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Available at www.sciencedirect.com

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/he

An investigation of engine performance parameters and articial intelligent emission prediction of hydrogen powered car
Tien Ho, Vishy Karri, Daniel Lim, Danny Barret
School of Engineering, University of Tasmania, GPO Box 252-65, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia

art i cle info


Article history: Received 10 March 2008 Received in revised form 16 April 2008 Accepted 16 April 2008 Available online 9 June 2008 Keywords: Hydrogen powered car Prediction emission Emission characteristics Hydrogen internal combustion engine Articial neural networks Hydrogen engine operating conditions

ab st rac t
With the depletion of fossil fuel resources and the potential consequences of climate change due to fossil fuel use, much effort has been put into the search for alternative fuels for transportation. Although there are several potential alternative fuels, which have low impact on the environment, none of these fuels have the ability to be used as the sole fuel of the future. One fuel which is likely to become a part of the over all solution to the transportation fuel dilemma is hydrogen. In this paper, The Toyota Corolla four cylinder, 1.8 l engine running on petrol is systematically converted to run on hydrogen. Several ancillary instruments for measuring various engine operating parameters and emissions are tted to appraise the performance of the hydrogen car. The effect of hydrogen as a fuel compares with gasoline on engine operating parameters and effect of engine operating parameters on emission characteristics is discussed. Based on the experimental setup, a suite of neural network models were tested to accurately predict the effect of major engine operating conditions on the hydrogen car emissions. Predictions were found to be 74% to the experimental values. This work provided better understanding of the effect of engine process parameters on emissions. & 2008 International Association for Hydrogen Energy. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1.

Introduction

A four cylinders manual Toyota Corolla was successfully converted to use hydrogen as a fuel in its internal combustion engine. Certain characteristics of hydrogen make it unique for application as an automotive fuel. The wide ammability limits of hydrogen allow for a larger range of air to fuel mixtures to be used at different engine operating conditions. This means that very lean mixtures may be used for lower emissions while enriched mixtures could be used when additional power is required. In addition, the fast burn characteristics of hydrogen also enables it to be able to

operate well at higher engine speed while its gaseous form and ease of combustion can help when performing engine cold starts. However, there is an overall decrease in power output when using lean mixtures [1]. Hydrogen also has a very high ame propagation rate even with lean mixtures providing a very sharp rise in pressure immediately after spark ignition [2]. The combination of the ability to run at very lean mixtures and fast ame propagation allow hydrogen engines to run very efciently. In general, hydrogen has the following dedicated advantages over gasoline [3]: reduce engine oil dilation, reduce engine wear, reduce the emissions as well as increase the fuel economy. The use of hydrogen as a

Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 3 6226 7869.

E-mail addresses: ntho@utas.edu.au (T. Ho), Vishy.Karri@utas.edu.au (V. Karri). 0360-3199/$ - see front matter & 2008 International Association for Hydrogen Energy. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2008.04.037

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Nomenclature UTAS HART AS ECU University of Tasmania, Australia Hydrogen & Allied renewable Technology research program Australian standard engine control unit

BMEP BSFC WOT LCV ppm RMSE NFPA

brake mean effective pressure brake specic fuel consumption wide open throttle lower caloric value part per million root mean square error National Fire Protection Agency

fuel generally serves to reduce the emissions from an internal combustion engine (Table 1). There are several constraints to be taken into consideration for the tuning of an internal combustion engine, which is to be converted to run on hydrogen fuel. These include the following design philosophies governing the conversion process of the car: power output requirements; minimization of fuel consumption; elimination of knock, pre-ignition, selfignition and backre; minimization of emissions; smooth operation of the engine; good drivability; easy to upgrade in the future.

2. Brief description of hydrogen conversion car and neural network model


The design and construction of the hydrogen conversion based on the following seven basic systems of the conversion: hydrogen storage system; hydrogen re-fuelling system; hydrogen piping system; pressure regulation system; fuel delivery system; fuel and engine management system; safety system as in Fig. 1. The hydrogen storage system includes two E-size cylinders, with a total hydrogen capacity of 0.5 kg. These cylinders were made to comply with the requirements of AS 2875 [4], which very closely replicates the requirements of AS 4838 [5], as required by AS 2739 [6]. The two cylinders were found to be able to be tted across the vehicle, provided that the foremost cylinder was mounted higher than the rearmost cylinder. The hydrogen re-fuelling system has the cylinder adaptor hoses were tted with lock-off valve, as well as non-return valves. In addition to these valves were the bleed valves, which were tted to the hoses. These were in order to bleed off any residual hydrogen pressure from between the hydrogen cylinder valves and the non-return valves. The hydrogen piping system have the vast majority of the hydrogen piping system was produced using solid tube. The tube, which was selected, was of one half-inch external diameter, and it was made from annealed stainless steel. The rated pressure of this tubing was 350 bars, with a burst pressure of over 1400 bars, as required by both NFPA 52 and AS 2739 [6,7]. The pressure regulation system include CIGWeld dual stage high ow industrial hydrogen gas regulator, rated to 200 bars inlet pressure.

Table 1 Specications of the conversion vehicle [18] Manufacturer


Model Series Body type Year of manufacture Type Total displacement Compression ratio Fuel type Maximum power output Maximum torque Length Width Height Wheelbase Driven wheels Transmission

Toyota
Corrolla Ascent Hatchback 2002 Inline, four cylinders, DOHC, VVTi 1794 cm3 10.0:1 Unlead petrol RON 91 or Higher 100 kw@6000 RPM 171 Nm@4200 RPM 4385 mm 1695 mm 1475 mm 2600 mm Front wheel drive Five speed manual

Fig. 1 Prioritization of various stages of the conversion [18].

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The fuel delivery system injects the hydrogen into the air entering the engines piston cylinders. It was decided that the design of the new stainless steel manifold should resemble that of the plastic manifold as closely as possible, in order to minimize any changes of the engines gasoline tuning away from that of the standard engine as seen in Table 2. In addition, the quantum gaseous fuel injector, which is low impedance injector, was used as hydrogen injection. It can be seen that there is very minor changes to the original factory design. The fuel and engine management system controls the fuel delivery system, in order to have it deliver the required mass of hydrogen to the engines cylinders, at the precise timing, which is required. It also controls various other aspects of the engines operation, such as the ignition timing, and the engines variable valve timing system. It also gives output signals, which are used for the safety system. The Motec M400 engine control unit (ECU) for engine management was used while being fuelled by hydrogen and stock Toyota ECU for engine management while being fuelled by gasoline.

The safety system design includes leak detection system, fuel shut-off switch and solenoid valve, ashback arrestor, pressure relief valves and ltration. The leak detection system includes a hydrogen sensor, which is placed directly above the hydrogen storage tanks, mounted directly below the vehicles radio antenna. The sensors circuitry is set to alert the driver at a hydrogen concentration of one tenth of the lower explosive limit. Fuel shut-off is a high-pressure solenoid valve. This valve is a normally closed valve, which ensures that whenever power is lost to the solenoid, the valve will close. The Flashback Arrestor is a high ow Demax 5 unit produced by IBEDA. In the event of a ashback travelling back into the hydrogen fuel system, past the fuel injectors, the ashback arrestor will quench the ame, limiting the hydrogen, which is subjected to the ashback to that which is within the fuel rail. The hydrogen pressure relief system was designed in three stages. The rst stage is built into the hydrogen tanks valves. This pressure relief stage is in the form of a burst disc, set to 245 bars. The second stage is placed within the engine

Table 2 Design of new inlet manifold [19] Manifold calculations Part


Inlet runner length Inlet runner volume Including bellmouth volume Average inlet runner area Final inlet runner area Air duct length Air duct area Total plenum volume Primary plenum volume Secondary plenum volume Compression ratio Cylinder volume Speed of sound Pi Computed value a Computed value b (Total) Computed value b (Primary) Computed value b (Secondary) Mean cylinder volume Runner dia Runner area Runner circ Frequency (total plenum) Frequency (total plenum) Helmholtz f (total plenum) Frequency (primary plen) Frequency (primary plenum) Helmholtz f (primary plenum) Frequency (secondary plenum) Frequency (secondary plenum) Helmholtz f (secondary plenum)

OEM manifold Symbol


L1 Vr Vb A1 Amin L2 A2 V2 V2(2) V2(3) Rc Vs c Pi a b b(2) b(3) V1

New manifold Units


m m3 m3 m2 m2 m m2 m3 m3 m3 N/A m3 m/s N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A m3

Change Units
m m3 m3 m2 m2 m m2 m3 m3 m3 N/A m3 m/s N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A m3 m m2 m RPM RPM RPM RPM RPM RPM RPM RPM RPM

Value
0.48 0.000733 0.000012 0.001526 0.0013 0.4 0.00283 0.0028 0.0017 0.0011 10 0.00045 343 3.141593 0.44945 10.18182 6.18182 4.00000 0.000275

Symbol
L1 Vr Vb A1 Amin L2 A2 V2 V2(2) V2(3) Rc Vs c Pi a b b(2) b(3) V1

Value
0.48 0.000760 0.000015 0.001584 0.0013 0.4 0.00283 0.0028 0.0017 0.0011 10 0.00045 343 3.141593 0.46647 10.18182 6.18114 4.00068 0.000275 0.045 0.00159 0.1414 12013 4918 3556 12562 6036 4564 13446 7009 5673

%
0.00

3.79 0.00 0.00 0.00

f1 f2 fh f1(2) f2(2) fh(2) f1(3) f2(3) fh(3)

0.1327 11798 4915 3491 12346 6028 4480 13237 6990 5569

m RPM RPM RPM RPM RPM RPM RPM RPM RPM

f1 f2 fh f1(2) f2(2) fh(2) f1(3) f2(3) fh(3)

1.83 0.05 1.88 1.75 0.13 1.88 1.58 0.28 1.87

Notes: Runner length includes bellmouths within plenum and the length within the heads inlet port. For new manifold, 11 mm plate ange with area Amin all the way through plus 20 mm transition from A1 to Amin. Average inlet runner area includes bellmouth volume.

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compartment, in the high-pressure section of the hydrogen piping system. It is placed upstream of the solenoid valve, and it is set to a pressure, which is lower than that of the tanks valves burst discs. This comprises of two pressure relief components. The rst (set to the lowest pressure) is a proportional relief valve. The second is a burst disc, set to slightly lower than the rated pressure of the pressure regulator. The third stage is pressure relief stage situated within the low-pressure fuel supply line. This has the effect of limiting the pressure, which is applied to the ashback arrestor, and the fuel injectors in the event of a pressure regulator malfunction. A portable ve-gas exhaust emission analyser, manufactured by OTC-SPX, was used to measure the exhaust gas emissions include: oxygen (O2), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbons (HC). The exhaust gas emission analyser was set up in order to send data directly to on-board personal computer for data logging. The exhaust sampling tube was directed through a condenser and a water separator. This was for the purpose of removing as much water from the exhaust gas as possible. The removal of the water from the exhaust gas was required to ensure the longevity of the exhaust gas emission analyser. The addition of these pieces of equipment had the effect of increasing the time delay between the emission of the exhaust gases and the sensing of them. Because of this time delay, it was necessary to match data between the engines operational parameters with the relevant exhaust gas emissions. This was done by matching relatively steady-state operating conditions with relatively steady-state exhaust gas

emissions. This process took into account the time which was required for the exhaust gas analyser to draw a full volume of exhaust gas into the piping, cooling and water separation system. The delay was approximately two minutes. The exhaust gas emissions were measured without the use of an

Table 3 Engine parameters and appropriate source of measurement sensor [18] Parameter
1. Engine RPM 2. Throttle position 3. Mass air ow 4. Manifold air pressure 5. Fuel actual pulse width 6. Ignition advance 7. Exhaust gas temperature 8. Lambda 9. Intake air temperature 10. Engine temperature 11. Output power

Designation
RPM TP Amass MAP FAPW ladv EGT1 La1 AT ET PWR

Sensor/source
Stock ECU Stock ECU MAF sensor via stock ECU MAP sensor via stock ECU Motec ECU lookup table Motec ECU lookup table EGT sensor via Motec ECU Lambda sensor via PLM Stock ECU Stock ECU Dynamometer

Fig. 2 Data matching [18,19].

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formation. The engine testing procedures outlined were in compliance with the requirements of the relevant International Standard, ISO 15550:2002 [9]. This ensured that the results, which were obtained, were suitable for subsequent scientic analysis. The discussion on the results obtained has been presented as below: 1. Effect of hydrogen as a fuel compared with gasoline on engine parameters. 2. Effect of hydrogen as a fuel compared with gasoline on emission characteristics. 3. Articial neural networks as an intelligent approach to predict emissions performance.

3.1. Effect of hydrogen as a fuel compare with gasoline on engine parameters


Fig. 3 Map of engine parameters to emission output.

3.1.1.

Engine power

exhaust catalyst. The purpose of this was to compare the emissions in an untreated state to gain a truly scientic comparison of the emissions (Fig. 2). The developed prediction neural network models were accurate predict hydrogen car emission parameters including CO, CO2, HC, NOx as a function of various engine parameters such as: engine speed, throttle position, mass airow, manifold air pressure, fuel pulse width, engine power, ignition advanced, engine temperature, air temperature, air fuel ratio, exhaust gas temperature as shown in Table 3. The neural network as predicting model was chosen for this research because of the following reasons [1016]: the ability to model non-linear process, adaptive learning, self-organization, real time operation, and ease of insertion into existing technology. As a result, neural networks have proven themselves in practice for accurate performance prediction. Initially, the back-propagation neural networks model with 11 algorithm such as: LevenbergMarquardt, gradient descent, gradient descent with momentum, gradient descent with adaptive learning rate, gradient descent with momentum and adaptive learning rate, resilient back propagation, scaled conjugate gradient, conjugate gradient with FletcherReeves updates, conjugate gradient with PolakRibiere updates, conjugate gradient with PowellBeale restarts, one step secant were used to analyze and predict various parameters. Through extensive experimentation covering a comprehensive range of prediction performances, LevenbergMarquardt was proven itself is the most accuracy algorithm when performing the project prediction tasks [17] (Fig. 3).

Typically, for the same engine operation conditions, the engine output while fuelled by hydrogen was found to be around half of that of the engine while fuelled by gasoline. However, at 5000 RPM and WOT, the power output for hydrogen operation was as high as 63% of that of gasoline operation. This is due to the increased fuel delivery of the hydrogen engines calibration around these conditions. This increased fuel delivery (resulting in a lower Lambda value) was specically programmed in order to increase the maximum power output of the engine. Fig. 4(a) is the graph of the brake power of the modied engine for both hydrogen and gasoline. It can be seen that the curves are similar to each other in shape. This is due to the general induction characteristics of the engine, which are similar for operation with both fuels. There are two main reasons for the loss of power. The rst reason is that the injection of hydrogen into the inlet manifold displaces air. At stoichiometric air to fuel ratio, hydrogen displaces approximately one third of the air within the inlet manifold, while vaporized gasoline only displaces around 1% of the air within the inlet manifold. The proportion of the air which is displaced by hydrogen decreases as the fuel and air mixture is weakened. This reduction of the quantity of fuel directly reduces the energy input into the engine. This, in turn, directly decreases the power output from such an engine. This is the second major reason. However, it is expected that any such decrease will be minimal. The maximum power output of the hydrogenfuelled engine was found to be 50.7 kW (at 50006000 RPM). This is 60.5% of the maximum gasoline-fuelled power output.

3.1.2.

Engine torque

3.

Results and discussion

The experimental methodology which has been used within this research project provided a basis for the measurement of various essential engine operating parameters, such as the engines rotational speed, power output, levels of the various exhaust gas emissions, fuel ow rate, and fuel mixture

The brake power of an engine is directly proportional to the torque and engine speed. For this reason, it is not surprising to nd that the engines torque output shows the same proportional characteristics as were present for its power output. The gasoline-fuelled engine has a peak torque of 168.3 N m at an engine speed of 4000 RPM, with a secondary peak of 155 N m at 2000 RPM. This is compared to hydrogen operation, having 100.1 and 93.7 N m at the same engine speeds, respectively, as shown in Fig. 4(b).

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90 80 70 Brake Power (Kw) 60 50 40 30 20 10 1000 Hydrogen Gasoline

170 160 150 Brake Torque (N.m) 140 130 120 110 100 90 80 1000 Hydrogen Gasoline

2000

3000 4000 5000 Engine Speed (RPM)

6000

7000

2000

3000 4000 5000 Engine Speed (RPM)

6000

7000

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 1000 Hydrogen Gasoline

45 40 35 BSFC (g/kwh) 30 25 20 15 10 1000 Hydrogen Gasoline

BMEP (MPa)

2000

3000 4000 5000 Engine Speed (RPM)

6000

7000

2000

3000 4000 5000 Engine Speed (RPM)

6000

7000

36 34 Brake Thermal Efficiency (%) 32 30 28 26 24 22 20 1000 Hydrogen Gasoline

35 34.5 Brake Thermal Efficiency (%) 34 33.5 33 32.5 32 31.5 31 30.5 2000 3000 4000 5000 Engine Speed (RPM) 6000 7000 30 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 Engine Speed (RPM) 4000 4500 Hydrogen Gasoline

Fig. 4 (a) Effect of hydrogen as a fuel compare with gasoline on brake power at various engine speed at WOT; (b) effect of hydrogen as a fuel compare with gasoline on brake torque at various engine speed at WOT; (c) effect of hydrogen as a fuel compare with gasoline on break mean effective pressure at various engine speed at WOT; (d) effect of hydrogen as a fuel compare with gasoline on brake specic fuel consumption at various engine speed at WOT; (e) effect of hydrogen as a fuel compare with gasoline on brake thermal efciency at various engine speed at WOT; and (f) effect of hydrogen as a fuel compare with gasoline on break mean effective pressure at various engine speed at 75% throttle opening.

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3.1.3.

Break mean effective pressure

3.1.4.

Brake specic fuel consumption

The brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) of an engine is equivalent to the engines torque, divided by its displacement. For this reason, the BMEP curve for a given engine is simply a scaled version of the torque curve. Maximum BMEP for the gasoline-fuelled engine was found to be 93.8 MPa at 4000 RPM, while it was 55.8 MPa at the same engine speed for the hydrogen-fuelled engine as shown in Fig. 4c.

At WOT, the BSFC for the gasoline-fuelled engine ranges between 40.9 and 42.5 g/kW h (average 41.6 g/kW h), while for the hydrogen-fuelled engine it ranges between 14.4 and 15.2 g/kW h (average 15.0 g/kW h) as shown in Fig. 4(d). This gives a ratio of gasoline BSFC to hydrogen BSFC of 2.77. This was fully expected, as hydrogens lower caloric value (LCV) is 119.9 MJ/kg, compared to 44.5 MJ/kg for gasoline (a ratio of hydrogen LCV to gasoline LCV being 2.69).

2 1.8 1.6 1.4 NOx (ppm) Lambda 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 1000 2000 3000 NOx (ppm) 4000 5000
Hydrogen Gasoline Poly. (Gasoline) Poly. (Hydrogen)

4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 Throttle position 60 70 80
Hydrogen Gasoline Poly. (Gasoline) Poly. (Hydrogen)

4500 4000 3500 NOx (ppm) 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0 10 30 20 40 Brake Power (Kw) 50 60
Hydrogen Gasoline Poly. (Gasoline) Poly. (Hydrogen)

16 14 12 CO2 (%) 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 10 30 20 40 Brake Power (Kw) 50 60


Hydrogen Gasoline Poly. (Gasoline) Poly. (Hydrogen)

0.8 0.7 0.6 HC (ppm)


Hydrogen Gasoline Poly. (Gasoline) Poly. (Hydrogen)

160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 10 30 20 40 Brake Power (Kw) 50 60 0 10 30 20 40 Brake Power (Kw)
Hydrogen Gasoline Poly. (Gasoline) Poly. (Hydrogen)

CO (%)

0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0

50

60

Fig. 5 Effect of hydrogen as a fuel compare with gasoline on emission characteristics; (a) Lambda versus NOx at 25% throttle position; (b) throttle position versus NOx; (c) brake power versus NOx; (d) brake power versus CO2; (e) brake power versus CO; and (f) brake power versus HC.

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3.1.5.

Engine efciency

It is quite clearly seen that operation on hydrogen is generally more efcient than operation on gasoline at most engine speeds while operating at WOT as shown in Fig. 4(e). Much of this can be attributed to the fact that the engine is fuelled by a rich air to gasoline mixture at WOT. This is for the express purpose of increasing the power output at WOT. While the air to gasoline ratio is made to be rich at WOT, the air to hydrogen ratio is still lean at WOT. The net result is that the efciency of the gasolinefuelled engine suffers more due to enrichment than does the hydrogen-fuelled engine under the same conditions. In contrast, the efciency of the hydrogen fuelled engine at nearly all other tested operating points was lower than that of the gasoline fuelled engine, due to two main reasons as shown in Fig. 4(f) (75% throttle opening). Firstly, the power output of the gasoline fuelled engine while not at WOT is signicantly higher than that of the hydrogen fuelled engine. Secondly, the tuning of the gasoline engine was the culmination of potentially thousands of hours of experimental work by the manufacturer of the engine.

that from gasoline fuelled internal combustion engines. The emission of carbon monoxide from the hydrogen engine was extremely low, at 0.0050.020%, compared to 0.3260.767% for the gasoline engine as shown in Fig. 5(e).

3.2.4.

Emission of hydrocarbon

The hydrocarbon emission level from the hydrogen engine was notably lower than that of the gasoline fuelled engine as shown in Fig. 5(f). In the case of a gasoline-fuelled engine, most of the hydrocarbon emissions come from un-burnt fuel passing through the exhaust system. In contrast, in a

Table 4 Experimental data patterns for hydrogen emission prediction. RPM 25% Load
1500 2000 3000 4000 145 145 145 Not enough power

Number of data 50% Load


145 145 145 145

75% Load
145 145 145 Faulty results

3.2. Effect of hydrogen as a fuel compare with gasoline on emission characteristics 3.2.1. Emission of oxides of nitrogen

The emission of NOx increases markedly as the lambda value decreases toward unity, and has a minimum at a lambda value of around 1.87 as shown in Fig. 5(a). In addition, at no point in time did the emission of NOx from the hydrogenfuelled engine exceed that from the gasoline fuelled engine as shown in Figs. 5(a)(c). The results can be seen most markedly at operating conditions with small (25%) throttle position. This can be attributed to the fact that the hydrogen fuelled engine was always operated at a lean air to fuel ratio, which has been shown to result in low emissions of NOx gases.

Table 5 Back-propagation neural networks architecture Type of networks Three layer feed-forward backpropagation
8 Neurons 1 Neuron tansig, purelin LevenbergMarquardt learngdm mse 100 3000 0.00001 0.1 1.05 0.75 0.9

3.2.2.

Emission of carbon dioxide

The reduction in the emission of carbon dioxide is a major advantage of hydrogen-fuelled engines over gasoline-fuelled engines. The hydrogen-fuelled engine does not emit absolutely zero carbon dioxide. However, the emission of carbon dioxide is virtually negligible, being between 0.05% and 0.29%, compared with between 14.44% and 14.58% from the gasoline-fuelled engine as shown in Fig. 5(d). The emission of carbon dioxide from the hydrogen fuelled engine can be attributed to two factors. Firstly, any carbon dioxide within the air before it enters the engine will remain as carbon dioxide. This is expected to be a minor contributor to the general emission of carbon dioxide. Secondly, during each cycle of the engine some lubricating oil makes its way into the combustion chamber, past the piston rings, through the crankcase ventilation system, and through the valve guides. Because of this, it is impossible to eliminate carbon dioxide emissions from hydrogen fuelled internal combustion engines. However, the concentration of the carbon dioxide emitted is negligible in comparison to that of gasoline fuelled internal combustion engines. The carbon dioxide emission level of this engine was higher than it was expected to be.

Hidden layer Output layer Transfer function Training algorithm Weight/bias learning function Performance function Number of epochs between showing the progress Maximum number epochs to train Performance goal Learning rate Learning rate increase multiplier Learning rate decrease multiplier Momentum constant

Table 6 Summarize emission prediction results for hydrogen-powered car Averages


Error (value) STD (value) Error (%) RMSE (value) RMSE (%)

NOx
1.4956 9.3467 0.3797 9.3467 1.6581

CO2
0.0003 0.0037 0.1866 0.0037 2.2868

CO
0 0.0002 0.4163 0.0002 3.5185

HC
0.06 0.409 0.255 0.429 1.5772

3.2.3.

Emission of carbon monoxide

The emission of carbon monoxide from hydrogen fuelled internal combustion engines is negligible in comparison with

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hydrogen-fuelled engine, all hydrocarbons must come from the combustion of the lubricating oil. The emission of hydrocarbon from the hydrogen engine was lower than those of gasoline engine, at 2037 ppm, compared to 50152 ppm for the gasoline engine.

3.3. Neural networks for hydrogen powered car emission prediction


The neural networks created were included 11 previous mentioned inputs and four emissions output parameters

2000 1800 1600 1400 Frequency 0 10 20 30 Number of Testing data 40 50 NOx value 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 Actual Predicted

5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 -15 -10 -5 0 Error (actual - predicted values) 5 10

0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 0 10 20 30 Number of Testing data 40 50 Frequency Actual Predicted

50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 -15 -10 -5 0 Error (actual - predicted values) 5 10

0.022 0.02 0.018 0.016 CO (%) 0.014 0.012 0.01 0.008 0.006 0.004 0 10 20 30 Number of Testing data 40 50 Frequency Actual Predicted

50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 -15 -10 -5 0 Error (actual - predicted values) 5 10

55 50 45 40 HC (ppm) Actual Predicted

25

20

15 35 30 10 25 20 15 10 0 10 20 30 Number of Testing data 40 50 0 -15 5

-10

-5 0 Error (actual - predicted values)

10

Fig. 6 Comparison of actual emission and prediction performance results for hydrogen powered car.

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(as shown in Fig. 3), which is cover a comprehensive range of data variation through many different testing engine conditions. The data set used for training and testing the neural networks for prediction of hydrogen emissions consists of 1450 data patterns as shown in Table 4. The back-propagation neural networks are part of the MATLAB neural networks toolbox, which is used to appraise the predictive models [17]. In each of the studied prediction hydrogen powered car emission parameters, the large number of data (1400 data) was used for a training set and 50 data were used for a testing set. The best back-propagation neural networks architecture was set with suitable parameters as shown in Table 5. In order to provide a measure of accuracy of the predictions as well as provide a means of comparison between each of the different neural networks, several parameters are used. These are dened as: average error (value), standard deviation (value), average error (%), root mean square error (value), root mean square error (%).

compared the gasoline engine. Finally, the excellent results of prediction emissions of hydrogen-powered car were achieved in almost cases with average percentage root mean square error less than 74%.

Acknowledgments
The authors are deeply grateful to all of the Hydrogen & Allied Renewable Technology research members as well as Intelligent Hydrogen Car project for sharing ideas and concept along the way.
R E F E R E N C E S

3.3.1.

Emission of NOx

It can be seen that very good prediction results were obtained for CO2 emission prediction with the %ARMS error was 1.6581 and average deviation was 9.3467 as shown in the histogram.

3.3.2.

Emission of CO2

The prediction result was obtained for prediction of CO emission with %ARMS error was 2.2868% and deviation was 0.0037.

3.3.3.

Emission of CO

The prediction result was obtained for prediction of CO with %ARMS error was 3.5185% and deviation was 0.0002.

3.3.4.

Emission of HC

The prediction result was obtained for prediction of HC with %ARMS error was 1.5772% and deviation was 0.409. Table 4 summarises the study performance of each of the emission prediction parameters (Table 6, Fig. 6).

4.

Conclusion

From the measured parameters, various engine characteristics were calculated, and compared for operation using gasoline and hydrogen as fuels, brake power and torque of the cars engine when running on hydrogen was generally about 5060% of that of gasoline as well as brake specic fuel consumption was in line with expectations from the respective lower caloric values of the two fuels. In addition, thermal efciency was similar for the two fuels, hydrogen being more efcient at lower power output, and gasoline being more efcient at higher power output. Beside that, the emission of NOx was signicantly lower for hydrogen operation than for gasoline operation and its lowest values were achieved with lambda value around 1.87. Similarly, the emission of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon from the hydrogen engine was extremely low

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