! ERROR !
Non-Isolated Non-Isolated
Thermocouple Thermocouple
+
Trafo Trafo
Earth Earth
4...20mA 4...20mA
~
=
T
=
Analogue Input Analogue Input
PLC PLC
Internal Internal
Resisto r Resisto r
e.g. 31,25 e.g. 31,25
or 125 or 125

+
-

This potential difference exists between practically any two points along the earths surface.
From this resulted voltage problems can cause when trying to measure a process at a
remote location.
It is necessary to ground the sensor at the remote site to reduce noise and to protect the
equipment from damage caused by lightning. But if grounded thermocouples are used and if
its tried to ground one side of the transmitter output loop at the control room, the voltage
difference between the two points will induce an error current along the line, resulting in an
erroneous measurement indication or in equipment damage!
To eliminate this ground loop, an isolating transmitter can be used. This type of transmitter
electrically isolates the transmitters output loop from the sensor signal as well as - in case of
a 4-wire transmitter -, from the power supply, and allows to ground both, the sensor and one
side of the output loop.

Earth Potential Earth Potential
Difference Difference
(e.g. 150V) (e.g. 150V)
VOLT VOLT
Isolating Transmitter
Use Only Isolating Transmitters ! Use Only Isolating Transmitters !
Isolated Isolated
Power Supply Power Supply
Isolated Isolated
Current Path Open ! Current Path Open !
No Induced No Induced
Error Current ! Error Current !
Output Output Input Input
230V~ 230V~
Neutral Neutral Phase Phase
Machinery Machinery
Earth Earth
Protection Protection
Tube Tube
Gas Duct Gas Duct
Thermocouple Thermocouple
Control Control
Earth Earth
-
Trafo Trafo
Earth Earth
~
=
Analogue Input Analogue Input
PLC PLC
Internal Internal
Resisto r Resisto r
e.g. 31,25 e.g. 31,25
or 125 or 125

++
-
T
=
+
4...20mA 4...20mA

Everybody knows: a transformer can transform only alternating current (AC). Actually, thats
the reason why direct currents (DC) are first converted into AC, then transformed by the
transformer and finally rectified again to obtain DC, reproducing exactly the DC at the
modules input.
Recommendation, Conclusion
The induced error current, caused by the earth potential difference or by lightning, can
cause erroneous measurements and equipment damage!
Do not use non-isolating transmitters!
The galvanical isolation in transmitter and power supply opens the induced error current
path!
Use only isolating transmitters! Galvanic isolation between signals and power supply.
6. CONTROL, ALARMING AND DISPLAY
When the signal at the desired location (e.g. central control room) arrives it has to be further
treated either for display, recording, alarm or control. In a modern cement plant the 4-20 mA
are fed directly into the Process Station (PS). This is the simplest method since any
measurement can be used for any purpose without any further effort provided a good
standard and user software is installed in the PS. How the signal is treated further can be
red in chapter Motor Control.
7. MEASUREMENT USED IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY
The cement industry uses in most cases common instruments but faces some cement
specific problems. As shown in the instrument list, the cement industry applies not too many
different types of sensors, respective measuring principles. However the tendency is
increasing.
Problems are encountered mainly with high temperature, clogging and coating. Many of
these problems can be evaded by selecting the proper instrument, respectively primary
element and/or picking a suitable location. Maintenance and regular calibration avoid break
downs and prolong the lifetime of the primary element.
Note: To facilitate easy maintenance, accessibility of the primary elements and the
transmitter is vital.
Cement specific sensors and measuring systems are illustrated in the next
chapters.
7.1 Temperature
In the cement industry generally thermocouples, PT 100 resistance bulbs and pyrometers
are used. For kiln shell measurement, temperature scanners are often applied together with
a display system. These scanner systems range from a simple pyrometer connected to a
recorder or from a scanner head connected to a PC with an elaborated software giving
information about the shell temperature, interpretation about the inside of the kiln and even a
brick management and slip detection can be included.
7.1.1 Thermocouple
Mostly applied for temperature measurement in the cement industry are thermocouples
which use the peltier effect as measurement principle. A thermocouple consists of two
dissimilar metals. Between these metals a voltage is generated. The electro-motoric force
(emf) developed by a thermocouple depends on the temperature of both, the measuring
(hot) junction and the reference (cold) junction.
Important for a thermocouple is therefore:
the type of thermocouple and the manufactures data (e.g. type K thermocouple)
the extension cable of the appropriate type (e.g. type K for type K thermocouple)
temperature range and type of thermocouple (e.g. type K for 200 - 1200C)
cold junction reference temperature 0
C, 20
C or others.
the type of protection sheath. The length of the TC as well as the protection tube should
be standardised (e.g. 800 mm and 1200 mm). The material for the sheath may however
be different for various applications since a high temperature protection sheath is very
expensive.
To calibrate a transmitter for a thermocouple, a mV source is required. This source is
connected in the measuring loop instead of the thermocouple. According the manufacturer's
data sheet, mV for 0
C and mV for the maximum temperature are fed into the loop. Then the
output of the transmitter 0
C = 4 mA and max. temperature = 20 mA are checked as well as

the display in the control room together with any alarm limits. The temperature range from -
200C up to +2000C can be covered with thermocouples.
7.1.2 Resistance bulb RTD PT 100
For lower temperature (e.g. for machine protection) resistance thermometers are used.
RTDs work on the principle of a resistance changing when the temperature varies. Mostly
used in the cement industry is the Pt 100 platinum resistance bulb. The PT 100 has a
resistance of 100 at 0
C and 158.8 at 150
C. When selecting a resistance bulb, it is

important to specify a 2-, 3- or even a 4-wire type. To compensate for the line resistance a 3-
wire type normally is sufficient. If the transmitter is installed nearby, even a 2-wire bulb is
good enough.

Q:\sek-pbu\Kurse\zem-kurs\Folien\B07C05FD KO/ip
1 1 2 2
HEAT HEAT HEAT HEAT
Cable Cable
= Lead resistance = Lead resistance
R R
2 2
R R
3 3
= =
R R
1 1
R R
x x
1 1
R R
x x
3 3 2 2
R R
3 3
R R
1 1
R R
2 2
R R
x x
Source Source
R R
x x
R R
1 1
R R
2 2
R R
3 3
R R
x x
Source Source

To calibrate a transmitter for a PT 100 a resistance decade is required. This resistance box
is connected in the measuring loop instead of the PT 100. According the data sheet the base
resistance (e.g. 100 for PT 100) for 0
C and the maximum resistance for the maximum

temperature (e.g. 158.8 for PT 100) are fed into the loop. Then the output of the transmitter
0
C = 4 mA and max. temperature = 20 mA are checked as well as the display in the control
room together with any alarm limits. PT 100 transmitters require initial calibrations of the
entire loop. After that only an occasional check up is required. With PT 100 bulbs
temperatures from -250C up to +1000C are measurable.
7.1.3 Pyrometer
The cement industry uses two types of pyrometers. The radiation pyrometer which detects
radiation through an optical lens system onto the thermopile or photo cell and the two colour
ratio pyrometer which compares the ratio of the radiation intensity of two different wave
lengths.
7.1.4 Scanner
The central feature of a scanner is a motor driven optical system which scans the entire kiln
with a certain frequency (e.g. 16 Hz). The front of the scanner measures parallel along the
axis of the kiln, in the back of the scanner a reference temperature is used to calibrate the
system.
7.2 Pressure
Pressure can be measured either as liquid column (e.g. U-tube) with a mechanical principle
(e.g. diaphragm, burden tube) or electrically (e.g. piezo crystal, strain gauge). The pressure
measured in the cement industry is usually very low. Therefore, the differential pressure
(gage pressure that is the difference between the absolute pressure and the atmosphere) is
measured. Most pressure transmitters applied in the cement industry are of the mechanical
type where one side is connected to the process and the other side is left open to the
atmosphere.
Drawing F44570-1 is a typical example of a differential pressure measurement. The bellows
are subjected to a pressure change and move, via mechanical links, a plunger in an
electrical field. The electronic senses the movement and converts the change in the field into
an electrical standard signal.
To avoid problems with pressure transmitters some installation points have to be observed:
Location: locate the transmitter near the pressure tapping easy
accessible. Mostly applied as unit by the manufacturer.
Process line: the pressure tapping can be above or below the transmitter.
In any case the process line must be installed such that no
water or dirt can accumulate. Thus, always have at least 2%
slope in the process line. If the tapping is above the
transmitter a water trap is required.
Tapping: install a tapping in such a way that cleaning is easily
possible. Thus, a simple removable cover should allow
pocking of the process tapping.
In large ducts two or more tappings connected with each
other give a better result.
To calibrate a pressure transmitter a pressure source is required. This source is connected
in the measuring loop on the primary side of the transmitter. To check the zero both sides of
the transmitter are left open to the atmosphere. To check the maximum, an equivalent
pressure (or vacuum) is applied. The output of the transmitter 0 kPa = 4 mA and max.
pressure = 20 mA are checked as well as the display in the control room together with any
alarm limits.

7.3 Flow (gas and liquids)
Flow measurement is thoroughly discussed in the corresponding paper of the process
technology department.
7.4 Level
Level measurements, whether continuous or just as level alarms are often applied and often
not 100% satisfactory. A poll carried out in 1992 querying the performance of the different
level measurements in some 30 factories showed results from very satisfactory to useless.
Depending on the method applied, the installation and the maintenance the same level
measurement is rated different with regards to performance. The following level
measurements are used successfully in the cement industry. Some mechanical types like
paddle, ball etc. are not explained since their function is very simple.
7.4.1 Capacity probe
The capacity probe uses the measuring principle of two plates being isolated by a
dielectricum where the capacitance depends on the area of the plates, the distance
between the plates and the medium between the plates the dielectricum. When installing a
capacity probe, the plates (the probe and the silo wall) are fixed and the distance is fix
provided, the probe is mounted properly. The variation in the measuring loop is therefore the
dielectricum which is formed either by material between probe and wall or air. The
following problems may occur thus hampering the performance:
sticky material on the probe. This can be avoided using the proper type of level probe
that is insulated or partly insulated probes.
probe installed too close to silo wall thus evoking bridging.
sensitivity adjusted to fine. Humidity in the air or in the material changes the property of
the dielectricum.
mechanical damage may result from coarse material or from sheer force. (E.g. coal dust
has very high sheer force). Use an other measuring principle or use an insulated
capacity probe.
7.4.2 Vibration
The vibration fork level probe is only used for a single point measurement. A driver induces a
vibration in the probe and a controller senses a change when material dampens the
vibration. The tuning fork is obtainable in two forms, one being the actual fork and the other
in form of a tube. The following problems may occur thus hampering the performance:
material stuck between the fork. Use a tube type to avoid this problem mostly occurring
with coarse material.
material coating the probe. Use the fork type probe since this problem takes place mainly
with fine material.
7.4.3 Electro mechanical
Quite successful practice is the level measurement with the so called silo pilot. A rope or
measuring tape connected to a weight is lowered into the silo. As soon as the weight
touches the material surface, the rope (tape) tension ceases, the motor reverses and pulls
the weight back into its original position. During the upward travel the tape is measured,
such giving an indication of the level within the silo. The following points have to be
considered by using a silo pilot:
position on top of the silo so that no material can fall onto the weight. When lowering the
weight it should be in the centre of the material cone.
access to the rope respective belt and the weight must be easy. Install an inspection
door to assist maintenance.
select the proper weight for the corresponding material
7.4.4 Contactless level probes
Several methods allow level measurement without being in contact with the material. Ultra
sonic is the most popular and is used with coarse material, e.g. gypsum, limestone. In
connection with dust in the sonic beam or on the material surface <40C, e.g. cement, raw
meal, this method should not be applied. Level can be measured up to 45 m under good
conditions. Rather new on the market are infrared and radar. With infrared no experience
has been gained. Good experiences have been gained with radar in environment where
ultrasonic fails. In clinker and in raw material silos the measurement with radar proved to be
successful even with high dust load. In raw meal the measurement did not work and the
problem seems to be the conductivity. Only material with a certain conductivity respective a
low dielectricum can reflect the radar beam. Up to now only measurements for 35 m depth
are available. This is due to the strength of the source which must be within the limit of the
wireless regulation of the respective country. The radar method works in a temperature
range of -40C up to +250C.
7.4.5 Radiation level probes
Well-known and well-proven are the nuclear type of level probes. From a measurement
technical point of view no restrictions are known. In most cases where all other methods fail
the nuclear level probe serves well almost maintenance free. In many countries, however,
importing or handling the source is very difficult. Additionally the disposal of the source is in
many cases almost impossible and requires a lot of responsibility of the person in charge.
And more restriction for the future are to be expected.
An alternative (even in the pre-heater cyclones) offers the micro wave level measurement.
The arrangement is similar to the nuclear level measurement a microwave source on the
one side and a detector on the other side. The microwaves beam of approx. 20
o
angle, some
5.8 GHz or as high as 24.125 GHz penetrates any non-conductive material. The maximum
distance through air is around 8 m.
Alternative measurements around the corner are possible if the space is limited. The
installation must be such that a light beam would be properly reflected.

Q:\sek-pbu\Kurse\zem-kurs\Folien\B07C05FD KO/ip
Micr owaveinsteadof nuclear
level detector
Reflector Reflector
parallel with parallel with
the source the source
and detector and detector
Source Source
Detector Detector
Window: Window:
Cut metal to Cut metal to
size of brick size of brick
Guide plate and distance Guide plate and distance
to protect source and to protect source and
detector from heat detector from heat
Source Source Detector Detector
Preheater Preheater
lining lining
Source Source Detector Detector
Reflector Reflector No metallic wall No metallic wall
= =
= =

Microwave level measurements are sensitive to moisture. In fact, microwave is used as well
for moisture measurement. The microwave source is so weak, that no danger comes from
the measurement. (No cooking can be done with this microwave source, the energy emitted
is less than 25 mW.)
7.5 Weighing
Weighing and weigh feeder play an important role in the cement industry. To produce a good
cement quality, accurate weigh feeding of the different components is important. To bill the
customer agreeable again, weighing plays the key role. Already these two important
requirements show that for weighing two different ways are possible: the static weighing
(weigh bridge) and the dynamic weighing (weigh feeder).
The weigh bridge at the factory entrance is regarded as the most important and accurate
unit. The weigh bridge is in many countries subjected to stringent government regulation and
must be checked and calibrated on a regular base. For weigh bridges the measuring
principle applied is usually one or several load cells. Due to the strict government roles and
due to the simple measurement principle these scales usually are fairly accurate.
Small bins are as well placed onto load cells to weigh the contents. And, as long as the
construction is suitable, that is three load cells, free moving construction and protection
against wind, the measurement can be very accurate. The total weight (xy tons in the bin)
may not be accurate but loss in weight is accurate. Thus, for calibration of a weigh feeder or
for volumetric weigh feeding a loss in weight is well-qualified.
The next important weighing principle is the continuous measurement of material to
constantly feed an accurate amount of material, the dynamic weighing with weigh feeder.
Several principles are applied with different accuracy, different efforts for maintenance and
different prices.
Thus when selecting the weigh feeder the following points must be taken into consideration:
Accuracy required.
Mechanical suitability for the material and the environment.
Space availability (height and area). Especially building height can be reduced (cost
saving) with certain weighing arrangements and weighing principles.
Signal availability and signal transmission. (4-20 mA and digital signals or
communication via a bus system).
Maintenance that is time interval between calibration, access for calibration e.g. re-
routing of material onto a lorry, cleaning required, complexity of the control, spare parts
etc.
Measurement principle.
Silo discharge system. Most problems of inaccurate weighing arise from poor flowing
material.
7.5.1 Belt weigher
The most common measuring principle applied in the cement industry is the belt weigher. A
section of the belt runs over idlers supported by a frame section placed onto load cells.
The weight over this belt section multiplied with the speed represents the feed rate Q = P * v
whereas:
Q = feed rate [t/h]
P = weight per width [kg/m]
v = speed [m/h]
This principle is well-known and if maintained properly very accurate (error < 1%)

Q:\sek-pbu\Kurse\zem-kurs\Folien\B07C05FE KO/ip
Setpoint
Feedrate indication
4-20mA
Totalizer
1.2 m/s
Weighfeeder
22kg
P
Q= P* v
v
Q
Q
mA
=
=
x
+
-
=
~
~
~
Variable
Speed
Drive
PID
=
mV
=
G
DC

Also different methods of calibration are offered, but only the following are accurate and
repeatable: Run for e.g. 5 minutes material onto a lorry, weigh the lorry and calculate the
feed rate weight x 12 (if the calibration time was 5 min.). Thus when designing the weigh
feeders a means to calibrate onto a lorry must be included or alternatively weigh bins above
the feeders to calibrate with the loss in weight method which is a very accurate method too.
7.5.2 Gravimetric feed system
A gravimetric feed system is mainly used for coal feeders. This weighing system is complex
but accurate. A bin on load cells is rapidly charge with material. The filling then stops and for
n seconds the bin is emptied. (t
n
= discharge time depending on bin size).
When reaching a certain low level the bin is recharged again and during this time the speed
of the discharge feeder is maintained at the previous feed rate. The feed rate Q is calculated
by the formula:
Q =
m = loss of weight during t
n
[kg]
t
n
= discharge time [s]
Modern systems calculate the feed rate during a very short time period and take the whole
time to calibrate the system. The accuracy of such a system is < 1%. The maintenance
however is high and the system is complex.

Fast filling Fast filling
dm
dt
f
U
Calculation differenciation Calculation differenciation
tons tons
Bin weight Bin weight
Totalizer Totalizer Controller Controller
Load zell Load zell
t/h t/h
Feedrate Feedrate
Gravimetric Gravimetric
Feedrate Feedrate
Time t Time t
Filling weight m Filling weight m
Volumetric Volumetric
Feed Feed
10 Min. 10 Min. 0 Min. 0 Min.
0 Tons 0 Tons
100 Tons 100 Tons
M
=
G

Gravimetric / Volumetric FeedSystem

7.5.3 Volumetric feeders
A simple method is a volumetric feeder. The accuracy is largely dependent on the feeder
itself and on the flow property of the material. Depending on the required accuracy, a
periodic calibration onto a lorry is needed. If a higher accuracy is required a weigh bin has to
be introduced prior to the feeder and a similar measuring method as mentioned in the
gravimetric flow measurement has to be applied.

Rotary feeder Rotary feeder
Air Transport
Q= P* v Q= P* v
Transport Transport
Feedbin Feedbin

7.5.4 Impact flow meter
A controversial measurement is the weight measurement with an impact flow meter. Material
flows on to a plate which in turn is placed on a load cell. The impact on to the plate is
proportional to the impact created by a mass falling from a height h. The impact is in practice
also depending on the flow properties of the material which in turn is depending on various
factors. Thus, this measurement requires a fair amount of mechanical design around the
actual measurement. Dedusting, the feed to and away from the impact flow meter are crucial
for the accuracy of the measurement.

Local indicator Local indicator
Remote Remote
indicator indicator
(4-20mA) (4-20mA)
Totalizer Totalizer
m m
F F h h
F deflection F deflection
F deflection F deflection
measured measured
resulting resulting
force F force F
t / h
mA
V
f

In practice the impact flow meter is mostly applied together with a pre bin arranged with load
cells. This arrangement allows an automatically periodical calibration of the flow meter, in
order to compensate sticking material at the plate.
7.5.5 Nuclear weigh feeder
Weighing with nuclear weigher is nothing new in the cement industry but is and remains a
controversial measurement. Although, a simple and reliable measurement the import and the
disposal of the nuclear source is problem. A nuclear weigher consists of a gamma source
and a gamma ray detector. Both are connected on a mechanical frame which is located
across the conveyor. The beauty is that almost any conveyor (e.g. belt, apron feeder, screw
conveyor etc.) can be fitted with an A or C frame nuclear weigher. Even in an existing
installation does the installation of an A or C frame seldom present a problem.
A nuclear weigh feeder determines the weight by measuring the absorption of the material.
Every material absorbs radiation according the exponential law. The absorption is
proportional to the thickness and the density of the material bed. The absorption is then
related to the mass of the material which, when multiplied with the speed, results in the mass
flow.
The main absorption (basic absorption Ag) is in many cases given by the construction. The
absorption with a given density is then proportional with the bed thickness (Am). To receive
good results the absorption Ag should not be larger than 95%.

100% 100%
100% 100%
0% 0%
Depth of material Depth of material
A A
m m
A A
g g
Absorption Absorption
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
Nuclear Weigher
1 1 nuclear source nuclear source
2 2 radiation radiation
3 3 material bed material bed
4 4 conveyor conveyor
5 5 detector detector
A Am m Absorption by the Absorption by the
material material
A Ag g Absorption by the Absorption by the
conveyor belt and conveyor belt and
structure structure

Due to a less thick material bed (3) the absorption measured by the detector (5) is lower.
The absorption (2) by the conveyor (4) is remaining constant and calibrated as zero.
When installing an nuclear weigher the following points should be taken into consideration:
import regulation for nuclear devices
disposal of nuclear sources
building and conveyor construction
basic absorption (Ag)
electronic with source decay compensation
even material flow (an irregular bed which influences the measurement negatively)
the initial accuracy is around 2% remaining constant even with hardly any maintenance.
7.5.6 Head flow meter
In an air lift the air pressure measured is more or less proportional to the amount of material
transported. However, pressure influence other than the amount of material is coming from
dedusting and from pressure changes from the system following the air lift (e.g. pre-heater
and kiln). The head flow meter as an indication to the material flow is quite acceptable.
7.6 Analytical measurements
For further information, please refer to the appropriate paper Quality assurance in the
material technology II.
7.7 Electrical energy and power measurements
7.7.1 Introduction
In the cement industry, the topic Energy will become more and more important. - In the
past until today the price for electrical energy is still low enough that nobody cares to much.
But the near future will show us the opposite. The energy consumption will still increase but
the energy production cannot follow this rising demand. Thus a bottle-neck will occur. The
power companies have already started to think about increasing energy prices and how to
introduce new tariff structures (Energy Exchange). Consequently, we have at least to
stabilise our energy consumption or, even better, decrease the consumption. The first step
will be to measure before other steps can be taken. - The following chapter treats this topic.
7.7.2 Definition of energy and power
What is electrical energy?
Energy, generally, is stored work or the ability to perform work. Electric energy (W
el
) is
potential energy or expressed in an other way, the product of electric voltage (U) and electric
charge (Q). The electric charge can be replaced by the product of current and time (W
el
= U
* Q = U * I * t; whereas I = current and t = time). The electric energy is comparable to energy
of position in the mechanic that is:
potential difference: height -> voltage U.
quantity: weight -> electric charge Q.
The unit is volt-ampere-second [VAs] or in a more practical way kilo-watt-hour [kWh]. One
kWh is equal to 3.6 MJ [860 kcal].
What is electric power?
To express performance the work to complete is related to the time required to do it. Similar,
the more powerful a machine is, the more work can be done in a shorter time.
Thus, the power is proportional to the work and inverse proportional to the time to complete
the job. The electric power (P) is the product of voltage (U) and current (I). At the first sight,
there is no time any more in the formula, but the definition of the current is the relation
between the transported charge quantity and the time. The electric power is comparable to
the mechanical power. For example, the power of a hydro power plant is dependent on the
height of fall (voltage) and the flux (current). - The unit is volt-ampere [VA] or more practical
kilo-watt [kW].
Apparent, actual, reactance
The power companies bill in most cases the actual energy only. To avoid producing too
much apparent energy, they demand a power factor correction between 0.87 and up to 0.9.
Few power companies ask for a reactance energy meter and if certain values are surpassed
adjust the bill accordingly. Some power companies bill the client already according the
apparent energy (measured actual and reactive energy). And this may be the future method
of accounting the client since a power company has to produce the apparent power and not
only the actual power.
Using a mechanical diagram the three electrical components: apparent (resultant), actual
(linear) and reactive (lateral) are explained.
The following picture explains the three different electrical components, apparent, actual and
reactive current. Whether current, power or energy is used is immaterial for this example.

I I = apparent current = apparent current S= apparent power S= apparent power
I I
p p = actual current = actual current P= actual power P= actual power
I I
q q = reactive (idle) current = reactive (idle) current Q= reactive power Q= reactive power
I I
I I
p p
I I
q q

U U

When looking at the force diagram the energy required to pull the spring is obviously the
linear force F
p
(electrical actual force). The spring is subjected to the following two forces:
The lateral force F
Q
(electrically reactive force) which is not required.
The resultant force F (electrically apparent force) has to be produced in order to gain
sufficient momentum to pull the spring apart.

F F = resultant (actual) force = resultant (actual) force
F F
p p = linear force = linear force
F F
q q = lateral force = lateral force
F F
F F
p p
F F
q q

spring spring

When measuring an electric circuit with a transducer the actual power is measured which is
required to drive a machine. The power company in turn produces the apparent power. If the
cosine is multiplied with the apparent power, the result is the actual power. The difference
between the produced and the consumed power is the reactive power.

Apparent power S = U * I [VA] or [kVA]
Actual power P = U * I * cos
P = S * cos
[W] or [kW]
Reactive power Q = U * I * sin [var] or [kvar]
Why measure?
As already mentioned, Electrical Energy centributes 20-30 % of the cement production cost.
Thus electric energy is important factor as a production component in the cement
industry. It is therefore imperative to measure the energy consumption in order to be able to
determine solutions to save energy and thus maintaining the costs at least at the present
level.
The energy consumption [kWh] and the specific energy consumption [kWh/t] are even units
to compare for example departments in different plants or different types of machines (e.g.
ball mill/vertical mill) to each other.
Where to measure?
Drawing E310015 shows the process structure in a cement plant which is ideally
represented with the corresponding electrical structure and thus the ideal energy measuring
points.
The measuring points are arranged in different levels:
Main entrance-level; measuring point for charging by power company
At this point, the local power company measures the total consumption of the plant; it should
also be a comparable-measuring of the plant; but attention, the result has not to be the same
(two measuring circuits).
Department-level;
Every department should be measured separately to have an overview of the electric
consumption in the different departments. Likewise for large consumers which are
directly connected to the medium voltage distribution.
Process/Non-process-level;
It is necessary to measure the non-process part to distinguish between process- and
non-process-consumers. Since less measuring points are used for non-process
measurement, costs can be reduced by measuring the
Total - non-process = process. (see drawing E310015)
Special consumer-level;
This level contains consumers of special interest from an energy point of view.
Energy-/power metering in a cement plant

ENERGY-/POWER METERING I NA CEMENT PLANT
Crusher Crusher Raw Mill Raw Mill Kiln Kiln Dispatch Dispatch
Cement Cement
Mill Mill
MV
HV
LV
P
NP
LV
Main incomer -
level
Department
level
Process/non process -
level
Special consumer -
level
Legend:
= Charging measuring point
= Measuring point
HV = High voltage
MV = Medium voltage
LV = Low voltage
NP = Non process
P = Process
= Consumer (drives, .....)
M
LV LV LV LV
M M M
P
NP
M M M
P
M M M
P
M M M
P
M M M
P
M M M M M M
NP NP NP NP

If all these measuring points are counted together, the total will be around 50. But in practice
it is very difficult to find such an electric distribution. So in reality the amount of measuring
points will increase to 500 points which will be rather costly. The conclusion is, that
measuring starts with proper electrical departments thus a proper distribution.
How to measure energy?
Today there are two measurement principles for electric energy, a direct measuring method
and an indirect one. - An important criterion is the measuring principle. The method applied
depends on the kind of load, the connected voltage (voltage - and/or current transformer
necessary) and the accuracy required. The figure F44942 shows different connection
diagrams for the measuring method with kWh-meter. The same principle is utilised for a
power transducer.
kWh-meter (direct measuring method)
The kWh-meter forms with the current-path and the voltage-path a mechanical torque, which
is proportional to the electric power. This torque sets the metering disc in a corresponding
number of turns per unit of time. The multiplication with the time to receive energy, follows
with the addition of the number of rotations. The kWh-meter shall be equipped with an on/off
output module. This module includes a pulse contact system and a pulse amplifier, suitable
for further handling in a control system. For example; In the control system, the energy will
be calculated with the time between two pulses. The practice shows that this digital method
is not such exact than the method described below. - The above described measuring
method is the principle of Ferraris-counter or eddy current motor.
Today more and more static kWh-meters are utilised. The same measuring method is done
in an electronic way and not any more in an electro mechanical way, but there is still a pulse
contact output.
Power transducer (indirect measuring method)
The power transducer measures current and voltage separately and calculates internally the
electric power. The output signal is an analogue signal (4-20 mA) for electric power. This
analogue signal is an input in the control system where the signal is integrated with the time
which results in a more accurate measurement as opposed to a pulse-signal from a kWh-
meter.
Process measurement display
The display of the energy measurement is just as important as the measurement itself. The
measurement has to be displayed in form of power or energy as well as specific energy
measurement (e.g. for the raw mill kWh per ton of raw meal. The display is further
described in chapter MMI, Visualisation.

Q:\sek-pbu\Kurse\Zem-Kurs\Folien\B07C05FF KO/ip
Power Measurement/Connection
Diagramsfor kWh-Meters
( EG. DC-Drives, Light, Non Process, ... )
Direct Connection Connection with Current-
and Voltage-Transformers
(N) Single Phase Network (N) Single Phase Network
S
R
5 3 2 1
L K
l k
V
v
U
u
V
v
R
S
5 3 2 1
( EG. AC-Drives, Motor Control Center , ... )
Three Phase Network
with Symmetrical Load
Three Phase Network
with Symmetrical Load
R
S
T
8 5 3 2 1
R
S
T
8 5 3 2 1
L K
l k
V V
v
v
U U
u
u
Three Phase Network
with Asymmetrical Load
Three Phase Network
with Asymmetrical Load
R
S
T
9 8 7 5 3 2 1
R
S
T
L K
l k
9 8 7 5 3 2 1
L K
l k
V V
v
v
U U
u
u

7.8 Field devices
Just as important as analogue instruments are the on/off sensors, control and field devices.
Most measuring principles as described in the previous sections are available as on/off
devices. Few on/off sensors are available as smart sensors and even less can be connected
to a bus (Profibus). The problems encountered with field devices are similar as with
analogue instruments and the same provision has to be made as with the analogue
instruments. Sensors like limit switches, pressure switches, speed switches etc. are
available in different price classes. Do not feel tempted to buy cheap sensors as the money
saved will be spent tenfold on maintenance and on down time. Only the best is good
enough. And only the best installation will give acceptable performance. And where possible
replace on/off sensors with analogue sensors.

Chapter 6
Technical Information System (TIS)

TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (TIS)
By Urs A. Herzog & Felix Fehr, CE

1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 234
2. PROCESS INFORMATION MANAGEMENT.................................................................. 234
2.1 Introduction to the Improvement Process................................................................. 234
2.2 Importance of information for decision making......................................................... 235
2.3 Process Information which is relevant for plant performance improvement ............. 235
3. TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS (TIS) .............................................................. 237
3.1 Types of Automation- and Information System in a plant, Definitions...................... 237
3.2 Principle of a Technical Information System (TIS) ................................................... 238
3.2.1 General ............................................................................................................. 238
3.2.2 Tasks (requirements) of a TIS........................................................................... 239
3.2.3 Structure and Integration of a TIS..................................................................... 241
3.3 TIS Systems and Suppliers...................................................................................... 242
4. TIS APPLICATIONS AND EXPERIENCES.................................................................... 243
4.1 TIS System installed and planned in Holcim plants ................................................. 243
4.1.1 System installed and running............................................................................ 243
4.1.2 System planned to be installed (Project approved)........................................... 243
4.2 Some Specific Applications and Experiences, Benefits ........................................... 243
4.2.1 Alsen Breitenburg Zement - und Kalkwerke GmbH, Lgerdorf, Germany ........ 243
4.2.2 Buendner Cement AG, Untervaz, Switzerland.................................................. 245
4.2.3 Holnam: Holly Hill, Clarksville, Dundee, Artesia; USA...................................... 246
5. TYPICAL PROJECT SCHEDULE AND SCOPE OF SUPPLY....................................... 247
5.1 Project Schedules (typical)....................................................................................... 247
5.2 Scope of supply (typical) .......................................................................................... 247
6. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION...................................................................................... 250
6.1 Results, Benefits ...................................................................................................... 250
6.2 Conclusion................................................................................................................ 251
7. REFERENCES:............................................................................................................... 252

1. INTRODUCTION
Since a few years the cement industry is under continuous pressure to optimise their
production in general. One reason is to lower production cost, another is to minimise the use
of energy and fulfil the emission limits of new environmental protection legislation. Also
cement market asks for new products and product properties, therefore production
modification and expansion must be realised in short time.
To be able to act and react to this continuous challenge, management and personnel
responsable of plant operation must have access to the relevant information about their
production, and production equipment.
Beside the three classical production resources: manpower, capital, real estate, predictions
are that information will soon be the forth.
Therefore Information Management Concepts and tools which support the user to get and
analyse this information, are getting more and more important:
This paper gives an overview of modern Process Information Management, of available
Information Systems and some experience of applications of such Information Systems.
2. PROCESS INFORMATION MANAGEMENT
2.1 Introduction to the Improvement Process
Market competence and changing regulations forces company and plant management to
optimise continuously the cement manufacturing process to increase production, improve
the equipment performance, reduce the use of energy, reduce the amount of necessary
man-hours, in summary lower the overall production cost of our product the cement.
In general, optimisation and improvement is based on the following facts: (according Jim
Harrington).
If you want to improve it, you have to control it !
If you want to control it, you have to understand it !
If you want understand it, you have to measure it !
The three activities: measurement, understanding (to analyse data and to come to a
conclusion) and control form together the Improvement Loop. Improvement is only
sustainable if this improvement loop is executed continuously.
Corporate programs as BCM or MAC fully relay on this improvement loop (e.g KPI
measurement, reporting, action meetings, etc.).
Nowadays (since the invention of modern computers) some of Improvement Loop tasks can
be executed automatically. The most time consuming and boring task of process data
acquisition, raw data handling and report compiling can be done with a computer system.
Plant personnel can be used for analysing information and for decision making. This is a
more adequate challenge for a human being than coping numbers.
2.2 Importance of information for decision making
The basis for management to make the daily operational and the medium term tactical
decision, is information. Information coming from the process and process related actions as
quality control, dispatch, emission monitoring and others.
If the plant or company management want to act - proactively or reactively - they need
information. The more they fine tune the operation (e.g: BCM) and the more they optimise
the risks (e.g: MAC), the more comprehensive, reliable, accurate and direct must the
information they base there decisions on be.
A modified quotation from a Japanese Business Expert (name unknown) says it quite direct:
Information is a key success factor for business
some Managers know this
others are learning
the rest will be Victims.

2.3 Process Information which is relevant for plant performance improvement
For the daily plant operation, as well as for medium and long term plant performances
monitoring and improvement the different responsibilities in a plant need the following type
of information on hourly, day, week, month and year basis.:
Company / Plant
Management
What is the plant performance this day / week / month /
year?
Where is the biggest improvement potential?
How are we compared to the others (benchmarking)
Production
What is the production rate, consumption, actual stock of
materials?
Process
Does the process / equipment runs optimal? - Why not?
Maintenance
What are the equipment runtimes, machine conditions,
failures rates? - Failure reasons?
Quality
What is the quality level of our product? Why is it in / out of
specification?
Energy
What are the specific energy consumption? - Tendencies?
Environment
What are the emissions? Are we endangered to exceed
limits?

In more general terms, the plant personnel needs a tool which provides:
Relevant Information
at the Right Time
at the Right Place
in the Right Form
to the Right People
This simple but important statement (from: Rauli Hantikainen) describes the basic
requirement of adequate Information Management.
A computer systems which can fulfil the above mentioned requirements has to be
based on a integrated Database incorporating data sets from all technical related
plant disciplines:
Figure 1:

ENERGY
Monitoring
QUALITY
Lab Data
PROCESS
Optimization
LINKman
SPC
OPERATION
Production
Quality
Stock
GATEWAY
Link to Administration
Summary Reports
MAINTENANCE
Running Hours
Failures
Equipment Condition
ENVIRONMENT
Emission
Wastefuel
DB
DAILY OPERATION
REPORT 14MARCH 92
PRODUCTION
- - - - - - -
- - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - -
RUNTIME
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - -
SALES
-- -- --- --- - - - -
-- -- --- --- - - -
SPECITIC
CONSUMPTION
---------------------------------
STORAGE
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
QUALITY
0
2
4
6
8
10
OIL

Such system are called: Technical Information System.
3. TECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS (TIS)
In the past, most of the management's planning and optimisation was based on different
data printouts, recorder charts and manually generated reports. But nowadays tools and
system concept are available to get immediate and accurate information on there desk top in
seconds.
3.1 Types of Automation- and Information System in a plant, Definitions
In this paper common industry term as CIM- and ERP- System are used. They are
indispensable for describing and defining the architectures and system concepts that are
involved in plant wide Information Management system solutions. Their definition is found
just below:
CIM = Computer-Integrated Manufacturing systems:
A series of computer-based systems, both business and technical, integrated into a single
conceptual solution. A CIM system is comprised of components and elements of both
ERP and TIS systems (see next), as well as the different automation systems like
process control, high level control, quality control (lab), etc.
ERP = Enterprise Resource Planning system:
A integrated, networked computer system providing (primarily) business functions and
some manufacturing functions. An ERP system mostly provides also the information link
between the company headquarters (HQ) and the plant. In most Holcim Group
Companies the product SAP R/3 is implemented (or planned) as a ERP system.
TIS = Technical Information System:
A integrated, networked, real-time computer systems providing (primarily) manufacturing
functions. Its real-time data base technology merge all plant automation data with data
from the non-technical (or business) systems within a Plant. By capturing live
information about the manufacturing process as, sensor measurement, set-points, run-
times, throughput, yields, etc., a TIS can measure constraints and identify bottlenecks to
better manage and control manufacturing processes (see also decryption in chapter 3.2).

(In some industries the term MES, Manufacturing Execution System, is uses also).
The sketch below shows the structure and interactions of the different mentioned systems.
Figure 2:

Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)
Systems - Hierarchy Systems - Hierarchy
Legend: Legend: CIM = Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (system); ERP = Enterprise Resource Planning; TIS = Technical Information System; CIM = Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (system); ERP = Enterprise Resource Planning; TIS = Technical Information System;
LAB = Laboratory Information System; PCS = Process Control System; (others) as EMS = Emission Monitoring System and LAB = Laboratory Information System; PCS = Process Control System; (others) as EMS = Emission Monitoring System and
HLC = High Level Control Systems; DISP = Automatic Dispatch System HLC = High Level Control Systems; DISP = Automatic Dispatch System
Company Company
Management Level Management Level
day / month day / month
Corporate HQ Corporate HQ
(How is (How is
business business
running ?) running ?)
Plants Plants
(How is plant (How is plant
running ?) running ?)
ERP ERP
ERP ERP
TIS TIS
LAB LAB PCS PCS (others) (others) DISP DISP
Works Management Works Management
Level Level
hour / day hour / day
minutes / hour minutes / hour
Production and Production and
Process Control Level Process Control Level
seconds / minutes seconds / minutes

3.2 Principle of a Technical Information System (TIS)
3.2.1 General
In the CIM pyramid, a TIS is locate between the Company / Works Management Level
(ERP) and Production / Process Control Level (Plant Automation). The interaction between
those levels is as follows:
The tactical and strategic decision are made in the higher levels:
The computer systems on these levels must provide to management business data
and compiled and summarised plant information (process, production, equipment
and quality) (time range: days, month, years).
Operation of the plant is done from the lower level systems.
The computer systems on these levels must provide to plant responables immediate
accurate real-time process and process related information. (time range: seconds to
hours).
A TIS System does the automatic data acquisition and data pre-processing. It provides
tools for data evaluation, create reports, graphs and tables, for status and performance
analysis. It also serves as a data interface between Operation and Managing Level of a
plant and company.
3.2.2 Tasks (requirements) of a TIS
Data Acquisition
Data from the process and process related tasks, e.g as material handling, product shipment
and quality determination is the basis for compiling the above mentioned information. In a
up-to-date cement plant most of this data are already automatically measured by a computer
based Process Control System (PCS) and other Automation systems (High Level Control,
Lab, Dispatch, Emission, etc.). In a standard set-up of a 3000 to 5000 tones per day plant,
the PCS measures and handles roughly 600 analog sensor, 600 counters and integrators
and up to 15000 alarm and event messages. Data acquisition, data processing and
visualisation is done in real time (milliseconds to seconds). Historical data is normally
presented to the operator in graphic trend charts and data historian is stored for playback for
up to a week, sometime month. The PCS capability is very limited for tasks, as long term
data storage and retrieval, history archiving, data consolidation and report generation.
Furthermore data from the lab analyser and dispatch system are normally not interfaced to
the PCS. Data acquisition scan time from data of all above mentioned automation system is
between 10 to 60 seconds.
Data Pre-Processing, Storage and Archiving
All the automatic read in data, is filtered and pre-processed according data type (e.g.
integration of a kW signal to kWh, conversion of silo distance measurements to silo level,
combination of a cement type signal and a material flow signal to a amount of finish good
produced, calculation of specific fuel consumption out of heat content, flow of fuel, kiln feed
and clinker factor etc.).
The different type of scanned and calculated values are then stored in integrated, real-time
Database. The data storage structure is optimised for a huge amount of data to be read and
retrieved in very short time. Archiving and retrieving to and from a tape or disk unit must be
possible under on-line conditions. Raw data lifetime on harddisk is normally 6 to 12 month,
on tape between 1 to 10 years (in some special cases as emission data for the EPA, archive
data lifetime, must be guaranteed for up to 30 years).
Especially a fast and user-friendly data retrieving engine is important. Otherwise the data is
buried in a Data Graveyard with no use at all. A short estimate of the total amount of data on
such a system emphasise the importance of this statement:
Scan time = 1 minute, analog measurements = 1200 tags, amount of alarm and event
messages (132 char.) per minute = 1 data lifetime (on disk) = 1 year.
(4 Bytes per number, 1 Byte per character, 4 Bytes per message)
per minute: ==> (1200 * 4) + (132 * 1) + 4 = 5000 Bytes
per day: ==> 60 * 24 * 5000 = 7.2 Mbytes
per year: ==> 365 * 7.2 MB = 2.6 GB (Data Storage Capacity)
Data Evaluation
To analyse this big amount of data it is indispensable to applies specific methods and tools
to transfer the raw data to useful information (remember the difficulties to analyse the pyro-
process with data on multiple, endless paper charts strips with no physical scale, date, and
remarks on it).
A state-of-the-art TIS provides most of the following Data Analysis and Reporting tools:
Plant Overview Display
Gives plant management an immediate overview over actual plant- and equipment-
operation.
Daily / week / month / year Manufacturing Report
Summary Report with information about the process, production, equipment status,
material stock, quality, shipment etc.. Medium and long-term performance
monitoring.
Operation Log Reports:
Short term production and process performance monitoring
Trend graphs
Actual - and historical process status and performances
Alarm List and Alarm Statistic
Shows actual and historical equipment failures and gives maintenance personnel an
overview of equipment problems.
List of running hours, production numbers and process values
Enables plant personnel to plan production and maintenance schedules; For special
situations also Ad-Hoc analysis can be done and special Reports (Emissions for
EPA, ATR for Holcim, etc.) can be created.
Statistical Analysis as Charts, Correlation, Pareto
For Quality control, process optimisation and maintenance support.
Manual Data Entry and Data Modification Capability
For the calculation in the pre-processing (see above) the TIS needs manual entered plant
constant. Examples of such plant constants are: clinkerfactor, raw material humidity, head
content of fuels, etc. A TIS must provide user-friendly functions to enable plant personnel to
adjust the constants in a easy way.
Furthermore, a TIS must provide functions to modify and adjust calculated and integrated
report values. In contrast to booking numbers in a transaction based ERP business system,
every physical sensor measurement has a measurement error (independent how often the
sensor has been calibrated). Integration of sensor values result in accumulation of the error.
For example in a 2 million tonnes per year cement plant, a 2% error in the produced cement
belt weigher system, results in a divergence of 40000 tonnes of cement. TIS applications
showed that automatic generated reports must be checked for plausibility and adjusted
accordingly before they can be approved for further use (e.g. as input data for a SAP, ERP
system).
Interfaces to Automation- and ERP System
As shown in chapter 3.1, a TIS System is located in between the ERP business system of
company / works management level and the automation system of the process / production
control level. This means a TIS reads his input data from one or multiple automation system
as Process Control System, Lab System, Emission Monitoring System etc.. Compiled
reports can be sent to the upper level ERP System for further treatment. A TIS supplier must
provide and support highly reliable interfaces to different brand of automation- and ERP
systems.
3.2.3 Structure and Integration of a TIS
The general structure of a TIS and the integration in the plant information management
concept looks as follows:
Figure 3:

Structure and Integration of a TIS
LAB LAB PCS PCS HLC HLC EMS EMS DISP DISP
LINK LINK
man man
Link to Corporate HQ Link to Corporate HQ
ERP (SAP) ERP (SAP)
Server Server
User PC User PC
(SAP, TIS, etc .) (SAP, TIS, etc .)
TIS TIS
Server Server
Plant Admin. Plant Admin.
Plant Operation Plant Operation

With this approach, the process related data flows in a structured flow from bottom to top. All
systems are networked, manual data entry is minimised, data transfer speed and data
quality are maximised.
What to avoid
In some plants (Holcim and Non-Holcim) the automation- and control systems as well as
different business computer systems were installed over several years not applying an
overall concept.
This natural grown computer system agglomeration are typical patchwork solutions with
individual computer islands (not using standards).
Such systems are highly complex, difficult to document and maintain and result high
operation and support costs. The flow of data is limited, because too many systems and
interfaces are necessary. Often manual data transfer is used (data printout of one computer
system, data entry typing in the other computer). Such approaches are not user friendly,
show slow data transfer, low quality of data and redundant data sets and results in user
frustration.
3.3 TIS Systems and Suppliers
The results of different Industry Market Scan (1993 - 1997), executed in co-operation with
Holcim Group Companies in various countries, are summarised below. The list shows
suppliers, product names and country of origin:
Supplier Product Origin
ABB CIMS Switzerland
Siemens CEMAT-MIS Germany
AspenTech CIM/21, InfoPlus.21 USA
FLS / Fuller Plant Guide USA / Denmark
OSI PI System USA
Honeywell Uniformance USA

4. TIS APPLICATIONS AND EXPERIENCES
4.1 TIS System installed and planned in Holcim plants
4.1.1 System installed and running

Company / Plant Country TIS Supplier / System Installed
AB GmbH / Lgerdorf Germany Siemens / CEMAT-MIS 1994
BCU / Untervaz Switzerland ABB / CIMS 1995
HOLNAM / Holly Hill,
Clarksville, Dundee, Artesia
USA AspenTech / CIM21 1995/96
Alpha / Dudfield, Ulco South Africa ABB / CIMS 1997/98
HOLNAM / all 15 plants
(cement and slag)
USA AspenTech / InfoPlus21 1997/98
4.1.2 System planned to be installed (Project approved)

Company / Plant Country TIS Supplier / System planned
HCB / Siggenthal Switzerland ABB / CIMS 1998/99
SCL / Chekka Lebanon under Evaluation 1998
QCL / Gladstone Australia under Evaluation 1998/99
4.2 Some Specific Applications and Experiences, Benefits
4.2.1 Alsen Breitenburg Zement - und Kalkwerke GmbH, Lgerdorf, Germany
(Main use of TIS: Process Analysis, Quality Monitoring, MAC report data)
Cement plant with 2 kilns, with a capacity of approximately 1.6 mio t/y cement.
The company sells more than 34 different types of products and has to keep track of all the
sales and quality of the products. Furthermore the new kiln 11 is designed to be feed with
numerous alternative raw materials and fuels.
TIS System implemented: Siemens CEMAT-MIS
Technical Concept
Siemens CEMAT-MIS Technical Information System installed in 1994
The system uses a Server based on a PC (Intel Pentium) running Siemens
proprietary DBMS and PC Clients running MS Excel for reporting and data analysis.
Trend display and analysing tool (extended analysis possible on integrated Excel
tool)
Use standard production, operation reports and custom defined daily production
report (realised on Excel).
Reads process and production data directly from the Process Control System (PCS =
Siemens CEMAT Coros LSB / S5). Reads approx. 2000 analog values and process
more all alarms and event messages, scan rate = 1 minute).
Quality data from the automatic, roboterised lab system (Polysius POLAB) are feed
via interface directly to the CEMAT-MIS (event driven).
Data from the Emission Monitoring system are send to the CEMAT-MIS via interface.
The CEMAT-MIS reads dispatch and sales data once per day from the company
mainframe via ASCII file transfer.
All systems are connected via an Ethernet LAN (H1 and TCP/IP protocol).
Integrates production, operation, quality, emission and consumption monitoring and
reporting.
More to 16 user PCs.
Reports on the plant files server (Novell) can be transfered via modem lines at the
terminal and grinding plant locations.
Experiences / Benefits
The CEMAT-MIS is a very reliable and adequate performing system (more than two
years of experiences).
The excellent trending and reporting features provided a tool to analyse and optimise
the process easy (for example the ball mill charges). Advantage: TIS calculate the
specific energy consumption for each type of cement individually. With this cement
type dependent energy consumption trends can be monitored which is only possible
with automatic data acquisition and pre-processing via PCS and TIS.
The CEMAT-MIS was directly used for the commissioning of the new kiln 11. The
long-term data storage and trending function provided a excellent tool to speed up
commissioning. It even prevented the plant to pay the cost for a damaged EP Filter,
because with the data from the CEMAT-MIS the engineers were capable to find the
root-cause and the exact time when the damage happened. So repair cost could be
turned over to the suppliers insurance.
Tailor made reports for the MAC Initiative provide automatically, on daily basis the
necessary production- and equipment efficiency- numbers. This data were used to
calculate the KPI (Key Process Indicators) and are the basis for failure analysis. The
biggest benefit from the system is fast and automatic report generation every
morning (sustainable). Data accuracy with this system is much better than manual
data processing and saves up to 3 man-hours per day.
Complex process analysis realised with correlation charts provide new perceptions,
which help to increase production equipment efficiency.
System is very well accepted and used by plant personnel.
Further Proceeding and Projects
In 1998 a SAP R/3 ERP System will replace the now used mainframe system.
An interface for data exchange between the SAP R/3 and the Siemens CEMAT-MIS
systems is foreseen. The planed use of this interface is to transfer form the TIS
failure reasons and equipment running hours in the SAP Plant Maintenance Module
(PM). A study will check the possibility to use the SAP Production Planning Module
(PP) with production numbers from the TIS.
4.2.2 Buendner Cement AG, Untervaz, Switzerland
(Main use of TIS: Emission Reporting, Overall Manufacturing Report, Energy Reporting).
Cement plant with 2 kilns with a capacity of 1 mio t/y cement.
TIS System implemented: ABB CIMS
Technical Concept
ABB CIMS Technical Information System installed in 1994/95.
Reads process and production data directly from the Process Control System (PCS),
realised with an Allen Bradley PLC 5 and PC based HMI system (reads approx. 600
analog values and process up to 15000 alarms and event messages, scan rate = 1
minute).
Integrates production-, operation, consumption and emission monitoring and
reporting.
Trend display and analysing tool (extended analysis possible on integrated EXCEL
tool).
CIMS is a Server / Client solution based on DEC Alpha server running a Oracle
DBMS and PC Clients running MS Access and Excel for reporting and data analysis.
Use standard production and operation reports and custom defined emission report
(realised on Access).
CIMS can consolidate (and compress) data to hour, shift, day, month and year
values and stores data for on-line access up to 1 year.
Improved and faster monitoring and reporting of emission data to EPA.
Tool to analyse operating and emission data which improved the use of HWDF
burning.
Reduced drastically the man-hours (up to 2 man-hours daily) needed for manual data
entry and manual analysis to generate emission and production reports.
A sophisticated Overall Manufacturing Report provide on daily and monthly basis a
summary of key process, production, consumption, efficiencies, stock and quality
data. Saves production management up to 0.5 man-hour daily.
Expand CIMS for enhanced production reporting and detailed electrical consumption
reporting.
An interface for data exchange between the SAP R/3 and the ABB CIMS systems is
foreseen (flow of material, equipment runhours and condition).
Adapted reports for support for MAC Initiative.
4.2.3 Holnam: Holly Hill, Clarksville, Dundee, Artesia; USA
(Main use of TIS: Emission Reporting, Process Analysis).
Four Cement plants which burn HWDF (Hazardous Waste Derived Fuel). Legislation force
them to monitor emission (based on gas analyser and materiel input model calculation).
TIS System implemented: AspenTech CIM21 (former company: ISI)
Technical Concept
AspenTech CIM21 Technical Information System installed in 1995 and 1996
Reads process and production data directly from the Process Control System (PCS),
realised with a Modicon PLC and Gensym G2 based HMI systems (reads approx.
200 - 330 analog values per kiln, scan rate = 1 minute).
Integrates emission monitoring and reporting.
Trend display and analysing tool (extended analysis possible on EXCEL tool).
CIM21 runs on UNIX based HP workstation server. The Database is proprietary. PC
(under X-Window) can be used as user interface.
Provide the mandatory (according EPA) emission monitoring, reporting and data
archiving.
HWDF burning would not be possible without this TIS systems.
The system is also used for process data analysis (mainly graphic trend) because
trending features of the used PCS are not sufficient.
Upgrade the existing CIM21 system with the new InfoPlus21 (NT based Client
/Server System).
Install in the remaining 11 plant a InfoPlus21. Use mainly as process data historian
and emission monitoring tool.
The company wide Manufacturing Data Integration (MDI) project will integrate these
TIS in the ERP Datawarehouse (Holnam proprietary Data Management System
based on Oracle).
5. TYPICAL PROJECT SCHEDULE AND SCOPE OF SUPPLY
5.1 Project Schedules (typical)
The introduction of a TIS system needs some pre-project investigations resulting in a
detailed specification. With this, an evaluation (bidding process) can be executed to find the
most appropriate TIS. Normally a TIS is implemented in steps, similar to a SAP, realising the
functions with the highest priorities first. The following schedule gives some indications of
the whole procedure.
Phase Actions
0: Pre-condition The plant must be equipped with a state-of-the-art computerbased
Process Control System (PCS).

1: Study Investigation study to determine plant requirements, elaboration of a
concept. Investigate integration in plant /company computer
infrastructure. Check of interface solutions to all automation systems
and to the ERP system.

2: Project Planning Creation of a Specification and elaboration of a budget and an
implementation schedule.
3: Tendering and
Evaluation, Offer
Creation of a tender document. Execution of a system evaluation
and selection of a System / Supplier (in some case evaluation can
be skipped if a company standard exist).
Ask for offer (using specification and schedule).

4: Implementation of
Step 1
Implementation and commissioning of TIS basis System. Check of
performance, adaption of functions to meet plant requirement, (if
necessary).
5: Implementation of
Step 2
...............................
5.2 Scope of supply (typical)
The scope of supply of a TIS application may vary from plant to plant, as the requirements
are different.
Nevertheless there are basic requirements in a typical cement plant that can be satisfied
(usually in a first implementation phase). That is why the scope of supply is roughly divided
into Basic System and Options. The experience shows, that a cost estimation cannot be
given at this place, because functionality, interfaces and numbers of users differ from project
to project. But it is important to know, that project costs are higher than system costs,
because time and cost intensive tasks (study, specification, evaluation, see schedule in 5.1)
must be done prior to the system implementation.
The following sketch gives an overview of different packages of a TIS basis system (1...4)
with options (5...7).
Figure 4:

TIS Scope of Supply (typical)
PCS PCS PCS PCS
X-Ray
TIS Server TIS Server
O
O
SAP Server SAP Server
O
O
O
File Server File Server
Plant Plant
Network Network
LAB LAB
Control Control
Network Network
O Application Application
O
Extended Extended
Functionality Functionality

TIS Basis System (for reference see number in sketch)
1) Server Hardware (HW) an Software (SW), TIS basis SW including DataBase
2) 4 User PC SW license for basis data evaluation
3) Interface driver SW for data acquisition from a Process Control System (PCS)
4) Application applying standard reports and evaluation methods, including system
installation and user training
TIS System Options (for reference see number in sketch)
5) Extended functionality as Maintenance Support Functions, SPC, plant specific
Manufacturing Reports, etc.
6) Interface to Lab or Dispatch (weighing) system
7) Interface to SAP System, including data exchange concept
a) Hardware is part of the plant computer infrastructure
b) not included is set-up and configuration on interfaced system

Assistance from HMC/HES
HMC offers its assistance and experience for TIS Implementation in a plant or group:
audit
elaboration of (detailed) specifications and tender documents
evaluation of offers from different suppliers
general project assistance
detailed engineering of reports (optional)
training for plant personel (optional)
performing aceptance tests
6. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION
6.1 Results, Benefits
The Experience and results from different Process Information Management Projects in the
cement and other basic industries show the following benefits:
Fast and accurate information
Fast and accurate information enables the plant management to see tendencies and
to react and direct measures before limits were exceeded. Because reports were
calculated automatically, response time is hours or days, not month.
Open information exchange
All managers which use any kind of integrated Information Management System (not
necessary a TIS) confirm that such tools enables open information exchange which
improves teamwork drastically and minimises mistrust. This because every user has
access to the same information. People share information and work closer together.
In projects were an interface between the ERP System (e.g. SAP R/3) and the TIS
are planned, personnel responsible for the process and administrative personnel
form an interdisciplinary team, were both sides start to understand also the
problems and the requirements of the other side.
Indispensable for sustainable optimisation
High sophisticated Optimising System as LINKman High Level Control need to be
fine tuned and adapted to changing process conditions. Only continuous monitoring
of the performance and process conditions with specific analysis tools, as
Correlation's, prevent from decreasing system performance.
In one plant the LINKman runtime can be maintained continuously over 95% with
the help of daily performance feedback, which allows immediate reaction to
arising problems.
Permanent monitoring of key parameters and adapted analysis methods like
Statistical Process Control (SPC) provides vital information about equipment
status and equipment failures. Maintenance Improvement procedures (like the
one in MAC) relay on such type of feedback data.
Fulfil legislation requirements
Legislation forces us to monitor, analyse and report certain critical values. (e.g
emission, use of waste fuel). In USA (BIF) and Switzerland (TA Luft) monitoring,
reporting and data archiving of emissions and waste fuel with a TIS, were accept by
the local EPAs.
Continuous Quality monitoring of shipped cement (e.g.: Germany: Cement Norm
VDZ, USA: Mill Certificate) can be realised with the help of a TIS.
Saves man-hour
In all plant using a TIS, plant management claim man-hour savings. But the even
bigger advantage is, that a TIS frees the engineers from formal work (like data entry,
manual data processing) and allows him to use more time on the data analysis.
Studies of TIS applications in different basic industries show:
Reduced data entry time: 75%
(reports are compiled in 3 minutes, and checked in 5 minutes)
Reduced Paperwork: up 50%
6.2 Conclusion
Considering the importance of relevant information, the actual trends in Information
Technology, the indications we have from Technology Watches of non-cement and cement
industries (our competitors) and the experiences from TIS and SAP applications result in the
following conclusions:
A competitive optimised plant has to be based on computerbased, integrated Information
Management System (according CIM concept).
Process Information Management with a TIS is a central pillar of such an Integrated
Plant. Individual users are empowered at the desktop. Process Data feedback and
intelligent use of this information is indispensable for a continuous improvement process
and will help the plant to be competitive.
7. REFERENCES:
U. Herzog, T. Carpenter: Manufacturing Data Integration: Holnam MDI Feasibility Study,
Industrial Scan, 1996, HES Report 96/6340/E
U. Herzog: Technical Information System, Holderbank E-Circle NA, Mobile (AL), USA,
1996
W. Sedlmeir: Total Management Information, World Cement Feb. 1996
L. Krings: New Cement Information Management Solutions, IEEE Conference 1996, Los
Angeles, USA
R. Suberli: Process and Quality Control Automation, Information Management;
Holderbank 33rd Technical Meeting 1994 Basel, Switzerland
R. Suberli, U. Herzog, H. Rosemann: Process Control and Information Management;
VDZ Kongress 1993 Dsseldorf Germany, ZKG 46 (1993), No 11

Special Thank also to:
Peter Kuenne, Fritz Schneider, Ian Campbell; for discussing and providing information
about concept and experiences of the MAC Initiative.
Ivo Keller, Urs Bleisch, Michel Moser, Thorsten Fuchs; for discussing and providing
information about SAP projects concept, plans and experiences.

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Cement Manufacturing Course Version 2006 Volume 6 - Page 1

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