Lecture 34 SPT Dec

Solar Photovoltaic Technologies
Lecture-34
Prof. C.S. Solanki Energy Systems Engineering IIT Bombay
Contents
Brief summary of the previous lecture
Various Thin film solar cell technologies

Low temperature deposition High temperature deposition Solar cell structures
8/1/2008
IIT Bombay, C.S. Solanki
Classification of different approaches

A large number of different technologies are under parallel
development A classification can be made based on different criteria: According to Tmax during layer formation According to grain size According to cell structure
The R&D on the high-temperature routes is mainly driven by considerations from classical bulk Si cells Proven high efficiency and stability The R&D on the low-temperature routes is mainly driven by considerations from a-Si:H solar cells low thermal budget processing
8/1/2008 IIT Bombay, C.S. Solanki Solar Photovoltaic Technologies
Crystalline Si films: deposition temperature

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 (oC) Neuchtel, Jlich Canon VHFVHFPECVD PECVD Kaneka PECVD Sanyo SPC ECN LPE IMEC, CNRS-PHASE CVD
ISE, MITSUBISHI ZMR + CVD
Grain size vs Voc,with SRV
Low temperature deposition : micro-crystalline Si ( g <1000 nm)
103cm/s
Medium temperature deposition: polySi ( g <100 m)

High temperature deposition : multi-crystalline Si, mono-Si
107 cm/s
8/1/2008
Crystalline Si materials
Type of Silicon Abbreviation Crystal Size Range Deposition Method
Single-crystal silicon
Multicrystalline silicon
sc-Si
mc-Si
>10cm
1mm-10cm
Czochralski, float zone

Cast, sheet, ribbon
Polycrystalline silicon
pc-Si
0.1mm-1mm
Chemical-vapor deposition
Microcrystalline silicon
mc-Si
<0.1mm
Ex: Plasma deposition
Thin film solar cell technologies requires a suitable substrate, and ..

Basic components of crystalline Si solar cells

ARC
Emitter
Active layer, 5 to 50 m Diffusion barrier
Substrate
Base contact, if substrate is conductive
Substrate can be non-conductive, in that case both the contact is taken from the front side
Solar cell structures

1. Homo-junction solar cell
n-type
p-type
for instance Mono-crystalline and multi-cystalline Si solar cells
2. Hetero-junction solar cell

n-type
p-type and n-type are different material

more material choices some material can either be p-type or n-type used for material (thin-films) that absorbs light better than Si low series resistance window layer can be heavily doped
p-type
CdTe and CIS are the examples

in CdTe cell, CdS is used as window layer
Solar cell structures

3. p-i-n / n-i-p solar cell
n-type i-layer
p-type a-Si / int a-Si / n-type a-Si Based on drift rather than diffusion Absorption take place in thicker intrinsic layer
p-type
4. Multijunction solar cell
Also called Tandem cells

Eg1 Eg2 Eg3 Eg1 > Eg2 > Eg3
Can acieve high efficiency by capturing larger part of the spectrum individual cells with different bandgaps are stacked on top of one another Mechanically stacked and Monolithic
Diffusion vs drift in thin films

High quality Crystalline-Si uses p-n junction
Carrier are transported by diffusion to the junction large diffusion length junction is very thin
Ldiff
kT q
Low-quality material should use p-i-n structure

Diffusion length are small
Drift length is about 10 times greater than diffusion length

intrinsic layer is thicker
Ldrift
8/1/2008
Vbi Li
Ldrift
10 * Ldiff
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Light trapping
"light trapping" in which the optical path length is several times the actual device thickness Light trapping is usually achieved by changing the angle at which light travels in the solar cell texturing reduces reflection and increases optical path length
Snells law
n1 sin
n2 sin
Following schemes are used for light trapping
substrate
8/1/2008 IIT Bombay, C.S. Solanki
substrate
substrate
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Deposition techniques
Physical vapor deposition
Vacuum evaporation Sputtering
Chemical deposition
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) Hot wire CVD Plasma enhanced CVD Electro-deposition Spray pyrolysis
Liquid phase deposition

Liquid phase epitaxy
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Contents
Motivation Different thin-film solar cell technologies Why crystalline Si films? Classification based on grain size Thin-film solar cell structures Deposition techniques low temperature High temperature approaches
Mono-crystalline Si thin films
Other concepts
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Low-temperature approaches
Property
Deposition temperature
Deposition technologies
200 550oC
Plasma-enhanced (PECVD, VHF-PECVD, microwave, ECR) Hot-wire CVD Solid Phase crystallisation of a-Si:H SiH4 Dilution with H2 is necessary for PECVD microcrystalline Si 0.1 1 nm/s 1 nm/s (Kaneka), mostly below 0.5 nm/s Mostly p-i-n Dual junction: Micromorph
Si-precursor
Deposition rate Cell structure

13
Low-temperature processes
Technology
PECVD VHF-PECVD
Main R&D-players
IPV-Juelich
Features / results
Systems (13.56, 27.12, 40.28 MHz, 4chamber, 6-chamber system, 30x30 cm2) Micromorph cell: > 13%
Micromorph cell: 12% Module: 9%
Neuchatel (VHF-Technologies)
Kaneka Solartech
Micromorph cell: 14.5% Micromorph module: 10% Module (30x30 cm2): 7% !p-n polycrystalline Si solar cell!
Micromorph cell on stainless steel: 8% Staring from n+-a-Si:H/a-Si:H-layer With p+-a-Si:H HIT-emitter: 9.2%
Pacific Solar
Hot-wire CVD Solid Phase crystallisation
8/1/2008
University Utrecht IPV-Juelich Sanyo
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Low-temperature approaches: Strength/Weakness
Pros Substrate Efficiency

Upscalability Cons Deposition rate Stability
8/1/2008
Compatible with glass Plastic Micromorph cell concept compatible with 15% Upscalability up to 1 m2 modules seems feasible with cost < 1$/W p
Best efficiencies are obtained with rates below 1 m/h Topcell degradation?
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Low temperature deposition: c-Si films

Substrates
glass SnO2/ZnO coated glass metal : stainless steel
Deposition techniques
Solid phase crystallization
Plasma enhanced CVD

Hot wire CVD
Sputtering +
Metal induced crystallization
Features
TCO front contact
Grain size ~ 100nm
Temperature < 600 C
p layer
c-Si i layer
n layer
Back contact
Small Minority carrier diffusion length < I micron P-I-N structure, ~ 10 %
Glass/metal
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High-temperature approaches
Property
Deposition temperature 900 1300oC
Deposition technologies CVD Solution Growth Electrodeposition Chemical Vapor Transport (CVT)
Si-precursor SiH4, SiH2Cl2, SiHCl3
IMEC, PHASE ECN, Stuttgart NREL NREL
Deposition rate
1 10 m/min
Cell structure
Always p-n
Epitaxial cells Interdigitated cells on non-conductive substrate

8/1/2008
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Technology Main R&D-players Features / results
CVD
IMEC, ISE, Stuttgart
Monocrystalline epitaxial cells: 17.8% Multicrystalline epitaxial cells: 14% Polycrystalline Si solar cells: 6%
RTCVD PHASE Continuous CVD
ISE
Chemical Vapor Transport Solution Growth / Liquid Phase Epitaxy Electrodeposition
8/1/2008
NREL MPI-Stuttgart ECN UNSW ANU NREL
Based on iodine as transporting agent Efficiency < 2% Monocrystalline epitaxial cells: 17.4% Multicrystalline epitaxial cells: 15%
Made from molten salts of Si

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Pros Substrate Compatible with Si (perfect match of TEC)
Efficiency Homogeneity/ reproducibility Cons Substrate
High efficiency proven with epitaxial concept Large expertise from microelectronics available Doping and thickness homogeneity < 5%
Only high-temperature resistant substrates: Si, ceramics, glass-ceramics Strong requirements on TEC-match and purity Blocking layers
Non-recrystallised polycrystalline Si-layers on ceramic suffer from low efficiency
Efficiency
Upscalability
8/1/2008
High-throughput concepts are available but not proven

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Zone Melting Recrystallisation

Pros Efficiency Homogeneity/ reproducibility High efficiency proven 10.5% on Si:SiC, 8-9% on mullite, SiN, Because of the extreme conditions, small deviations during recrystallisation (thickness of ceramic, change in thermal properties) can lead to unstable solidification and increased defect densities
Cons Substrate Only very high-temperature resistant substrates: Si, SiN, mullite, Al2O3 Very strong requirements on TEC-match and purity Thick blocking layers Rather complex process ( 4 additional steps to realise active layer on ceramic) Quality of Si-layers, subjected to ZMR, decreases at recrystallisation speeds above 10 cm/min
IIT Bombay, C.S. Solanki Solar Photovoltaic Technologies
Process Upscalability
8/1/2008
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High temperature deposition: Poly-Si films

Substrate requirements
Cost-effective Heat resistant Chemically inert Thermal expansion co-efficient matching Substrates: Alumina, mullite, graphite, low-cost Si Diffusion barrier: SiC, oxide/nitride Epi-Si film
p+
Deposition techniques:
Thermal CVD Ion assisted deposition Liquid phase epitaxy (Zone melting recrystallization)
ARC
Front contact
n+ p
Features
Grain size up to ~ several microns
Conducting substrate Back contact
Temperature > 600 C

diffusion length ~ 10s of microns P-N structure,
8/1/2008
CVD si layer
Diffusion barrier
~ 11 %
Ceramic substrate Solar Photovoltaic Technologies
21
Monocrystalline Si thin films

Best possible thin-film solar cell performance
Thin mc-Si films are obtained using Layer transfer processes
Starting substrate is a Si wafer recycling of starting Si substrate Example-1
Device fabrication thin-film transfer to a foreign substrate

Example-3
surface conditioning for forming separation layer
Example-2 How to form a separation layer?
Hydrogen implantation
Intermediate Oxide layer
Porous Silicon layer
Si
Si
Si
Si
8/1/2008
22
Porous Silicon Layer Transfer (PSLT)

What is porous silicon ?
Anodization of Si in HF results in the formation of porous silicon, columns of Si etched out (p+ Si). Layer porosity is a function of anodization parameters.
Porous silicon serves two purposes

High monocrystalline Si layer can be deposited.
Substrate can be re-used several times.

PSLT processes
ELTRAN (Canon, Japan) SPS (Sony, Japan) PSI (ZAE, Germany) QMS (IPE, Germany) LAST (IMEC, Belgium) FMS (IMEC, Belgium)
Pores
23
Integral Steps of PSLT

Porous silicon formation
Silicon
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Porous silicon formation Active layer deposition
- Annealing - CVD epitaxial layer
Silicon
8/1/2008
25

Active layer deposition
Device fabrication
Silicon
8/1/2008
26

Active layer deposition
Silicon
Device fabrication
Layer separation and transfer to

foreign substrate
Substrate
8/1/2008
27
Film Separation:
One-step anodization
Porous Silicon Film
Features
Homogeneous film thickness Film thickness from few microns to several tens of microns
Silicon Substrate Porous Silicon Film
Film area is limited by experimental set up Film thickness is function anodization parameters
Separation occurs for limited set of parameters
US patent # 6649485
20 m film
28
Continuous production of films
Pt electrode
Electrolyte
Silicon ingot
HF conc. resumes at the surface after film separation
8/1/2008
29
Pt electrode
Electrolyte
Silicon ingot
8/1/2008
30

Patent pending
Pt electrode
Electrolyte
Silicon ingot
Porous silicon films
8/1/2008
31
Solar cell realization:
FMS (Freestanding Mono-Si) solar Two-side contacted cells Patent pending FMS cell process cell structure
Device is ready
PS Film
Emitter
Epi layer
Epi layer after PS removal Epitaxial layer
PS Film I-V curve

1
35
2 Current (mA/cm )
IQE analysis
0.8
30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0
Voc: 602.6 Volts Isc: 33.12 mA/cm FF: 60.18 Eff.: 12.01% Area: 0.65 cm2
2
IQE
0.6 0.4 0.2 0 400

FMS -1 FMS -2 Ref-20um
9.6% FMS cell with HIT emitter
Film thickness: 20 m
8/1/2008
0.2 0.4 0.6 Voltage (Volts)C.S. Solanki IIT Bombay,
600
800
1000
1200
Wavelength (nm) Solar Photovoltaic Technologies
32
Other processes:
Front contact
a-Si/c-Si hetero-junction
ITO layer
n+, a-SiH
Epi layer, p-type
int. a-Si:H
Epi layer, p+ type
Al back contact
Combination of low production cost of amorphous cell technology and high efficiency of Monocrystalline Si cell technology Bandgaps: a-Si 1.7 to 1.8 eV, C-Si 1.12eV
This configuration has the following advantages:

potential for high efficiency; low processing temperatures. low thermal budget for processing. Reduction of energy pay back time;
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Other processes:
Aluminum induced crystallization

for growing polycrystalline silicon (poly-Si) films on inexpensive glass Films is formed by aluminum-induced crystallization (AIC) of amorphous silicon (a-Si) Annealing transforms an initial glass/Al/a-Si stack into a glass/polySi/Al(Si) below the eutectic temperature of the Al/Si system (Teu=577 C). The poly-Si forms a continuous layer which consists of large grains with a preferential (1 0 0) orientation
a-Si Al Glass
annealing
Al
crystalline-Si Glass
8/1/2008
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Conclusions
Thin-film crystalline Si solar cells represent obvious way to reduce costs PV A large number of techniques are under investigation There is a certain risk for subcritical R&D in this field Crucial issues are clear: Low-T techniques: increase of growth rate High-T techniques Availability of ceramic substrate Increase of recrystallisation speed for process Improvement of nucleation control for process without ZMR On all of these questions there is a considerable R&D-activity
8/1/2008
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Concentrator PV systems
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Why solar concentrators?

Replace expensive cell material with cheaper material increased power output per unit area
Solar cell
Smaller area solar cells are easier to manufacture

Concentration (suns)
Fill Factor (%)

37
Efficiency (%)
Efficiency of solar cell increases under concentration
Components of CPV systems

1 - Light collector
2 Solar Cell
3 Heat Sink
Solar cell 4 Sun tracker

Heat sink
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Light collectors
Refraction and reflection Line focus & point focus Imaging & nonimaging concentrator Concentration ratio
39
Solar cells for concentrators

Single-junction solar cells & Multi-junction solar cells Single-junction solar cell Si is mainly used for solar cell
Sunlight intensity (kW/m2/ m)
Lowering series resistance is main design parameter

Laser grooved buried contact solar cells Limited in solar cell efficiency
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.5
1.5
2.5 40
Wavelength (m)
Multi-junction solar cells
Bandgap engineering
Materials are manipulated to adjust the bandgap according to solar spectrum Double and triple-junction solar cells
InGaP/GaAs/Ge on Ge substrate
Eg1 Eg2
Sunlight intensity (kW/m2/ m)
1.5
1.0
0.5
Eg3 Eg1 > Eg2 > Eg3

0.5
1.5
2.5
Wavelength (m)
41
Multi-junction solar cells

Bandgap GaInP2 - 1.89eV GaAs 1.42 eV Ge 0.67 eV Design challenge is to match current from each cell
- 37.3 % (concentration
@175 Suns, 2004) World record efficiency by Spectrolab - 13% with 6 junction
Higher number of junction can achieve higher efficacies 40% is target by 2006 Potentially 45% by 2010 (Spectrolab)
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Comparison of technologies
Material t/
300
Disadvantages
Advantages, perspectives
Mono-Si
m, 15 18 %
Best researched solar cell material in a next few years it Lengthy production will dominate world market, procedure, wafer especially there, where sawing necessary
high power/area ratio is required
300
Multi-c Si
m, 13 15 %
lengthier production procedure, wafer sawing necessary
The most important production procedure at least for the next ten years
Lower efficiency, Attractive solar cells for different Polyc-Si 300 special procedures BIPV applications. Possible Transpare m, to achieve optical also production of double sided nt 10 % transparency cells required 8/1/2008 IIT Bombay, C.S. Solanki Solar Photovoltaic Technologies
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Material t/ 250 m, 14 %
Disadvantage Advantages, perspectives s Limited use of this production procedure Very fast crystal growth, no wafer sawing necessary, significant decrease in production costs possible in the future
EFG
300 Riboon-Si m, 12 %
Limited use of No wafer sawing necessary, this production significant decrease in production procedure costs possible in the future
a-Si
Lower 1 m, efficiency, 5-8 shorter life % span.

No sawing necessary, possible production in the flexible form. It is a promising material in the future if long-term stability increases
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Material
CdTe
CIS
HIT
Disadvanta ges 2-3 m , Poisonous 6 - 9 % raw (mod.) materials 2-3 m, Limited 7,5 Indium 9,5 % supply in (mod.) nature Limited use 200 m, of this 18 % production procedure t/
Advantages, perspectives Significant decrease in production costs possible in the future Significant decrease in production costs possible in the future
Higher efficiency, better temperature coefficient and lower thickness.
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8/1/2008

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Solar Photovoltaic Technologies

Prof. C.S. Solanki Energy Systems Engineering IIT Bombay

Various Thin film solar cell technologies

IIT Bombay, C.S. Solanki

Solar Photovoltaic Technologies

Classification of different approaches

Crystalline Si films: deposition temperature

ISE, MITSUBISHI ZMR + CVD

Grain size vs Voc,with SRV

Low temperature deposition : micro-crystalline Si ( g <1000 nm)

Medium temperature deposition: polySi ( g <100 m)

IIT Bombay, C.S. Solanki

Solar Photovoltaic Technologies

Czochralski, float zone

Ex: Plasma deposition

Thin film solar cell technologies requires a suitable substrate, and ..

Basic components of crystalline Si solar cells

Base contact, if substrate is conductive

Solar cell structures

for instance Mono-crystalline and multi-cystalline Si solar cells

2. Hetero-junction solar cell

p-type and n-type are different material

CdTe and CIS are the examples

Solar cell structures

4. Multijunction solar cell

Also called Tandem cells

Diffusion vs drift in thin films

Low-quality material should use p-i-n structure

Drift length is about 10 times greater than diffusion length

IIT Bombay, C.S. Solanki

Solar Photovoltaic Technologies

Following schemes are used for light trapping

Solar Photovoltaic Technologies

Liquid phase deposition

IIT Bombay, C.S. Solanki

Solar Photovoltaic Technologies

Deposition rate Cell structure

University Utrecht IPV-Juelich Sanyo

IIT Bombay, C.S. Solanki

Low-temperature approaches: Strength/Weakness

Pros Substrate Efficiency

IIT Bombay, C.S. Solanki

Low temperature deposition: c-Si films

Plasma enhanced CVD

Temperature < 600 C

Small Minority carrier diffusion length < I micron P-I-N structure, ~ 10 %

IIT Bombay, C.S. Solanki

Solar Photovoltaic Technologies

IMEC, PHASE ECN, Stuttgart NREL NREL

Epitaxial cells Interdigitated cells on non-conductive substrate

IIT Bombay, C.S. Solanki

IMEC, ISE, Stuttgart

RTCVD PHASE Continuous CVD

NREL MPI-Stuttgart ECN UNSW ANU NREL

Made from molten salts of Si

IIT Bombay, C.S. Solanki

Efficiency Homogeneity/ reproducibility Cons Substrate

High-throughput concepts are available but not proven

IIT Bombay, C.S. Solanki

Zone Melting Recrystallisation

High temperature deposition: Poly-Si films

Conducting substrate Back contact

Temperature > 600 C