CONTENTS

1.ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 2.INTRODUCTION
TO SURVEYING AND STATION FIXATION

3.RECONNAISSANCE 4.TOTAL
STATION

5.THEODOLITE 6.G.P.S 7.PLANE

TABLE SURVEYING

8.LEVELLING

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This project would not have been a success without the guidance and motivation of all our mentors. We are thankful to all the persons behind this project. We would like to express my gratefulness to Mr.Haramrit Singh Sandhu , Mr. Rajeev Chauhan and Dr. D.V.S. Verma who acted as a mentor throughout our project for providing us valuable information and guidance. Secondly, we would like to thank Mr. Rajender Prasad for being a helping hand for all the students and providing us all the necessary equipments throughout the survey camp. Last but not the least; I would like to thank my parents for motivating me all the time throughout this project.

Introduction
Need and significance of surveying: Surveying is the process by which a surveyor measures certain dimensions that generally occur on the surface of the Earth. Surveying equipment, such as levels and theodolites, are used for accurate measurement of angular deviation, horizontal, vertical and slope distances. With computerisation, electronic distance measurement (EDM), total stations, GPS surveying and laser scanning have supplemented the traditional optical instruments. This information is crucial to convert the data into a graphical representation of the Earth's surface, in the form of a map. This information is then used by civil engineers, contractors and even realtors to design from, build on, and trade, respectively. Elements of a building or structure must be correctly sized and positioned in relation to each other and to site boundaries and adjacent structures. Although surveying is a distinct profession with separate qualifications and licensing arrangements, civil engineers are trained in the basics of surveying and mapping, as well as geographic information systems. Surveyors may also lay out the routes of railways, tramway tracks, highways, roads, pipelines and streets as well as position other infrastructures, such as harbors, before construction.

Survey existing conditions of the future work site, including topography, existing buildings and infrastructure, and even including underground infrastructure whenever possible; Construction surveying (otherwise "lay-out" or "setting-out"): to stake out reference points and markers that will guide the construction of new structures such as roads or buildings for subsequent construction; Verify the location of structures during construction;

As-Built surveying: a survey conducted at the end of the construction project to verify that the work authorized was completed to the specifications set on plans.

Triangulation is method of horizontal location made almost obsolete by GPS. With the triangulation method, distances, elevations and directions between objects at great distance from one another can be determined. Since the early days of surveying, this was the primary method of determining accurate positions of objects for topographic maps of large areas. A surveyor first needs to know the horizontal distance between two of the objects. Then the height, distances and angular position of other objects can be derived, as long as they are visible from one of the original objects. High-accuracy transits or theodolites were used for this work, and angles between objects were measured repeatedly for increased accuracy.

RECONNAISSANCE
A reconnaissance survey provides data that enables design engineers to study the advantages and disadvantages of variety of routes and then to determine which routes are feasible. You begin by finding all existing maps that show the area to be reconnoitered. In reconnaissance, studying existing maps is as important as the actual fieldwork. Studying these maps and aerial photographs, if any exist, will often eliminate an unfavorable route from further consideration, thus saving your reconnaissance field party much time and effort. Contour maps give essential information about the relief of an area. Aerial photographs provide a quick means for preparing valuable sketches and overlays for your field party. A reconnaissance survey is defined as an examination of all or part of an area accomplished in sufficient detail to make generalizations about the types and distributions of historic properties that may be present within a given project area. Reconnaissance surveys represent a type of field survey that is often used to gather initial information regarding the presence or absence of historic properties within a project area. Reconnaissance surveys generally include limited shovel testing in areas that are likely to contain archaeological resources. Field reconnaissance provides you with an opportunity for checking the actual conditions on the ground and for noting any discrepancies in the maps or aerial photographs .Make notes of soil conditions, availability of construction materials, such as sand or gravel, unusual grade or alignment problems, and requirements for clearing and

grubbing. Take photographs or make sketches of reference points, control points, structure sites, terrain obstacles, landslides, washouts, or any other unusual circumstances.

Direct aerial observation gives you an overview of an area that speeds up later ground reconnaissance if the region has already been mapped. Begin the study of a map by marking the limits of the area to be reconnoitered and the specified terminals to be connected by the highway. Note whether or not there are any existing routes. Note ridgelines, watercourses, mountain gaps, and similar control features. Look for terrain that will permit moderate grades without too much excavating. Use simplicity in alignment and have a good balance of cuts and fills; or use a profile arrangement that makes it possible to fill depressions with the cut taken from nearby high places. Mark the routes that seem to fit the needs and that should be reconnoitered in the field. From the map study, determine grades, estimate the amount of clearing required, and locate routes that will keep excavation to a minimum by taking advantage of terrain conditions. Mark stream crossings and marshy areas as possible locations for fords, bridges, or culverts. Have the reconnaissance field party follow the route or routes marked earlier during the map study.

FIXATION OF STATIONS: 1. Stations should be intervisible with each other. 2. Stations should be fixed such that they cover maximum part of the area. 3. Stations should be fixed such that maximum details can be plotted.

4. Stations should be fixed such that the instruments can be kept with ease. 5. Marking of stations should be done so that they are easily identifiable throughout the survey. 6. When the whole area is not covered sub-stations should also be fixed. 7. Sub-stations should be fixed such that all the interior details are plotted easily.

TOTAL STATION
A total station is an electronic/optical instrument used in modern surveying. The total station is an electronic theodolite (transit) integrated with an electronic distance meter (EDM) to read slope distances from the instrument to a particular point.

With the help of it we can perform following survey operations:

1. Coordinate measurement
Coordinates of an unknown point relative to a known coordinate can be determined using the total station as long as a direct line of sight can be established between the two points. Angles and distances are measured from the total station to points under survey, and the coordinates (X, Y, and Z or northing, easting and elevation) of surveyed points relative to the total station position are calculated using trigonometry and triangulation. To determine an absolute location a Total Station requires line of sight observations and must be set up over a known point or with line of sight to 2 or more points with known location.
2.

Angle measurement

Total station instruments measure angles by means of electro-optical scanning of extremely precise digital bar-codes etched on rotating glass cylinders or discs within the instrument.
3.

Distance measurement

Measurement of distance is accomplished with a modulated microwave or infrared carrier signal, generated by a small solid-state emitter within the instrument's optical path, and reflected by a prism reflector or the object under survey. The modulation pattern in the returning signal is read and interpreted by the computer in the total station. The distance is determined by emitting and receiving multiple frequencies, and determining the integer number of wavelengths to the target for each frequency.
4.

Data processing

Some models include internal electronic data storage to record distance, horizontal angle, and vertical angle measured, while other models are

equipped to write these measurements to an external data collector, such as a hand-held computer. When data is downloaded from a total station onto a computer, application software can be used to compute results and generate a map of the surveyed area.

5. Elevation
Height or elevation of a point can be determined with the help of total station with reference to assumed datum or mean sea level.

Instrument used: - TRIMBLE m3 Procedure

3DR

1. First choose a reference point whose coordinates are assumed as (0, 0). 2. Set up the total station at reference point with properly leveled and centered. 3. Now make a new job by selecting menu>job manager>new job. 4. Enter the details of new job in the total station and adjust the settings there. 5. Keep the rover at station 1 and sight it such that the prism such that the cross hairs will bisect the prism. 6. After alignment of line of sight, make horizontal angle (HA) equals zero. Now X-Y axis is established. 7. Press meas/ent button. It will give us the coordinates of station 1. 8. Now move the total station to station 1 and establish the station. Backsight the rover by keeping it to reference. 9. Now foresight the station 2. It will give the value of HA and coordinates of station 2. 10. Now repeat the same procedure for further stations. 11. Now close the traverse and note down the errors and adjust them.

THEODOLITE
A theodolite is a precision instrument for measuring angles in the horizontal and vertical planes. A modern theodolite consists of a movable telescope mounted within two perpendicular axesthe horizontal or trunnion axis, and the vertical axis. When the telescope is pointed at a target object, the angle of each of these axes can be measured with great precision, typically to seconds of arc.

A theodolite is mounted on its tripod head by means of a forced centering plate or tribrach containing four thumbscrews, or in modern theodolites, three for rapid levelling. Before use, a theodolite must be precisely placed vertical above the point to be measured using a plumb bob, optical plummet or laser plummet. The instrument is then set level using levelling footscrews and circular and more precise tubular spirit bubbles.

Mechanism involved:
Both axes of a theodolite are equipped with graduated circles that can be read through magnifying lenses. (R. Anders helped M. Denham discover this technology in 1864) The vertical circle which 'transits' about the horizontal axis should read 90 when the sight axis is horizontal, or 270 when the instrument is in its second position, that is, "turned over" or "plunged". Half of the difference between the two positions is called the "index error". The horizontal and vertical axes of a theodolite must be perpendicular; if not then a "horizontal axis error" exists. This can be tested by aligning the tubular spirit bubble parallel to a line between two foot screws and setting the bubble central. A horizontal axis error exists if the bubble runs off central when the tubular spirit bubble is reversed (turned through 180). To adjust, remove half the amount the bubble has run off using the adjusting screw, then relevel, test and refine the adjustment. The optical axis of the telescope, called the "sight axis", defined by the optical center of the objective lens and the center of the crosshairs in its focal plane, must also be perpendicular to the horizontal axis. If not, then a "collimation error" exists. Index error, horizontal axis error and collimation error are regularly determined by calibration and are removed by mechanical adjustment. Their existence is taken into account in the choice of measurement procedure in order to eliminate their effect on the measurement results.

Uses of theodolite:1. Measurement of horizontal and vertical angles 2. Setting out lines and angles 3. Optical distance measurement 4. Plumbing tall building 5. Setting out of railway curves 6. Locating the position of piers for Bridges etc.

Equipment used:- SOKKIA dt520A, staff, tripod stand Procedure

1. Set up the theodolite at the first station. 2. Do centering and levelling. 3. Keep the staff at previous station and backsight it. 4. Now make the horizontal angle equals zero. 5. Keep the staff at next station and foresight it by rotating the theodolite. 6. The value of Ha will give the internal angle between the two traverse lines. 7. Note the value of staff(s) between the upper and lower stadia hairs. 8. Using the relation d=ks , where k=100. It will give the distance between the two stations. 9. Repeat the same procedure with further stations.

G.P.S.

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based satellite navigation system that provides location and time information in all weather, anywhere on or near the Earth, where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites.

Basic concept of GPS

A GPS receiver calculates its position by precisely timing the signals sent by GPS satellites high above the Earth. Each satellite continually transmits messages that include

the time the message was transmitted satellite position at time of message transmission

The receiver uses the messages it receives to determine the transit time of each message and computes the distance to each satellite. These distances along with the satellites' locations are used with the possible aid of trilateration, depending on which algorithm is used, to compute the position of the receiver. This position is then displayed, perhaps with a moving map display or latitude and longitude; elevation information may be included. Many GPS units show derived information such as direction and speed, calculated from position changes. Three satellites might seem enough to solve for position since space has three dimensions and a position near the Earth's surface can be assumed. However, even a very small clock error multiplied by the very large speed of light the speed at which satellite signals propagate results in a large positional error. Therefore receivers use four or more satellites to solve for both the receiver's location and time. The very accurately computed time is effectively hidden by most GPS applications, which use only the location. A few specialized GPS applications do however use the time; these include time transfer, traffic signal timing, and synchronization of cell phone base stations. Although four satellites are required for normal operation, fewer apply in special cases. If one variable is already known, a receiver can determine

its position using only three satellites. For example, a ship or aircraft may have known elevation. Some GPS receivers may use additional clues or assumptions such as reusing the last known altitude, dead reckoning, inertial navigation, or including information from the vehicle computer, to give a less degraded position when fewer than four satellites are visible.

Structure
The current GPS consists of three major segments. These are the space segment (SS), a control segment (CS), and a user segment (US).

Space segment
The space segment (SS) is composed of the orbiting GPS satellites, or Space Vehicles (SV) in GPS parlance. The GPS design originally called for 24 SVs, eight each in three approximately circular orbits, but this was modified to six orbital planes with four satellites each. The orbits are centered on the Earth, not rotating with the Earth, but instead fixed with respect to the distant stars. The six orbit planes have approximately 55 inclination (tilt relative to Earth's equator) and are separated by 60 right ascension of the ascending node (angle along the equator from a reference point to the orbit's intersection).

Control segment
The control segment is composed of 1. a master control station (MCS), 2. an alternate master control station, 3. four dedicated ground antennas and 4. six dedicated monitor stations

User segment
The user segment is composed of hundreds of thousands of U.S. and allied military users of the secure GPS Precise Positioning Service, and tens of millions of civil, commercial and scientific users of the Standard Positioning Service. In general, GPS receivers are composed of an antenna, tuned to the frequencies transmitted by the satellites, receiver-processors, and a highly stable clock. They may also include a display for providing location and speed information to the user. A receiver is often described by its number of channels: this signifies how many satellites it can monitor simultaneously.

Applications of G.P.S.
While originally a military project, GPS is considered a dualuse technology, meaning it has significant military and civilian applications. GPS has become a widely deployed and useful tool for commerce, scientific uses, tracking, and surveillance. GPS's accurate time facilitates everyday activities such as banking, mobile phone operations, and even the control of power grids by allowing well synchronized hand-off switching.

Instrument used:- G.P.S. Juno SB Procedure:1. Switch on the G.P.S. and go to start>terrasync. 2. Wait for the satellites to come in range of G.P.S. 3. Make a new file and open it. 4. Now it will give several options such as line generic, point generic, area generic etc.

5. Choose the desired option. 6. Now go to the desired station whose details are to be determined. 7. Wait for few seconds. 8. It will give all the details of that point.

PLANE TABLE SURVEYING

Plane table is a graphical method of surveying in which the field works and the plotting is done simultaneously. It is particularly adopting in small mapping. Plane table surveying is used for locating the field computation of area of field.

Parts of plane Table:

Plane table essentially consist of 1. Drawing board mounted on tripod.

2. Alidade.

1. Drawing board mounted on tripod

A sheet of drawing paper, called plane table sheet is fastened to the board. Board is made up of well seasoned wood such as teak of size 40x30 to 75x60cm. it had plane and smooth top. It is mounted on a tripod in manner that it can be leveled. Leveling up of the table is done by shifting the legs of tripod. Some tripod provided with leveling screw or by ball and socket head for accurate leveling.

2. Alidade:
Alidade consists of two vertical sight vane fitted at end the end of straightedge. The straight edge ruler usually made of brass or teak wood graduated beloved edge. One of the sight veins is provided with narrow slit and the other with a central vertical wire or hair. Beveled working edge alidade is called fiducial edge.

Accessories:
1. A through campus for marking the direction magnetic meridian on paper. 2. Sprit level for leveling the table. 3. Forked plumb for centering the table. 4. Water proof cover to protect the sheet from rain.

Centering:
It is the process of keeping the table over the station that the point on the paper representing the station being occupied is vertically over the point on the ground. It is done by forked plumb bob.

Orientation:

When the table has to be set up at more than one station it is necessary that it is be oriented so that the lines on the paper remain parallel to the lie which they represent on the ground. So orientation is the process of keeping the table to the position which is occupied at the first station.

Orientation is done by two methods:

1. By use of the magnetic needle. 2. Orientation by back sighting.

Orientation by the magnetic needle:

To orient the table at any subsequent station, the through compass(or circular box compass) is placed along the line representing the magnetic meridian which has been drawn on the paper at the first station, and the board is then turned until the ends of the needle o\are opposite the zeros of the scale. The board is then clamped in position. It is suitable for rough small scale mapping.

Orientation by back sighting:

This is the most accurate method of orientation and is always be preferred. Suppose a table is set up over station Q on the line PQ which ahs been previously drowned as PQ from station p. The alidade is placed along the line QP and board then turned until the line of sight bisects the ranging rod at P. Board is then properly clamped.

Methods of Plane Tabling

1. Radiation:In this position the point is located on plane by

drawing a ray from the plane table station to the point, and plotting scale along the ray the distance is measured from the station to the point. The method is suitable for the survey of the small areas which can be commanded from a single station.

2. Intersection:
In this method the point is fixed on plane by the intersection of the rays drawn from the two instrument stations. The line joining at these stations is called the base line.

3. Traversing:
This method is similar to that of compass or transit traversing. It is used for running survey lines between stations which have been previously fixed by other methods of surveying to locate the topographical details. It is also suitable for the survey of roads, rivers etc.

4. Resection:
This method is used for establishing the instrument stations only. After fixing the station, details are located either by radiation or intersection. The characteristic feature of resection is that the point plotted on plan is the station occupied by the plane table.

Radiation:
1. Select appoint p so that all point to be located are visible from it. 2. Set up the table at p and leveled. Marked the direction of magnetic meridian with through compass in top corner of sheet. This method is similar to that of compass or

transit traversing. It is used for running survey lines between stations which have been previously fixed by other methods of surveying to locate the topographical details. It is also suitable for the survey of roads, rivers etc. This method is used for This method is similar to that of compass or transit traversing. It is used for running survey lines between stations which have been previously fixed by other methods of surveying to locate the topographical details. It is also suitable for the survey of roads, rivers etc. This method is used for establishing the instrument stations only. After fixing the station, details are located either by radiation or intersection. The characteristic feature of resection is that the point plotted on plan is the station occupied by the plane table. 1. Select appoint p so that all point to be located are visible from it. 2. Set up the table at p and leveled. 3. Marked the direction of magnetic meridian with through compass in top corner of 3. Select appoint p so that all point to be located are visible from it. 4. Set up the table at p and leveled. This method is similar to that of compass or transit traversing. It is used for running survey lines between stations which have been previously fixed by other methods of surveying to locate the topographical details. It is also suitable for the survey of roads, rivers etc. This method is used for establishing the instrument stations only. After fixing the station, details are located either by radiation or

intersection. The characteristic feature of resection is that the point plotted on plan is the station occupied by the plane table. establishing the instrument stations only. After fixing the station, details are located either by radiation or intersection. The characteristic feature of resection is that the point plotted on plan is the station occupied by the plane table. 4. Select appoint p so that all point to be located are visible from it. 5. Set up the table at p and leveled. 6. Marked the direction of magnetic meridian with through compass in top corner of 7. 8. Select the point p on the sheet so that it is exactly over station p on the ground. 9. Centering the Alidades on p, sight the various points A, B, C etc. and draw the rays along edge of Alidades. 10. Measure the distance PA, PB, PC etc. from p to various point with chain or tape and plot them to scale along the co responding rays. Join the points a, b, c, etc. to give outline of survey.

Intersection: Select two point P and Q in a commanding position so that all points to be plotted are visible from P and Q. Line joining these points are called base line. Set the table over P and

mark direction of magnetic direction of magnetic meridian by means of through compass. Alidade pivoted on point P, sight the station Q and other object a, b. c, d, e, and draw rays along the edge of alidade towards Q, A, B, D, and E. measured distance from P and Q accurately and along the rays drawn towards Q. Now shift the table and set it up at point Q and adopt same procedure. Merits:
1. It is most suitable for preparing small scale map or surveying small area. 2. It is most rapid method. 3. Field book is not necessary. 4. No great skill is required for satisfactory map. 5. It is particularly suitable for magnetic area where prismatic compass is not reliable. 6. Contour and irregular object may be represented accurately. 7. It is less costly.

Demerits:
1. Plane Table Essentially a tropical instruments. 2. It is not suitable to work in wet climate. 3. There are several accessories to be carried out and therefore they are likely to be lost. 4. It is not suitable for accurate work.

LEVELLING
Levelling is the general term applied to any of the various processes by which elevation of points or difference in elevations are determined. Levelling is helpful in plotting contouring maps. Contouring is the science of representing the vertical dimension of the terrain on a two dimensional map. A Contour line is an imaginary outline of the terrain obtained by joining its points of equal elevation. In our example of the cone, each circle is a contour line joining points of same level. Contour interval Contour interval is the difference between the levels of consecutive contour lines on a map. The contour interval is a constant in a given map. In our example, the contour interval is 1m.
Characteristics of Contours

Contours show distinct characteristic features of the terrain as follows: i) All points on a contour line are of the same elevation. ii) No two contour lines can meet or cross each other except in the rare case of an overhanging vertical cliff or wall iii) Closely spaced contour lines indicate steep slope iv) Widely spaced contour lines indicate gentle slope v) Equally spaced contour lines indicate uniform slope vi) Closed contour lines with higher elevation towards the centre indicate hills

vii) Closed contour lines with reducing levels towards the centre indicate pond or other depression. viii) Contour lines of ridge show higher elevation within the loop of the contours. Contour lines cross ridge at right angles. ix) Contour lines of valley show reducing elevation within the loop of the contours. Contour lines cross valley at right angles. x) All contour lines must close either within the map boundary or outside.

Horizontal Equivalent
Horizontal equivalent is the horizontal distance between two consecutive contour lines measured to the scale of the map.

Factors governing Selection of Contour Intervals:

The survey leader has to decide an appropriate contour interval for his project before start of survey work. The following factors govern the selection of contour interval for a project:

S.NoFactor
1 Nature of ground

Select High CI Select Low CI like 1m, 2m, 5m like 0.5m, 0.25m, or more 0.1m or less
If the ground has large variation in levels, for instance, hills and ponds If the terrain is fairly level

Scale of the For small scale maps For large scale maps map covering a wide area showing details of a of varying terrain small area Extent of survey For rough topographical map meant for initial assessment only If less time and resources are available For preparation of detailed map for execution of work If more time and resources are available

Time and resources available

Conclusion:
The Surveying Camp started on 11th june 2012 and ended on 7th july 2012. During the camp,a survey of university campus was carried out. The following instruments were used during the survey camp : 1.Total Station 2.Plane Table 3.Measuring tapes. 4.Theodolite 5.GPS 6.Auto Level

Out of these Total station was found to be the most accurate one as error found from it was very negligible as compared to the others.